1.
Telecommunication
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
2.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
3.
City-state
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A city-state is a sovereign state that consists of a city and its dependent territories. A great deal of consensus exists that the term applies to Singapore, Monaco. A number of small states share similar characteristics, and therefore are sometimes also cited as modern city-states. Occasionally, other states with high population densities, such as San Marino, are also cited. Several non-sovereign cities enjoy a degree of autonomy, and are sometimes considered city-states. Hong Kong and Macau, along with independent members of the United Arab Emirates, most notably Dubai, scholars have classed the Viking colonial cities in medieval Ireland, most importantly Dublin, as city-states. In Cyprus, the Phoenician settlement of Kition was a city-state that existed from around 800 BC until the end of the 4th century BC. The success of regional units coexisting as autonomous actors in loose geographical and cultural unity, as in Italy and Greece. However, such small political entities often survived only for short periods because they lacked the resources to defend themselves against incursions by larger states, thus they inevitably gave way to larger organisations of society, including the empire and the nation-state. In the history of Mainland Southeast Asia, aristocratic groups, Buddhist leaders, the system existed until the 19th century when colonization by European powers, and Thailands resulted in the adoption of the modern concept of statehood. In the Holy Roman Empire the Free Imperial Cities enjoyed a considerable autonomy, some, like the three Hanseatic cities of Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck, pooled their economic relations with foreign powers and were able to wield considerable diplomatic clout. Under Habsburg rule the city of Fiume had the status of a Corpus separatum, a later city-state, though lacking sovereignty, was West Berlin, being a state legally not belonging to any other state, but ruled by the Western Allies. They allowed – notwithstanding their overlordship as occupant powers – its internal organisation as one state simultaneously being a city, though West Berlin maintained close ties to the West German Federal Republic of Germany, it was legally never part of it. But the idea of leaving the United States proved too radical even in the turmoil of 1861 and was poorly received, the war, and especially conscription, was nevertheless often unpopular in the city, sparking the deadly New York Draft Riots. The neighboring City of Brooklyn, in contrast, was staunchly Unionist, the Free City of Danzig was a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig and nearly 200 towns in the surrounding areas. It was created on 15 November 1920 under the terms of Article 100 of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles after the end of World War I. Its territory of 28 km2 comprised the city of Fiume and rural areas to its north, with a corridor to its west connecting it to Italy, the Shanghai International Settlement was an international zone with its own legal system, postal service, and currency. The Klaipėda Region or Memel Territory was defined by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 when it was put under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors
4.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
5.
Fax
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Fax, sometimes called telecopying or telefax, is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material, normally to a telephone number connected to a printer or other output device. The receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, early systems used direct conversions of image darkness to audio tone in a continuous or analog manner. Since the 1980s, most machines modulate the audio frequencies using a digital representation of the page which is compressed to quickly transmit areas which are all-white or all-black. Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical mechanical fax type devices and he received British patent 9745 on May 27,1843 for his Electric Printing Telegraph. Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bains design and demonstrated a telefax machine, the Pantelegraph was invented by the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli. He introduced the first commercial service between Paris and Lyon in 1865, some 11 years before the invention of the telephone. In 1880, English inventor Shelford Bidwell constructed the scanning phototelegraph that was the first telefax machine to scan any two-dimensional original, previously, photographs had been sent over the radio using this process. The Western Union Deskfax fax machine, announced in 1948, was a machine that fit comfortably on a desktop. As a designer for the Radio Corporation of America, in 1924, Richard H. Ranger invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic radio facsimile, the forerunner of today’s fax machines. A photograph of President Calvin Coolidge sent from New York to London on November 29,1924 became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile, commercial use of Ranger’s product began two years later. Also in 1924, Herbert E. Ives of AT&T Corporation transmitted and reconstructed the first color facsimile, around 1952 or so, Finch Facsimile, a highly developed machine, was described in detail in a book, it was never manufactured in quantity. By the late 1940s, radiofax receivers were sufficiently miniaturized to be fitted beneath the dashboard of Western Unions Telecar telegram delivery vehicles, in the 1960s, the United States Army transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test Site using the Courier satellite. Radio fax is still in limited use today for transmitting weather charts, in 1964, Xerox Corporation introduced what many consider to be the first commercialized version of the modern fax machine, under the name or Long Distance Xerography. This model was superseded two years later with a unit that would set the standard for fax machines for years to come. Up until this point facsimile machines were expensive and hard to operate. In 1966, Xerox released the Magnafax Telecopiers, a smaller and this unit was far easier to operate and could be connected to any standard telephone line. This machine was capable of transmitting a letter-sized document in about six minutes, the first sub-minute, digital fax machine was developed by Dacom, which built on digital data compression technology originally developed at Lockheed for satellite communication. By the late 1970s, many companies around the world, entered the fax market, very shortly after a new wave of more compact, faster and efficient fax machines would hit the market
6.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
7.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
8.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
9.
Mobile phone
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A mobile phone is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the systems of a mobile phone operator. Most modern mobile telephone services use a network architecture, and, therefore. Mobile phones which offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to seven billion, penetrating 100% of the global population. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone manufacturers were Samsung, Apple, a handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a pocket-size folding telephone with a thin carbon microphone. Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships, the race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. The first commercial automated cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and this was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Several other countries followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology, in 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. In 1991, the digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators, ten years later, in 2001, the third generation was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3. 5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access family, allowing UMTS networks to have data transfer speeds. By 2009, it had become clear that, at point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies
10.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
11.
Internet service provider
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An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
12.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
13.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
14.
Mediacorp
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Currently, Mediacorp runs 7 television channels and 12 radio channels, making it the largest media broadcaster and provider in Singapore, and the only terrestrial TV broadcaster in the city-state. It is wholly owned by Temasek Holdings, an investment arm. The company group began with the advent of broadcasting in Singapore when the broadcasting licence was awarded to the British Malaya Broadcasting Corporation in 21 July 1935. The company officially opened its studios and transmitters at Caldecott Hill two years later in 1 March 1937, the corporation was taken over by the Straits Settlement government in 1940 as a part of the British Department of Information known as Malaya Broadcasting Corporation. Not long after Singapore reached self-government status in 1959, there were plans to television transmission rights. This manifested into the entity Television Singapura in 4 April 1961, Television Singapura began transmission tests from 21 January to 15 February 1963, where it was launched as Singapores first television station and officially began broadcasting. Regular broadcasts there since 3 April were mainly in English and Malay, on 23 November of the same year, a second channel was launched as Channel 8, airing programmes mainly in Mandarin and Tamil. Meanwhile in Kuala Lumpur, Talivishen Malaysia began broadcasting on 28 December in time for the New Year on the next year, Television Singapura was subsequently rebranded as sister channel Television Malaysia. The first advertisement was aired on 1 January 1964 to reduce the reliance on subsidies. RTS was officially dissolved in 31 January 1980 by announcer David Gabriel, on 3 February 1980, SBCs flagship guide Radio and TV Times were printed for the very first time, becoming an important source of weekly radio and television programme schedules serving the island. First published in English and Mandarin, these magazines also served up local and international entertainment news, the companys digital audio broadcasting service was discontinued on 1 December 2011. Mediacorp offers free-to-air and pay-to-air over-the-top broadcasting website Toggle on 1 April 2015, after Xinmsn, Toggle provides additional content pertaining entertainment, lifestyle tips, news and information, and is accessible online on smart phones, tablets and connected TVs
15.
StarHub TV
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StarHub TV is the sole cable television operator in Singapore. A subsidiary of StarHub Limited, when StarHub acquired Singapore Cable Vision in 2001, the company offers cable television services via the cable network which has been in operation since 1991, but now under the name StarHub TV. It also provides service via a wireless network, the Digital Terrestrial Television system. The history of cable TV in Singapore started in 1991 when the then Singapore Cable Vision was licensed to establish a nationwide broadband network to provide pay-TV services. SCTV also had the responsibility of delivering terrestrial free-to-air channels to Singapore households via its cable points. In 1999, SCV completed the construction of its S$600 million network, in 2002, StarHub completed its merger with Singapore Cable Vision which was renamed StarHub Cable Vision. On 2007, StarHub Cable Television was rebranded as StarHub TV, from February 2009, StarHub TV had converted to Full Digital Mode, which meant that all Analogue transmission had cease operation. On 30 April 2010, StarHub TV made changes to all channel numbers accessed from its cable TV platform to enable easy recall for subscribers and they introduced the three-digit numbering system for its over 150 channels carried on its platform. On 1 August 2010, StarHub TV will cease broadcasting the Barclays English Premier League for the 2010/11, 2011/12 and its carriage of Goal TV1, Goal TV2, ESPN, STAR Sports and STAR Cricket will also cease at the same time. Rediffusion Singapore was added in to StarHub TV in October 2010 as RediGold, but due to declining listenership, Rediffusion announced that it will cease transmission on 1 May 2012, and its channel on StarHub TV will also cease at the same time. It is expected to resume transmission in 2013, on 31 May 2011, StarHub TVs Channel 101 made way for ScreenSingapore Channel from Preview Channel from 1–19 June 2011. Afterwards, the channel was returned to Preview Channel, on 29 December 2011, JimJam and JET TV ceased broadcasting on StarHub TV. Playin TV was ceased on 15 February 2012 as well, on 1 October 2012, Cricket Extra and NEO Cricket ceased broadcasting on StarHub TV, leaving TEN Cricket as an a la carte channel for $32. 10/mth until when STAR Cricket was added in. On February 2012 and January 2013, StarHub launched two new channels, Channel 114 and Channel 873 respectively, however not meant for new channels or permanent basis. They are coincidentally right next to the two KBS World channels to inform subscribers about when the channels have their last-day free-to-air and which groups they will be in respectively, Channel 110, the former Sunsilk Academy Fantasia channel, is still unused after October 2012. In February 2013, StarHub launched new packaging for the March brochure, on 9 February 2013, TTV World ceased broadcasting on StarHub TV. In mid-June 2013, MGM ceased transmission, starhub launched TV Anywhere currently consisting of 80 channels to allow viewing of channels on the go. During that period, a design was introduced, which is also seen in the commercial announcing the end of analogue cable transmission on 30 June 2009
16.
Singtel
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The company was known as Telecommunications Equipment until 1995. Singtel provides ISP, IPTV and mobile networks and fixed line telephony services. 15% of Bharti Airtel. Singtel is also the largest company by market capitalisation listed on the Singapore Exchange and is majority owned by Temasek Holdings, Singtel controls significant market share in Singapore, with 82% of the fixed-line market, 47% of the mobile market and 43% of the broadband market in Singapore. Singtel is an investor in innovation companies through its Singtel Innov8 subsidiary. On 21 January 2015, Singtel launched its new brand identity, on 19 March 2015, Singtel dismissed all connections with social media agency, Gushcloud. This is after a Singapore blogger Xiaxue, exposed Gushclouds brief to its influencers to execute a negative campaign on M1, SingTel apologised to M1 and Starhub for the campaign. Its competitors in the telecommunication industry, on 7 April 2015, Singtel revealed it would be acquiring US cyber security firm Trustwave for $810 million, its largest ever acquisition outside the telecoms sector. On 22 April 2015, the Singtel announced plans to delist from the Australian Securities Exchange due to low trading volumes, in April 2015, Singtel released a new Skype and WhatsApp competitor called Wavee. It allows users to make voice and video calls and send instant messages, Singtel was required to ensure appropriate management oversight and control over its marketing and advertising campaigns. SingTel was fined $6 million for its Bukit Panjang fire in the previous year and this is the highest fine imposed on a telco in Singapore. In August 2014, SingTel announced it was joining forces with five other companies, including Google, to build a super-fast undersea data cable linking the U. S. In 2014 Bharati Airtel became first telecommunication company to serve 4G internet in India, since 1 August, mio TV was officially renamed SingTel TV. The problems included screen freezing, blurred images and picture distortion that happened on 13 May 2012 from 10,15 PM, full service quality was resumed at 12,15 AM the next day. In late 2013, Singtel shutdown its Skoob e-book store, SingTel acquired mobile advertising technology company Amobee in March 2012 for $321 million. SingTel secured broadcast rights for the 2012 Summer Olympics and provided 15 new ESPN STAR Sports channels free of charge to its mio TV Services, Singtel was fined $300,000 for breaches of the Service Resiliency Code by the IDA. Since December 2012, SingTel started providing 4G LTE services across Singapore, in May 2011, SingTel announced that they will be aiming to double the size of its satellite business, with two additional launches by 2013. On November 2011, SingTel launched Singapores first e-book provider, Skoob, on 10 July, SingTel launched the iPhone 3GS commercially in Singapore. SingTel and Apple jointly announced that SingTel will be the first mobile operator to launch the iPhone 3G, in the month of June, SingTel becomes the title sponsor of the inaugural Singapore Grand Prix in Singapore
17.
IPTV
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Unlike downloaded media, IPTV offers the ability to stream the source media continuously. As a result, a client media player can begin playing the data almost immediately and this is known as streaming media. Although IPTV uses the Internet protocol it is not limited to television media streamed from the Internet, IPTV in the telecommunications arena is notable for its ongoing standardisation process. Historically, many different definitions of IPTV have appeared, including elementary streams over IP networks, transport streams over IP networks and these services may include, for example, Live TV, Video On Demand and Interactive TV. These services are delivered across an access agnostic, packet switched network that employs the IP protocol to transport the audio, video, the term IPTV first appeared in 1995 with the founding of Precept Software by Judith Estrin and Bill Carrico. Precept developed an Internet video product named IP/TV, the software was written primarily by Steve Casner, Karl Auerbach, and Cha Chee Kuan. Precept was acquired by Cisco Systems in 1998, Internet radio company AudioNet started the first continuous live webcasts with content from WFAA-TV in January 1998 and KCTU-LP on January 10,1998. The operator added additional VoD service in October 2001 with Yes TV, kingston was one of the first companies in the world to introduce IPTV and IP VoD over ADSL as a commercial service. The service became the reference for various changes to UK Government regulations, in 2006, the KIT service was discontinued, subscribers having declined from a peak of 10,000 to 4,000. In 1999, NBTel was the first to commercially deploy Internet protocol television over DSL in Canada using the Alcatel 7350 DSLAM, the service was marketed under the brand VibeVision in New Brunswick, and later expanded into Nova Scotia in early 2000 after the formation of Aliant. IMagic TV was later sold to Alcatel, in 2002, Sasktel was the second in Canada to commercially deploy Internet Protocol video over DSL, using the Lucent Stinger DSL platform. In 2005, SureWest Communications was the first North American company to offer high-definition television channels over an IPTV service, in 2005, Bredbandsbolaget launched its IPTV service as the first service provider in Sweden. As of January 2009, they are not the biggest supplier any longer, TeliaSonera, in 2007, TPG became the first internet service provider in Australia to launch IPTV. Complementary to its ADSL2+ package this was, and still is, free of charge to customers on eligible plans and now offers over 45 local free to air channels, by 2010, iiNet and Telstra launched IPTV services in conjunction to internet plans but with extra fees. In 2008, PTCL launched IPTV under the name of PTCL Smart TV in Pakistan. S. Markets with an IPTV service called Prism and this was after successful test marketing in Florida. During the 2014 Winter Olympics Shortest path bridging was used to deliver 36 IPTV HD Olympic channels, in 2016, KCTV introduced the Set-top box called Manbang, claiming to provide video-on-demand services in North Korea via quasi-internet protocol television. According to KCTV, viewers can use the service not only in Pyongyang, stating that the demands for the equipment are particularly high in Sinuiju, with several hundred users in the region
18.
Singapore Press Holdings
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Singapore Press Holdings Limited is a media organisation in Singapore with businesses in print, Internet and new media, television and radio, outdoor media, and property. SPH has over 5,000 employees, including a team of approximately 1,000 journalists, the company is one of the countrys blue-chip counters on the Singapore Stock Exchange, and makes about S$480–500 million worth of profits every year. Singapore Press Holdings Limited was formed on 1 January 1984 through a merger of three organisations, The Straits Times Press, Singapore News and Publications Limited and Times Publishing Berhad, in 2009, SPH celebrated its 25th anniversary and for the first time, changed its corporate logo. The new logo was launched on 30 March 2009 by former President S. R. Nathan and chairman Tony Tan Keng Yam, like all newspaper companies in Singapore, SPH is regulated by the Newspaper and Printing Presses Act of 1974 and issues both management and ordinary shares. There are close ties between the directors of SPH and the Singapore Government, the immediate former Chairman of SPH, Tony Tan was Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore from 1994 to 2005 and President of Singapore from 2011–present. Dr Lee Boon Yang is the current chairman of Singapore Press Holdings, in Singapore, SPH publishes 18 newspaper titles in four languages. On an average day,3.05 million individuals or 76 per cent of people above 15 years old, the Straits Times The Sunday Times Business Times The Business Times Weekend The New Paper The New Paper Sunday tabla. – free English language newspaper for the Indian community,30,000 copies distributed each Friday at 7-Eleven outlets, SPH also publishes and produces more than 100 magazine titles in Singapore and the region, covering a broad range of interests from lifestyle to information technology. Beyond print, the Internet editions of SPH newspapers enjoy over 360 million page views with 23 million unique visitors every month. Apart from AsiaOne, SPHs online and new initiatives include ST701. SPH also launched The Straits Times iPad and enhanced iPhone applications, SPHs Chinese flagship newspaper Lianhe Zaobao has also launched its digital editions which include a web application, as well as online and PDF versions. SPH soon afterwards launched two channels, Channel U and Channel i, on 31 December 2004, SPH sold its television operation to MediaCorp, restoring its former monopoly status. Channel i was shut down on 1 January 2005, but Channel U continues to operate, through a merger, SPH retains a 20% stake in MediaCorps television operational, as well as 40% stake in Today newspaper. In the radio business, SPH Radio Pte Ltd, which operates entertainment stations UFM100.3 in Mandarin, as well as Kiss 92FM, SPH Multimedia Ltd has 13. 94% shareholding in M1 Limited and has a joint venture with Axiata and Keppel Telecoms. SPHs events arm Sphere Exhibits organises innovative consumer and trade events and exhibitions as well as large scale conferences in Singapore, in addition, SPH has ventured into out-of-home advertising through its digital out-of-home platform SPHMBO. SPHs subsidiaries, Straits Times Press and Focus Publishing, produce quality books and periodicals in English, SPH Buzz, a modern retail convenience chain with a network of stores around Singapore. SPH has a 22 per cent stake in preschool and enrichment provider MindChamps, SPHs latest retail development project, The Seletar Mall, began operations in late 2014. SPHs wholly owned subsidiary, Times Development Pte Ltd, has developed a 43-storey upmarket residential condominium, Sky@eleven
19.
Mass media
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The mass media is a diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically, via such media as film, radio, recorded music, digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social sites, websites. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. The organizations that control these technologies, such as studios, publishing companies. In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries, books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. The explosion of digital technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question. For example, it is whether to include cell phones, computer games. In the 2000s, a called the seven mass media became popular. For example, the Internet includes blogs, podcasts, web sites, the sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media, and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a mass form of media. While a telephone is a communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium. There is currently a system by which marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites and this transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is another form of mass communication. Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium, video games provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online, excluding the Internet however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually
20.
The Straits Times
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The Straits Times is an English-language daily broadsheet newspaper based in Singapore currently owned by Singapore Press Holdings. It is the countrys highest-selling paper, with a current Sunday Times circulation of nearly 365,800, after Singapore became independent from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, the paper became more focused on the island leading to the creation of the New Straits Times for Malaysian readers. There is a specific Myanmar and Brunei edition published, with a newsprint circulation of 5,000 and 2,500 respectively, SPH also publishes two other English-language dailies, the broadsheet The Business Times and The New Paper tabloid. The Straits Times is a member of the Asia News Network, the Straits Times was started by an Armenian, Catchick Moses. Mosess friend, Martyrose Apcar, had intended to start a local paper, to fulfil his friends dream, Moses took over and appointed Robert Carr Woods as editor. On 15 July 1845, The Straits Times was launched as an eight-page weekly, the subscription fee then was Sp. $1.75 per month. In September 1846, he sold the paper to Robert Woods because the press proved unprofitable to run, on 20 February 1942, five days after the British had surrendered to the Japanese, The Straits Times became known as The Shonan Times and The Syonan Shimbun. This name change lasted until 5 September 1945, when Singapore returned to British rule, the Straits Times functions with 16 bureaus and special correspondents in major cities worldwide. The paper itself is published in five segments, the section focuses on Asian and international news, with sub-sections of columns and editorials. The Home section focuses on news with 5 weekly sections, Education on Monday, Mind and Body on Tuesday, Digital on Wednesday, Community on Thursday. The sports and finance pages, are separated into a different section themselves, there is a classified ads and job listing section, followed by a separate lifestyle, Style, entertainment and the arts section that is titled Life. The newspaper also publishes special editions for primary and secondary schools in Singapore, the primary-school version contains a special pull-out, titled Little Red Dot and the secondary-school version contains a pull-out titled In. The Straits Times is the only English language newspaper with an active Internet forum in Singapore, a separate edition The Sunday Times is published on Sundays. A specific Myanmar and Brunei edition of this paper was launched on 25 Mar 2014 and 30 October 2014 and it is published daily with local newspaper printers on licence with SPH. This paper is distributed on ministries, businesses, major hotels, airlines, bookshops and supermarkets on major cities and it will focus local, circulation of the Myanmar edition currently stands at 5,000 and 2,500 for the Brunei edition. The Straits Times is currently the largest circulating newspaper in Myanmar. Launched on 1 January 1994, The Straits Times website was free of charge and granted access to all the sections, on 1 January 2005, the online version began requiring registration and after a short period became a paid-access-only site. Currently, only people who subscribe to the online edition can read all the articles on the Internet, a free section, featuring a selection of news stories, is currently available at the site
21.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
22.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
23.
Tamil language
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Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
24.
M1 Limited
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M1 Limited is one of the three major telcos operating in the Republic of Singapore, the other two being Starhub and Singtel. As at 2 March 2015, major shareholders include Keppel Telecoms, SPH Multimedia, the remaining shares are owned by institutional and public investors. According to September 2015 IDA results, M1s 4G outdoor coverage was 99. 10%, M1 is one of the three major full service communications providers in Singapore. It offers a suite of mobile communication services over its 2G/3G/3. 5G/4G/LTE-A network. These include SMS, MMS, WAP, GPRS, 3G,3. 5G and 4G and was the first Singapore operator to launch a nationwide 4G LTE and it also offers prepaid mobile services, such as prepaid data plans, under its M Card brand. It is one of the operators in Singapore to offer a prepaid 4G service, M1 offered GSM services to its customers upon its entry into the mobile-communications market in 1997. In 1998, M1 introduced CDMA as the mobile network in Singapore. However, customers on the CDMA network were migrated onto its GSM network in 2001 and this was due to the CDMA network spectrum being earmarked for 3G service developments. The company also launched Singapores first mobile broadband services in 2006, named M1 Broadband, in 2010, it launched Singapores first fibre broadband service. Conducts Singapore’s first “live” NB-IoT demo, with vendor Nokia, launches the first wireless service for public buses called WiFi-On-The-Go. Launches new Gigabit Passive Optical Network plans, with speeds of 2 to 10Gbit/s, 10Gbit/s consumer plans will be available by year-end. Signs an agreement to host a postpaid MVNO, Liberty Wireless, Liberty is expected to launch commercial service by end-2015. M1 launches a mobile payment solution known as mPOS, in partnership with MasterCard, CIMB, jointly announces, with Singapores other two mobile operators Singtel and StarHub, that it will cease 2G service in April 2017. M1 announces an investment into Integrated Telecommunications Oman SAOC, M1 is appointed IDA’s Home Access programme service provider. M1 and the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore announce a partnership to help the maritime community, M1s fibre broadband service encountered issues on 14 May 2014 for about an hour, due to a DNS error. M1 launched Singapores fastest 10 Gbit/s service on the NGNBN, M1 partnered with GrabTaxi to offer Singapores first carrier billing service for taxi drivers. Mobile customers got free local calls and SMS/MMS messages every Sunday in April as part of the M1 Sunshine Sundays customer appreciation campaign on its 17th anniversary, M1 won the 2014 Frost & Sullivan Singapore Best Customer Experience in Telecommunications award. M1 customers experienced difficulties making voice calls, sending and receiving SMS for 5 hours on 4 February, M1 announced the launch of its small cell solution for business customers
25.
StarHub
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StarHub Ltd is one of the three major telcos in the Republic of Singapore, the other two being Singtel and M1. StarHub was officially launched in April 2000 with ST Telemedia, Singapore Power, BT Group and Nippon Telegraph, in January 1999, StarHub acquired internet service provider CyberWay and it became a subsidiary within the StarHub group. It was renamed as StarHub Internet on 3 December 1999 in a move to integrate CyberWay into the StarHub brand, in 2001, Singapore Power divested its shares in StarHub and sold its 25. 5% stake to ST Telemedia for S$400 million. BT Group subsequently divested its 18% stake as a result of consolidation, in 2002, the company merged with Singapores sole cable television operator, Singapore Cable Vision. As a result of the merger, it acquired SCVs cable television as well as internet access operations. StarHub was publicly listed on the Singapore Exchange in October 2004, on 12 January 2007, Qatar Telecom acquired a quarter of ST Telemedias shares in StarHub. Next Gen NBN is now known as Nationwide Broadband Network or NBN. On 14 July 2009, StarHub announced the retirement of long-standing chief executive Terry Clontz, Neil Montefiore, the former chief executive of the countrys smallest telecommunications company M1 Limited, took over as chief executive officer on 1 January 2010. Terry Clontz remains as a director of StarHub. On 1 August 2009, StarHub relocated its office to StarHub Green building at Ubi from its previous office location at StarHub building at Cuppage. On 7 February 2013, StarHub announced the retirement of Neil Montefiore as chief executive officer by end February 2013, StarHubs chief operating officer Tan Tong Hai was appointed CEO on 1 March 2013. On 13 July 2015, StarHub announced the retirement of Tan Guong Ching as chairman, StarHubs former chief executive officer Terry Clontz was appointed chairman on 15 July 2015. In December 2016, StarHubs new innovation centre and converged operations cockpit Hubtricty went operational, located at Mediapolis@one-north, the facility also contains a co-working space and data analytics centre. The StarHub group consists of subsidiaries, which include, StarHub provides mobile services through its subsidiary StarHub Mobile. Since its launch in April 2000, StarHub has been Singapores fastest growing mobile operator and it has close to two million customers and is the second largest mobile network operator with close to 30% market share. Customers trials of 3G services began in November 2004, and was launched in April 2005, in January 2005, StarHub announced that it would form an exclusive strategic partnership for i-mode in Singapore with NTT DoCoMo, a subsidiary of StarHubs major shareholder NTT. Customer trials started in October 2005, and the service was launched on 18 November, on 15 July 2009, StarHub became the first mobile operator in the Asia Pacific region to commercially launch a HSPA+ service. Branded as MaxMobile Elite, StarHubs HSPA+ service offers download speeds up to 21 Mbit/s nationwide, on 7 March 2013, StarHub became the first telecommunications company in Singapore to offer High Definition Voice
26.
MyRepublic
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MyRepublic Limited, is an internet service provider in Singapore, New Zealand, Indonesia, and Australia. It is the broadband service provider in Singapore. According to International Data Corporation as of October 2014, MyRepublic had a 5% share of the Singapore broadband market, as compared to Singtel, StarHub, on 12 October 2014, MyRepublic launched its free 3-month fibre broadband trial in New Zealand. In 2011, MyRepublic launched its fibre broadband 100 Mbps no-frills plan in Singapore, in 2014, MyRepublic launched its services in the New Zealand market, making effort to provide fibre services of at least 100 Mbps to the residential and business sector with no data limits. As of 2015, MyRepublic offers internet speeds of 200 Mbps –1 Gbps to residential customers and 100 Mbps –1 Gbps to corporate customers in Singapore, in November 2016, MyRepublic launched in Australia with an offer of unlimited broadband at up to 100Mbps to residential addresses. In February 2012, StarHub entered into a dispute with MyRepublic, in 2013 MyRepublic introduced business plans in Singapore. Singapore website New Zealand website Indonesia website Australia website
27.
TPG Telecom
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TPG Telecom Limited is an Australian telecommunications and IT company that specialises in consumer and business internet services as well as mobile telephone services. As of August 2015, TPG is the second largest internet provider in Australia. As such, it has over 671,000 ADSL2+ subscribers,358,000 landline subscribers and 360,000 mobile subscribers, and owns the second largest ADSL2+ network in Australia, consisting of 391 ADSL2+ DSLAMs. The company was formed from the merger between Total Peripherals Group, which was established in 1992 by David and Vicky Teoh, TPG provide five ranges of products and services including Internet access, networking, OEM services, mobile phone service and accounting software. In 2007, TPG took a 70 per cent controlling interest in then struggling Adelaide internet provider Chariot, Soul Converged Communications, formally known as Comindico, was an Australian telecommunications company based in Sydney. Souls main activities revolve around telecommunications, with business and home, in April 2005, it bought a 42.9 per cent stake in mobile phone company B Digital. In September 2006 Soul increased its stake in B Digital to 74.6 per cent, on 25 November 2009, following shareholder approval, SP Telemedia Ltd changed its name to TPG Telecom Ltd. The ASX code was changed also from SOT to TPM, in November 2009, TPG, which already owned a substantial portion of PIPE Networks shares, announced it intended to acquire the company. TPG completed its acquisition of PIPE for $373 million by way of scheme of arrangement on 31 March 2010, after shareholders, the acquisition allows TPG to gain full control of PIPE Networks fibre optic network in Australia and the Pipe Pacific Cable, connecting Sydney to Guam. TPG, in a statement released on 14 July 2011, announced it intended to acquire IntraPower for $12.8 million and it was also stated in the statement that the Board of Directors of IntraPower recommended the shareholders of the company approve the transaction. The acquisition was completed on 30 August, allowing TPG to benefit from TrustedCloud, on 9 December 2013, TPG purchased AAPT from Telecom New Zealand for $450 million. The transaction allows TPG to gain control of AAPTs fibre-optic network, which extends across six Australian states and territories, the transaction was expected to be finalised by February 2014. On 13 March 2015, TPG advised of its intent to take over Australias 3rd Largest ISP iiNet at $AU8.60 per share, giving a value of 1. 4Bn. TPG offered $8.60 per iiNet share, on top of the entitlement to the already-declared 10.5 cent interim dividend, the deal was approved by shareholders on July 27, and by the ACCC on August 20,2015. This made TPG Australias second-largest ISP by customer volume after Telstra, on 7 May 2013, TPG won a $13.5 million bid for two 10Mhz spectra of the 2. 5Ghz band. TPG, which operates a virtual network, in a statement. Although TPG did not reveal what the purpose of the spectra would be, the network will be switched on in October 2014. It was also estimated that the cost of the plans would be $69.99 per month, lower than the current price of NBN plans though it excludes initial connection, TPG also include plans and bundles on the National Broadband Network
28.
Intelsat
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Intelsat, S. A. is a communications satellite services provider. As of March 2017, Intelsat is to merge with Softbank backed OneWeb, the agreement is to merge in a share-for-share deal. SoftBank will buy voting and non-voting shares in the company for $1.7 billion in cash. Shares that Softbank-OneWeb will buy in the company will be bought for $5 per share. As of March 2011, Intelsat operates a fleet of 52 communications satellites and they claim to serve around 1,500 customers and employ a staff of approximately 1,100 people. The intergovernmental organization began on 20 August 1964, with 11 participating countries, on 6 April 1965, Intelsat’s first satellite, the Intelsat I, was placed in geostationary orbit above the Atlantic Ocean by a Delta D rocket. In 1973, the name was changed and there were 80 signatories, Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies. By 2001, INTELSAT had over 100 members and it was also this year that INTELSAT privatized and changed its name to Intelsat. Since its inception, Intelsat has used versions of its dedicated Intelsat satellites. Intelsat completes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of contractors over the years, Intelsat’s largest spacecraft supplier is Space Systems/Loral, having built 31 spacecraft, or nearly half of the fleet. The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now. Fortunately, during the Apollo 11 moonwalk, the moon was over the Pacific Ocean, and so other antennas were used, as well as INTELSAT III, to avert the US governments interference with Intelsat, Intelsats senior management unsuccessfully considered relocating the IGO to another country. On 18 July 2001, Intelsat became a company,37 years after formation. Prior to Intelsats privatization in 2001, ownership and investment in INTELSAT was distributed among INTELSAT members according to their use of services, investment shares determined each member’s percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures. Satellite services were available to any organization, and all paid the same rates. Today, the number of Intelsat satellites, as well as ocean-spanning fibre-optic lines, modern satellites are more robust, lasting longer with much larger capacity. Intelsat Americas-7 experienced a power failure on 29 November 2004. The satellite returned to service with reduced capacity, Intelsat was sold for U. S. $3. 1bn in January 2005 to four private equity firms, Madison Dearborn Partners, Apax Partners, Permira and Apollo Global Management
29.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
30.
The World Factbook
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The World Factbook is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service, Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition. The Factbook is available in the form of a website that is updated every week. It is also available for download for use off-line, the World Factbook is prepared by the CIA for the use of U. S. Government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. However, it is used as a resource for academic research papers. As a work of the U. S. Government, it is in the domain in the United States. In researching the Factbook, the CIA uses the sources listed below, Other public and private sources are also consulted. However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the Factbook is used, copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U. S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949. Before November 2001 The World Factbook website was updated yearly, from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks, since 2010 it has been updated weekly, generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the Factbook. The first, classified, edition of Factbook was published in August 1962, the World Factbook was first available to the public in print in 1975. In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the Factbook themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office and this happened due to a CIA decision to focus Factbook resources on the online edition. The Factbook has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994, the web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month, it can also be downloaded. The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office, in past years, the Factbook was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk. Many Internet sites use information and images from the CIA World Factbook, several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books, and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the Factbook in recent years. As of July 2011, The World Factbook consists of 267 entities and these entities can be divided into categories. They are, Independent countries This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people politically organized into a state with a definite territory. In this category, there are 195 entities, others The Other category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries. Currently there are two, Taiwan and the European Union, dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty This category is a list of places affiliated with another country
31.
Country code
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Country codes are short alphabetic or numeric geographical codes developed to represent countries and dependent areas, for use in data processing and communications. Several different systems have developed to do this. The term country code frequently refers to international dialing codes, the E.164 country calling codes and this standard defines for most of the countries and dependent areas in the world, a two-letter a three-letter, and a three-digit numeric code. For more applications see ISO 3166-1 alpha-2. S. government and in the CIA World Factbook, on September 2,2008, FIPS 10-4 was one of ten standards withdrawn by NIST as a Federal Information Processing Standard. GOST7.164 international telephone dialing codes, list of country calling codes with 1-3 digits and these prefixes are legally administered by the national entity to which prefix ranges are assigned. Diplomatic license plates in the United States, assigned by the U. S. State Department, north Atlantic Treaty Organisation used two-letter codes of its own, list of NATO country codes. They were largely borrowed from the FIPS 10-4 codes mentioned below, in 2003 the eighth edition of the Standardisation Agreement adopted the ISO3166 three-letter codes with one exception. The following can represent countries, The initial digits of International Standard Book Numbers are group identifiers for countries, areas, the first three digits of GS1 Company Prefixes used to identify products, for example, in barcodes, designate numbering agencies. A comparison with ISO, IFS and others with notes United Nations Region Codes
32.
Cable modem
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Cable modems are primarily used to deliver broadband Internet access in the form of cable Internet, taking advantage of the high bandwidth of a HFC and RFoG network. They are commonly deployed in Australia, Europe, Asia and the Americas, Internet Experiment Note 96 describes an early RF cable modem system. From pages 2 and 3 of IEN96, The Cable-Bus System The MITRE/Washington Cablenet system is based on a technology developed at MITRE/Bedford. Similar cable-bus systems are in operation at a number of government sites, e. g. Walter Reed Army Hospital, and the NASA Johnson Space Center, but these are all standalone, local-only networks. The system uses standard Community Antenna Television coaxial cable and microprocessor based Bus Interface Units to connect subscriber computers, the cable bus consists of two parallel coaxial cables, one inbound and the other outbound. The inbound cable and outbound cable are connected at one end, the headend and this architecture takes advantage of the well developed unidirectional CATV components. The BIUs contain Radio Frequency modems which modulate a carrier signal to digital information using 1 MHz of the available bandwidth in the 24 MHz frequency range. The remainder of the 294 MHz bandwidth can be used to other information channels, such as off-the-air TV, FM, closed circuit TV, or a voice telephone system, or. The data rate of our system is 307.2 kbps. The IEEE802 Committee defined 10BROAD36 in 802. 3b-1985 as a 10 Mbit/s IEEE802. 3/Ethernet broadband system to run up to 3,600 metres over CATV coax network cabling, the word broadband as used in the original IEEE802. The IEEE802 Committee also specified a broadband CATV digital networking standard in 1989 with 802. 7-1989, however, like 10BROAD36,802. 7-1989 saw little commercial success. Hybrid Networks developed, demonstrated and patented the first high-speed, asymmetrical cable modem system in 1990 and this allowed CATV operators to offer high speed data services immediately without first requiring an expensive system upgrade. The speeds and protocols used in each direction would be very different, the earliest systems used the public switched telephone network for the return path since very few cable systems were bi-directional. Later systems used CATV for the upstream as well as the downstream path, hybrids system architecture is used for most cable modem systems today. ARRIS continues to make cable modems and CMTS equipment compliant with the DOCSIS standard, zenith offered a cable modem technology using its own protocol which it introduced in 1993, being one of the first cable modem providers. Zenith Homeworks used BPSK modulation to achieve 500 Kbit/sec in 600 kHz, Com21 was another early pioneer in cable modems, and quite successful until proprietary systems were made obsolete by the DOCSIS standardization. The Com21 system used a ComController as central bridge in CATV network head-ends, the ComPort cable modem in various models, later they also introduced a return path multiplexer to overcome noise problems when combining return path signals from multiple areas. The proprietary protocol was based on Asynchronous Transfer Mode, the central ComController switch was a modular system offering one downstream channel and one management module
33.
Pacnet
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Pacnet was a global telecommunications service provider between 2008 and 2015. It was formed from the merger of Asia Netcom and Pacific Internet on 8 January 2008. It was owned by an investor group comprising Ashmore Investment Management Limited, Spinnaker Capital Limited. Its acquisition by the Australian telecommunications company Telstra was announced at the end of 2014, in 1999, Global Crossing, Microsoft and Softbank started Asia Global Crossing as a venture to build a US$2 billion cable system, East Asia Crossing, to connect key Asian markets. In 2000, Asia Global Crossing was listed on NASDAQ, before its listing was moved to NYSE in 2001, following the dotcom crash, Asia Global Crossing filed for bankruptcy protection in 2002, and was subsequently delisted from NYSE. In late 2003, China Netcom acquired 100 percent of Asia Netcom, in 2007, Asia Netcoms EAC merged with C2C, another submarine cable network owned by Connect Holdings, to form a 36,800 km submarine cable network, EAC-C2C. In 1989, TechNet was started as a research and development computer network for use by academia at the National University of Singapore, funded by the National Science and Technology Board of Singapore, it became Singapores first Internet Service Provider. In 1995, it was acquired by SembMedia, a division of Singapore conglomerate Sembawang Group, in September the same year, Pacific Internet began its commercial operations in Singapore. In 1996, Pacific Internet expanded into Hong Kong via an acquisition, in 1997, the company commenced its Philippines operations through a local partner, which was acquired by Pacific Internet a year later. On 5 February 1999, Pacific Internet launched its public offering of shares on NASDAQ at a price of US$17 per share. In the same year, the company started its Australian operations with the acquisition of two ISPs, and launched Pacific Internet India, a joint venture unit of Pacific Internet Limited, in 2000, Pacific Internet expanded into six major cities in Australia through further acquisitions of Australian ISPs. The company also forayed into Thailand, where it made another acquisition, two years later, Pacific Internet set up operations in Malaysia In 2007, Pacific Internet was acquired by Connect Holdings, after which, it was delisted from NASDAQ. On 8 January 2008, Asia Netcom and Pacific Internet merged under a new name, Pacnet Limited. The company also completed the acquisition of the shares of Pacific Internet later that year. It was announced on 23 December 2014 that Pacnet would be acquired by Telstra, Australias largest telecommunications, Telstra announced the completion of the acquisition in April 2015. Pacnet’s pan-Asia EAC-C2C network was formed from the integration of the EAC, the fibre optic subsea cable network spans 36,800 km between Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, the Philippines, Singapore and China. It has a capacity of 17.92 Tbit/s to 30.72 Tbit/s to each of these landing countries. The EAC-C2C network lands at 18 cable landing stations across Asia, EAC Pacific is part of the US$300 million Unity cable system that has been built with five other global companies including Bharti Airtel, Global Transit, Google, KDDI Corporation and SingTel
34.
Wireless@SG
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The targeted users of this wireless broadband network are broadly classified as people on the move – people who require wireless broadband access while away from their homes, schools and offices. Once connected, users will be able to access all Internet-based services e. g. online gaming, web surfing, instant messaging, VoIP, the IDA issued a Call-for-Collaboration early 2006 for interested operators to provide such coverage. Following the announcement on 10 October 2006 by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, IDA announced on 30 November 2006 that the three Wireless@SG operators have extended this free offering to three years. Users started to enjoy wireless connectivity from 1 December 2006, one ahead of schedule at selected hotspots. On 31 May 2007, Network deployment for all Primary Catchment Areas in all Regions was completed with the Secondary Catchment Areas in all Regions was completed on 30 September 2007, the CFC on Wireless Broadband Market Development was scheduled to be completed on 31 December 2008. Catalysing the demand for broadband services by increasing the number of wireless broadband users. On 16 June 2009, the government announced an extension of the programme until March 2013, in September 2009, M1 Limited acquired local connectivity provider, Qala Singapore, taking over QMaxs Wireless@SG service. Funding from IDA has stopped since April 2013 for the deployment and it was reported the main newspaper that the number of hotspots had dipped. Some malls will be left without the free WIFI hotspots, on Monday,11 April 2016, Parliament announced that the surfing speeds of Wireless@SG will be increased to 5 Mbps, up from 2Mbps. The number of hotspots will also double to 20,000, singtel M1 StarHub Y5Zone QMAX iCELL To access Wireless@SG, users need to be located within the respective Wireless@SG coverage areas. The list of hotspots include shopping centres, libraries, museums, public swimming pools, cafes, restaurants, fast food joints, the latest coverage areas can be found at Google Earth and at the IDA portal. To connect to the Wireless@SG wireless broadband network, a user just needs a WiFi-enabled device, such as a computer, PDA or wi-fi enabled mobile phone. With this registered account, the user is able to roam within any of Wireless@SGs coverage areas, available login methods include, SIM-based authentication, Seamless and Secure Access and HTTP-based login. Users are encouraged by the IDA to install and activate a Virtual Private Network or other mechanism, Personal firewall. The IDA also encourages users to avoid ad hoc networking to safeguard their security. Alternatively, they can click on the ‘New User Sign Up’ link found on the Wireless@SG log-in page when they select the Wireless@SG network at the coverage areas, the account will be activated immediately and a password sent to them via SMS. Customer Service Centres, Those without mobile phones or online access can visit any of the customer service centres to register. Users can also check with their operator of choice for other registration methods, mobile phone, Visitors to the country can receive free 24-hour Wireless@SG accounts by calling a computer-operated phone number at SingTel
35.
Optical fiber
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
36.
Communications in Afghanistan
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Communications in Afghanistan is under the control of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology. It has rapidly expanded after the Karzai administration took over in late 2001, the Afghan government signed a $64.5 agreement in 2006 with Chinas ZTE on the establishment of a countrywide optical fiber cable network. The project began to improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services throughout Afghanistan, as of 2014, about 90% of the countrys population has access to communication services. There are about 18 million mobile users in the country. Etisalat, Roshan, Afghan Wireless and MTN are the leading telecom companies, etisalat became the first company planning to launch 4G services in 2014. It is predicted that over 50% of the population will have access to the internet by 2015, in 2014, Afghanistan leased a space satellite from Eutelsat, called AFGHANSAT1. There are about 18 million GSM mobile phone subscribers in Afghanistan as of 2009, with over 75,000 fixed-telephone-lines, mobile communications have improved because of the introduction of wireless carriers into this developing country. The first was Afghan Wireless, which is US based that was founded by Ehsan Bayat, the second was Roshan, which began providing services to all major cities within Afghanistan. There are also a number of VSAT stations in cities such as Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Mazari Sharif. The international calling code for Afghanistan is +93. 5% of their income to the development fund annually. According to the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology there are 4760 active towers throughout the country which covers 85% of the population, phone calls in Afghanistan have been monitored by the National Security Agency according to Wikileaks. Afghanistan was given control of the. af domain in 2003. As of 2010, there are at least 46 internet service providers in the country, internet in Afghanistan is also at the peak with 1 million users as of 2009. Selected foreign channels are shown to the public in Afghanistan. As of 2007, there are an estimated 50 private radio stations throughout the country, broadcasts are in Dari, Pashto, English, Uzbeki and many other languages. The number of listeners are decreasing and are being slowly outnumbered by television. Of Afghanistans 6 main cities, Kandahar and Khost have a lot of radio listeners, Kabul and Jalalabad have moderate number of listeners. However, Mazar-e-Sharif and especially Herat have very few radio listeners, in 1870, a central post office was established at Bala Hissar in Kabul and a post office in the capital of each province
37.
Telecommunications in Armenia
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This article is about telecommunications systems in Armenia. As of June 2014, Armenia has 3.3 million subscribers in total, there are three mobile phone operators currently in Armenia, Viva Cell MTS, Ucom and Beeline. All three offer both 2G and 3G as well as 4G services, all three networks are widely modern and reliable with shops located in major towns and cities where one can purchase a sim card or get assistance if needed. Most unlocked mobile phones are able to be used on roaming however network charges apply, Ucom and Viva Cell MTS are often recommended to tourists due to the variety of tariffs available and the help available in a variety of languages. As of 2012, approximately 90% of all lines are digitized. The remaining 10% is in modernization process, Yerevan is connected to the Trans-Asia-Europe fiber-optic cable via Georgia. Main backbones of Armenian networks are made by E3 or STM-1 lines via microwave units across whole country with many passive retranslations, as of 2008, Armenia has 9 AM stations,17 FM stations, and one shortwave station. Additionally, there are approximately 850,000 radios in existence, primary network provider is TRBNA Armenia has 48 private television stations alongside 2 public networks with major Russian channels widely available throughout the country. In year 2008 TRBNA upgraded main circuit to digital distribution system based on DVB-IP, according to Television Association Committee of Armenia, TV penetration rate is 80% according to 2011 data. There are approximately 1,400,000 Internet users and approximately 65,279 Internet hosts in Armenia, the country code for Armenia is. am, which has been used for AM radio stations and for domain hacks. Armentels only fiber optic connection to the Internet enters Armenia through Georgia, Armenia is connected to the Trans-Asia-Europe fiber-optic cable system via Georgia, which runs along the railroad from Poti to Tbilisi to the Armenian border near Marneuli. At Poti, the TAE cable connects to the undersea Georgia-Russia system KAFOS which then connects to the Black Sea Fiber Optic Cable System, the BSFOCS is co-owned by Armentel. A major way of connecting to the Internet used to be dial-up and this was caused by very high prices of Internet access, and only very few people could use other types of connections until Beeline, Vivacell MTS and Orange started selling portable USB-modems. The average price for one hour of dial-up Internet access was about 48 cents, as of March 2010, it is estimated that there are about 100,000 broadband subscribers in Armenia. DSL connectivity is offered by Beeline, Cornet, Arminco, Cornet launched a nationwide network in Yerevan and 18 biggest cities of Armenia. It uses 802. 16e protocol in the 3. 6-3.8 GHz frequency diapason, Armenian ISP Icon Communications has selected Alcatel-Lucent to design, deploy and maintain a commercial WiMAX802. 16e-2005 network in Armenia. Ucom telecom company has built up the first FTTH Network in Armenia providing convergent Triple play services including Internet, IPTV and Digital Phone services. Listed as engaged in substantial filtering in the area and selective filtering in the social, conflict/security
