1.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
2.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
3.
Kindergarten
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Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach traditionally based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. The first such institutions were created in the late 18th century in Bavaria, the term was coined by the German Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strasbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria. In 1802, Princess Pauline zur Lippe established a center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary. He renamed his institute Kindergarten on June 28,1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished like plants in a garden, women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world. The first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German, elizabeth Peabody founded the first English-language kindergarten in the US in 1860. The first free kindergarten in the US was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, the first publicly-financed kindergarten in the US was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canadas first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, by the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. The countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario, in 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for kindergarten teaching. In Afghanistan, children between the age of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens, which though not part of the system are often run by the government
4.
Northern Territory
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The Northern Territory is a federal Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. It shares borders with Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, to the north, the territory is bordered by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Despite its large area—over 1,349,129 square kilometres, the Northern Territorys population of 244,000 makes it the least populous of Australias eight major states and territories, having fewer than half as many people as Tasmania. The archaeological history of the Northern Territory begins over 40,000 years ago when Indigenous Australians settled the region, makassan traders began trading with the indigenous people of the Northern Territory for trepang from at least the 18th century onwards. The coast of the territory was first seen by Europeans in the 17th century, the British were the first Europeans to attempt to settle the coastal regions. After three failed attempts to establish a settlement, success was achieved in 1869 with the establishment of a settlement at Port Darwin. Today the economy is based on tourism, especially Kakadu National Park in the Top End and the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in central Australia, the capital and largest city is Darwin. The population is not concentrated in regions but rather along the Stuart Highway. The other major settlements are Palmerston, Alice Springs, Katherine, Nhulunbuy, residents of the Northern Territory are often known simply as Territorians and fully as Northern Territorians, or more informally as Top Enders and Centralians. With the coming of the British, there were four attempts to settle the harsh environment of the northern coast. The Northern Territory was part of colonial New South Wales from 1825 to 1863, except for a time from February to December 1846. It was part of South Australia from 1863 to 1911, under the administration of colonial South Australia, the overland telegraph was constructed between 1870 and 1872. A railway was built between Palmerston and Pine Creek between 1883 and 1889. The economic pattern of raising and mining was established so that by 1911 there were 513,000 cattle. Victoria River Downs was at one time the largest cattle station in the world, gold was found at Grove Hill in 1872 and at Pine Creek, Brocks Creek, Burrundi, and copper was found at Daly River. On 1 January 1911, a decade after federation, the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia, alfred Deakin opined at this time To me the question has been not so much commercial as national, first, second, third and last. Either we must accomplish the peopling of the territory or submit to its transfer to some other nation. In late 1912 there was growing sentiment that the name Northern Territory was unsatisfactory, the names Kingsland, Centralia and Territoria were proposed with Kingsland becoming the preferred choice in 1913
5.
Education in Australia
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Education in Australia generally comprises primary education, followed by secondary education, and tertiary education. Regulation and funding of education is primarily the responsibility of the States and territories, Education in Australia is compulsory between the ages of five and fifteen, sixteen or seventeen, depending on the State or territory and date of birth. For primary and secondary education, government schools educate approximately 60% of Australian students, for primary and secondary schools, a national Australian Curriculum is currently under progressive development and implementation. The Education Index, published with the UNs Human Development Index in 2008, based on data from 2006, lists Australia as 0.993, the highest in the world. The Federal Governments involvement in education has been the responsibility of a number of departments over the years, for primary and secondary schools, a national Australian Curriculum is currently under progressive development and implementation. At present, parts of the Australian Curriculum have been adopted by some States and territories, pre-school and pre-prep programmes in Australia are relatively unregulated, and are not compulsory. The first exposure many Australian children have to learning with others outside of traditional parenting is day care or a parent-run playgroup, pre-school is offered to three- to five-year-olds, attendance numbers vary widely between the states, but 85. 7% of children attended pre-school the year before school. The year before a child is due to primary school is the main year for pre-school education. This year is far more commonly attended, and may take the form of a few hours of activity during weekdays, responsibility for pre-schools in New South Wales and Victoria, lies with the Department of Education and Communities and the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, respectively. In all other states and territories of Australia, responsibility for pre-schools lie with the relevant education department. The average net cost for a day care in Australia is $3.85 per hour. School education in Australia is compulsory between certain ages as specified by state or territory legislation, depending on the state or territory, and date of birth of the child, school is compulsory from the age of five to six to the age of fifteen to seventeen. In Tasmania, the school starting age is 5 years old. In recent years, over three quarters of students stay at school until they are seventeen, Government schools educate approximately 60% of Australian students, with approximately 40% in Catholic and independent schools. A small portion of students are legally home-schooled, particularly in rural areas, Government schools are free to attend for Australian citizens and permanent residents, while Catholic and independent schools usually charge attendance fees. However, in addition to attendance fees, stationery, textbooks, uniforms, school camps, the additional cost for schooling has been estimated to be on average $316 per year per child. Regardless of whether a school is part of the Government, Catholic or independent systems, the curriculum framework however provides for some flexibility in the syllabus, so that subjects such as religious education can be taught. Most school students wear uniforms, although there are varying expectations, a common movement among secondary schools to support student voice has taken form as organisations such as VicSRC in Victoria bring together student leaders to promote school improvement
6.
Secondary education in France
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Pupils are prepared for the baccalauréat. The baccalauréat can lead to higher studies or directly to professional life. The school year starts in early September and ends in early-July, lyon, for example, is in zone A, while Marseille is in zone B, and Paris and Bordeaux are in zone C. In contrast to the practice in most other systems, the various school years in France are numbered on a decreasing scale. Thus, pupils begin their education in the sixième, and transfer to a lycée in the seconde. In French, the word for étudiant is usually reserved for students, while collège. The curriculum is standardized for all French public institutions, the collège is the first level of secondary education in the French educational system. A pupil attending collège is called collégien or collégienne, men and women teachers at the collège- and lycée-level are called professeur. The City of Paris refers to a collège in English as a high school, entry in sixième occurs directly after the last year of primary school, called cours moyen deuxième année. There is no entrance examination into collège, but administrators have established an academic examination of students starting in sixième. The purpose of the examination is evaluating pupils level on being graduated from primary school, the table at the right details the French curriculum. Along with three-to-four weekly hours of education, a typical school week consists of some twenty-six hours of schooling. French language and literature occupy the most time, 4–5 hours per week, followed by mathematics,4 hours per week, the curriculum is devised by the French Ministry of National Education and applies to all collèges in France and also for AEFE-dependent institutions. Académies and individual schools have little margin for curriculum customisation, teachers compose syllabi per precise government educational regulations, and choose textbooks accordingly, every major French publishing house has a textbook branch. Each subject is taught by a different professeur or teacher. Collège pupils stay in the class throughout the school year. The strong belief in teaching in mixed-ability classes means that streaming is rare, class size varies from school to school, but usually ranges from 20 to 35 pupils. Each class has a principal who is the link between the teaching staff, administration, and pupils
7.
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
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Continuous and comprehensive evaluation was a process of assessment, mandated by the Right to Education Act, of India. The Karnataka government has introduced CCE for grades 1 through 9 later it was introduced for 12th grades students. The main aim of CCE is to evaluate every aspect of the child during their presence at the school, the CCE method is claimed to bring enormous changes from the traditional chalk and talk method of teaching, provided it is implemented accurately. Presently the CCE assessment is under the position of being cancelled due to the created by it. As a part of new system, students marks will be replaced by grades which will be evaluated through a series of curricular and extra-curricular evaluations along with academics. The aim is to decrease the workload on the student by means of evaluation by taking number of small tests throughout the year in place of single test at the end of the academic program. Unlike CBSEs old pattern of one test at the end of the academic year. There are two different types of tests, namely, the formative and the summative. Formative tests will comprise the work at class and home, the students performance in oral tests and quizzes. Formative tests will be conducted four times in an academic session, in some schools, an additional written test is conducted instead of multiple oral tests. However, at least one oral test is conducted, the summative assessment is a three-hour long written test conducted twice a year. The first summative or Summative Assessment 1 will be conducted after the first two formatives are completed, the second will be conducted after the next two formatives. Each summative will carry a 30% weightage and both together will carry a 60% weightage for the aggregate, the summative assessment will be conducted by the schools itself. However, the papers will be partially prepared by the CBSE. Once completed, the syllabus of one summative will not be repeated in the next, a student will have to concentrate on totally new topics for the next summative. At the end of the year, the CBSE processes the result by adding the score to the summative score. Depending upon the percentage obtained, the board will deduce the CGPA, the board has also instructed the schools to prepare the report card and it will be duly signed by the principal, the student. Deductive Method - What does the student know and how can he use it to explain a situation, co-relation with a real-life situation - Whether the situation given matches any real-life situation, like tsunamis, floods, tropical cyclones, etc
8.
Secondary school
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A secondary school is both an organization that delivers level 2 junior secondary education or level 3 secondary education phases of the ISCED scale, and the building where this takes place. Level 2 junior secondary education is considered to be the second, Secondary schools typically follow on from primary schools and lead into vocational and tertiary education. Attendance is compulsory in most countries for students between the ages 11 and 16, the systems and terminology remain unique to each country. School building design does not happen in isolation, schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, storage, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the roll of the school. A general classroom for 30 students needs to be 55m2, or more generously 62m2, a general art room for 30 students needs to be 83m2, but 104 m2 for 3D textile work. A drama studio or a specialist science laboratory for 30 needs to be 90 m2, examples are given on how this can be configured for a 1,200 place secondary. The building providing the education has to fulfil the needs of, The students, the teachers, the support staff, the adminstrators. It has to should meet health requirements, minimal functional requirements- such as classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity, textbooks, Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establish building costs. Future plans are audited to ensure that standards are not exceeded. The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula in 2014 and it said the floor area should be 1050m² +6. 3m²/pupil place for 11- to 16-year-olds + 7m²/pupil place for post-16s. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m², a secondary school, locally may be called high school, junior high school, senior high school. Sweden, gymnasium Switzerland, gymnasium, secondary school, collège or lycée Taiwan, Junior High School, Senior High School, Vocational High School, Military School, in Nigeria, secondary school starts from JSS1 until SSS3. Most students start at the age of 10 or 11 and finish at 16 or 17, Students are required to sit for the West African Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. To progress to university students must obtain at least a credit in Maths, English, in Somalia, secondary school starts from 9th grade until 12th. Students start it when they are around 14 to 15 years of age, Students are required to study Somali and Arabic, with the option of either English or Italian depending on the type of school. Religion, chemistry, physics, biology, physical education, textile, art, design, when secondary school has been completed, students are sent to national training camp before going to either college, or military training. In South Africa, high school begins at grade 8, Students study for five years, at the end of which they write a Matriculation examination
9.
Gaelscoil
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A Gaelscoil is an Irish-medium school in Ireland, the term refers especially to Irish-medium schools outside the Irish-speaking regions or Gaeltacht. Over 50,000 students attend Gaelscoileanna on the island of Ireland, a further over 13,000 students are receiving their primary and second level education through Irish in the Gaeltacht. Gaelscoileanna and Irish-medium schools in the Gaeltacht are supported and represented by Gaeloideachas, students in the Gaelscoileanna acquire the Irish language through language immersion, and study the standard curriculum through it. Gaelscoileanna, unlike English-medium schools, have the reputation of producing competent Irish speakers and this has been attributed in part to the lack of Irish-language immersion programs. The present government has promised reforms in curriculum and teaching training for Irish in English-medium schools and their success is due to effective community support and an efficient administrative infrastructure. They are distinguished by being the product, not of state policy, in 1972 there were only 11 such schools at primary level and five at secondary level in the Republic of Ireland. 35 of these schools,2 of the postprimary schools and 4 of the postprimary units operated are in Northern Ireland. Additionally, some 4,000 children attend Irish-medium preschools or naíonraí outside the Gaeltacht with around 1,000 children attending naíonraí within the Gaeltacht. There is now at least one gaelscoil in every county in Ireland with over 40 in County Dublin,30 in County Cork and 13 in County Antrim included, Gaelscoileanna have acquired a reputation for providing excellent academic results at a moderate cost. They have been described as a system of social selection, ” giving better than average access to tertiary education. Supporters argue that the bilingualism resulting from early acquisition of language is of general intellectual benefit. Irish-language advocates of the immersion approach sometimes refer to studies showing that children have advantages over monoglot children in other subjects. 19,331 primary students attending 71 gaelscoileanna,6,801 primary students attending 45 gaelscoileanna. 11,332 primary students attending 44 gaelscoileanna,3,509 primary students attending 18 gaelscoileanna. At present over 11,000 students on the island of Ireland are receiving education through Irish outside Gaeltacht areas. These include around 10,000 students in the Republic of Ireland, two new second-level gaelscoileanna opened in Ireland in 2014, Coláiste Ghlór na Mara in Balbriggan and Gaelcholáiste an Phiarsaigh in Rathfarnham. Gaelcholáiste Charraig Uí Leighin opened in Carrigaline and Northern Irelands second gaelcholáiste Gaelcholáiste Dhoire opened in Dungiven Castle in 2015, there are also campaigns running for several new Gaelcholáistí in other areas. The function and future of the Gaelscoileanna in the Republic of Ireland will be affected by the 20 Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030, published in December 2010
10.
Education in Israel
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Education in Israel refers to the comprehensive education system of Israel. The education system consists of three tiers, primary education, middle school and high school, compulsory education takes place from kindergarten through to 12th grade. The school year begins on September 1, ending for elementary school pupils on 30 June, Israeli culture views higher education as the key to higher mobility and socioeconomic status in Israeli society. The emphasis of education within Israeli society goes to the gulf within the Jewish diaspora from the Renaissance, israel’s populace is well educated and Israeli society highly values education. In 2012, the country ranked second among OECD countries for the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 46 percent compared with the OECD average of 32 percent. It ranks fifth among OECD countries for the expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP. The Israeli education system has been praised for various reasons, including its high quality and its role in spurring Israels economic development. Israeli schools are divided into four different tracks, state-secular, state-religious, independent religious, there are also private schools which reflect the philosophies of specific groups of parents, or that are based on the curriculum of a foreign country. The majority of Israeli children attend state schools, state-religious schools, catering to youngsters from the Orthodox sector, offer intensive Jewish studies programs, and emphasize tradition and observance. The Chinuch Atzmai schools focus almost entirely on Torah study and offer little in terms of secular subjects. Schools in the Arab sector teach in Arabic, and offer a curriculum that emphasizes Arab history, religion, the Haredims lack of mainstream education, and consequent low participation in the workforce, are regarded by many in Israel as a social problem. Israels Ministry of Education’s statistics from 2014 show that only about 22 percent of Haredi students take matriculation exams, about 8 percent of Haredi students pass the exam. things have to change. Today, this school receives support from the state. Two more integrated schools were opened in Jerusalem and Galilee in 1997 by Hand in Hand, as of 2010, there were five integrated schools in Israel, including that of Neve Shalom. High schools in Israel prepare students for the Israeli matriculation exams and these are exams covering various academic disciplines, which are studied in units of one to five on an ascending scale of difficulty. Students with a mark on the mandatory matriculation subjects, who have been tested on at least 21 units. In 2006/7,74. 4% of Israeli 12th graders took the exams while only 46. 3% were eligible for a matriculation certificate. In the Arab and Druze sectors, the figures were 35. 6% and 43. 7% respectively, a Bagrut certificate and Bagrut scores often determine acceptance into elite military units, admission to academic institutions, and job prospects
11.
Hebrew
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
12.
Ramat Gan
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Ramat Gan is a city in the Tel Aviv District of Israel, located east of Tel Aviv. It is home to one of the major diamond exchanges. Ramat Gan was established in 1921 as a moshava, a farming settlement. The mayor of Ramat Gan is Yisrael Zinger, Ramat Gan was established by the Ir Ganim association in 1921 as a satellite town of Tel Aviv. The first plots of land were purchased between 1914–1918, the settlement was initially a moshava, a Zionist agricultural colony that grew wheat, barley and watermelons. The name of the settlement was changed to Ramat Gan in 1923, the settlement continued to operate as a moshava until 1933, although it achieved local council status in 1926. At this time it had 450 residents, in the 1940s, Ramat Gan became a battleground in the countrys language war, A Yiddish language printing press in Ramat Gan was blown up by Hebrew-language extremists. Over the years, the economy shifted from agriculture to commerce, by 1946, the population had grown to 12,000. In 1950, Ramat Gan was recognized as a city, in 1955, it had a population of 55,000. The first mayor was Avraham Krinitzi who remained in office for 43 years, in 1961, the municipal area of Ramat Gan expanded eastward, to encompass the area that includes the Sheba Medical Center in Tel Hashomer and Bar Ilan University. In 1968, the worlds largest diamond exchange opened in Ramat Gan, the Sheba Medical Center and the Israel Diamond Exchange are located in Ramat Gan. Ramat Gan is located in the Gush Dan metropolitan area east of Tel Aviv and it is bounded in the north by the Yarkon River and in the east by Bnei Brak. Ramat Gan experiences an average of 500 mm of rainfall per year and is located and it is built on limestone hills. Ramat Gan parks include The National Park which covers some 1,900 dunams, 25% of Ramat Gan is covered by public parkland. According to the 1931 census Ramat Gan had 975 inhabitants, in 253 houses, as of 2006, Ramat Gan had 129,700 residents, on an area of 12,000 dunams. The population was growing at a rate of 1. 0% per annum with 90% of this growth coming through natural increase, the population density of the city is 9,822.6 per square kilometer, one of the highest in Israel. In terms of the origin of Ramat Gans residents,42,900 originate from Europe and America,10,200 from Africa,29,200 from Asia, and 40,600 from Israel. 86,200 of the residents of Ramat Gan were born in Israel, according to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, as of 2001, Ramat Gans socioeconomic ranking stood at 8 out of 10
13.
Givatayim
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Givatayim is a city in Israel east of Tel Aviv. It is part of the area known as Gush Dan. Givatayim was established in 1922 by pioneers of the Second Aliyah, in 2015 it had a population of 57,508. The name of the city comes from the two hills on which it was established, Borochov Hill and Kozlovsky Hill, Kozlovsky is the highest hill in the Gush Dan region at 85 meters above sea level. The city expanded in the 1930s so that today it is situated on 4 hills, Borochov, Kozlovsky, the railroad workers. Archaeological ruins date settlement on the site of what is now Givatayim back to the Calcolithic period, the modern town was founded on April 2,1922 by a group of 22 Second Aliyah pioneers led by David Schneiderman. The group purchased 300 dunams of land on the outskirts of Tel Aviv that became the Borochov neighborhood and it was named for Dov Ber Borochov, founder of the Poalei Zion workers party. Later, another 70 families joined the group, receiving smaller plots, over time, more neighborhoods developed, Sheinkin, Givat Rambam, Kiryat Yosef, and Arlozorov. All these neighborhoods were merged to form a council in August 1942. Givatayim was declared a city in 1959, Givatayim is located east of Tel Aviv, and is bordered on the north and east by Ramat Gan. Givatayim has 41 kindergartens,9 elementary schools and 4 high schools, the city has Israels highest rate of secondary school matriculation. and the highest rate of Bagrut rate in the Tel-Aviv metropolitan area. Mayor Ruven Ben-Shachar initiated a high school exam assistance program that after 3 years resulted in an 11% increase of high school test results in 2010. Eurocom Tower, under construction in Givatayim, is a 70-story skyscraper which will be Israels tallest building upon completion and it is part of a complex that includes four apartment towers and a 50-story office building. A large square will connect to surrounding areas with bridges and underground passes, the complex will be located near Ramat Gan and its Diamond Exchange District. In addition to Eurocom Tower, other projects are planned for the city
14.
Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut
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Modiin-Maccabim-Reut is an Israeli city located in central Israel, about 35 kilometres southeast of Tel Aviv and 30 kilometres west of Jerusalem, and is connected to those two cities via Highway 443. In 2015 the population was 88,749, the name Modiin derives from the village Modiim of the high priest Mattathias and his five sons, which was located in the same area as the modern city. The name Maccabim is Hebrew for the Maccabees and is a nickname given to Mattathias. In Ancient Israel, a town named Modiin existed in the area the modern city is located in. It was the place of origin of the Jewish Hasmonean dynasty that ruled Judea in the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, Ancient Jewish artifacts believed to date to the Hasmonean and First Temple periods have been found in the area. Modern Modiin is located near the site of the ancient Modiin described in the Talmud, possibilities are Suba, Umm el-Umdan near Route 20 to Canada Park and Latrun, al-Midya, and Khirbet el-Burj. The towns were united into Maccabim-Reut in 1990, the cornerstone of Modiin was laid in 1993. It was built as a planned city with high standards of urban planning. Environmental issues and future growth were taken into consideration from the design stages. Large greenspaces were incorporated into the layout and comprise 50% of the area within the city limits. The city was opened for residency in 1996, in 2003, the Israeli Interior Ministry unified the Modiin and Maccabim-Reut into a single city. Modiin has become a magnet for Jerusalem residents displeased with the capitals growing Haredi character, thousands of residents of Rosh HaAyin, Lod, and Ramla have also relocated to Modiin. In 2008, it was decided to cap the growth of Modiin to allow for the development of Lod, the city was planned by the well-known architect Moshe Safdie. Modiin has attracted a community of Olim from English speaking countries. The original city of Modiin is laid out around a central hub, each side of the artery is a one-way street, and in between is a wide green space, with linear parks, playgrounds, schools, and some small commercial centers. Short lateral stubs fed by continuous-flow intersection turn lanes allow drivers to traverse the green spaces and these stubs also serve as the entranceways for the schools and mini-malls, preventing parking traffic from blocking the high-speed, left lanes of the arteries. The right shoulders of most arteries do, however, allow parking, except in the pullouts for bus stops, next to fire hydrants, the city center is a large traffic circle punctuated by traffic lights. The traffic circle straddles a major northeast-southwest artery, HaHashmonaim Blvd and this keeps most of the commercial traffic out of the city proper, so that the two arteries between the city and its industrial zone carry primarily commuters rather than trucks
15.
Education in Mexico
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Education in Mexico has a long history. The Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico was founded by decree in 1551. By comparison, Harvard College, the oldest in Anglo-America, was founded in 1636, Education in Mexico was until relatively recently largely confined to elite males and under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. The Mexican state has been involved in education since the nineteenth century. Control of education was a source of ongoing conflict between the Mexican state and the Roman Catholic Church, which since the era had exclusive charge of education. The mid nineteenth-century Liberal Reform separated church and state, which had a impact on education. President Benito Juárez sought the expansion of public schools, during the lengthy tenure of president Porfirio Díaz, the expansion of education became a priority under a cabinet-level post held by Justo Sierra, Sierra also served President Francisco I. Madero in the years of the Mexican Revolution. The 1917 Constitution strengthened the Mexican states power in education, undermining the power of the Roman Catholic Church to shape the development of Mexicans. During presidency of Álvaro Obregón in the early 1920s, his Minister of Public Education José Vasconcelos implemented an expansion of access to public. This work was built on and expanded in the administration of Plutarco Elías Calles by Moisés Sáenz, in the 1930s, the Mexican government under Lázaro Cárdenas mandated socialist education in Mexico and there was considerable push back from the Roman Catholic Church as an institution. Socialist education was repealed during the 1940s, with the administration of Manuel Ávila Camacho, a number of private universities have opened since the mid twentieth century. Education in Mexico is currently regulated by the Secretariat of Public Education, Education standards are set by this Ministry at all levels except in autonomous universities chartered by the government. Accreditation of private schools is accomplished by an approval and registration with this institution. Religious instruction is prohibited in schools, however, religious associations are free to maintain private schools. In the same fashion as other systems, education has identifiable stages, Primary School, Junior High School, High School, Higher education. In Mexico, basic education is divided in three steps, primary school, comprising grades 1-6, junior high school, comprising grades 7-9. The terms Primary School or Elementary School usually corresponds to primaria, comprising grades 1-6 and it starts the basic compulsory education system
16.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
17.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
18.
Matriculation
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Matriculation is the formal process of entering a university, or of becoming eligible to enter by fulfilling certain academic requirements such as a matriculation examination. The matriculation exam was the prerequisite for entry into universities, Matriculation has generally been replaced with a Higher School Certificate or a completion certificate such as the Victorian Certificate of Education. In Bangladesh, the shortened term Matric refers to the Secondary School Examination taken at year 10, in Brazilian Portuguese, the word matrícula refers to the act of enrolling in an educational course, whether it be elementary, high school, college or post-graduate education. In Canada, the term is used by some universities to refer to orientation events, however some universities, including University of Kings College. The ceremony at Kings is quite similar to the ceremonies held in universities such as Oxford or Cambridge. In Ontario during the era with grade 13, satisfactory completion of grade 12 was considered junior matriculation, satisfactory completion of grade 13 was senior matriculation. In Nova Scotia, at the present time, Junior matriculation is grade 11, at Charles University in Prague, the oldest and most prestigious university in the Czech Republic, matriculation is held at the Great Hall. The ceremony is attended by students commencing their studies and it is intended as a demonstration of the adoption of students duties and obtaining of students rights. The ceremony itself involves students taking the Matriculation Oath of the University and symbolically touching the Faculty mace, other Czech universities hold ceremonies similar to the one just described. In Denmark, the University of Copenhagen holds a ceremony each year. The ceremony is held in the Hall of Ceremony in the building of the University. The ceremony begins with a procession with the rector and the deans in academic dress, the ceremony continues with the rector listing the different faculties, after which the different student, shouts when their respective faculty is mentioned. In Finland, Matriculation is the examination taken at the end of Secondary education to qualify for entry into University, the test also constitutes the high schools final exam, in other words it is a high school graduation exam. Since 1919, the test has been arranged by a national body, before that, the administration of the test was the responsibility of the University of Helsinki. The German term Immatrikulation describes the process of enrolling at university as a student. This can happen for winter semester and, depending on the degree program and it does not involve a ceremony. A prerequisite for matriculation is generally the Abitur, which is the matriculation examination in Germany, for regular universities. Both Abitur and Fachhochschulreife are school leaving certificates which students receive after passing their examinations at some types of German secondary schools
19.
College
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College is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university. In ancient Rome a collegium was a club or society, a group of living together under a common set of rules. Aside from the educational context - nowadays the most common use of college - there are various other meanings also derived from the original Latin term. In the United States, college can be a synonym for university, in Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called colleges or have college as part of their title, in Australia the term college is applied to any private or independent primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The Kings School, there has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as colleges. In the state of Victoria, some high schools are referred to as secondary colleges. Interestingly, the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School, in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, college is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as secondary colleges. In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, college refers to the final two years of high school, and the institutions which provide this. In this context, college is an independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a version of matriculation college. This is because these schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects. Some private secondary schools choose to use the college in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the school system. In New Zealand the word normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17
20.
El filibusterismo
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El Filibusterismo, also known by its English alternative title The Reign of Greed, is the second novel written by Philippine national hero José Rizal. It is the sequel to Noli me tangere and, like the first book, was written in Spanish and it was first published in 1891 in Ghent. The novel, along with its predecessor, was banned in parts of the Philippines as a result of their portrayals of the Spanish governments abuse. These novels along with Rizals involvement in organizations that aim to address and reform the Spanish system and its issues led to Rizals exile to Dapitan, both the novel and its predecessor, along with Rizals last poem, are now considered Rizals literary masterpieces. These novels later on became the inspiration to start the Philippine Revolution. Abandoning his idealism, he becomes a saboteur, seeking revenge against the Spanish Philippine system responsible for his misfortunes by plotting a revolution. Simoun insinuates himself into Manila high society and influences every decision of the Captain-General to mismanage the country’s affairs so that a revolution will break out. He cynically sides with the classes, encouraging them to commit abuses against the masses to encourage the latter to revolt against the oppressive Spanish colonial regime. This time, he not attempt to fight the authorities through legal means. His two reasons for instigating a revolution are at first, to rescue María Clara from the convent and second, a now grown-up Basilio visits the grave of his deranged mother, Sisa, in a forested land owned by the Ibarra family one evening. Near the grave site, Simoun digs for his buried treasures and his identity is discovered by Basilio when the two happen to meet up just as the latter leaves Sisas grave to go home. Basilio declines the offer as he hopes that the country’s condition will improve. Basilio, at point, is a graduating medical student at the Ateneo Municipal. After the death of his mother, Sisa, and the disappearance of his brother, Crispín, Basilio heeded the advice of the dying boatman, Elías. Basilio was adopted by Capitan Tiago after María Clara entered the convent, Capitan Tiago’s confessor, Father Irene is making Captain Tiago’s health worse by giving him opium even as Basilio tries hard to prevent Capitan Tiago from smoking it. Dejected and defeated, they hold a celebration at a pancitería while a spy for the friars witnesses the proceedings. Basilio, however, did not show up during the event, Simoun, for his part, keeps in close contact with the bandit group of Kabesang Tales, a former cabeza de barangay who suffered misfortunes at the hands of the friars. Once a farmer owning a prosperous sugarcane plantation and a cabeza de barangay, he was forced to give everything he had owned to the greedy, unscrupulous Spanish friars, before joining the bandits, Tales took Simoun’s revolver while Simoun was staying at his house for the night
21.
Unified State Exam
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Unified State Exam is an exam in the Russian Federation. It is in fact a series of exams every student must pass after graduation from school to enter a university or a professional college, since 2009, USE is the only form of graduation examinations in schools and the main form of preliminary examinations in universities. A student can take USE in Russian language, mathematics, foreign languages, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, literature, history, basics of social sciences, the first experimental examination was only held by the eight general classes. In 2002 this experiment was continued in 16 regions of Russia, expanded to 47 regions in 2003, in 2008 that number rose to more than one million graduates. The list of schools and classes to take part in USE in 2001–2008 was determined by public education authorities in the regions of Russia. At present the USE is administered by The Federal Service for Supervision in Education, the task for each subject USE test consists of two parts, I and II. The I part contains tasks in which student must give a written answer. The II part contains one or several tasks in which student must use his creativity to complete them, for example, he can be given a hard mathematical exercise to solve, a composition to write or a question to answer argumentatively. Unlike the two parts, which are checked by a computer, the C part is checked by three experts of the regional examination committee. There are four stationery forms used in the course of each subject USE test, the form, the answer sheet №1, the primary answer sheet №2. A student can write on both sides of sheet №2 if needed, rules for registration and filling the headers and answers in the forms of the USE are quite strict and are described in a special instruction. Failure to adhere to the guidelines while filling the forms may result in uncredited answers and void examinations
22.
Education in Scotland
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Scotland has a long history of universal provision of public education, and the Scottish education system is distinctly different from those in the other countries of the United Kingdom. The Scotland Act 1998 gives the Scottish Parliament legislative control over all matters. One unique aspect is that the ancient universities of Scotland issue a Master of Arts as the first degree in humanities, state schools are owned and operated by the local authorities which act as Education Authorities, and the compulsory phase is divided into primary school and secondary school. Schools are supported in delivering learning and teaching by Education Scotland, there are also private schools across the country, although the distribution is uneven with such schools in 22 of the 32 Local Authority areas. At September 2011 the total population in Scotland was 702,104, of which 31,425 pupils. Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in the Scottish Parliament, children start primary school aged between 4½ and 5½ depending on when the childs birthday falls. Scottish school policy places all those born between March of a year and February of the following year in the same year group. This usually allows those not ready for formal education to have a year at an early years centre. Pupils remain at school for seven years. Then aged eleven or twelve, they start school for a compulsory four years with the following two years being optional. In Scotland, pupils sit National 4/5 exams at the age of fifteen/sixteen, for normally eight subjects including compulsory exams in English, a Science subject and a Social Subject were also compulsory, but this was changed is accordance with the new curriculum. It is now required by the Scottish Parliament for students to have two hours of education a week, each school may vary these compulsory combinations. The school leaving age is sixteen, after which students may choose to remain at school. The International Baccalaureate has also introduced in some independent schools. The table below lists rough equivalences with the system in the rest of the United Kingdom. In many cases, this applies to children of international post-graduate students, the age ranges specify the youngest age for a child entering that year and the oldest age for a child leaving that year. In general, the point for ages is the end of February. All parents of children born between September and February are entitled to entry to Primary School if they believe their child is not ready for school
23.
Apprenticeship
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An apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeship also enables practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession, Apprenticeships typically last 3 to 7 years. People who successfully complete an apprenticeship reach the journeyman or professional level of competence. In early modern usage, the clipped form prentice was common, the system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as a form of labour in exchange for providing food, lodging. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in such as seamstress, tailor. Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, in Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city. Subsequently, governmental regulation and the licensing of technical colleges and vocational education formalized and bureaucratized the details of apprenticeship, Australian Apprenticeships encompass all apprenticeships and traineeships. They cover all sectors in Australia and are used to achieve both entry-level and career upskilling objectives. There were 470,000 Australian Apprentices in-training as at 31 March 2012, Australian Government employer and employee incentives may be applicable, while State and Territory Governments may provide public funding support for the training element of the initiative. Australian Apprenticeships combine time at work with formal training and can be full-time, part-time or school-based, Australian Apprentice and Traineeship services are dedicated to promoting retention, therefore much effort is made to match applicants with the right apprenticeship or traineeship. This is done with the aid of aptitude tests, tips, information and resources on potential apprenticeship and traineeship occupations are available in over sixty industries. The distinction between the terms apprentices and trainees lies mainly around traditional trades and the time it takes to gain a qualification, Australia also has a fairly unusual safety net in place for businesses and Australian Apprentices with its Group Training scheme. It is a safety net, because the Group Training Organisation is the employer and provides continuity of employment and it lasts two to four years – the duration varies among the 250 legally recognized apprenticeship trades. About 40 percent of all Austrian teenagers enter apprenticeship training upon completion of compulsory education and this number has been stable since the 1950s. The five most popular trades are, Retail Salesperson, Clerk, Car Mechanic, Hairdresser, there are many smaller trades with small numbers of apprentices, like EDV-Systemtechniker which is completed by fewer than 100 people a year. The Apprenticeship Leave Certificate provides the apprentice with access to two different vocational careers, the person responsible for overseeing the training inside the company is called Lehrherr or Ausbilder. An Ausbilder must prove he has the qualifications needed to educate another person
24.
Education in Singapore
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For both private and state schools, there are variations in the extent of autonomy in their curriculum, scope of government aid and funding, tuition burden on the students, and admission policy. Exemptions are allowed for homeschooling or full-time religious institutions, but parents must apply for exemption from the Ministry of Education, the main language of instruction in Singapore is English, which was officially designated the first language within the local education system in 1987. English is the first language learned by half the children by the time they reach preschool age, certain schools, such as secondary schools under the Special Assistance Plan, encourage a richer use of the mother tongue and may occasionally teach subjects in Mandarin Chinese. A few schools have been experimenting with curricula that integrates language subjects with mathematics, Singapores education system has been described as world-leading and in 2010 was among those picked out for commendation by the Conservative former UK Education Secretary Michael Gove. Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles founded the Singapore Institution in 1823, thereby starting education in Singapore under the British rule, later, there were three main types of schools appeared in Singapore, Malay schools, Chinese and Tamil schools and English schools. Malay schools were provided free for all students by the British, while English schools, Chinese and Tamil schools largely taught their respective mother tongues. Students from Chinese schools in particular were extremely attuned to developments in China, during World War Two, many students in Singapore dropped out of school, causing a huge backlog of students after the war. In 1947, the Ten Years Programme for Education Policy in the Colony of Singapore was formulated and this called for a universal education system that would prepare for self-governance. Apart from being a necessity, education also helped to integrate the new nation together. The bilingualism policy in schools was introduced in 1960, making English the official language for both national integration and utilitarian purposes. Universal education for children of all races and background started to take shape, however, the quality of schools set up during this time varied considerably. The first Junior College was opened in 1969, in the 1980s, Singapores economy started to prosper, and the focus of Singapores education system shifted from quantity to quality. The Gifted Education Programme was also set up to cater to more academically inclined students, in 1997, the Singapore education system started to change into an ability-driven one after then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong outlined his Thinking Schools, Learning Nations vision. Under this policy, more emphasis was given to education, creative thinking. Schools became more diverse and were greater autonomy in deciding their own curriculum. Differences between the various academic streams became blurred, the Ministry of Education also officially acknowledged that excellence will not be measured solely in terms of academics, a mountain range of excellence – with many peaks. The school year is divided into two semesters, the first begins in the beginning of January and ends in May, the second begins in July and ends in November. Kindergartens in Singapore provide up to three years of pre-school for children three to six
25.
Education in Spain
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Education in Spain is regulated by the Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa that expands upon Article 27 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. Once students have finished their Bachillerato, they can take their University Entrance Exam which differs greatly from region to region, the compulsory stage of secondary education is normally referred to by its initials, ESO. The second cycle contains two options, one geared towards the Spanish Baccalaureate, and the other vocational training. Spanish Bachillerato is the stage of education, comparable to the A Levels/Higher in the UK. There are two parts, a curriculum with the compulsory subjects, and a specialist part with a few pre-selected branches to choose from. Plastic Arts, Image and Design, Volume Artistic drawing Technical drawing Audiovisual Culture History of art Design Plastic Graphic Expression Techniques Information and communication technologies, the Spanish School Leaving Certificate is equivalent to a number of GCSEs, Junior Cert or Standard Grades. The Bachillerato is equivalent to A-levels, Leaving Certificate. and Scottish Highers, therefore, Spanish students obtaining the appropriate grades required for entrance into universities in other parts of Europe, including Britain, are not precluded. The vocational training is also a possibility after ESO or after the Spanish Baccalaureate. There are two different types of programs, Middle Grade Training Cycles, similar to BTEC Level 3 extended diploma, and Superior-level Training Cycles, similar to BTEC Level 4/5 diploma. After completion of programs, the students are awarded with a technician diploma. 4%, private but state funded schools 26. 0%, all non-university state education is free in Spain, but parents have to buy all of their childrens books and materials. This, nominally at least, also applies to colegios concertados, many schools are concertados, state funded up to the end of ESO but purely private for the bachillerato years. This drop in the fraction of pupils in educación concertada is matched by increases of approximately equal size in the fraction in state and purely private education for Bachillerato. There are private schools for all the range of compulsory education, at them, parents must pay a monthly/termly/yearly fee. Most of these schools are run by religious orders, and include single-sex schools, Schools supply a list of what is required at the start of each school year and which will include art and craft materials as well as text and exercise books. From 2009, this figure was around £300 and in 2011 was nearer £500, as of 2011, School uniform is not normally worn in state schools but is usually worn in private schools. Article 84 of the law defines the principles to be applied in the admission of pupils to publicly funded schools. The details of the implementation of these vary from autonomous community to autonomous community. In Madrid, there is a largely uniform admissions process for state funded schools, here the main admissions procedures for pupils wishing to join a school in the autumn are carried out in the spring of the year in question
26.
Education in England
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Education in England is overseen by the United Kingdoms Department for Education. Local government authorities are responsible for implementing policy for public education, England also has a tradition of independent schools and Home schooling, legally, parents may choose to educate their children by any suitable means. At age 16 the students take exams for the General Certificate of Secondary Education or other Level 1/2 qualifications. While education is compulsory until 18, schooling is compulsory to 16, thus post-16 education can take a number of forms. It can also include work-based apprenticeships or traineeships, or volunteering, Higher education often begins with a three-year bachelors degree. Postgraduate degrees include masters degrees, either taught or by research, tuition fees for first degrees are up to £9,000 per academic year for English, Welsh and European Union students, although these are set to rise to £9,250 for students starting from 2017. The Regulated Qualifications Framework covers national school examinations and vocational education qualifications and it is referenced to the European Qualifications Framework, and thus to other qualifications frameworks across the European Union. The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications, which is tied to the RQF, covers degrees and this is referenced to the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area developed under the Bologna process. The Education Act 1902 allowed local authorities to create secondary schools, the Education Act 1918 abolished fees for elementary schools. Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged 5 to 18, either at school or otherwise, children between the ages of 3 and 5 are entitled to 600 hours per year of optional, state-funded, pre-school education. This can be provided in playgroups, nurseries, community centres or nursery classes in schools. The age at which a student may choose to stop education is known as the leaving age for compulsory education. This age was raised to 18 by the Education and Skills Act 2008, from this time, the school leaving age and the education leaving age have been separated. State-provided schooling and sixth-form education are paid for by taxes, the education leaving age was raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and in 2015 to their 18th birthday for those born on or after 1 September 1997. The prescribed days are 31 August,31 December and 31 March, the school year begins on 1 September. Below is a table summarizing the most common names of the various schools, Grammar schools are normally state-funded but selective schools, admitting children from 11 years old onward, but there are exceptions such as Manchester Grammar School. Some 93% of children between the ages of 3 and 18 are in education in state-funded schools without charge and they are monitored directly by the Department for Education. Community schools, in which the local authority employs the staff, owns the schools lands and buildings
27.
Education in Wales
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Education in Wales differs in certain respects from education elsewhere in the United Kingdom. And additional 10% attend schools which had a significant portion of the curriculum is bilingual, the study of the Welsh language is available to all age groups through nurseries, schools, colleges and universities and in adult education. The study of the language is compulsory for all pupils in State Schools until the age of 16, Education researcher David Reynolds claims that policy in Wales is driven by a producerist paradigm emphasising collaboration between educational partners. He also alludes to lower funding in Welsh schools compared to England and he concludes that performance data does not suggest that Wales has improved more rapidly than England, although there are considerable difficulties in making these kinds of assessments. A childs age on 1 September determines the point of entry into the relevant stage of education, Education is compulsory beginning with the term following the childs fifth birthday, but may take place at either home or school. In 2014/15, there were 1,330 primary schools in Wales with 273,400 pupils and 12,240 full-time equivalent teachers, the teacher/pupil ratio was 1,22 and the average class size was 26 pupils. In the same year, there were 13 nursery schools in with 1,076 pupils and 43 full-time equivalent teachers, in 2015/16, there were 276,950 pupils in 1,310 primary schools - a rise of 3,550 since 2014/15. In 2008 a unique new curriculum - the Foundation phase - was rolled out to all schools in Wales and it began for 3- to 4-year-olds and by 2011 is in place for 3- to 7-year-olds. It is based on learning, in small groups, with a teacher ratio of 1,8 for the youngest ages. In 2014/15, there were 435 Welsh-medium primary schools with 65,460 pupils, rising from 64,366 in 2013/14, pupils in secondary school take part in the compulsory GCSE and the non-compulsory A-level or BTEC qualifications at age 16 and 18 respectively. Since 2007 the Welsh Baccalaureate Qualification has also been available as an option although it was ungraded until 2014, in 2014/15 there were 207 secondary schools in Wales with 182,408 pupils and 11,269 FTE teachers. The pupil/teacher ratio was 17,1, which has remained largely the same since 2000/01, in 2015/16, there were 178,650 pupils in 205 secondary schools - a drop of 3,700 since 2014/15. The same report found that in 2015/16, there were 8,000 pupils in 34 independent schools,4,540 pupils in 32 independent special schools, in 2014/15, there were 50 Welsh-medium secondary schools with 36,485 pupils, dropping from 37,400 in 2013/14. In the same year, there were 4 Welsh-medium middle schools with 2,448 pupils, in 2016, 60/3% of Year 11 pupils achieved the Level 2 inclusive threshold. 35. 6% of pupils eligible for FSM achieved the L2 inclusive threshold,66. 9% of pupils achieved A*-C in maths. 70. 4% of pupils achieved A*-C in either English or Welsh first language, further education includes full- and part-time learning for people over compulsory school age, excluding higher education. Colleges vary in size and mission, and include general FE, tertiary and specialist institutions, including one Roman Catholic Sixth Form College, many colleges offer leisure learning and training programmes designed to meet the needs of business. In 2014/15 there were 263,315 FE students in Wales spanning the entire availability of FE at multiple placements, including FE, HE, LA Community, adult Community learning is a form of adult education or lifelong learning delivered and supported by local authorities in Wales
28.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
29.
Math
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
30.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
31.
Humanities
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Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human culture. In the Middle Ages, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural, and sometimes social, sciences as well as professional training. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, art, scholars in the humanities are humanity scholars or humanists. The term humanist also describes the position of humanism, which some antihumanist scholars in the humanities refuse. The Renaissance scholars and artists were also called humanists, some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of English literature, global studies and art. Human disciplines like history and cultural anthropology study subject matters that the method does not apply to—and instead mainly use the comparative method. Anthropology is the science of humans, a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the sciences, humanities. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields, archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions, the word anthropos is from the Greek for human being or person. Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, the goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological and it is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture, the archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a science and a branch of the humanities. It has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time
32.
History
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History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory and it is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians and their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries, the modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, the word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek ἱστορία, meaning inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι, the ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions. History was borrowed from Latin into Old English as stær, and it was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general, the restriction to the meaning the branch of knowledge that deals with past events, the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs arose in the mid-fifteenth century. With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the sixteenth century. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, in an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are synthetic and highly inflected. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669, Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, in the words of Benedetto Croce, All history is contemporary history. History is facilitated by the formation of a discourse of past through the production of narrative. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record, the task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents
33.
Geography
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Geography is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth. The first person to use the word γεωγραφία was Eratosthenes, Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of the Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. It is often defined in terms of the two branches of geography and physical geography. Geography has been called the world discipline and the bridge between the human and the physical sciences, Geography is a systematic study of the Earth and its features. Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names, although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the space and the temporal database distribution of phenomena, processes, because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and its spatial patterns. Names of places. are not geography. know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself and this is a description of the world—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause, just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main fields, human geography and physical geography. The former largely focuses on the environment and how humans create, view, manage. The latter examines the environment, and how organisms, climate, soil, water. The difference between these led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines physical and human geography. Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science and it aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns. Physical geography can be divided into broad categories, including, Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns. It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and it requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between the human and the geography, as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Examples of areas of research in the environmental geography include, emergency management, environmental management, sustainability, geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography
34.
Education in the United States
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Education in the United States is provided by public, private, and home schools. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government, private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities. About 87% of school-age children attend schools, about 10% attend private schools. Education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state and this requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most schools, education is divided into three levels, elementary school, middle or junior school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten and first grade for the youngest children, there are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, the United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia. In 2015 the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U. S. high school students #40 globally in Math and #24 in Science and Reading. ”King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U. S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U. S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, government-supported and free public schools for all began to be established after the American Revolution. Between 1750 and 1870 parochial schools appeared as ad hoc efforts by parishes, historically, many parochial elementary schools were developed which were open to all children in the parish, mainly Catholics, but also Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. Nonsectarian Common schools designed by Horace Mann were opened, which taught the three Rs and also history and geography, States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 and 1917. They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture, by 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. His movement spread to many other Southern states to small colleges for Colored or Negro students entitled A. & M. or A. & T. some of which later developed into state universities. By 1910,72 percent of children attended school, private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and — in the rural centers — land grant colleges also. Between 1910 and 1940 the high school movement resulted in increasing public high school enrollment. By 1930,100 percent of children attended school, during World War II, enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v, in 1965, the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B
35.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
36.
Trigonometry
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Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies, Trigonometry is also the foundation of surveying. Trigonometry is most simply associated with planar right-angle triangles, thus the majority of applications relate to right-angle triangles. One exception to this is spherical trigonometry, the study of triangles on spheres, surfaces of constant positive curvature, Trigonometry on surfaces of negative curvature is part of hyperbolic geometry. Trigonometry basics are often taught in schools, either as a course or as a part of a precalculus course. Sumerian astronomers studied angle measure, using a division of circles into 360 degrees, the ancient Nubians used a similar method. In 140 BC, Hipparchus gave the first tables of chords, analogous to modern tables of sine values, in the 2nd century AD, the Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy printed detailed trigonometric tables in Book 1, chapter 11 of his Almagest. Ptolemy used chord length to define his trigonometric functions, a difference from the sine convention we use today. The modern sine convention is first attested in the Surya Siddhanta and these Greek and Indian works were translated and expanded by medieval Islamic mathematicians. By the 10th century, Islamic mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions, had tabulated their values, at about the same time, Chinese mathematicians developed trigonometry independently, although it was not a major field of study for them. At the same time, another translation of the Almagest from Greek into Latin was completed by the Cretan George of Trebizond, Trigonometry was still so little known in 16th-century northern Europe that Nicolaus Copernicus devoted two chapters of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium to explain its basic concepts. Driven by the demands of navigation and the growing need for maps of large geographic areas. Bartholomaeus Pitiscus was the first to use the word, publishing his Trigonometria in 1595, gemma Frisius described for the first time the method of triangulation still used today in surveying. It was Leonhard Euler who fully incorporated complex numbers into trigonometry, the works of the Scottish mathematicians James Gregory in the 17th century and Colin Maclaurin in the 18th century were influential in the development of trigonometric series. Also in the 18th century, Brook Taylor defined the general Taylor series, if one angle of a triangle is 90 degrees and one of the other angles is known, the third is thereby fixed, because the three angles of any triangle add up to 180 degrees. The two acute angles therefore add up to 90 degrees, they are complementary angles, the shape of a triangle is completely determined, except for similarity, by the angles. Once the angles are known, the ratios of the sides are determined, if the length of one of the sides is known, the other two are determined. Sin A = opposite hypotenuse = a c, Cosine function, defined as the ratio of the adjacent leg to the hypotenuse
37.
Advanced Placement
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Advanced Placement is a program in the United States and Canada created by the College Board which offers college-level curricula and examinations to high school students. American colleges and universities may grant placement and course credit to students who obtain high scores on the examinations, the AP curriculum for each of the various subjects is created for the College Board by a panel of experts and college-level educators in that field of study. For a high school course to have the designation, the course must be audited by the College Board to ascertain that it satisfies the AP curriculum. If the course is approved, the school may use the AP designation, after the end of World War II, the Ford Foundation created a fund that supported committees studying education. The program, which was referred to as the Kenyon Plan, was founded and pioneered at Kenyon College in Gambier. The second committee, the Committee on Admission with Advanced Standing, a pilot program was run in 1952 which covered eleven disciplines. The College Board, a organization based in New York City, has run the AP program since 1955. From 1965 to 1989, Harlan Hanson was the director of the Advanced Placement Program and it develops and maintains guidelines for the teaching of higher level courses in various subject areas. In addition, it supports teachers of AP courses and supports universities and these activities are funded through fees required to take the AP exams. In 2006, over one million students took over two million Advanced Placement examinations, many high schools in the United States offer AP courses, though the College Board allows any student to take any examination regardless of participation in its respective course. Therefore, home-schooled students and students from schools that do not offer AP courses have an opportunity to take AP exams. As of the 2015 testing season, exams cost $91 each, financial aid is available for students who qualify for it, the exam reduction is $26 or $28 per exam from College Board plus an additional $8 rebate per fee-reduced exam from the school. There may be further reductions depending on the state, out of the $91, $8 goes directly to the school to pay for the administration of the test, which some schools will reduce to lower the cost to the student. However, the Italian Language and Culture test was offered beginning in 2011. Starting July 2013 AP allowed students for the first time to view and send their scores online. The number of AP exams administered each year has seen an increase over the past decade. In 2003,175,860 English Language and Composition exams were administered, by 2013, this number had risen to 476,277, or an increase of 171%. Such an increase has occurred in nearly all AP exams offered, in 2013, the most taken AP exam was English Language and Composition with 476,277 students and the least taken AP exam was Japanese Language and Culture with 1,169 students
