1.
Musical form
–
The term musical form refers to the overall structure or plan of a piece of music, and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections. According to Richard Middleton, musical form is the shape or structure of the work and he describes it through difference, the distance moved from a repeat, the latter being the smallest difference. Difference is quantitative and qualitative, how far, and of what type, in many cases, form depends on statement and restatement, unity and variety, and contrast and connection. This phrase may be regarded as the unit of musical form. Even at this level, the importance of the principles of repetition and contrast, weak and strong, climax and repose, thus, form may be understood on three levels of organization. For the purpose of exposition, these levels can be roughly designated as passage, piece. The smallest level of construction concerns the way musical phrases are organized into musical sentences and this may be compared to, and is often decided by, the verse form or meter of the words or the steps of a dance. In the analysis of form, any components that can be defined on the time axis are conventionally designated by letters. Upper-case letters are used for the most fundamental, while lower-case letters are used for sub-divisions, if one such section returns in a varied or modified form, a numerical digit or an appropriate number of prime symbols appears after the letter. Even at this simplest level, there are patterns that may be re-used on larger timescales, for example, consider the analogy with rhyme schemes, The following verse is composed of two differently-rhymed couplets, and thus its organization is binary or twofold. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are, up above the world so high, like a diamond in the sky. There once was a fellow from Leeds Who swallowed a packet of seeds, in less than an hour he burst into flower And he died trying to pull up the weeds. The next level concerns the structure of any single self-contained musical piece. If the hymn, ballad, blues or dance alluded to above simply repeats the same musical material indefinitely then the piece is said to be in strophic form overall. If it repeats with distinct, sustained changes each time, for instance in setting, ornamentation or instrumentation, then the piece is a theme and variations. If the theme is played, then a new theme is introduced, great arguments and misunderstanding can be generated by such terms as ternary and binary, as a complex piece may have elements of both at different organizational levels. The grandest level of organization may be referred to as cyclical form and it concerns the arrangement of several self-contained pieces into a large-scale composition. For example, a set of songs with a theme may be presented as a song-cycle
2.
George Frideric Handel
–
George Frideric Handel was a German, later British baroque composer who spent the bulk of his career in London, becoming well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, and organ concertos. Handel received important training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712 and he was strongly influenced both by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition. Within fifteen years, Handel had started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera, musicologist Winton Dean writes that his operas show that Handel was not only a great composer, he was a dramatic genius of the first order. As Alexanders Feast was well received, Handel made a transition to English choral works, after his success with Messiah he never composed an Italian opera again. Almost blind, and having lived in England for nearly fifty years, he died in 1759 and his funeral was given full state honours, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey in London. Handel was born in 1685 in Halle-on-Saal, Duchy of Magdeburg, to Georg Händel and his father,63 when George Frideric was born, was an eminent barber-surgeon who served the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Georg Händel was the son of a coppersmith, Valentin Händel who had emigrated from Eisleben in 1608 with his first wife Anna Belching and they were Protestants and chose reliably Protestant Saxony over Silesia, a Hapsburg possession as religious tensions mounted in the years before the Thirty Years War. Halle was a prosperous city, home of a salt-mining industry. Even the smaller churches all had able organists and fair choirs, and humanities, the Thirty Years War brought extensive destruction to Halle, and by the 1680s it was impoverished. But since the middle of the war the city was under the administration of the Duke of Saxony, the arts and music, however, flourished only among the higher strata, which did not describe Handels family. Handel was the child of this marriage, the first son died still born. Two younger sisters were born after the birth of George Frideric, Dorthea Sophia, born 6 October 1687 and Johanna Christiana, born 10 January 1690. Early in his life Handel is reported to have attended the gymnasium in Halle, Mainwaring is the source for almost all information of Handels childhood, and much of that information came from J. C. Smith, Jr. Handels confidant and copyist. Whether they came from Smith or elsewhere, Mainwaring frequently relates misinformation and it is from Mainwaring that the portrait of Handels father as implacably opposed to any musical education comes. This did nothing to dampen young Handels inclination, in fact, Mainwaring tells the story of Handels secret attic spinnet, Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately conveyd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep, but Handel had to have had some experience with the keyboard to have made the impression in Weissenfels that resulted in his receiving formal musical training. Somehow Handel made his way to the organ, where he surprised everyone with his playing. Overhearing this performance and noting the youth of the performer caused the Duke to recommend to Georg Händel that Handel be given musical instruction, Handels father engaged the organist at the Halle parish church, the young Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, to instruct Handel
3.
Messiah (Handel)
–
It was first performed in Dublin on 13 April 1742 and received its London premiere nearly a year later. After an initially modest public reception, the oratorio gained in popularity, eventually becoming one of the best-known, Handels reputation in England, where he had lived since 1712, had been established through his compositions of Italian opera. He turned to English oratorio in the 1730s in response to changes in public taste, although its structure resembles that of opera, it is not in dramatic form, there are no impersonations of characters and no direct speech. Instead, Jennenss text is a reflection on Jesus as the Messiah called Christ. The text begins in Part I with prophecies by Isaiah and others, and moves to the annunciation to the shepherds, in Part II, Handel concentrates on the Passion and ends with the Hallelujah chorus. In Part III he covers the resurrection of the dead and Christs glorification in heaven, Handel wrote Messiah for modest vocal and instrumental forces, with optional settings for many of the individual numbers. In the years after his death, the work was adapted for performance on a larger scale, with giant orchestras. In other efforts to update it, its orchestration was revised and amplified by Mozart, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries the trend has been towards reproducing a greater fidelity to Handels original intentions, although big Messiah productions continue to be mounted. A near-complete version was issued on 78 rpm discs in 1928, the composer George Frideric Handel, born in Halle, Germany in 1685, took up permanent residence in London in 1712, and became a naturalised British subject in 1727. Within a large and varied output, Handel was a vigorous champion of Italian opera. He subsequently wrote and presented more than 40 such operas in Londons theatres, by the early 1730s public taste for Italian opera was beginning to fade. The popular success of John Gay and Johann Christoph Pepuschs The Beggars Opera had heralded a spate of English-language ballad-operas that mocked the pretensions of Italian opera, with box-office receipts falling, Handels productions were increasingly reliant on private subsidies from the nobility. Such funding became harder to obtain after the launch in 1730 of the Opera of the Nobility, Handel overcame this challenge, but he spent large sums of his own money in doing so. Although prospects for Italian opera were declining, Handel remained committed to the genre, in Rome in 1707–08 he had written two Italian oratorios at a time when opera performances in the city were temporarily forbidden under papal decree. His first venture into English oratorio had been Esther, which was written, in 1732 Handel brought a revised and expanded version of Esther to the Kings Theatre, Haymarket, where members of the royal family attended a glittering premiere on 6 May. Its success encouraged Handel to write two more oratorios, All three oratorios were performed to large and appreciative audiences at the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford in mid-1733. Undergraduates reportedly sold their furniture to raise the money for the five-shilling tickets, in 1735 Handel received the text for a new oratorio named Saul from its librettist Charles Jennens, a wealthy landowner with musical and literary interests. Because Handels main creative concern was still with opera, he did not write the music for Saul until 1738, the work, after opening at the Kings Theatre in January 1739 to a warm reception, was quickly followed by the less successful oratorio Israel in Egypt
4.
Prelude, Op. 28, No. 15 (Chopin)
–
15, by Frédéric Chopin, known as the Raindrop prelude, is one of the 24 Chopin preludes. Usually lasting between five and seven minutes, this is the longest of the preludes, the prelude is noted for its repeating A-flat, which appears throughout the piece and sounds like raindrops to many listeners. Some, though not all, of Opus 28 was written during Chopin and George Sands stay at a monastery in Valldemossa, Majorca in 1838. In her Histoire de ma vie, Sand related how one evening she and her son Maurice, returning from Palma in a rainstorm, found a distraught Chopin who exclaimed. I knew well that you were dead, while playing his piano he had a dream, He saw himself drowned in a lake. Heavy drops of icy water fell in a rhythm on his breast. He was even angry that I should interpret this in terms of imitative sounds and he protested with all his might – and he was right to – against the childishness of such aural imitations. His genius was filled with the sounds of nature, but transformed into sublime equivalents in musical thought. Sand did not say which prelude Chopin played for her on that occasion,15, because of the repeating A flat, with its suggestion of the gentle patter of rain. However, Peter Dayan points out that Sand accepted Chopins protests that the prelude was not an imitation of the sound of raindrops, the prelude opens with a serene theme in D flat. It then changes to an interlude in C sharp minor, with the dominant pedal never ceasing. The repeating A flat, which has been throughout the first section. Following this, the ends with a repetition of the original theme. Frederik Niecks says, This C sharp minor portion, preludes Prelude No.15 on YouTube, performed by Martha Argerich Prelude No.15 on YouTube, performed by Valentina Igoshina
5.
Johann Sebastian Bach
–
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
6.
St John Passion
–
The Passio secundum Joannem or St John Passion, BWV245, is a Passion or oratorio by Johann Sebastian Bach, the older of two surviving Passions by Bach. It was written during Bachs first year as director of music in Leipzig and was first performed on April 7,1724. The structure of the falls in two halves, intended to flank a sermon. Compared with the St Matthew Passion, the St John Passion has been described as extravagant, with an expressive immediacy, at times more unbridled. The work is most often today in the 1724 version although Bach revised it in 1725,1732. Bach quickly agreed to their desire to move the service to St. Nicholas Church and he also asked that the harpsichord be repaired. The council agreed and sent a flyer announcing the new location to all the people around Leipzig, the council made the arrangements requested by Bach regarding the harpsichord and space needed for the choir. Bach followed chapters 18 and 19 of the Gospel of John in the Luther Bible, the compiler of the additional poetry is unknown. Models are the Brockes Passion and a Johannes-Passion by Christian Heinrich Postel, the first scene is in the Kidron Valley, and the second in the palace of the high priest Kaiphas. Part Two shows three scenes, one with Pontius Pilate, one at Golgatha, and the third finally at the burial site, the dramatic argument between Pilate, Jesus, and the crowd is not interrupted by reflective elements but a single central chorale, #22. Part One Part Two Bach followed the Gospel of John but added two lines from the Gospel of Matthew, the crying of Peter and the tearing of the curtain in the temple. For the words of the aria Ach, mein Sinn, Bach used an adaptation of a 1675 poem by Christian Weise, #21b Sei gegrüßet, lieber Jüdenkönig reappears as #25b Schreibe nicht, der Jüden König. The St John Passion is written for an ensemble of soloists, four-part choir, strings and basso continuo and pairs of flauti traversi and oboes. For special colours Bach also used lute, viola damore and viola da gamba, in present day performances the part of Jesus is given to one bass soloist, Pilate and the bass arias to another. Some tenors sing the Evangelist – a very demanding part –, the smaller parts are sometimes performed by choir members. Researchers have discovered that Bach revised his St John Passion several times before producing a version in the 1740s. Alternate numbers that Bach introduced in 1725 but later removed can be found in the appendix to scores of the work, the St John Passion was not Bachs first passion. While he was working as organist in 1708 and Konzertmeister in 1714 in Weimar, Bach possibly wrote a Passion, known as the Weimarer Passion, but it is now lost
7.
Subject (music)
–
In music, a subject is the material, usually a recognizable melody, upon which part or all of a composition is based. In forms other than the fugue this may be known as the theme, a subject may be perceivable as a complete musical expression in itself, separate from the work in which it is found. In contrast to an idea or motif, a subject is usually a phrase or period. The Encyclopédie Fasquelle defines a theme as Any element, motif, Thematic changes and processes are often structurally important, and theorists such as Rudolph Reti have created analysis from a purely thematic perspective. Fred Lerdahl describes thematic relations as associational and thus outside his cognitive-based generative theorys scope of analysis, Music based on a single theme is called monothematic, while music based on several themes is called polythematic. Most fugues are monothematic and most pieces in sonata form are polythematic, in the exposition of a fugue, the principal theme is announced successively in each voice – sometimes in a transposed form. In some compositions, a subject is announced and then a second melody, sometimes called a countersubject or secondary theme. Music without subjects/themes, or without recognizable, repeating, and developing subjects/themes, is called athematic, examples include the pre-twelve-tone or early atonal works of Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, and Alois Hába. Schoenberg once said that, intoxicated by the enthusiasm of having freed music from the shackles of tonality, in fact, I … believed that now music could renounce motivic features and remain coherent and comprehensible nevertheless. Examples in the works of later composers include Polyphonie X and Structures I by Pierre Boulez, Sonata for Two Pianos by Karel Goeyvaerts, and Punkte by Karlheinz Stockhausen. In a fugue, when the first voice has completed the subject, and the voice is playing the answer. The countersubject usually contrasts with the subject/answer phrase shape, in a fugue, a countersubject is the continuation of counterpoint in the voice that began with the subject, occurring against the answer. It is not usually regarded as a feature of fugue. Attacco Cell Figure Formula composition Leitmotif Thematic transformation Benward, Bruce, Music in Theory and Practice, eighth edition, vol. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham. Une nouvelle grammaire musicale, prémices et premiers essais / A New Musical Grammar, Principles, la Scena Musicale 6, no.3. Lerdahl, Fred. Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press. Encyclopédie de la musique,3 vols, Music and Discourse, Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Caroline Abbate
8.
Tonality
–
Tonality is a musical system that arranges pitches or chords to induce a hierarchy of perceived relations, stabilities, and attractions. In this hierarchy, the pitch or triadic chord with the greatest stability is called the tonic. The root of the chord is considered to be the key of a piece or song. Thus a piece in which the chord is C major is said to be in the key of C. Simple folk music songs often start and end with the tonic note, the most common use of the term. is to designate the arrangement of musical phenomena around a referential tonic in European music from about 1600 to about 1910. Contemporary classical music from 1910 to the 2000s may practice or avoid any sort of harmony in almost all Western popular music remains tonal. Harmony in jazz music includes many, if not all, tonal characteristics, All harmonic idioms in popular music are tonal, and none is without function. Tonality is a system of tones in which one tone becomes the central point for the remaining tones. The other tones in a piece are all defined in terms of their relationship to the tonic. In tonality, the tonic is the tone of complete relaxation and stability, the cadence in which the dominant chord or dominant seventh chord resolves to the tonic chord plays an important role in establishing the tonality of a piece. Tonal music is music that is unified and dimensional, the term tonalité originated with Alexandre-Étienne Choron and was borrowed by François-Joseph Fétis in 1840. According to Carl Dahlhaus, however, the term tonalité was only coined by Castil-Blaze in 1821, major-minor tonality is also called harmonic tonality, diatonic tonality, common practice tonality, functional tonality, or just tonality. This sense also applies to the tonic/dominant/subdominant harmonic harmonic constellations in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau as well as the 144 basic transformations of twelve-tone technique, any rational and self-contained theoretical arrangement of musical pitches, existing prior to any concrete embodiment in music. For example, Sainsbury, who had Choron translated into English in 1825, while tonality qua system constitutes a theoretical abstraction from actual music, it is often hypostatized in musicological discourse, converted from a theoretical structure into a musical reality. As a term to contrast with modal and atonal, implying that tonal music is discontinuous as a form of expression from modal music on the one hand. Musical phenomena arranged or understood in relation to a referential tonic, Musical phenomena perceived or preinterpreted in terms of the categories of tonal theories. In major and minor harmonies, the fifth is often implied. To function as a tonic, a chord must be either a major or a minor triad, dominant function requires a major-quality triad with a root a perfect fifth above the affiliated tonic and containing the leading tone of the key
9.
Cadence (music)
–
In Western musical theory, a cadence is a melodic or harmonic configuration that creates a sense of resolution. A harmonic cadence is a progression of two chords that concludes a phrase, section, or piece of music, a rhythmic cadence is a characteristic rhythmic pattern that indicates the end of a phrase. A cadence is labeled more or less weak or strong depending on its sense of finality, harmonic rhythm plays an important part in determining where a cadence occurs. Cadences are strong indicators of the tonic or central pitch of a passage or piece, edward Lowinsky proposed that the cadence was the cradle of tonality. In music of the common practice period, cadences are divided into four types according to their progression, authentic, plagal, half. Typically, phrases end on authentic or half cadences, and the terms plagal, each cadence can be described using the Roman numeral system of naming chords, Authentic cadence, V to I. A seventh above the root is added to create V7. The The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians says, This cadence is a microcosm of the tonal system and it is virtually obligatory as the final structural cadence of a tonal work. A perfect cadence is a progression from V to I in major keys and this is generally the strongest type of cadence and often found at structurally defining moments. This strong cadence achieves complete harmonic and melodic closure and it has to be noted that Beethoven in particular gets so much mileage out of this cadence as for it to become one of his most characteristic and recognizable musical thumbprints. The Diabelli Variations and the C major climax of the movement of the Opus 132 String Quartet - even though it is described as being in Lydian mode on F - are two powerful examples. Imperfect authentic cadence, best divided into three categories,1. Root position IAC, similar to a PAC, but the highest voice is not the tonic, inverted IAC, similar to a PAC, but one or both chords is inverted. Leading tone IAC, the V chord is replaced with the viio/subV chord, evaded cadence, V42 to I6. Because the seventh must fall step wise, it forces the cadence to resolve to the less stable first inversion chord, usually to achieve this a root position V changes to a V42 right before resolution, thereby evading the cadence. Half cadence, any cadence ending on V, whether preceded by II, ii, vi, IV, with the addition of motion in the upper part to the sixth degree, it becomes the Landini cadence. Lydian cadence, The Lydian half-cadence is similar to the Phrygian-half, involving iv6-V in the minor, the difference is that in the Lydian-half, the whole iv6 is raised by a half-step. In other words, the Phrygian-half begins with the first chord built on scale degree P4, Burgundian cadences, Became popular in Burgundian music
10.
Closely related key
–
In music, a closely related key is one sharing many common tones with an original key, as opposed to a distantly related key. In music harmony, such a key shares all, or all one, pitches with a key with which it is being compared. Such keys are the most commonly used destinations or transpositions in a modulation, distant keys may be reached sequentially through closely related keys by chain modulation, for example C to G to D or C to C minor to E♭ major. For example, One principle that every composer of Haydns day kept in mind was over-all unity of tonality. No piece dared wander too far from its key. For example, the first movement of Mozarts Piano Sonata No,7, K.309, modulates only to closely related keys. Four of which differ by one accidental, one with the key signature. In the key of C major these would be, D minor, E minor, F major, G major, A minor, and C minor. However, modulating up a tritone would produce F♯, G♯, A♯, C♯, D♯, thus the scale a fifth higher is very closely related, while the scale a tritone higher is not. Other modulations may be placed in order from closest to most distant depending upon the number of common tones, another view in modern music, notably in Bartók, a common tonic produces closely related keys, the other scales being the six other modes. This usage can be found in several of the Mikrokosmos piano pieces, chromatic mediant Parallel and counter parallel Monotonality Pitch space Howard Hanson, Harmonic Materials of Modern Music
11.
Perfect fifth
–
In music theory, a perfect fifth is the musical interval corresponding to a pair of pitches with a frequency ratio of 3,2, or very nearly so. In classical music from Western culture, a fifth is the interval from the first to the last of five notes in a diatonic scale. The perfect fifth spans seven semitones, while the diminished fifth spans six, for example, the interval from C to G is a perfect fifth, as the note G lies seven semitones above C. Play The perfect fifth may be derived from the series as the interval between the second and third harmonics. In a diatonic scale, the dominant note is a fifth above the tonic note. The perfect fifth is more consonant, or stable, than any other interval except the unison and it occurs above the root of all major and minor chords and their extensions. Until the late 19th century, it was referred to by one of its Greek names. Its inversion is the perfect fourth, the octave of the fifth is the twelfth. The term perfect identifies the perfect fifth as belonging to the group of perfect intervals, so called because of their simple pitch relationships and their high degree of consonance. However, when using correct enharmonic spelling, the fifth in Pythagorean tuning or meantone temperament is actually not a perfect fifth. The perfect unison has a pitch ratio 1,1, the perfect octave 2,1, the perfect fourth 4,3, within this definition, other intervals may also be called perfect, for example a perfect third or a perfect major sixth. In terms of semitones, these are equivalent to the tritone, the justly tuned pitch ratio of a perfect fifth is 3,2, meaning that the upper note makes three vibrations in the same amount of time that the lower note makes two. The just perfect fifth can be heard when a violin is tuned, if adjacent strings are adjusted to the ratio of 3,2, the result is a smooth and consonant sound. Keyboard instruments such as the piano normally use a version of the perfect fifth. In 12-tone equal temperament, the frequencies of the perfect fifth are in the ratio 7 or approximately 1.498307. An equally tempered fifth, defined as 700 cents, is about two cents narrower than a just perfect fifth, which is approximately 701.955 cents. Kepler explored musical tuning in terms of ratios, and defined a lower imperfect fifth as a 40,27 pitch ratio. His lower perfect fifth ratio of 1.4815 is much more imperfect than the equal temperament tuning of 1.498, the perfect fifth is a basic element in the construction of major and minor triads, and their extensions
12.
Parallel key
–
In music, a major scale and a minor scale that have the same tonic are called parallel keys and are said to be in a parallel relationship. The parallel minor or tonic minor of a major key is the minor key based on the same tonic. For example, G major and G minor have different modes, in contrast, a major scale and a minor scale that have the same key signature are called relative keys. In the early century, composers began to experiment with freely borrowing chords from the parallel key. To the Western ear, the switch from a key to its parallel minor sounds like a fairly simplistic saddening of the mood. This change is quite distinct from a switch to the relative minor and this is unique to the form, and allows the composer to state a given theme in both major and minor modes. Later it also became common to state the theme in the tonic major in the recapitulation. Borrowed chord Harmonic parallelism List of major/minor compositions Voice leading
13.
Minuet
–
A minuet, is a social dance of French origin for two people, usually in 34 time. The name may refer to the steps, pas menus, taken in the dance, or else be derived from the branle à mener or amener. The minuet was traditionally said to have descended from the bransle de Poitou, at the period when it was most fashionable it was controlled, ceremonious and graceful. The name is given to a musical composition written in the same time and rhythm. Among Italian composers the minuet was often quicker and livelier and was sometimes written in 38 or 68 time. Because the tempo of a minuet was not standard, the tempo direction tempo di minuetto was ambiguous unless qualified by another direction, as it sometimes was. Initially, before its adoption in other than social dance. But the second section eventually expanded, resulting in a kind of ternary form, the second minuet provided form of contrast by means of different key and orchestration. On a larger scale, two such minuets might be combined, so that the first minuet was followed by a second one. The whole form might in any case be repeated as long as the dance lasted, around Lullys time it became a common practice to score this middle section for a trio. As a result, this section came to be called the minuets trio. 13 in G major, K.525, popularly known under the title Eine kleine Nachtmusik, a livelier form of the minuet simultaneously developed into the scherzo. This term came into existence approximately from Beethoven onwards, but the form itself can be traced back to Haydn, the minuet and trio eventually became the standard third movement in the four-movement classical symphony, Johann Stamitz being the first to employ it thus with regularity. An example of the form of the minuet is to be found in Don Giovanni. A famous example of a more recent instrumental work in minuet form is Ignacy Jan Paderewskis Minuet in G. Scherzo, revisiting Music Theory, A Guide to the Practice. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Dance Research, The Journal of the Society for Dance Research 24 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Classical Form, A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, the Theory of Music as Applied to the Teaching and Practice of Voice and Instruments, 21st edition
14.
Joseph Haydn
–
Joseph Haydn was an Austrian composer of the Classical period. Haydn spent much of his career as a musician for the wealthy Esterházy family at their remote estate. Until the later part of his life, this isolated him from other composers and trends in music so that he was, as he put it, yet his music circulated widely and for much of his career he was the most celebrated composer in Europe. He was a friend and mentor of Mozart, a teacher of Beethoven, Joseph Haydn was born in Rohrau, Austria, a village that at that time stood on the border with Hungary. His father was Mathias Haydn, a wheelwright who served as Marktrichter. Haydns mother Maria, née Koller, had worked as a cook in the palace of Count Harrach. Neither parent could read music, however, Mathias was a folk musician. According to Haydns later reminiscences, his family was extremely musical. Haydns parents had noticed that their son was musically gifted and knew that in Rohrau he would have no chance to obtain serious musical training, Haydn therefore went off with Frankh to Hainburg 12 kilometres away, he never again lived with his parents. Life in the Frankh household was not easy for Haydn, who later remembered being frequently hungry and he began his musical training there, and could soon play both harpsichord and violin. The people of Hainburg heard him sing treble parts in the church choir, Haydn passed his audition with Reutter, and after several months of further training moved to Vienna, where he worked for the next nine years as a chorister. Haydn lived in the Kapellhaus next to the cathedral, along with Reutter, Reutters family, and the other four choirboys, the choirboys were instructed in Latin and other school subjects as well as voice, violin, and keyboard. Reutter was of help to Haydn in the areas of music theory and composition. However, since St. Stephens was one of the musical centres in Europe. Like Frankh before him, Reutter did not always bother to make sure Haydn was properly fed, by 1749, Haydn had matured physically to the point that he was no longer able to sing high choral parts. Empress Maria Theresa herself complained to Reutter about his singing, calling it crowing, one day, Haydn carried out a prank, snipping off the pigtail of a fellow chorister. This was enough for Reutter, Haydn was first caned, then summarily dismissed and he had the good fortune to be taken in by a friend, Johann Michael Spangler, who shared his familys crowded garret room with Haydn for a few months. Haydn immediately began his pursuit of a career as a freelance musician and he was also briefly in Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitzs employ, playing the organ in the Bohemian Chancellery chapel at the Judenplatz
15.
Symphony No. 94 (Haydn)
–
The Symphony No.94 in G major is the second of the twelve London symphonies written by Joseph Haydn. It is popularly known as the Surprise Symphony, Haydn wrote the symphony in 1791 in London for a concert series he gave during the first of his visits to England. The premiere took place at the Hanover Square Rooms in London on March 23,1792, a typical performance of the Surprise Symphony lasts about 23 minutes. The music then returns to its original quiet dynamic, as if nothing had happened, in Haydns old age, his biographer George August Griesinger asked him whether he wrote this surprise to awaken the audience. The first Allegro of my symphony had already met with countless Bravos, sounded in every throat, and Pleyel himself complimented me on my idea. The work was popular at its premiere, the Woodfalls Register critic wrote, The third piece of HAYDN was a new Overture, of very extraordinary merit. It was simple, profound, and sublime, the andante movement was particularly admired. The Morning Herald critic wrote, The Room was crowded last night, a new composition from such a man as HAYDN is a great event in the history of music. — His novelty of last night was a grand Overture, the subject of which was remarkably simple, critical applause was fervid and abundant. The symphony is still today, and is frequently performed and recorded. Like all of Haydns London symphonies, the work is in four movements, marked as follows, the second, surprise, movement, is an andante theme and variations in 24 time in the subdominant key of C major. The theme is in two sections, each repeated. The repeat at the end of the first section is pianissimo with pizzicato in the strings to set up the surprise. In the coda section, the notes are stated once more. The third movement is a minuet and trio, in form in the tonic key. The tempo, allegro molto, is of note since it marks the shift away from the old minuet toward the scherzo. The fourth movement is a rhythmic, energetic and propulsive Haydn finale. The movement is written in sonata form with the opening bars appearing both at the beginning and in the middle of the development section
16.
Orchestral suites (Bach)
–
The four orchestral suites, BWV 1066–1069 are four suites by Johann Sebastian Bach. More broadly, the term was used in Baroque Germany for a suite of dance-pieces in French Baroque style preceded by such an ouverture, Bach did write several other ouverture for solo instruments, notably the Cello Suite no. 5, BWV1011, which exists in the autograph Lute Suite in G minor, BWV995, the Keyboard Partita no.4 in D, BWV828. The two keyboard works are among the few Bach published, and he prepared the lute suite for a Monsieur Schouster, presumably for a fee, so all three may attest to the forms popularity. Scholars believe that Bach did not conceive of the four orchestral suites as a set, since the sources are various, the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis catalogue includes a fifth suite, BWV1070 in G minor. However, this work is unlikely to have been composed by J. S. Bach. The source is a set of parts from Leipzig in 1724–45 copied by C. G. Meissner, Bach, in the autograph part, spells this Battinerie. Instrumentation, Solo traversiere, violin I/II, viola, basso continuo, the Polonaise is a stylization of the Polish Folk Song Wezmę ja kontusz. The Badinerie has become a show-piece for solo flautists because of its quick pace, rifkin also suggests that Bach was inspired to write the suite by a similar work by his second cousin Johann Bernhard Bach. Flautist Steven Zohn accepts the argument of a version in A minor. The oldest source is a set of parts from around 1730. Bach wrote out the first violin and continuo parts, C. P. E, Bach wrote out the trumpet, oboe, and timpani parts, and J. S. Bachs student Johann Ludwig Krebs wrote out the violin and viola parts. Rifkin has argued that the original was a version for strings, the source is lost, but the existing parts date from circa 1730. Ouverture Bourrée I/II Gavotte Menuet I/II Réjouissance Instrumentation, Trumpet I/II/III, timpani, oboe I/II/III, bassoon, violin I/II, viola,1, performance by the Netherlands Bach Society Orchestral Suite No. 1, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Orchestral Suite No,2, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Orchestral Suite No. 3, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Orchestral Suite No,4, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Orchestral Suite No
17.
English Suites (Bach)
–
These six suites for keyboard are thought to be the earliest set that Bach composed. It has also suggested that the name is a tribute to Charles Dieupart, whose fame was greatest in England. Unlike the unmeasured preludes of French lute or keyboard style, however, 1st Suite in A major, BWV806 Prelude, Allemande, Courante I, Courante II, Double I, Double II, Sarabande, Bourrée I, Bourrée II, Gigue. This suite is unusual in that it has two Courantes, and two Doubles for the second Courante and this suite also departs from the scheme of the other five, in that the Prelude is short and based on a theme from a suite by Dieupart. The Preludes of the other five suites in this series are based on the Allegro of a Concerto Grosso form
18.
Ludwig van Beethoven
–
Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he one of the most famous. His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies,5 piano concertos,1 violin concerto,32 piano sonatas,16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera, Fidelio. At the age of 21 he moved to Vienna, where he began studying composition with Joseph Haydn and he lived in Vienna until his death. By his late 20s his hearing began to deteriorate, and by the last decade of his life he was almost completely deaf. In 1811 he gave up conducting and performing in public but continued to compose, many of his most admired works come from these last 15 years of his life. Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven, a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Duchy of Brabant in the Flemish region of what is now Belgium, who at the age of twenty moved to Bonn. Ludwig was employed as a singer at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761. The portrait he commissioned of himself towards the end of his life remained proudly displayed in his grandsons rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage. Ludwig had one son, Johann, who worked as a tenor in the musical establishment and gave keyboard. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767, she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no record of the date of his birth, however. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776. Beethovens first music teacher was his father and he later had other local teachers, the court organist Gilles van den Eeden, Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer, and Franz Rovantini. Beethovens musical talent was obvious at a young age, some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Courts Organist in that year. Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition, Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid, and then as a paid employee of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named Kurfürst for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Friedrich, were published in 1783, Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethovens talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young mans musical studies. Maximilian Fredericks successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Francis, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts
19.
Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)
–
The Symphony No.9 in D minor, Op.125, is Ludwig van Beethovens final complete symphony. Completed in 1824, the symphony is one of the works in classical music. It is almost universally considered by critics to be one of Beethovens greatest works, the symphony was the first example of a major composer using voices in a symphony. The words are sung during the movement by four vocal soloists. They were taken from the Ode to Joy, a written by Friedrich Schiller in 1785 and revised in 1803. In the 2010s, it stands as one of the most performed symphonies in the world, the Philharmonic Society of London originally commissioned the symphony in 1817. The main composition work was done between autumn 1822 and the completion of the autograph in February 1824, the symphony emerged from other pieces by Beethoven that, while completed works in their own right, are also in some sense musical sketches for the future symphony. 80, basically a concerto movement, brings in a choir. As in the Ninth Symphony, the vocal forces sing a theme first played instrumentally, going further back, an earlier version of the Choral Fantasy theme is found in the song Gegenliebe, for piano and high voice, which dates from before 1795. According to Robert W. Gutman, Mozarts K.222 Offertory in D minor, Misericordias Domini, written in 1775, contains a melody that foreshadows Ode to Joy. When his friends and financiers heard this, they urged him to premiere the symphony in Vienna in the form of a signed by a number of prominent Viennese music patrons. This was the composers first on-stage appearance in 12 years, the hall was packed with an eager audience, while no complete list of premiere performers exists, many of Viennas most elite performers are known to have participated. The soprano and alto parts were sung by two young singers, Henriette Sontag and Caroline Unger. German soprano Henriette Sontag was eighteen years old when Beethoven personally recruited her to perform in the premiere of the Ninth, also personally recruited by Beethoven, 20-year-old contralto Caroline Unger, a native of Vienna, had gained critical praise in 1821 appearing in Rossinis Tancredi. After performing in Beethovens 1824 premiere, Unger then found fame in Italy, Italian composers Donizetti and Bellini were known to have written roles specifically for her voice. Although the performance was directed by Michael Umlauf, the theatres Kapellmeister. However, two earlier, Umlauf had watched as the composers attempt to conduct a dress rehearsal of his opera Fidelio ended in disaster. So this time, he instructed the singers and musicians to ignore the almost totally deaf Beethoven, at the beginning of every part, Beethoven, who sat by the stage, gave the tempos
20.
Franz Schubert
–
Franz Peter Schubert was an Austrian composer. Schubert died before his 32nd birthday, but was prolific during his lifetime. His output consists of six hundred secular vocal works, seven complete symphonies, sacred music, operas, incidental music. Appreciation of his music while he was alive was limited to a small circle of admirers in Vienna. Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Johannes Brahms, today, Schubert is ranked among the greatest composers of the late Classical and early Romantic eras and is one of the most frequently performed composers of the early nineteenth century. Schubert was born in Himmelpfortgrund, Vienna, Archduchy of Austria on 31 January 1797, of Franz Theodors fourteen children, nine died in infancy. Their father was a teacher, and his school in Lichtental had numerous students in attendance. Though he was not recognised or even trained as a musician. At age six, Franz began to receive instruction from his father. His formal musical education started around the same time and his father taught him basic violin technique, and his brother Ignaz gave him piano lessons. The boy seemed to more from an acquaintance with a friendly joiners apprentice who took him to a neighbouring pianoforte warehouse where Franz could practice on better instruments. He also played viola in the string quartet, with brothers Ferdinand and Ignaz on first and second violin. Franz wrote his earliest string quartets for this ensemble, young Schubert first came to the attention of Antonio Salieri, then Viennas leading musical authority, in 1804, when his vocal talent was recognized. In October 1808, he became a pupil at the Stadtkonvikt through a choir scholarship, at the Stadtkonvikt, he was introduced to the overtures and symphonies of Mozart, and the symphonies of Joseph Haydn and his younger brother Michael. His exposure to these and lesser works, combined with occasional visits to the opera, one important musical influence came from the songs by Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg, an important Lieder composer of the time. The precocious young student wanted to modernize them, as reported by Joseph von Spaun, Schuberts friendship with Spaun began at the Stadtkonvikt and lasted throughout his short life. In those early days, the financially well-off Spaun furnished the impoverished Schubert with much of his manuscript paper, in the meantime, his genius began to show in his compositions. Schubert was occasionally permitted to lead the Stadtkonvikts orchestra, and Salieri decided to start training him privately in music theory, for male voices and orchestra, and his first symphony
21.
String Quintet (Schubert)
–
It was composed in 1828 and completed just two months before the composers death. The first public performance of the piece did not occur until 1850, the string quintet was composed in the summer or early autumn of 1828, at the same time as Schubert composed his last three piano sonatas and several of the Schwanengesang songs. Schubert completed it in late September or early October, just two months before his death, Schubert submitted it to one of his publishers, Heinrich Albert Probst, for consideration, saying that finally I have written a quintet for 2 violins,1 viola, and 2 violoncello. The quintet rehearsal will only begin in the few days. Should any of these compositions by any chance commend themselves to you, Probst replied, asking only to see some of Schuberts vocal works and requesting more popular piano music. The work remained unpublished at the time of Schuberts death in November 1828 and its first known public performance occurred only three years earlier, on 17 November 1850 at the Musikverein in Vienna. The work is the only full-fledged string quintet in Schuberts oeuvre, alfred Einstein has proposed that Schuberts use of a second cello to enhance the lower strings may have been suggested by George Onslow, who used a double bass in some of his quintets. The string quintet consists of four movements in the usual quick-slow-scherzo-quick pattern, the movement is notable for its unexpected harmonic turns. This is followed by music of gradually increasing motion and tension, leading to the second subject, in the unexpected key of E-flat. The exposition concludes with a dominant chord that leads back to the opening tonic chord on the repeat. The sublime second movement, one of Schuberts rare adagios, is in three-part ABA form. The outer sections, in E major, are of an otherworldly tranquility, while the section is intensely turbulent. When the opening music returns, there is a running 32nd-note passage in the cello which seems to have been motivated by the turbulence that came before it. The first section moves to A♭ major and then back to C major, the middle section of this movement moves to E♭ major, then B major, which is ♭VI of ♭III. The C major theme returns at the end, the last movement is an exuberant sonata-rondo whose form resembles that of the finale of Mozarts C major quintet The main theme demonstrates clear Hungarian influences. The movement is in C major, but is built upon the interplay of the major and minor modes and it has unusual technical features, such as the final two notes, the flat supertonic and the tonic, played forte in all parts. After Schuberts string quintet was premiered and published in the 1850s. An early admirer was Brahms whose Piano Quintet was inspired in part by Schuberts newly discovered work, Brahms, in fact, originally wrote that work as a string quintet with two cellos and only later recast it as a piano quintet
22.
Coda (music)
–
Coda is a term used in music primarily to designate a passage that brings a piece to an end. Technically, it is an expanded cadence and it may be as simple as a few measures, or as complex as an entire section. The presence of a coda as an element in a movement is especially clear in works written in particular musical forms. Codas were commonly used in both form and variation movements during the Classical era. In a sonata movement, the recapitulation section will, in general, follow the exposition in its thematic content. In works in form, the coda occurs following the last variation. For one famous example, see Symphony No.8, codetta has a similar purpose to the coda, but on a smaller scale, concluding a section of a work instead of the work as a whole. A typical codetta concludes the exposition and recapitulation sections of a work in sonata form, following the second theme, thus, in the exposition, it usually appears in the secondary key, but, in the recapitulation, in the primary key. The codetta ordinarily closes with a cadence in the appropriate key. If the exposition is repeated, the codetta is also, but sometimes it has its ending slightly changed, cauda, a Latin word meaning tail, edge or trail is the root of coda and is used in the study of conductus of the 12th and 13th centuries. The cauda was a long melisma on one of the last syllables of the text, conducti were traditionally divided into two groups, conductus cum cauda and conductus sine cauda, based on the presence of the melisma. Thus, the cauda provided a role, also similar to the modern coda. Many songs in rock and other genres of music have sections identifiable as codas. A coda in these genres is sometimes referred to as an outro, while in jazz, modern church music, in music notation, the coda symbol, which resembles a set of crosshairs, is used as a navigation marker, similar to the dal Segno sign. It is used where the exit from a section is within that section rather than at the end. The instruction To Coda indicates that, upon reaching that point during the final repetition, for example, this can be used to provide a special ending for the final verse of a song. Coda Da capo Epilogue Repeat sign Transition Fade This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
23.
Polka
–
The polka is originally a Czech dance and genre of dance music familiar throughout Europe and the Americas. It originated in the middle of the 19th century in Bohemia, local varieties of this dance are also found in the Nordic countries, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Latin America and the United States. The name polka possibly comes from the Czech word půlka, referring to the short half-steps featured in the dance. e, the absence of diacritics, both referring to the half-tempo 24 and the half-jump step of the dance. Zíbrt also ironically dismisses the etymology suggested by A. Fähnrich that polka comes from the Czech word pole, on the other hand, Zdeněk Nejedlý suggests that the etymology given by Fr. Doucha is nothing but an effort to prove the true Czech folk origin of Polka, Nejedlý also writes that Václav Vladivoj Tomek also claims the Hradec Králové roots of a Polka. OED also suggests that the name may have derived from the Czech polka meaning Polish woman. The word was introduced into the major European languages in the early 1840s. It should not be confused with the polska, a Swedish 34-beat dance with Polish roots, a related dance is the redowa. Polkas almost always have a 24 time signature, folk music of Polka style appeared in written music about 1800. She is said to have called the dance Maděra, because of its liveliness, the dance was further propagated by the music teacher Josef Neruda, who witnessed Anna dance in an unusual way, put the tune to paper, and taught other young men to dance it. Čeněk Zíbrt notices that a claim that the events happened in Týnec nad Labem. Zibrt writes that when he published this story in 1894 in Narodni Listy newspaper. In particular, he wrote according to further witness, the originating event actually happened in 1830, in Kostelec nad Labem. Zíbrt writes that he published the first version of the story in Bohemia, from where it was reprinted all over Europe and in the United States. Zíbrt also wrote that simple Czech folk claimed that knew and danced Polka long before the nobles got hold of it. By 1835, this dance had spread to the ballrooms of Prague, from there, it spread to Vienna by 1839, and in 1840 was introduced in Paris by Raab, a Prague dance instructor. It was so well received by both dancers and dance masters in Paris that its popularity was referred to as polkamania, the dance soon spread to London and was introduced to America in 1844. It remained a popular dance until the late 19th century
24.
Romantic music
–
Romantic music is an era of Western classical music that began in the late 18th or early 19th century. In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional, expanding to encompass literary, artistic, famous early Romantic composers include Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Bellini, and Berlioz. The late 19th century saw an expansion in the size of the orchestra and in the dynamic range. Also, public concerts became a key part of middle class society, in contrast to earlier periods. Famous composers from the half of the century include Johann Strauss II, Brahms, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Verdi. A prominent mark of late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, other prominent late-century figures include Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Rachmaninoff and Franck. The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the half of the 18th century in Europe. In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography and education. One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in the Mémoires by the Frenchman André Grétry, in the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the centre of musical Romanticism, the attributes have also been criticized for being too vague. For example, features of the ghostly and supernatural could apply equally to Mozarts Don Giovanni from 1787, events and changes that happen in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events always affect music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was in effect by the late 18th century. This event had a profound effect on music, there were major improvements in the mechanical valves. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease, another development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class. Composers before this period lived on the patronage of the aristocracy, many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music. The Romantic composers, on the hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers. Composers of the Romantic Era, like Elgar, showed the world that there should be no segregation of musical tastes, during the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose
25.
Thirty-two-bar form
–
Examples of 32-bar AABA form songs include Over the Rainbow, Whatll I Do, Make You Feel My Love, Blue Skies, and Willie Nelsons Crazy. At its core, the basic AABA 32-bar song form consists of four sections, each section being 8 bars in length, each of these 8-bar sections is assigned a letter name, based on its melodic and harmonic content. The A sections all share the same melody, and the title lyric typically falls on either the first or last line of each A section. The B section musically and lyrically contrasts the A sections, the B section may use a different harmony that contrasts with the harmony of the A sections. For example in the song Ive Got Rhythm, the A sections are in the key of B♭, Song form terminology is not standardized, and the B section is also referred to as the middle eight, bridge, or primary bridge. This introductory section is usually sixteen bars long and establishes the background and mood of the number, the sectional verse is often omitted from modern performances. It is not assigned a letter in the AABA naming scheme, in music theory, the middle 8 or bridge is the B section of a 32-bar form. This section has a different melody from the rest of the song. It is called a middle 8 because it happens in the middle of the song, in early 20th century terminology, the main 32-bar AABA section, in its entirety, was called the refrain or chorus. This is in contrast to the usage of the term chorus. Additionally, verse, chorus and refrain all have different meanings in modern musical terminology, see the below chart for clarification, Though the 32-bar form resembles the ternary form of the operatic da capo aria, it did not become common until the late 1910s. It became the form of American popular song around 1925–1926. The 32-bar form was used in rock in the 1950s and 60s. Songwriters such as the Brill Building and Lennon–McCartney also used modified or extended 32-bar forms, the Beatles, like many others, would extend the form with an instrumental section, second bridge, break or reprise of the introduction, etc. and another return to the main theme. Introductions and codas also extended the form, in Down Mexico Way the A sections … are doubled in length, to sixteen bars—but this affects the overall scheme only marginally. Appen, Ralf von / Frei-Hauenschild, Markus AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms, online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusikforschung/German Society for Popular Music Studies e. V. Ed. by Ralf von Appen, André Doehring and Thomas Phleps
26.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Musical development
–
In classical music, musical development is a process by which a musical idea is communicated in the course of a composition. It refers to the transformation and restatement of initial material, development is often contrasted with musical variation, which is a slightly different means to the same end. Development is carried out upon portions of material treated in many different presentations and combinations at a time, listeners may apprehend a tension between expected and real results, which is one element of surprise in music. In sonata form, the section is called the development. Typically, in section, material from the exposition section is developed. In some older texts, this section may be referred to as free fantasia, according to the Oxford Companion to Music there are several ways of developing a theme. These include, The division of a theme into parts, each of which can be developed in any of the ways or recombined in a new way. Similarly, two or more themes can be developed in combination, in cases, themes are composed with this possibility in mind. Alteration of pitch intervals while retaining the original rhythm, rhythmic displacement, so that the metrical stress occurs at a different point in the otherwise unchanged theme. Sequence, either diatonically within a key or through a succession of keys, the Scherzo movement from Beethovens Piano Sonata No.15 in D major, Op 28 shows a number of these processes at work on a small scale. Developing variation Fugue#Development Secondary development Sequence
28.
Ausmultiplikation
–
When this is done at more than one level, the result is reminiscent of a fractal. Threats and Promises, Lucifer, Hell, and Stockhausens Sunday from Light, perspectives of New Music 50, nos.1 &2, 393–424. Into the Middleground, Formula Syntax in Stockhausens Licht, perspectives of New Music 28, no. Wille zur Form und Wille zum Abenteuer, in his Texte zur Musik 6, edited by Christoph von Blumröder, 320–46
29.
Bar form
–
Bar form is a musical form of the pattern AAB. In their work, a Bar is not a single stanza, rather, the word Bar is most likely a shortening of Barat, denoting a skillful thrust in fencing. The term was used to refer to a particularly artful song – the type one composes in songwriters guilds. The AAB pattern does, however, describe each stanza in a Meistersingers Bar, the musical form thus contains two repetitions of one melody followed by a different melody. One such tune by Hans Folz illustrates this, Note that the B section is not necessarily the same length as each A section. The B section can also incorporate parts of the A sections phrase, in the above example, composer Richard Wagner in act III of his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, used the word Bar incorrectly as referring to a stanza of the prize song. This was based on his misreading of Wagenseil, composer Johannes Brahms claimed the AAB form of the chorale Jesu, meine Freude generates larger formal structures in Bachs motet of the same name. Such AAB forms may be found in works ranging from Lutheran chorales to The Star-Spangled Banner to songs by Schubert, Schumann, bartok made use of the Bar form in the 20th Century, and most blues follow the pattern A1A2B. Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music, entries on Bar form and minnesingers, encyclopædia Britannica, article on Bar form. A History of Western Music by Donald Grout
30.
Binary form
–
Binary form is a musical form in two related sections, both of which are usually repeated. Binary is also a used to choreograph dance. In music this is performed as A-A-B-B. Binary form was popular during the Baroque period, often used to structure movements of keyboard sonatas and it was also used for short, one-movement works. Around the middle of the 18th century, the form largely fell from use as the design of entire movements as sonata form. Many larger forms incorporate binary structures, and many more complicated forms share certain characteristics with binary form, most strictly, a piece in binary form is characterized by two complementary, related sections of roughly equal duration, which come up frequently. The second section of the piece begins in the newly established key, after some harmonic activity, the piece will eventually modulate back to its original key before ending. More often than not, especially in 18th-century compositions, the A and B sections are separated by double bars with repeat signs, binary form is usually characterised as having the form AB, though since both sections repeat, a more accurate description would be AABB. Others, however, prefer to use the label AA′ and this second designation points to the fact that there is no great change in character between the two sections. The rhythms and melodic material used will generally be closely related in each section, and if the piece is written for a musical ensemble and this is in contrast to the use of verse-chorus form in popular music—the contrast between the two sections is primarily one of the keys used. A piece in form can be further classified according to a number of characteristics, Occasionally. This is referred to as rounded binary, and is labeled as ABA′, in rounded binary, the beginning of the B section is sometimes referred to as the bridge, and will usually conclude with a half cadence in the original key. Rounded binary form is referred to as small ternary form. Rounded binary or minuet form, A, ||, B A or A I, ||, V I If the B section lacks such a return of the opening A material, the piece is said to be in simple binary. If the A section ends with an Authentic cadence in the tonic key of the piece. This refers to the fact that the piece is in different tonal sections, If the A section ends with any other kind of cadence, the design is referred to as a continuous binary. This refers to the fact that the B section will continue on with the new key established by the cadence at the end of A, If the A and B sections are roughly equal in length, the design is referred to as symmetrical. If the A and B sections are of length, the design is referred to as asymmetrical
31.
Call and response (music)
–
In music, a call and response is a succession of two distinct phrases usually played by different musicians, where the second phrase is heard as a direct commentary on or response to the first. It corresponds to the pattern in human communication and is found as a basic element of musical form, such as verse-chorus form. Call and response patterns between two musicians are common in Indian Classical Music, particularly in the style of Jugalbandi, Call and response is likewise widely present in parts of the Americas touched by the trans-Atlantic slave trade. It is extensively used in Cuban music, both in the rumba and in the African religious ceremonies. In 1644, lining out – where one person sang a solo and it has influenced popular music singing styles. Scottish Gaelic psalm-singing by precenting the line was the earliest form of congregational singing adopted by Africans in America and it is common in folk traditions of choral singing of many people, especially in African musical cultures. In Cuban music and other Latin music genres such as salsa, call, the form is found in the military cadence or Jody which is used as an a cappella work song or to keep time when marching or running in formation. In Western classical music, call and response is known as antiphony, the phenomenon of call and response is pervasive in modern Western popular music, as well, largely because Western music has been so heavily shaped by African contributions. Cross-over rhythm and blues, rock n roll and rock music exhibit call-and-response characteristics, three examples are The Whos song My Generation, Black Dog by Led Zeppelin, and The Pogues Fairytale of New York. In Indian Film music, Ilaiyaraajas songs largely exhibit call-and-response pattern, but, each A and B part may itself consist of a short call and a short response, and those 2-bar calls and response may also be divided into 1-bar-each call-response pairs. To make an attempt at diagramming it, Twelve bars, A, 4-bar CALL A, 4-bar CALL B, a single leader makes a musical statement, and then the chorus responds together. American bluesman Muddy Waters utilizes call and response in one of his songs, Mannish Boy which is almost entirely leader/chorus call. CALL, Waters vocal, Now when I was a young boy RESPONSE, CALL, Waters, At the age of 5 RESPONSE, CALL, Drop the coin right into the slot. RESPONSE, CALL, You gotta get something thats really hot, RESPONSE, A contemporary example is from Carly Rae Jepsens Call Me Maybe. CALL, Hey I just met you RESPONSE, CALL, And this is crazy RESPONSE, while mostly in the chorus, it can also be heard in the breakdown between the vocals and distorted guitar. Part of the band poses a question, or a phrase that feels unfinished. In the blues, the B section often has a question-and-answer pattern, an example of this is the Christmas song Must Be Santa, CALL, Who laughs this way, ho ho ho. RESPONSE, Santa laughs this way, ho ho ho, a similar question-and-answer exchange occurs in the movie Casablanca between Sam and the band in the song Knock On Wood, CALL, Whos got trouble
32.
Cell (music)
–
The 1957 Encyclopédie Larousse defines a cell in music as a small rhythmic and melodic design that can be isolated, or can make up one part of a thematic context. A cell can be developed, independent of its context, as a melodic fragment and it can be the source for the whole structure of the work, in that case it is called a generative cell. A rhythmic cell is a cell without melodic connotations and it may be entirely percussive or applied to different melodic segments
33.
Conclusion (music)
–
In music, the conclusion is the ending of a composition and may take the form of a coda or outro. Pieces using sonata form typically use the recapitulation to conclude a piece, for example, The slow movement of Bachs Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, where a chord progression interrupts the final cadence. The slow movement of Symphony No.5 by Beethoven, where, echoing afterthoughts, follow the initial statements of the first theme and only return expanded in the coda. Varèses Density 21.5, where partitioning of the scale into whole tone scales provides the missing tritone of b implied in the previously exclusive partitioning by diminished seventh chords. Coda is a used in music in a number of different senses. An outro is the opposite of an intro, outro is a blend as it replaces the element in of the intro with its opposite, to create a new word. The term is used only in the realm of pop music. It can refer to the track of an album or to an outro-solo. Jeremy as recorded by Pearl Jam, outro - The final track of the M83 album Hurry Up, Were Dreaming. Repeat and fade is a direction used in sheet music when more than one repeat of the last few measures or so of a piece is desired with a fade-out as the manner in which to end the music. It originated as an effect made possible by the volume controls on sound recording equipment. No equivalent Italian term was in the lexicon of musical terms, so it was written in English. Repeat and fade endings are found in live performances, but are often used in studio recordings. Examples include, Hey Jude as recorded by The Beatles Time and a Word as recorded by Yes Crazy. as recorded by PaRappa and The Moonlight Da capo Epilogue
34.
Exposition (music)
–
In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term implies that the material will be developed or varied. In sonata form, the exposition is the very first major section, incorporating at least one important modulation to the dominant or other secondary key and presenting the principal thematic material. In a fugue, the exposition is the statement of the subject in imitation by the voices, especially the first such statement. The term is most widely used as a convenience to denote a portion of a movement identified as an example of classical tonal sonata form. The exposition typically establishes the musics tonic key, and then modulates to, and ends in, if the exposition starts in a minor key, it typically modulates to the relative major key, or less commonly, the minor dominant. There are many exceptions—for example the exposition of the first movement of Beethovens Waldstein Sonata modulates from C major to the mediant E major, the exposition in classical symphonies is typically repeated, although there are many examples where the composer does not specify such a repeat. If the movement starts with a section, this introduction is not usually analysed as being part of the movements exposition. In many works of the Classical period and some of the Romantic era and this is something which is not always done in concert from the 20th Century onwards. A fugue usually has two sections, the exposition and the body. In the exposition, each voice plays its own adaptation of the theme, in either a subject or an answer, the exposition usually ends on either a I or V chord, and is then followed by the body
