1.
Columbiad
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The Columbiad was a large-caliber, smoothbore, muzzle-loading cannon able to fire heavy projectiles at both high and low trajectories. This feature enabled the columbiad to fire solid shot or shell to long ranges, invented by Colonel George Bomford, United States Army, in 1811, columbiads were used by the United States coastal artillery from the War of 1812 until the early years of the 20th Century. The first columbiads produced in 1811 had a 7. 25-inch diameter bore, although some Second System forts were armed with this weapon, the Army did not widely adopt early columbiads due to initial high costs of manufacture. Only after 1844 did a model and a ten-inch model see mass production. The eight-inch columbiad could project a 65-pound shell 4,400 yards or 4,800 yards for solid shot, the ten-inch columbiad weighed 15,400 pounds and hefted a 128-pound shell to 4,800 yards or solid shot to 5,600 yards. These cast iron weapons were mounted on seacoast carriages designed to recoil up a slightly inclined set of rails or wooden beams. The mounted columbiad could pivot left or right on a traversing rail, in most cases the arc of pivot was less than 180 degrees, but some batteries allowed 360-degree traverse. Just prior to the American Civil War, Ordnance Corps officer Thomas Jackson Rodman developed a version of the columbiad. Specifically the Rodman gun was designed to reduce cracking and other found in such large iron castings. The process involved ensured the iron cooled evenly from the inside out, the Rodman process also allowed the manufacture of much larger bore columbiads. Between 1858 and the end of the Civil War, Northern foundries produced eight-inch, ten-inch, fifteen-inch and twenty-inch Rodman style columbiads. The smaller bore columbiads shared similar range factors to the older weapons, the monster twenty-inch model weighed over 60 tons but could range to over 5 miles. Very few of the largest types were built, and none were fired in anger during the war, the Confederate States also used columbiads extensively, mostly stocks captured from Federal arsenals at the time of secession. These acquitted themselves well against early ironclad warships, in addition, the Confederates produced limited quantities of eight-inch and ten-inch columbiads without the Rodman process, these could not withstand sustained use. The Confederates also rifled some columbiads in an effort to improve weapon performance, after the Civil War, many columbiads remained in place at seacoast fortifications around the U. S. In the late 1870s several were rifled and tested for use against modern steel clad ships, strapped for funding, the post-war army continued to carry smooth-bore columbiads on inventory lists until after the Spanish–American War, when modern breech-loading rifled cannon replaced them. In Jules Vernes novel From the Earth to the Moon, a giant columbiad space gun is constructed in Tampa, Florida after the American Civil War, with the purpose of striking the Moon. Although the cannon is originally designed to fire a hollow aluminum ball and it is now known that neither concept is viable using such a cannon
2.
Charleston, South Carolina
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Charleston had an estimated population of 132,609 in 2015. Charleston was founded as Charles Town—honoring King Charles II of England—in 1670 and its initial location at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River was abandoned in 1680 for its present site, which became the 5th-largest city in North America within 10 years. Despite its size, it remained unincorporated throughout the period, its government was handled directly by the state legislature and by its Anglican parish wardens. It adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783 at the close of the Revolutionary War. The Confederates burned the town prior to its evacuation but continued demand for the cotton and rice, along with growing industry. In 2016, Charleston was ranked the Worlds Best City by Travel + Leisure, the city proper consists of six distinct areas, the Peninsula or Downtown, West Ashley, Johns Island, James Island, Daniel Island, and the Cainhoy Peninsula. The old town fit into 4–5 square miles as late as the First World War, the city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. The present city has an area of 127.5 square miles. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River, Charleston Harbor runs about 7 miles southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 miles, surrounded on all sides except its entrance. Sullivans Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to itself south, the entrance itself is about 1 mile wide, it was originally only 18 feet deep, but began to be enlarged in the 1870s. The tidal rivers are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline, there is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor and the Cooper River is deep. Charleston has a subtropical climate, with mild winters, hot, humid summers. Summer is the wettest season, almost half of the rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through November, winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow only occurs several times per decade at the most, however,6.0 in fell at the airport on December 23,1989, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in snowfall. The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F on June 2,1985, and June 24,1944, and the lowest was 7 °F on February 14,1899. At the airport, where records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F on August 1,1999. Hurricanes are a threat to the area during the summer and early fall
3.
Artillery battery
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The term is also used in a naval context to describe groups of guns on warships. Historically the term referred to a cluster of cannon in action as a group. Such batteries could be a mixture of cannon, howitzer, or mortar types, a siege could involve many batteries at different sites around the besieged place. The term also came to be used for a group of cannon in a fixed fortification and they were usually organised with between six and 12 ordnance pieces, often including cannon and howitzers. By the late 19th century battery had become standard mostly replacing company or troop, in the 20th century the term was generally used for the company level sub-unit of an artillery branch including field, air-defence, anti-tank and position. 20th-century firing batteries have been equipped with mortars, guns, howitzers, rockets, during the Napoleonic Wars some armies started grouping their batteries into larger administrative and field units. Groups of batteries combined for field combat employment called Grand Batteries by Napoleon, administratively batteries were usually grouped in battalions, regiments or squadrons and these developed into tactical organisations. These were further grouped into regiments, simply group or brigades, to further concentrate fire of individual batteries, from World War I they were grouped into artillery divisions in a few armies. Coastal artillery sometimes had completely different organizational terms based on shore defence sector areas, the rank of a battery commander has also varied, but is usually a lieutenant, captain, or major. The number of guns, howitzers, mortars or launchers in a battery has also varied. In the 19th century four to 12 guns was usual as the number to maneuver into the gun line. By late 19th century the artillery battery was divided into a gun line. The gun line consisted of six guns and 12 ammunition mules, during the American Civil War, artillery batteries often consisted of six field pieces for the Union Army and four for the Confederate States Army, although this varied. Batteries were divided into sections of two guns apiece, each section normally under the command of a lieutenant, the full battery was typically commanded by a captain. Often, particularly as the war progressed, individual batteries were grouped into battalions under a major or colonel of artillery, in the 20th century it varied between four and 12 for field artillery, or even two pieces for very heavy pieces. Other types of such as anti-tank or anti-aircraft have sometimes been larger. Some batteries have been dual-equipped with two different types of gun or mortar, and taking whichever was more appropriate when they deployed for operations, from the late 19th century field artillery batteries started to become more complex organisations. Fixed artillery refers to guns or howitzers on mounts that were anchored in one spot, or on carriages intended to be moved only for the purposes of aiming
4.
Ashley River (South Carolina)
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The Ashley River is a blackwater / tidal river in South Carolina, rising from the Wassamassaw and Great Cypress Swamps in western Berkeley County. It consolidates its main channel about five miles west of Summerville, the river then flows for approximately 17 miles along the historical banks of the City of North Charleston before reaching peninsular Charleston. The much wider Ashley joins the Cooper River off the Battery in Charleston to form Charleston Harbor before discharging into the Atlantic Ocean, at the present time the land around the Ashley River or in Ashley Barony, as the original land grant was called, is mostly undeveloped. The river was named for Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1675 Cooper was granted 12,000 acres of land along the river after a permanent settlement was made at Albemarle Point in 1670. This settlement was the “first permanent European settlement” in South Carolina, the settlement would be moved to its current peninsular location across the river ten years later and is well known as Charleston. The land closest to the river was developed by plantation owners throughout the eighteenth century, during the Revolutionary War the British occupied the plantations from 1780 to 1782. The major crops grown along the Ashley River included rice, indigo, after the Civil War much of the region began to be used predominately for hunting and tourism. Within this segment, a visitor can experience a blackwater swamp, the tides of the Atlantic, some of the sites include Drayton Hall, Middleton Place, Magnolia Plantation, and the Colonial Dorchester State Historic Site. U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Ashley River
5.
Cooper River (South Carolina)
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The Cooper River is a mainly tidal river in the U. S. state of South Carolina. The South Carolina cities of Mt. Pleasant, Charleston, North Charleston, Goose Creek, Moncks Corner, short and wide, it is joined first by the blackwater East Branch, then farther downstream, the tidal Wando River. Almost immediately thereafter, the river widens into its estuary, uniting with the Ashley River to form the Charleston Harbor. Long used as an important commercial waterway, the West Branch of the Cooper River was initially connected to the Santee River near its head by a canal built in the late 18th century. Though the West Branch still rises as a swamp in central Berkeley County. Lake Moultrie is, in turn, fed from Lake Marion by a canal built around the same time period. This artificial rerouting of the Cooper River basin has essentially unified the Santee, the river was named for Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury and chief Lord Proprietor of the Carolina Colony. Charleston was founded on the bank of the Ashley River in 1670. Motorists have been able to cross the Cooper River under their own power for eight decades. As the Grace Bridge quickly became both functionally and structurally deficient, the State of South Carolina built a parallel span, the Silas N. Pearman Bridge, in service since August 8,1929, the Grace Memorial Bridge was the oldest of the three. Named for the commissioner who inspired the states system, the Pearman Bridge opened on April 29,1966. Their replacement span, the cable-stayed Arthur Ravenel, Jr, Bridge opened to traffic on July 16,2005. Demolition of the Grace and Pearman bridges began shortly afterwards and was completed in late 2007, though both are modern in every respect, there are currently only two bridges left to carry vehicular traffic across the river, the Holt and Ravenel bridges. A very popular 10k run over the river each spring. Daniel Island and Drum Island are adjacent to the river, cargo terminals, a paper mill, and the former Charleston Navy Base line its shore. Rice and indigo were heavily cultivated on plantations surrounding the brackish marshland of the lower Cooper River from the early Colonial through the end of the Civil War periods, the Patriots Point naval & maritime museum sits at the mouth of the river. Berthed at Patriots Point are four museum ships, most notably the USS Yorktown, a World War II aircraft carrier. “Goose Creek” A tributary of the Cooper River was the site of a U. S. Cooper River Bridge Cooper River Bridge Run and Walk U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Cooper River
6.
Fort Sumter
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Fort Sumter is a sea fort in Charleston, South Carolina, notable for two battles of the American Civil War. It was one of a number of forts planned after the War of 1812, combining high walls and heavy masonry. Work started in 1829, but was incomplete by 1860, when South Carolina seceded from the Union, the First Battle of Fort Sumter opened on April 12,1861, when Confederate artillery fired on the Union garrison. These were the first shots of the war, and continued all day, the fort had been cut off from its supply line and surrendered the next day. The Second Battle of Fort Sumter was an attempt by the Union to retake the fort. Although the fort was reduced to rubble, it remained in Confederate hands until it was evacuated as General Sherman marched through South Carolina in February 1865, Fort Sumter is open for public tours as part of the Fort Sumter National Monument operated by the National Park Service. Named after General Thomas Sumter, Revolutionary War hero, Fort Sumter was built following the War of 1812, construction began in 1829, and the structure was still unfinished in 1861, when the Civil War began. Seventy thousand tons of granite were imported from New England to build up a bar in the entrance to Charleston Harbor. The fort was a brick structure,170 to 190 feet long, with walls five feet thick. It was designed to house 650 men and 135 guns in three tiers of gun emplacements, although it was never filled near its full capacity and he secretly relocated companies E and H of the 1st U. S. Artillery to Fort Sumter on his own initiative, without orders from his superiors and he thought that providing a stronger defense would delay an attack by South Carolina militia. The fort was not yet complete at the time and fewer than half of the cannons that should have been available were in place, due to military downsizing by President James Buchanan. Over the next few months repeated calls for evacuation of Fort Sumter from the government of South Carolina, artillery, and three hired tug boats with added protection against small arms fire to be used to tow troop and supply barges directly to Fort Sumter. By April 6,1861 the first ships began to set sail for their rendezvous off the Charleston Bar, the first to arrive was Harriet Lane, the evening of April 11,1861. On Thursday, April 11,1861, Beauregard sent three aides, Colonel James Chesnut, Jr, captain Stephen D. Lee, and Lieutenant A. R. Chisolm to demand the surrender of the fort. Anderson declined, and the returned to report to Beauregard. After Beauregard had consulted the Confederate Secretary of War, Leroy Walker, he sent the aides back to the fort, the aides waited for hours while Anderson considered his alternatives and played for time. The aides then left the fort and proceeded to the nearby Fort Johnson, There, Chesnut ordered the fort to open fire on Fort Sumter
7.
Castle Pinckney
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Castle Pinckney was a small masonry fortification constructed by the United States government by 1810, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. It was used briefly as a prisoner-of-war camp and artillery position during the American Civil War. It was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, located on Shutes Folly, a small island about one mile off the Charleston shore in the harbor, the fort was built over the ruins of an older fortification called Fort Pinckney. Completed in 1804, it saw no hostilities and was destroyed by a severe hurricane in September of that year. A replacement brick-and-mortar structure called Castle Pinckney was erected in 1809–1810 and was garrisoned throughout the War of 1812, afterwards, Castle Pinckney was abandoned and fell into disrepair. After that brief period of activity, the fort fell into disuse and was primarily a storehouse for gunpowder and other military supplies. In 1860, Castle Pinckneys armament consisted of fourteen 24-pounders, four 42-pounders, four 8-inch howitzers, one 10-inch and one 8-inch mortar, Castle Pinckney became the first Federal military installation seized forcefully by a Southern state government. Three days later, the Unions Charleston Arsenal joined Castle Pinckney in falling to S. C. forces, after the subsequent Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, the Charleston Zouave Cadets garrisoned Castle Pinckney. According to the Charleston Mercury, Richmond officials had selected chiefly from among those who have evidenced the most insolent, on September 18, prisoners from the 11th NY Fire Zouaves, 69th NY Regiment, 79th NY Regiment, and 8th Michigan Infantry were transferred to Castle Pinckney. They were allowed to wander during the day and were confined to cells only at night, after the prisoners were removed, the fort was strengthened with earthen embankments and with additional mortars and Columbiads on the barbette tier. On December 12, the prisoners were transferred back to the island, following a fire which had burned a large section of Charleston and they remained for just over a week with many sleeping on the inner parade ground before being transferred. After the Civil War, the fort was modernized for use during the Spanish–American War. Some sources suggest that the fort never fired a hostile shot during its existence. Parts of the old walls and casements were dismantled in 1890, to make way for a harbor lighthouse. There was local opposition to the plans for the lighthouse, a movement had been undertaken to construct a retirement home for servicemen on the island instead, Castle Pinckney was declared a U. S. National Monument in 1924 by Presidential proclamation. In 1951, Congress passed a bill to abolish Castle Pinckney National Monument, the island became excess property subject to sale by the Federal government in March 1956. The island was acquired by the State Ports Commission as an area in 1958 for $12,000. Plans for the use of the island as an area proved impractical
8.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
9.
Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
10.
USS Yorktown (CV-10)
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USS Yorktown is one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers built during World War II for the United States Navy. She is named after the Battle of Yorktown of the American Revolutionary War, initially to have been named Bonhomme Richard, she was renamed Yorktown while under construction to commemorate USS Yorktown, lost at the Battle of Midway in June 1942. Yorktown was commissioned in April 1943, and participated in campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations, earning 11 battle stars. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s as an attack carrier, and then eventually became an antisubmarine carrier. She was recommissioned too late to participate in the Korean War but served for years in the Pacific, including duty in the Vietnam War. Late in her career, she served as a ship for the Apollo 8 space mission. Tora. which recreated the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Yorktown was decommissioned in 1970 and in 1975 became a museum ship at Patriots Point, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina. She is a National Historic Landmark and she was renamed on 26 September 1942 as USS Yorktown CV10, and launched on 21 January 1943, sponsored by Eleanor Roosevelt. Yorktown was commissioned on 15 April 1943, with Captain Joseph J. Clark in command, Yorktown remained in the Naval Station Norfolk area until 21 May, when she got underway for shakedown training in the vicinity of Trinidad. She returned to Norfolk on 17 June and began post-shakedown availability, the aircraft carrier completed repairs on 1 July and began air operations out of Norfolk until 6 July, when she exited Chesapeake Bay on her way to the Pacific Ocean. She transited the Panama Canal on 11 July and departed Balboa, Panama, the warship arrived in Pearl Harbor on 24 July and began a month of exercises in the Hawaiian Islands. On 22 August, she out of Pearl Harbor, bound for her first combat of the war. Her task force, TF15, arrived at the point about 128 miles from Marcus Island early on the morning of 31 August. She spent most of that day launching fighter and bomber strikes on Marcus Island before beginning the retirement to Hawaii that evening, the aircraft carrier reentered Pearl Harbor on 7 September and remained there for two days. On 9 September, she stood out to sea, bound for the West Coast of the United States and she arrived in San Francisco on 13 September, loaded aircraft and supplies, and returned to sea on 15 September. Four days later, the aircraft carrier reentered Pearl Harbor, Yorktown returned to sea to conduct combat operations on 29 September. Early on the morning of 5 October, she began two days of air strikes on Japanese installations on Wake Island, after retiring to the east for the night, she resumed those air raids early on the morning of 6 October and continued them through most of the day. That evening, the group began its retirement to Hawaii
11.
Fort Moultrie
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Fort Moultrie is a series of fortifications on Sullivans Island, South Carolina, built to protect the city of Charleston, South Carolina. The first fort, built of logs, inspired the flag and nickname of South Carolina. It is named for the commander in the Battle of Sullivans Island, Fort Moultrie is the only area of the National Park System where the entire 171-year history of American seacoast defense can be traced. South Carolina patriots began to build a fort to guard Charleston, South Carolina, British Admiral Sir Peter Parker with nine British warships attacked the fort—named Fort Sullivan and incomplete—on June 28,1776, near the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. The soft palmetto logs did not crack under bombardment but rather absorbed the shot, William Moultrie, commander of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment, and his four hundred men fought a day-long battle that ended with the heavily damaged British ships being driven from the area. This victory galvanized the Patriots cause for independence, the fort hence took its name Fort Moultrie in his honor. Charleston locals celebrate Carolina Day to commemorate the bravery of the defenders of the fort, during this battle, Moultrie flew a flag of his own design, authorized by the colonial government. It was later called the Moultrie flag or Liberty flag and became iconic to the Revolution in the South, the British eventually captured Fort Moultrie as part of the Siege of Charleston in spring 1780 and renamed it Fort Arbuthnot. Nevertheless, the won the war, and British troops departed in 1782, at which time the flag was presented in Charleston, by General Nathanael Greene. Great Britain and France began another war in 1793, heightening tensions, the United States of America thence embarked on a significant fortification program for important harbors, later called the First System of fortifications. Atop the decayed original Fort Moultrie, the Army completed a new fort in 1798, the fort was garrisoned by Captain Jonathan Robesons company in 1802. However, after years of neglect the Antigua–Charleston hurricane destroyed Fort Moultrie in 1804, Fort Moultrie was rebuilt as part of the Second System of fortifications in 1808–09 under the direction of Army engineer Alexander Macomb. … The barracks are of brick … for five hundred, Fort Moultries main design did not change much over the next five decades. The Army altered the parapet and modernized the armament, but defense of Charleston centered increasingly around newly created Fort Sumter, by the time of the American Civil War, Fort Moultrie, Fort Sumter, Fort Johnson, and Castle Pinckney surrounded and defended Charleston. Fort Moultrie began to record observations in the early 1820s. For fifty years the Army detained Native American prisoners at Fort Moultrie, seminole Indian fighter Osceola and some fellow Seminoles were captured in late 1837 and transferred to the fort. Osceola died of malaria in January 1838, the Army buried his corpse at the front gate of Fort Moultrie, in the months leading up to the Civil War John L. Gardner was in command at Fort Moultrie. With secession growing more imminent, Gardner had made several requests to Secretary of War John B, Floyd for more troops to garrison and defend the undermanned fortress
12.
Sullivan's Island, South Carolina
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Sullivans Island is a town and island in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States, at the entrance to Charleston Harbor, with a population of 1,791 at the 2010 census. The town is part of the Charleston metropolitan area, during the American Revolution, the island was the site of a major battle at Fort Sullivan on June 28,1776, since renamed Fort Moultrie in honor of the American commander at the battle. On September 23,1989, Hurricane Hugo came ashore near Sullivans Island, the eye of the hurricane passed directly over Sullivans Island. The Ben Sawyer Bridge was a casualty, breaking free of its locks, before the storm was over, one end of the bridge was in the water and the other was pointing skyward. Sullivans Island police chief, Jack Lilien, was the last person to leave the island before the bridge gave way, the island was known as OSullivans Island, named for Captain Florence OSullivan, who was stationed here as a lighthouse keeper in the late 17th century. OSullivan was captain of one of the ships in the first fleet to establish English and Irish settlement at Charleston, in 1671, he became surveyor general. He appears in the earliest record of Irish immigration to the Carolinas and it is estimated that nearly half of all African Americans have ancestors who passed through Sullivans Island. There is no memorial, or plaque, or wreath or wall, or park or skyscraper lobby. Theres no 300-foot tower, theres no small bench by the road, on July 26,2008, the Toni Morrison Society dedicated a small bench on Sullivans Island to the memory of the Africans forced into slavery, the memorial was privately funded. Albert Wheeler Todd, an architect from Charleston, designed a hall for the island. The British cannon had no effect on the sand-filled palmetto log walls of the fort, during this battle, a flag designed by Moultrie flew over the fortress, it was dark blue with a crescent moon on it bearing the word liberty. When this flag was shot down, Sergeant William Jasper reportedly picked it up and held it aloft, because of the importance of this pivotal battle that flag became symbolic of liberty in South Carolina, the South, and the nation as a whole. The Battle of Sullivans Island was commemorated by the addition of a palmetto tree to the flag used to rally that day, the Moultrie Flag. The victory is celebrated and June 28 is known as Carolina Day, the history of the island has been dominated by Fort Moultrie, which, until its closure in the late 1940s, served as the base of command for the defense of Charleston. After World War II, the Department of Defense concluded that such coastal defense installations were no longer needed given current technology, Sullivans Island is located along the Atlantic Ocean near the center of Charleston County. The town is bordered to the west by the entrance to Charleston Harbor, to the north by the Intracoastal Waterway, the Ben Sawyer Bridge connects Sullivans Island to Mount Pleasant to the north. A bridge spanning Breach Inlet connects it to Isle of Palms to the east, by road it is 9 miles north and then west into Charleston. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the town of Sullivans Island has an area of 3.4 square miles, of which 2.5 square miles is land and 0.93 square miles
13.
Robert William Roper House
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The Robert William Roper House is a historic house at 9 East Battery in Charleston, South Carolina. It was built on land purchased by Robert W. Roper, the house is an outstanding example of early 19th Century Greek Revival architecture, built on a monumental scale. Although there are now two houses between the Roper House and White Point Garden to the south, at the time of its construction nothing stood between the house and the harbor beyond. It is said that Mr. Roper intended his showcase home to be the first residence seen by visitors approaching Charleston from the sea, the authors of the nomination form for the National Register of Historic Places speculated that Edward B. White was the architect, although no evidence is given in support of this, the house was purchased in 1929 by Solomon Guggenheim of New York. It was acquired in 1968 by Richard Jenrette, who restored it, the Roper House was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973. Robert William Roper House, Charleston County, at South Carolina Department of Archives and History
14.
Charles Drayton House
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The Charles Drayton House is a historic Victorian home at 25 East Battery, Charleston, South Carolina. It was completed in 1886 for Charles H. Drayton, having been designed by W. B. W, the location of the house was the former site of the Greek Revival home of Daniel Heyward, which had been destroyed in the Civil War. The ruins were removed for the construction of the new house, the house, built with white brick and black grout, was designed with elements of Queen Anne architecture, Chinese influences and Eastlake detailing
15.
Villa Margherita
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The Villa Margherita is an Italian Renaissance house at 4 South Battery, Charleston, South Carolina. It was built in 1892 and early 1893 for Andrew Simonds, the house is of brick with a Portland cement coating according to the plans by the architect, Frederick P. Dinkelberg. The decorative work on the four Corinthian columns and frieze on the front was executed by Morrison Brothers of New York City, the entrance of the house features a large atrium with a fountain. Between 1905 and 1953, the served as a hotel. During that use, guests included William Howard Taft, Grover Cleveland, sinclair Lewis was a guest at the hotel, where he completed the manuscript for Main Street. From 1943 to 1946, the United Seamans Service leased the hotel and rented rooms to seamen, in 1961, James and Mary Wilson bought the house. Their daughter, Mary Wilson, sold it for $3 million to Stephen and Mary Hammond in September 2012
16.
William Washington House
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The William Washington House is a pre-Revolutionary house at 8 South Battery, Charleston, South Carolina. It is the only house on Charlestons Battery. Thomas Savage bought the lot at the southwest corner of Church St. and South Battery in 1768, the resulting structure is a nationally important, Georgian style, square, wooden, two-story house on a high foundation. In December 1785, Revolutionary War hero William Washington purchased the house and he and his wife remained until his death in 1810. His widow remained until her own death in 1830, since 1916, the house has remained in the family of Julian Mitchell
17.
Col. John A.S. Ashe House
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Ashe House is a historic home in Charleston, South Carolina along Charlestons Battery. Ashe, Jr. received the property upon which 26 South Battery is built upon his fathers death in 1828 along with $10,000 for the construction of a house. Ashe, Jr. s father had built the nearby Col. John Ashe House at 32 South Battery in the 1780s, the house he had built by 1853 was designed by Charleston architect Edward C. Jones. It is one of his extant houses in the Italianate style that swept Charleston in the 1850s. The house features heavy detailing inside the house and a layout of rooms
18.
James Spear House
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The James Spear House is a historic home in Charleston, South Carolina along Charlestons Battery. The property upon which the house was built was acquired by James Spear in 1860 for $5,000, however, by the time of a municipal census conducted in 1861, Spear was already occupying the house. The house is a brick house in the Italianate style that was popular in Charleston just before the Civil War. The house has a porch across the front with a third story that is open to the elements. Behind the house, there is a service building original to the house. The service building was connected to the some time after 1882
19.
Col. John Ashe House
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The John Ashe House is an 18th-century house at 32 South Battery, Charleston, South Carolina. The houses date of construction is unknown, but it was sometime around 1782. In August 2015, it replaced the James Simmons House as the most expensive sold in Charleston when it fetched about $7.72 million. The house stands on Lot 45 of a subdivision of the known as the Grand Model Plan. The house is built of cypress and is a Georgian double house. It features a three-story piazza across the width of the facade overlooking White Point Garden and has a cupola on the hipped roof. Mr. A. Kinloch McDowell bought the house in December 1937, the sales price at that time was undisclosed but thought to be near the recent asking price of $40,000, a figure which represented one of the highest sales in Charleston. In an earlier sale, Mr. and Mrs. Howland Spencer of New York bought the house from Mrs. Lane Mullally for $50,000 to use as a winter residence
20.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
21.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
22.
White Point Garden
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White Point Garden is a 5.7 acre public park located in peninsular Charleston, South Carolina, at the tip of the peninsula. It is the terminus for the Battery, a defensive seawall. It is bounded by East Battery, Murray Blvd, the southern tip of Charlestons peninsula was originally known as Oyster Point and later White Point because of the piles of sun-bleached oyster shells found at the edge of the water. Later, landfill projects resulted in the terminus of the peninsula. From about 1840 to 1881, a bathing house stood at the end of King Street. The building was constructed by James English, William Patton, a cake and ice cream parlor was operated on the top floor of the bathing house. The bathing house suffered several injuries by storms but was each time. It was removed in 1881 as White Point Garden and the waterfront were filled in, for more than a century, White Point Garden has been a repository of relics and memorials, with a largely military theme. In July 1897, two 10-inch Columbiads that had stored at Fort Sumter after the Civil War, were given by the federal government to a park in Kokomo. It was unknown whether the guns had actually been in service during the Civil War. Later that year, Charlestons City Council voted in favor to request the balance of the guns from the United States War Department, the War Department eventually loaned ten guns to Charleston. Some were put on display at the then-Thomson Auditorium temporarily while two of the guns from the Union ship Keokuk were installed at White Point Garden in 1900, placed at irregular intervals around three sides of the perimeter of White Point Garden are several military relics. Along East Battery are the 11-inch Dahlgren gun from the USS Keokuk that fired shells at Fort Sumter in 1863, there are several more artillery pieces, a rare 7-inch Brooke rifle that was found at Fort Johnson and four 13-inch Union mortars. Among the many cannon on display is one fake, in 1933, the City decided to unearth the cannon and relocate it in White Point Garden at the intersection of a projected Church Street and Murray Blvd. The residents of Longitude Lane were unhappy at the loss of their relic, and demanded its return, meanwhile, a prankster hired a foundry to create a fake cannon of the same era. He aged the cannon by submerging it in water for six months at his dock and then sold it to a store in Beaufort. When it was discovered there, it was bought by a visitor from the North, the buyer offered it to the residents of Longitude Lane to replace their cannon, but they rejected the offer, instead demanding the original cannon. The City, however, believed the cannon to be genuine, the Longitude Alley cannon stood across the park at the intersection of Church St. and South Battery, it was removed by the City following vandalism and then either lost or stolen
23.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
24.
Bastion
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A bastion is an angular structure projecting outward from the curtain wall of a fortification, most commonly at the corners. The fully developed bastion consists of two faces and two flanks with fire from the flanks being able to protect the wall and also the adjacent bastions. It is one element in the style of fortification dominant from the mid 16th to mid 19th centuries, Bastion fortifications offered a greater degree of passive resistance and more scope for ranged defense in the age of gunpowder artillery compared with the medieval fortifications they replaced. By the middle of the 15th century, artillery pieces had become powerful enough to make the traditional medieval round tower, during the Eighty Years War Dutch military engineers developed the concepts further lengthening the faces and shortening the curtain walls of the bastions. To augment this change they placed v shaped outworks in front of the bastions, Bastions differ from medieval towers in a number of respects. Bastions are lower than towers and are normally of similar height to the adjacent curtain wall, the height of towers, although making them difficult to scale, also made them easy for artillery to destroy. A bastion would normally have a ditch in front, the side of which would be built up above the natural level then slope away gradually. This glacis shielded most of the bastion from the cannon while the distance from the base of the ditch to the top of the bastion meant it was still difficult to scale. In contrast to late medieval towers, bastions were flat sided rather than curved. This eliminated dead ground making it possible for the defenders to fire upon any point directly in front of the bastion, Bastions also cover a larger area than most towers. This allows more cannons to be mounted and provided space for the crews to operate them. Surviving examples of bastions are usually faced with masonry, unlike the wall of a tower this was just a retaining wall, cannonball were expected to pass through this and be absorbed by a greater thickness of hard-packed earth or rubble behind. The top of the bastion was exposed to fire. If a bastion was successfully stormed, it could provide the attackers with a stronghold from which to further attacks. Some bastion designs attempted to minimise this problem and this could be achieved by the use of retrenchments in which a trench was dug across the rear of the bastion, isolating it from the main rampart. Various kinds of bastions have been used throughout history, solid bastions are those that are filled up entirely, and have the ground even with the height of the rampart, without any empty space towards the centre. Void or hollow bastions are those that have a rampart, or parapet, only around their flanks and faces, so that a void space is left towards the centre. The ground is so low, that if the rampart is taken, no retrenchment can be made in the centre, but what will lie under the fire of the besieged
25.
Siege of Charleston
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The Siege of Charleston was a major engagement fought between March 29 to May 12,1780 during the American Revolutionary War. The British, following the collapse of their strategy and their withdrawal from Philadelphia. By late 1779, two major British strategic efforts had failed, meanwhile, a strategic effort led by Sir William Howe to capture the Revolutionary capital of Philadelphia had met with initial success. The British were persuaded that there was a strong Loyalist sentiment in the south, largely due to the extensive business and it was expected that these Loyalists would rise against the American Patriots in large numbers. The opening British move was the Capture of Savannah, Georgia in December 1778, Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Newport, Rhode Island on October 25,1779, and left the substantial garrison of New York City under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen. In December, he sailed southward with 8,500 troops to join Colonel Mark Prevost at Savannah, the joint British naval-army forces were led overall by Sir Henry Clinton, with his subordinate, Lord Cornwallis as his second-in-command. The British regular troops were led by Brigadier General Alexander Leslie, the ground and naval forces were composed thus, The Franco-American garrison of Charleston was overall led by Benjamin Lincoln. The Continental Army troops were led by Brigadier General William Moultrie The ground and naval forces were composed thus. Cutting the city off from relief, he began a siege of the city on April 1, the following day, the British begun to dig their siege works, approximately 800 yards from the American lines. During these first few days, the British troops were under an artillery fire from the Americans. By April 6, the British fleet had moved into the harbour, Benjamin Lincoln held a council of war, and was advised by de Laumoy to surrender, with the American situation becoming untenable. On April 21, a parlay was made between Clinton and Lincoln, with Lincoln offering to surrender, should he be granted the honours of war, Clinton refused the terms, and the siege resumed with a heavy artillery exchange. On April 23, Lord Cornwallis crossed the Cooper River, assuming command of the British forces blocking an escape by land. On April 29, the British advanced down the end of a strategically important canal that fronted Charlestons defences, intending to destroy the dam. The Americans harried the British efforts with stiff resistance, however, by May 6, most of the water had drained. On the same day, Fort Moultrie surrendered, on May 8, Clinton called for Lincolns unconditional surrender, but Lincoln again attempted to negotiate for the honours of war. On May 11, the British fired red-hot shot into the city, burning several homes, on May 12, Lincoln, with over 5,000 troops, surrendered to the British. When word reached the back-country, the American troops holding Ninety-Six, following the surrender, the captured ordnance was brought to a powder magazine
26.
Quasi-War
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The Quasi-War was an undeclared war fought almost entirely at sea between the United States of America and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800. Louis XVI of France fell from power in 1792 during the French Revolution, the United States had already declared neutrality in the conflict between Great Britain and revolutionary France, and American legislation was being passed for a trade deal with Britain. When the U. S. refused to continue repaying its debt using the argument that the debt was owed to the government, not to the French First Republic. First, French privateers began seizing American ships trading with Britain, next, the French government refused to receive Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, the new U. S. Minister, when he arrived in Paris in December 1796. In April 1798, President Adams informed Congress of the XYZ Affair, meanwhile, French privateers inflicted substantial losses on American shipping. On 21 February 1797, Secretary of State Timothy Pickering told Congress that during the eleven months. French marauders cruised the length of the Atlantic seaboard virtually unopposed, the United States government had nothing to combat them, as the navy had been abolished at the end of the Revolutionary War and its last warship sold in 1785. The United States had only a flotilla of small revenue cutters, increased depredations by French privateers led to the rebirth of the United States Navy and the creation of the United States Marine Corps to defend the expanding American merchant fleet. Congress authorized the president to acquire, arm, and man not more than twelve ships of up to twenty two guns each, several merchantmen were immediately purchased and refitted as ships of war, and construction of the frigate Congress resumed. Congress rescinded the treaties with France on 7 July 1798 and that date is now considered the beginning of the Quasi-War. This was followed two days later with the passage of the Congressional authorization of attacks on French warships in American waters. The U. S. Navy operated with a fleet of about twenty five vessels. French privateers generally resisted, as did La Croyable, which was captured on 7 July 1798, by Delaware outside of Egg Harbor, enterprise captured eight privateers and freed eleven American merchant ships from captivity. Experiment captured the French privateers Deux Amis and Diane, numerous American merchantmen were recaptured by Experiment. Boston forced Le Berceau into submission, silas Talbot engineered an expedition to Puerto Plata harbor in the Colony of Santo Domingo, a possession of Frances ally Spain, on 11 May 1800. Sailors and Marines from Constitution under Lieutenant Isaac Hull captured the French privateer Sandwich in the harbor, the U. S. Navy lost only one ship to the French, Retaliation, which was later recaptured. She was the captured privateer La Croyable, recently purchased by the U. S. Navy, Retaliation departed Norfolk on 28 October 1798, with Montezuma and Norfolk, and cruised in the West Indies protecting American commerce. Montezuma and Norfolk escaped after Bainbridge convinced the senior French commander that those American warships were too powerful for his frigates, renamed Magicienne by the French, the schooner again came into American hands on 28 June, when a broadside from Merrimack forced her to haul down her colors
27.
Antique
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An antique is a collectable item, at least 100 years old. It is collected or desirable because of its age, beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection and it is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human society. It is common practice to define antique as applying to objects at least 100 years old, antiques are usually objects that show some degree of craftsmanship—or a certain attention to design, such as a desk or an early automobile. They are bought at shops, estate sales, auction houses, online auctions. Antique dealers often belong to trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA. Motor vehicles are an exception to the 100-year rule, the customary definition of antique requires that an item be at least 100 years old and in original condition. In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined antiques as,1830 was the approximate beginning of mass production in the United States. These definitions were intended to allow people of that time to distinguish between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects, commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. An antiquarian is a person who collects and studies antiquities or things of the past, traditionally, Chinese antiques are marked by a red seal, known as a chop, placed there by an owner. Experts can identify previous owners of an antique by reading the chops, the pre-revolution Chinese government tried to assist collectors of Chinese antiques by requiring their Department of Antiquities to provide a governmental chop on the bottom of a Chinese antique. This chop is visible as a piece of red sealing wax that bears the government chop to verify the date of the antique, the government of the Peoples Republic of China has its own definitions of what it considers antique. As of the Cultural Revolution and Chinas opening trade to other countries, antiquing is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. People buy items for use, gifts, or profit. Sources for antiquing include garage sales and yard sales, estate sales, resort towns, antique districts, collectives, note that antiquing also means the craft of making an object appear antique through distressing or applying an antique-looking paint applications. Often, individuals get confused between these handmade distressed vintage or modern items and true antiques, if you can not tell the difference between the two, you may find yourself paying a high amount of money for something that has little value in the antiquing industry. Antique furniture is an area of antiques because furniture has obvious practical uses as well as collector value. Many collectors use pieces in their homes, and care for them with the hope that they hold their value or appreciate and this is in contrast to buying new furniture, which typically depreciates from the moment of purchase. Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc, the most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut, and rosewood
28.
Charleston Battery
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Charleston Battery is an American professional soccer club based in Charleston, South Carolina. Founded in 1993, the plays in the United Soccer League and. In 2012, the won the USL Pro Championship, winning its fourth league title in club history. Charleston is also the most successful club in the history of the unofficial Southern Derby competition with five first-place finishes, the club has played its home games at the soccer-specific MUSC Health Stadium in the Daniel Island section of Charleston since 1999. The teams colors are black and yellow, with a red scheme for away uniforms. Since 2005, their coach and general manager has been Mike Anhaeuser. The Battery won their first league championship in 1996 under Portuguese manager Nuno Piteira, in 1997 Charleston became one of the original clubs of the newly branded A-League. In 2001 Dicks was replaced by fellow Englishman Chris Ramsey, who led Charleston to the A-League championship in 2003 with a 3–0 victory in the final over Minnesota Thunder in Charleston. Following Ramseys departure in 2004, the club promoted longtime player, in 2008 the Battery reached the Lamar Hunt US Open Cup final for the first time, playing against Major League Soccer team D. C. In the final the Battery conceded a goal but bounced back with a quick-fire equalizer through an Ian Fuller goal. Later in the half Lazo Alavanja hit the post but at half time the scores were tied at 1–1, United would go on to win the match 2–1. Charleston remain the most recent non-MLS club to play in the Open Cup final, in their first third division season in 2010, Charleston led the league standings for the entire year and went undefeated at home. Charleston defeated the Richmond Kickers 2–1 in the final to claim the third league championship. Lamar Neagle was named the USL-2 league MVP and lead the league in scoring with 13 league goals, Anhaeuser was named the leagues manager of the year, his second time receiving the honor. In 2012 the Battery won their league title in club history. Micheal Azira scored a 74th-minute winner after Jose Cuevas slipped a pass to him on the side of the penalty area. In recent years the Battery have had affiliations with several Major League Soccer clubs. For the 2015 season, the Battery signed a deal to affiliate with the Houston Dynamo
29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
30.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Media related to Battery Park (Charleston) at Wikimedia Commons