1.
The Dakota
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It was built in 1884 and is considered to be one of Manhattans most prestigious and exclusive cooperative residential buildings. The Dakota is famous as the home of former Beatle John Lennon from 1973 to his death outside the building in 1980, the Dakota was constructed between October 25,1880, and October 27,1884. The architectural firm of Henry Janeway Hardenbergh was commissioned to create the design for Edward Clark, the firm also designed the Plaza Hotel. According to Gray, it is likely that the building was named the Dakota because of Clarks fondness for the names of the new western states and territories. The Dakota was designated a New York City Landmark in 1969, the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, and was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1976. Beginning in 2013, the Dakotas façade was being renovated, nevertheless, its layout and floor plan betray a strong influence of French architectural trends in housing design that had become known in New York in the 1870s. High above the 72nd Street entrance, the figure of a Dakota Indian keeps watch, the Dakota is square, built around a central courtyard. The arched main entrance is a large enough for the horse-drawn carriages that once entered and allowed passengers to disembark sheltered from the weather. The Dakota Stables building was in operation as a garage until February 2007, since then, the large condominium building The Harrison occupies its spot. The principal rooms, such as parlors or the master bedroom, face the street, while the room, kitchen. Apartments thus are aired from two sides, which was a novelty in Manhattan at the time. Some of the rooms are 49 ft long, and many of the ceilings are 14 ft high, the floors are inlaid with mahogany, oak. Originally, the Dakota had 65 apartments with four to 20 rooms and these apartments are accessed by staircases and elevators placed in the four corners of the courtyard. Separate service stairs and elevators serving the kitchens are located in mid-block, built to cater for the well-to-do, the Dakota featured many amenities and a modern infrastructure that was exceptional for the time. The building has a dining hall, meals also could be sent up to the apartments by dumbwaiters. Electricity was generated by a power plant and the building has central heating. Beside servant quarters, there was a playroom and a gymnasium under the roof, in later years, these spaces on the tenth floor were converted into apartments for economic reasons. The Dakota property also contained a garden, private croquet lawns, all apartments were let before the building opened, but it was a long-term drain on the fortune of Clark, who died before it was completed, and his heirs
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
North Dakota
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North Dakota is the 39th state of the United States, having been admitted to the union on November 2,1889. The state capital is Bismarck, and the largest city is Fargo, North Dakota is the 19th most extensive but the 4th least populous and the 4th least densely populated of the 50 United States. The development has driven strong job and population growth, and low unemployment, North Dakota is located in the U. S. region known as the Great Plains. The state shares the Red River of the North with Minnesota on the east, South Dakota is to the south, Montana is to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba are to the north. North Dakota is situated near the middle of North America with a marker in Rugby. With an area of 70,762 square miles, North Dakota is the 19th largest state, the western half of the state consists of the hilly Great Plains as well as the northern part of the Badlands, which are to the west of the Missouri River. The states high point, White Butte at 3,506 feet, the region is abundant in fossil fuels including natural gas, crude oil and lignite coal. The Missouri River forms Lake Sakakawea, the third largest man-made lake in the United States, the central region of the state is divided into the Drift Prairie and the Missouri Plateau. The eastern part of the consists of the flat Red River Valley. Its fertile soil, drained by the meandering Red River flowing northward into Lake Winnipeg, Devils Lake, the largest natural lake in the state, is also found in the east. Eastern North Dakota is overall flat, however, there are significant hills, most of the state is covered in grassland, crops cover most of eastern North Dakota but become increasingly sparse in the center and farther west. This diverse terrain supports nearly 2,000 species of plants, the state of North Dakota is home to the geographical center of North America located near Rugby, North Dakota North Dakota has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. The temperature differences are rather extreme because of its far inland position and being in the center of the Northern Hemisphere, with equal distances to the North Pole. As such, summers are almost subtropical in nature, but winters are cold enough to plant hardiness is very low. Native American peoples lived in what is now North Dakota for thousands of years before the coming of Europeans and their tribes included the Mandan people, the Dakota people and the Yanktonai, the latter two from the Lakota peoples. The first European to reach the area was the French-Canadian trader Pierre Gaultier, sieur de La Vérendrye, in 1762 the region became part of Spanish Louisiana until 1802. Dakota Territory was settled sparsely by European Americans until the late 19th century, with the advantage of grants of land, they vigorously marketed their properties, extolling the region as ideal for agriculture. An omnibus bill for statehood for North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and his successor, Benjamin Harrison, signed the proclamations formally admitting North Dakota and South Dakota to the Union on November 2,1889
5.
South Dakota
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South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, South Dakota is the 17th most expansive, but the 5th least populous and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Once the southern portion of the Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2,1889, Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 171,000, is South Dakotas largest city. South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, the state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as East River and West River. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the states population, West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are located in West River, the Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are located in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is located there, South Dakota experiences a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The ecology of the state features species typical of a North American grassland biome, humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a rush in the Black Hills. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence the culture of the state, South Dakota is situated in the north-central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U. S. Census Bureau, it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest, South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles, making the state the 17th largest in the Union. Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft, is the states highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft. South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota, to the south by Nebraska, to the east by Iowa and Minnesota, the geographical center of the U. S. is 17 miles west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located between Allen and Kyle,1,024 mi from the nearest coastline, the Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs, Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions, eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, at times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River
6.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
7.
Dakota Territory
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The name refers to the Dakota branch of the Sioux tribes which occupied the area at the time. Most of Dakota Territory was formerly part of the Minnesota and Nebraska territories, when Minnesota became a state in 1858, the leftover area between the Missouri River and Minnesotas western boundary fell unorganized. Three years later President-elect Abraham Lincolns cousin-in-law, J. B. S, todd, personally lobbied for territory status and the U. S. Congress formally created Dakota Territory. It became a territory on March 2,1861. Upon creation, Dakota Territory included much of present-day Montana and Wyoming as well as all of present-day North Dakota and South Dakota, the Department of the Northwest sent expeditions into Dakota Territory in 1863,1864 and 1865. It also established forts in Dakota Territory to protect the settlements of the Territory, Iowa and Minnesota. Following the Civil War, hostilities continued with the Sioux until the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, by 1868, creation of new territories reduced Dakota Territory to the present boundaries of the Dakotas. Territorial counties were defined in 1872, including Bottineau County, Cass County, during the existence of the organized territory, the population first increased very slowly and then very rapidly with the Dakota Boom from 1870 to 1880. Because the Sioux were considered hostile and a threat to early settlers. Gradually, the population grew and the Sioux were not considered as severe a threat. The population increase can largely be attributed to the growth of the Northern Pacific Railroad, settlers who came to the Dakota Territory were from other western territories as well as many from northern and western Europe. These included large numbers of Norwegians, Germans, Swedes, commerce was originally organized around the fur trade. Furs were carried by steamboat along the rivers to the settlements, gold was discovered in the Black Hills in 1874 and attracted more settlers, setting off the last Sioux War. The population surge increased the demand for meat spurring expanded cattle ranching on the territorys vast open ranges, with the advent of the railroad agriculture intensified, wheat became the territorys main cash crop. Economic hardship hit the territory in the 1880s due to lower wheat prices, the territorial capital was Yankton from 1861 until 1883, when it was moved to Bismarck. The Dakota Territory was divided into the states of North Dakota, the admission of two states, as opposed to one, was done for a number of reasons. The two population centers in the territory were in the northeast and southeast corners of the territory, on a national level, there was pressure from the Republican Party to admit two states to add to their political power in the Senate. Admission of new states was a party political battleground with each party looking at how the proposed new states were likely to vote
8.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
9.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
10.
Midwestern United States
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It was officially named the North Central region by the Census Bureau until 1984. Illinois is the most populous of the states and North Dakota the least, a 2012 report from the United States Census put the population of the Midwest at 65,377,684. The Midwest is divided by the Census Bureau into two divisions, the East North Central Division includes Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin, all of which are also part of the Great Lakes region. Major rivers in the include, from east to west, the Ohio River, the Upper Mississippi River. Chicago is the most populated city in the American Midwest and the third most populous in the entire country, other large Midwest cities include, Indianapolis, Columbus, Detroit, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, Cleveland, Wichita and St. Louis. Chicago and its suburbs form the largest metropolitan area with 9.8 million people, followed by Metro Detroit. Paul, Greater St. Louis, Greater Cleveland, Greater Cincinnati, Kansas City metro area, the term Midwestern has been in use since the 1880s to refer to portions of the central United States. A variant term, Middle West, has used since the 19th century. Another term sometimes applied to the general region is the heartland. Other designations for the region have fallen out of use, such as the Northwest or Old Northwest, the Northwest Territory was one of the earliest territories of the United States, stretching northwest from the Ohio River to northern Minnesota and upper-Mississippi. The upper-Mississippi watershed including the Missouri and Illinois Rivers was the setting for the earlier French settlements of the Illinois Country, economically the region is balanced between heavy industry and agriculture, with finance and services such as medicine and education becoming increasingly important. Its central location makes it a crossroads for river boats, railroads, autos, trucks. Politically the region swings back and forth between the parties, and thus is heavily contested and often decisive in elections, after the sociological study Middletown, which was based on Muncie, Indiana, commentators used Midwestern cities as typical of the nation. The region has a higher ratio than the Northeast, the West. Traditional definitions of the Midwest include the Northwest Ordinance Old Northwest states, the states of the Old Northwest are also known as Great Lakes states and are east-north central in the United States. The Ohio River runs along the section while the Mississippi River runs north to south near the center. Many of the Louisiana Purchase states in the west-north central United States, are known as Great Plains states. The Midwest lies north of the 36°30′ parallel that the 1820 Missouri Compromise established as the line between future slave and non-slave states
11.
High Plains (United States)
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The southern region of the Western High Plains ecology region contains the geological formation known as Llano Estacado which can be seen from a short distance or from miles away on satellite maps. From east to west, the High Plains rise in elevation from around 1,160 feet to over 7,800 feet. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Prior to 1916, the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is usually used for a subregion instead of the whole of the Great Plains. The High Plains has a cold semi-arid climate—Köppen BSk—receiving between 10–20 inches of precipitation annually, due to low moisture and high elevation, the High Plains commonly experiences wide ranges and extremes in temperature. This is the record for the greatest temperature change in 24 hours. The region is known for the steady, and sometimes intense, the winds add a considerable wind chill factor in the winter. The development of farms in the High Plains is one of the newest areas of economic development. The High Plains are anomalously high in elevation, an explanation has recently been proposed to explain this high elevation. As the Farallon plate was subducted into the mantle beneath the region, within the crust this water caused the hydration of dense garnet and other phases into lower density amphibole and mica minerals. The resulting increase in crustal volume raised the elevation about one mile, plants endemic to the region are shortgrass prairie, prickly pear cacti and scrub. Agriculture in the forms of ranching and the growing of wheat, corn. Some areas of the High Plains have significant petroleum and natural gas deposits, the combination of oil, natural gas, and wind energy along with plentiful underground water, has allowed some areas to sustain a range of economic activity, including occasional industry. For example, the ASARCO refinery in Amarillo, Texas has been in operation since 1924 due to the plentiful and inexpensive natural gas and water that are needed in metal ore refining. The High Plains has one of the lowest population densities of any region in the continental United States, Wyoming, smaller towns, on the other hand, often struggle to sustain their population. High Plains Regional Climate Center High Plains climatological resources High Plains information - U. S. Department of the Interior Trains on the High Plains Texas counties map showing the ecoregion
12.
Public Broadcasting Service
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The Public Broadcasting Service is an American non-profit public broadcaster and television program distributor headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is funded by member dues, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, government agencies, corporations, foundations. All proposed funding is subjected to a set of standards to ensure the program is free of influence from the funding source, since the mid 2000s, Roper polls commissioned by PBS have consistently placed the service as the most-trusted national institution in the United States. This arbitrary distinction is a frequent source of viewer confusion and it also operates National Datacast, a subsidiary which offers datacasting services via member stations, and provides additional revenue for PBS and its member stations. Founded by Hartford N. Gunn Jr, in 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations. Each station is charged with the responsibility of programming content for their individual market or state that supplements content provided by PBS. By contrast, PBS member stations pay fees for the acquired and distributed by the national organization. Under this relationship, PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial broadcasting counterparts, scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly depending on the market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism, however, PBS has a policy of common carriage, which requires most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common programming schedule to market them nationally more effectively. Management at former Los Angeles member KCET cited unresolvable financial and programming disputes among its reasons for leaving PBS after over 40 years in January 2011. Most PBS stations timeshift some distributed programs, once PBS accepts a program offered for distribution, PBS, rather than the originating member station, retains exclusive rebroadcasting rights during an agreed period. Suppliers retain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, in 1991, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting resumed production for most PBS shows that debuted prior to 1977, with the exceptions of Washington Week in Review and Wall Street Week. In 1994, The Chronicle of Philanthropy released the results of the largest study on the popularity and credibility of charitable, the strategy began that fall, with the intent to expand the in-program breaks to the remainder of the schedule if successful. In 2011, PBS released apps for iOS and Android to allow viewing of videos on mobile devices. An update in 2015 added Chromecast support, PBS initially struggled to compete with online media such as YouTube for market share. In a 2012 speech to 850 top executives from PBS stations, in the speech, later described as a “seminal moment” for public television, he laid out his vision for a new style of PBS digital video production. Station leadership rallied around his vision and Seiken formed PBS Digital Studios, which began producing educational but edgy videos, something Seiken called “PBS-quality with a YouTube sensibility. ”The studio’s first hit, in 2012, PBS began organizing much of its prime time programming around a genre-based schedule. PBS broadcasts childrens programming as part of the morning and afternoon schedule
13.
Black Hills
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The Black Hills are a small, isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, United States. Black Elk Peak, which rises to 7,244 feet, is the ranges highest summit, the Black Hills encompass the Black Hills National Forest. The name Black Hills is a translation of the Lakota Pahá Sápa, the hills were so-called because of their dark appearance from a distance, as they were covered in trees. Native Americans have a history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills, however, when settlers discovered gold there in 1874, as a result of George Armstrong Custers Black Hills Expedition, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. As the economy of the Black Hills has shifted from natural resources since the late 20th century, locals tend to divide the Black Hills into two areas, The Southern Hills and The Northern Hills. Attractions in the Northern Hills include Spearfish Canyon, historic Deadwood, the first Rally was held on August 14,1938 and the 75th Rally in 2015 saw more than 1 million bikers visit the Black Hills. Devils Tower National Monument, located in the Wyoming Black Hills, is an important nearby attraction and was the United States first national monument. Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns. For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, however, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins. The Arikara arrived by AD1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa, the Lakota arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west. They claimed the land, which they called Ȟe Sápa, the mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills. François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably travelled near the Black Hills in 1743, fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans. European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory, in this treaty, they protected the Black Hills forever from European-American settlement. Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that in their cultures, it was considered the axis mundi, an official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition. The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills, the surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, was the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak. This highest point in the Black Hills is 7,242 feet above sea level, during the 1875–1878 gold rush, thousands of miners went to the Black Hills, in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory. Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills, Deadwood, Central City, around these were groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages
14.
Deadwood, South Dakota
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Deadwood is a city in South Dakota, United States, and the county seat of Lawrence County. It is named after the trees found in its gulch. The population was 1,270 according to the 2010 census, the city includes the Deadwood Historic District, a National Historic Landmark District. The settlement of Deadwood began illegally in the 1870s on land which had granted to American Indians in the 1868 Treaty of Laramie. The treaty had guaranteed ownership of the Black Hills to the Lakota people and land disputes were endemic, however, in 1874, Colonel George Armstrong Custer led an expedition into the Black Hills and announced the discovery of gold on French Creek near present-day Custer, South Dakota. This announcement triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush and gave rise to the new and lawless town of Deadwood, in early 1876, frontiersman Charlie Utter and his brother Steve led a wagon train to Deadwood containing what were deemed to be needed commodities to bolster business. The gamblers and prostitutes resulted in the establishment of several profitable ventures, madame Mustache and Dirty Em were on the wagon train and set up shop in what was referred to as Deadwood Gulch. Demand for women was high and the business of prostitution proved to have a good market, Madam Dora DuFran would eventually become the most profitable brothel owner in Deadwood, closely followed by Madam Mollie Johnson. Businessman Tom Miller opened the Bella Union Saloon in September 1876, a saloon called the Gem Variety Theater, opened on April 7,1877 by Al Swearengen who also controlled the opium trade. The saloon was destroyed by a fire and rebuilt in 1879 and it burned down again in 1899, causing Swearengen to leave the town. Deadwood became known for its lawlessness, during which time murder was common and punishment for not always fair. The town attained further notoriety for the murder of gunman Wild Bill Hickok, mount Moriah Cemetery is the final resting place of Hickok and Calamity Jane, as well as slightly less notable figures such as Seth Bullock. This decision moved McCalls trial to a Dakota Territory court, where he was guilty of murder. As the economy changed from gold panning to deep mining, Deadwood lost its rough and rowdy character, in 1876, a smallpox epidemic swept through, with so many falling ill that tents were erected to quarantine the stricken. In 1876, General George Crook pursued the Sioux Indians from the Battle of Little Big Horn on an expedition that ended in Deadwood and is known as the Horsemeat March, the Homestake Mine in nearby Lead was established in 1877. For years, it was the longest continuously operating gold mine in the United States, Gold mining operations ceased in 2002 but the mine is still open to tourists. On September 26,1879, a fire devastated Deadwood, destroying more than three hundred buildings and consuming the belongings of many inhabitants, many of the newly impoverished left town to start again. Thomas Edison demonstrated the incandescent lamp in New Jersey in 1879, romans took a gamble and founded the Pilcher Electric Light Company of Deadwood on September 17,1883
15.
Fort Buford
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Fort Buford was a United States Army Post at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers in Dakota Territory, present day North Dakota, and the site of Sitting Bulls surrender in 1881. The fort was named after the late Major General John Buford, the second night after arrival the camp was attacked by a band of the Hunkpapa Lakota led by Sitting Bull, they were driven off with one soldier wounded. The next day, the group attacked and attempted to drive off the companys herd of beef cattle. Parties of men cutting and rafting logs from the mouth of the Yellowstone were often attacked and driven to camp, three civilian wood cutters were killed at the mouth of the Yellowstone in December. Hiram H. Ketchum with sixty men reacted, drove off the Indians, according to the regimental history, the Lakota boasted that they intended to annihilate the soldiers and during the winter they besieged the post. The siege cut off the garrison from the nearby Missouri River, the shallow well water they drank was contaminated, by the posts livestock and/or human waste, and caused dysentery. From December 21–24 a large group of the Hunkpapas repeatedly attacked and captured the posts ice house and sawmill located near the river, the attackers were not repelled until Rankin ordered his two 12 pound Napoleons to return fire. Captain Rankins wife spent the winter in camp, enduring the hardships, the episode began when the Philadelphia Inquirer ran a story April 1,1867, based on a letter allegedly written from the fort, which was then picked up and run the next day nationwide. It was given legs by a letter published April 6 in the Army and Navy Journal, attributed to the wife of a prominent Army officer, the hoax was eventually exposed by Rankin himself in correspondence to the war department. Although the general harassing by the Lakota of Fort Buford lasted until the early 1870s, the worst was during that first year, June 1866 to May 1867. The South side, while not being walled off, was enclosed by the portion of a reverse L of adobe barracks buildings. The reconstructed barracks on the site today is on the location of where the original that formed the short leg of the L was. The reason being that the there had 30 years worth of age and was of superior quality to the green cottonwood available along the Yellowstone. The post was expanded again in 1871–1872 with the arrival of Colonel William B, at that time the fighting had moved further westward into Montana Territory and the garrison was large enough to no-longer need the perimeter stockade. The original Commanding Officers Quarters at the site today was part of expansion and originally built in 1871–1872. This structure sits at the end of what once was a double row of Officers Quarters that ran towards the North. Beyond this double row the stone Powder Magazine was built in 1875 out of sandstone quarried from an area located to the North of the fort. When in use the magazine held over a million rounds of ammunition for the forts garrison, at this time Fort Buford became a key element in the supply route for the military campaigns of 1876–1877 in Montana Territory
16.
Standing Rock Reservation
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The Standing Rock Indian Reservation is located in North Dakota and South Dakota in the United States, and is occupied by ethnic Hunkpapa Lakota, Sihasapa Lakota and Yanktonai Dakota. The reservation has an area of 9,251.2 square kilometers. The largest communities on the reservation are Fort Yates, Cannon Ball, together with the Hunkpapa and Sihasapa bands, the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe is part of what was known as the Great Sioux Nation. In 1868 the lands of the Great Sioux Nation were reduced in the Fort Laramie Treaty to the east side of the Missouri River, the Black Hills, considered by the Sioux to be sacred land, are located in the center of territory awarded to the tribe. In direct violation of the treaty, in 1874 General George A. Custer and his 7th Cavalry entered the Black Hills and discovered gold, starting a gold rush. The United States government wanted to buy or rent the Black Hills from the Lakota people and it was an overwhelming Native American victory. The U. S. with its superior resources was soon able to force the Native Americans to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments, the Agreement of 1877 officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Native American reservations. Under the Agreement of 1877 the U. S. government took the Black Hills from the Sioux Nation, in February 1890, the United States government broke a Lakota treaty by breaking up the Great Sioux Reservation, an area that formerly encompassed the majority of the state. It reduced it and divided it into five smaller reservations, on the reduced reservations, the government allocated family units on 320-acre plots for individual households. Generally, they forbade inclusion of Native American traditional culture and language, the children were beaten if they tried to do anything related to their native culture. The farming plan failed to take account the difficulty that Lakota farmers would have in trying to cultivate crops in the semi-arid region of South Dakota. By the end of the 1890 growing season, a time of intense heat and low rainfall, as the bison had been virtually eradicated a few years earlier, the Lakota were at risk of starvation. The people turned to the Ghost Dance ritual, which frightened the supervising agents of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, agent James McLaughlin asked for more troops. He claimed that spiritual leader Sitting Bull was the leader of the movement. If the Seventh-Day Adventists prepare the ascension robes for the Second Coming of the Savior, why should not the Indians have the same privilege. If the troops remain, trouble is sure to come, thousands of additional U. S. Army troops were deployed to the reservation. On December 15,1890, Sitting Bull was arrested for failing to stop his people from practicing the Ghost Dance, during his arrest, one of Sitting Bulls men, Catch the Bear, fired at Lieutenant Bull Head, striking his right side. He instantly wheeled and shot Sitting Bull, hitting him in the left side, the Hunkpapa who lived in Sitting Bulls camp and relatives fled to the south
17.
Wounded Knee Battlefield
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The Wounded Knee Battlefield, known also as Wounded Knee, was the site of the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890. As Wounded Knee, an 870-acre area was designated a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1965, along with all other National Historic Landmarks, it was listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places, when that program was inaugurated in 1966. It was listed as Wounded Knee Battlefield, the National Historic Landmark nomination was drafted by 1990, and a consultation with Indian representatives then arranged. Input was that the Indian representation should be increased, and oral history interviews were conducted with four descendents. Interview summaries are included in the revised nomination, the National Historic Landmark program provides some monitoring. As of January 17,2010, its webpage noted, The area suffers from neglect, the programs recommendation was that The owners need to provide regular maintenance at the site. The NRHP listing included one contributing site and one contributing object, the non-contributing elements are fairly small and scattered so do not detract greatly from the setting. The contributing site is the area of the massacre itself, including the location of the post office. The contributing object is the 1903 monument, a museum at the site interprets the massacre. List of National Historic Landmarks in South Dakota National Register of Historic Places listings in Oglala Lakota County, South Dakota
18.
Missouri River
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The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river takes drainage from a populated, semi-arid watershed of more than half a million square miles. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the fourth longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle, the Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region, pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river. Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers, leading to some of the most longstanding, during the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with more on tributaries. Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation, from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River. The longest begins near Browers Spring,9,100 feet above sea level, on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains. Flowing west then north, it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek, then west into the Red Rock, swings northeast to become the Beaverhead and these two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana. The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, the Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri. Farther on, the passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river, the Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota and it slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest
19.
Missouri River Valley
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At 2,300 miles long the valley drains one-sixth of the United States, and is the longest river valley on the North American continent. The valley in the Missouri River basin includes river bottoms and floodplains, the Missouris valley ranges from 6 miles to 10 miles wide from edge to edge, with gentle slopes from the adjacent upland to the valley floor. Other segments are narrow, less than two wide, with rugged valley sides. Generally, the wide segments trend west-east and the narrow segments trend north-south, the valley travels through several distinct ecoregions with distinct climate, geology and native species. The Loess Hills are a geographic feature of the valley. The majority of these hills stretch along the east side of the river, from Westfield, Iowa in the north to Mound City, channeling and levee construction have altered how floods affect the Missouri River Valley. Several large floods have affected the valley since Europeans first came into the area, the first recorded event is the Great Flood of 1844, which crested in Kansas City on July 16,1844, discharged 625,000 cubic feet per second. The Great Flood of 1951 discharged 573,000 cubic feet per second and this flood devastated the lower Missouri River Valley, including Kansas City, along a reach of river where there was no levee system. The Kansas City Stockyards were destroyed and the city was forced to move the development of an away from the Missouri River bottoms. The Great Flood of 1993 discharged at 541,000 cubic feet per second, the Missouri River Valley Culture, or Steamboat Society, was first defined in the 1850s by non-Indian residents of the Dakotas who sold wood to steamboats or trapped furs along the river bottoms. Gambling, prostitution and illegal alcohol sales to American Indians fueled the growth of the culture, a line of urbanized centers grew along the river in response which bloomed when reservations were allotted throughout the region. Uniting themselves along the banks of the river, South Dakotans identify themselves even today as East River or West River. According to the University of South Dakota, the associated culture of the Missouri River Valley contains a broad swath of political, social, historic. The Flood Control Act of 1944 introduced the Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Program, the government did not complete the comprehensive plan for the valley, instead introducing individual projects, including the construction of six dams. They are the Fort Peck Dam in Montana, the Garrison Dam in North Dakota, the Oahe, Big Bend, and Fort Randall Dams in South Dakota, today there are several protected areas throughout the course of the Missouri River Valley. They include the Theodore Roosevelt National Park, Mark Twain National Forest in Missouri, the Katy Trail travels along the valley in Missouri. Other protected areas in the include, Boyer Chute National Wildlife Refuge Charles M
20.
Northern Europe
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Northern Europe is the northern part or region of Europe. However, narrower definitions may also be used based on geographical factors, such as climate. Greenland, geographically a part of North America, is politically a part of the Kingdom of Denmark, while Northern Europe overlaps with most of Northwestern Europe, north-Central Europe, and Northeastern Europe, it does not border Southern Europe. Countries which are central-western, central-central, or central-eastern are generally considered part of neither Northern Europe or Southern Europe. Historically, when Europe was dominated by the Mediterranean region, everything not near this sea was termed Northern Europe, including southern Germany, all of the Low Countries and this meaning is still used today in some contexts, such as in discussions of the Northern Renaissance. In medieval times, the term Thule was used to mean a place in the extreme northern reaches of the continent. The region has a south west extreme of around 50 degrees north, the entire regions climate is mildly affected by the Gulf Stream. From the west climates vary from maritime and maritime subarctic climates, in the north and central climates are generally subarctic or Arctic and to the east climates are mostly subarctic and temperate/continental. With the exception of the United Kingdom and Ireland, Northern European countries are known for harsh winters with temperatures reaching as low as minus 50 degrees Celsius in some parts. Countries in Northern Europe have large, developed economies and some of the highest standards of living in the world and they often score highly on surveys measuring quality of life, such as the Human Development Index
21.
German Americans
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The German American ethnic group consists of Americans who have full or partial German ancestry. With an estimated size of approximately 46 million in 2014, German Americans are the largest of the groups reported by the US Census Bureau in its American Community Survey. The group accounts for about 1⁄3 of the total ethnic German population in the world, none of the German states had American colonies. In the 1670s the first significant groups of German immigrants arrived in the British colonies, settling primarily in New York, immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with eight million arrivals from Germany. Between 1820 and 1870 over seven and a half million German immigrants came to the United States — more than doubling the population of the country. By 2010, their population grew to 49.8 million immigrants, there is a German belt that extends all the way across the United States, from eastern Pennsylvania to the Oregon coast. The state of Pennsylvania has 3.5 million people of German ancestry and they were pulled by the attractions of land and religious freedom, and pushed out of Europe by shortages of land and religious or political oppression. Many arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, the arrivals before 1850 were mostly farmers who sought out the most productive land, where their intensive farming techniques would pay off. After 1840, many came to cities, where Germania—German-speaking districts—soon emerged, German Americans established the first kindergartens in the United States, introduced the Christmas tree tradition, and introduced popular foods such as hot dogs and hamburgers to America. The great majority of people with some German ancestry have become Americanized and hardly can be distinguished, traditional Oktoberfest celebrations and the German-American Day are popular festivities. There are major events in cities with German heritage including Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, San Antonio. The Germans included many quite distinct subgroups with differing religious and cultural values and they generally opposed womens suffrage but this was used as argument in favor of suffrage when German Americans became pariahs during World War I. The first English settlers arrived at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607 and he was followed in 1608 by five glassmakers and three carpenters or house builders. The first permanent German settlement in what became the United States was Germantown, Pennsylvania, large numbers of Germans migrated from the 1680s to 1760s, with Pennsylvania the favored destination. They migrated to America for a variety of reasons, often immigrants paid for their passage by selling their labor for a period of years as indentured servants. Large sections of Pennsylvania and upstate New York attracted Germans, most were Lutheran or German Reformed, many belonged to small religious sects such as the Moravians and Mennonites. German Catholics did not arrive in number until after the War of 1812, in 1709, Protestant Germans from the Pfalz or Palatine region of Germany escaped conditions of hardship, traveling first to Rotterdam and then to London. Anne, Queen of Great Britain, helped them get to her colonies in America, the trip was long and difficult to survive because of the poor quality of food and water aboard ships and the infectious disease typhus
22.
Norwegian Americans
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Norwegian Americans comprise Americans with ancestral roots from Norway. Norwegian immigrants went to the United States primarily in the half of the 19th century. There are more than 4.5 million Norwegian Americans according to the most recent U. S. census, Norwegian Americans currently comprise the 10th largest European ancestry group in the United States. Norsemen from Greenland and Iceland were the first Europeans to reach North America, leif Ericson reached North America via Norse settlements in Greenland around the year 1000. Norse settlers from Greenland founded the settlement of LAnse aux Meadows and Point Rosee in Vinland, in what is now Newfoundland and these settlers failed to establish a permanent settlement because of conflicts with indigenous people and within the Norse community. There was a Norwegian presence in New Amsterdam in the part of 17th century. Hans Hansen Bergen, a native of Bergen, Norway, was one of the earliest settlers of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam having immigrated in 1633, another of the first Norwegian settlers was Albert Andriessen Bradt who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1637. Pieter Van Brugh, Mayor of Albany, New York was the grandson of Norwegian immigrants, approximately 60 persons had settled in the Manhattan area before the British take-over in 1664. How many Norwegians that settled in New Netherland is not known, the Netherlands had strong commercial ties with the coastal lumber trade of Norway during the 17th century and many Norwegians immigrated to Amsterdam. Some of them settled in Dutch colonies, although never in large numbers, there were also Norwegian settlers in Pennsylvania in the first half of the 18th century, upstate New York in the latter half of the same century, and in New England during both halves. The earliest immigrants from Norway to America emigrated mostly because of religious motives, as Religious Society of Friends, organized Norwegian immigration to North America began in 1825, when several dozen Norwegians left Stavanger bound for North America on the sloop Restauration under the leadership of Cleng Peerson. To a great extent, this emigration from Norway was borne out of religious persecution, especially for Quakers and a local religious group. The ship landed in New York City, where it was at first impounded for exceeding its passenger limit. After intervention from President John Quincy Adams, the passengers moved on to settle in Kendall, New York with the help of Andreas Stangeland, many of these immigrants moved on from the Kendall Settlement, settling in Illinois and Wisconsin. In July of that year, a group of six dissenting families, seeking a haven from the official Norwegian state church, set sail from Stavanger in an undersized sloop, the Restaurationen. When it arrived in New York harbor after an arduous 14-week journey, the Restaurationen caused a sensation, local Quakers helped the destitute emigrants, who eventually established a community in upstate New York. Today, their descendants are known as sloopers. While about 65 Norwegians emigrated via Sweden and elsewhere in the years, no emigrant ships left Norway for the New World until the 1836 departures of the Den Norske Klippe
23.
Irish Americans
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Irish Americans are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Ireland, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. About 33.3 million Americans—10. 5% of the total population—reported Irish ancestry in the 2013 American Community Survey conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau and this compares with a population of 6.4 million on the island of Ireland. Three million people identified as Scots-Irish, whose ancestors were Ulster Scots who emigrated from Ireland to the United States. An estimated 250,000 migrated to the United States during the colonial era, only 20,000 immigrants of these immigrants from Ireland were Catholics—English, Irish or a few Germans. Catholics numbered 40,000 or 1. 6% of the population of 2.5 million in 1775. The Scots-Irish settled mainly in the back country of the Appalachian Mountain region. Irish Americans signed the documents of the United States—the Declaration of Independence. The early Ulster immigrants and their descendants at first usually referred to simply as Irish. However, most descendants of the Scots-Irish continued to consider themselves Irish or American rather than Scots-Irish, however, beginning in the early 19th century, many Irish migrated individually to the interior for work on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and, later in the century, railroads. During the colonial period, Scots-Irish settled in the southern Appalachian backcountry, by the 19th century, through intermarriage with settlers of English and German ancestry, the descendants of the Scots-Irish lost their identification with Ireland. This generation of pioneers. was a generation of Americans, not of Englishmen or Germans or Scots-Irish, in 1820 Irish-born John England became the first Catholic bishop in the mainly Protestant city of Charleston, South Carolina. During the 1820s and 30s, Bishop England defended the Catholic minority against Protestant prejudices, in 1831 and 1835, he established free schools for free African American children. Inflamed by the propaganda of the American Anti-Slavery Society, a mob raided the Charleston post office in 1835, England led Charlestons Irish Volunteers to defend the school. Soon after this, however, all schools for blacks were closed in Charleston. The Irish Catholics concentrated in a few medium-sized cities, where they were visible, especially in Charleston, Savannah. After secession in 1861, the Irish Catholic community supported the Confederacy and 20,000 served in the Confederate Army, civilian leaders of the Irish and the South did embrace the Confederate national project and most became advocates of a hard-war policy. Although most began as unskilled laborers, Irish Catholics in the South achieved average or above average economic status by 1900, the large Erie Canal project was one such example where Irishmen were many of the laborers. Small but tight communities developed in growing such as Philadelphia, Boston, New York
24.
Humid continental climate
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Precipitation is usually well distributed through the year. Some climatologists prefer to use the 0 °C isotherm as it is commonly used. In addition, the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid, humid continental climates tend to be found between latitudes 40° N and 60° N, within the central and northeastern portions of North America, Europe, and Asia. They are much less commonly found in the Southern Hemisphere due to the ocean area at that latitude. More extreme humid continental climates found in southern Siberia and the American Midwest combine hotter summer maxima, climatological averages are used to determine which locations are within a certain climate regime. The World Meteorological Organization has defined this average as through a 30 year period, the version from 1936 utilized a mean temperature of the coldest month of below −3 °C and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C. In Europe, the −3 °C average temperature isotherm was near the extent of winter snowpack. Many climatologists in the U. S. prefer to use 0 °C as the standard because they feel it better reflects consistency in regional landscapes, the 10 °C average temperature was found to be the minimum temperature necessary for the tree growth. Large temperature ranges are common within this climate zone, in addition, the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid. This is from an update to the climate regime definition introduced by Trewartha & Horn in 1980, despite the 1980 update, climate regimes are essentially the same within the Southern Hemisphere. The largest changes are seen in North America, Europe, under Köppen, the following variants of this climate are possible. The climate regime uses a three letter code, beginning with the letter D. Otherwise, The second letter f , s , A dry summer — the driest summer month has at most 30 millimetres of rainfall and has at most 1⁄3 the precipitation of the wettest winter month. W , A dry winter — the driest winter month has at most one‑tenth of the found in the wettest summer month. The third letter a , Warmest month averages above 22 °C b , Does not meet the requirements for a, within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical Atlantic. Snowfall occurs in all areas with a continental climate and in many such places is more common than rain during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms, and in North America, though humidity levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the humid designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as semi-arid or arid. By definition, forests thrive within this climate, biomes within this climate regime include temperate woodlands, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous, temperature evergreen forests, and coniferous forests
25.
Subarctic
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The subarctic is a region in the Northern Hemisphere immediately south of the true Arctic and covering much of Alaska, Canada, Iceland, the north of Scandinavia, Siberia, and the Shetland Islands. Generally, subarctic regions fall between 50°N and 70°N latitude, depending on local climates, monthly temperatures are above 10 °C for at least one and at most three months of the year. Precipitation tends to be low due to the low content of the cold air. Precipitation is typically greater in warmer months, with a summer maximum ranging from moderate in North America to extreme in the Russian Far East, the dominant soil orders are podsols and further north gelisols. Typically, there are only a few species of terrestrial mammals in the subarctic regions, the most important being elk, moose, bears, reindeer. Agriculture is mainly limited to animal husbandry, though in some areas barley can be grown, except for those areas adjacent to warm ocean currents, there is almost always continuous permafrost due to the very cold winters. This means that building in most subarctic regions is difficult and expensive, cities are very few and generally small. Subarctic rail transport exists in Europe and the Norilsk–Dudinka line in northern Siberia. An important consequence is that transportation tends to be restricted to bush planes, helicopters and, in summer, riverboats. Except for a few parts of Europe where the winters are mild due to prevailing wind and ocean current patterns. Even then, the difficulty of transportation ensured that few settlements lasted long—the abandoned, once-thriving cities of the Yukon, Northwest Territories, today, many towns in subarctic Russia are declining precipitously as mines close. In Canada, after the early minerals ran out, development stalled until hydroelectric development occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. Tourism in recent years has become a source of revenue for most countries of the subarctic due to the beautiful, generally glacial. Most areas in the subarctic are among the most expensive places in the world to visit, nonetheless, the great opportunities for outdoor recreation lure an ever-increasing number of travelers. At the same time, the industries of the subarctic are being threatened by both environmental opposition and overfishing leading to depleted stocks of commercially important species. Indigenous peoples of Subarctic America Muskeg Nordicity Northern Canada Subarctic climate Subarctic climate in, Ritter, the Physical Environment, an Introduction to Physical Geography
26.
Aberdeen, South Dakota
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Aberdeen is a city in and the county seat of Brown County, South Dakota, United States, about 125 miles northeast of Pierre. The city population was 26,091 at the 2010 census, Aberdeen is the principal city of the Aberdeen Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Brown and Edmunds counties and has a population of 40,602 in 2010. Aberdeen is considered a town, being the home of both Northern State University and Presentation College. Before Aberdeen or Brown County was inhabited by European settlers, it was inhabited by the Sioux Indians from approximately 1700 to 1879, europeans entered the region for business, founding fur trading posts during the 1820s, these trading posts operated until the mid-1830s. The first settlers of this region were the Arikara Indians, the first group of Euro-American settlers to reach the area that is now Brown County was a party of four people, three horses, two mules, fifteen cattle, and two wagons. This group of settlers was later joined by another group the following spring and this town was established on June 15,1879. The town was settled in 1880, and incorporated in 1882, Aberdeen, like many towns of the Midwest, was built around the newly developing railroad systems. Mitchell, Charles Priors boss, was responsible for the choice of names, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, after which the town of Aberdeen. Aberdeen was officially founded on July 6,1881, the date of the first arrival of a Milwaukee Railroad train, Aberdeen then operated under a city charter granted by the Territorial Legislature in March 1883. As Aberdeen grew, many businesses and buildings were constructed along Aberdeens Main Street, however, this soon became a problem due to Aberdeens periodic flooding, which led to it being referred to as The Town in the Frog Pond. When the water was gone from the basements, the city still had to deal with the mud also resulted from the heavy rains. The artesian well was designed by the city engineers to prevent flooding, however, during the digging of the well, the water stream that was found underground was too powerful to be contained. The water came blasting out with violent force and had the entire Main Street submerged in up to four feet of water. The engineers realized the previous flaws of the artesian well plan and soon added a valve to the well to control the flow of water. Aberdeen had four different railroad companies with depots built in the developing town. With these four railroads intersecting here, Aberdeen soon became known as the Hub City of the Dakotas. When looking down on Aberdeen from above, the railroad tracks converging in Aberdeen resembled the spokes of a wheel converging at a hub and these four railroad companies are the reason why Aberdeen was able to grow and flourish as it did. The only railroad still running through Aberdeen is the Burlington Northern Santa Fe, on October 25,1999, a Learjet 35 carrying golfing star Payne Stewart crashed in a field near Aberdeen
27.
Pierre, South Dakota
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Pierre is the capital of the state of South Dakota and the county seat of Hughes County. The population was 13,646 at the 2010 census, making it the second state capital after Montpelier. Founded in 1880 on the east bank of the Missouri River opposite Fort Pierre, Pierre has been the capital since South Dakota gained statehood on November 2,1889. It was chosen for its location in the center of the state. Fort Pierre was named after Pierre Chouteau, Jr. a major American fur trader from St. Louis, Pierre is the principal city of the Pierre Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Hughes and Stanley counties. Pierre is located at 44°22′5″N 100°20′11″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.07 square miles, of which,13.06 square miles is land and 0.01 square miles is water. Pierre lies on rough river bluffs above the east bank of the Missouri River and it is a few miles away from Lake Oahe, one of the largest man-made lakes in the world. Developed for flood control and irrigation, the lake has become a popular fishing destination. The monthly daily average ranges from 19.9 °F in January to 75.4 °F. Snow primarily falls in light amounts, with the snowiest months being February and March, in addition, there are 20 nights per year with lows below 0 °F, and cold conditions are often intensified by the high winds of the Great Plains. Summers often see spikes in temperature, with 6.4 days of highs above 100 °F, the beginning of both May and October represent the last and first, respectively, freezing nights of the cooler season. Precipitation is much lighter in the winter months than it is in spring and summer. Extremes have ranged from −35 °F on February 9,1994 to 117 °F on July 15,2006, as of the census of 2010, there were 13,646 people,5,778 households, and 3,463 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,044.9 inhabitants per square mile, there were 6,159 housing units at an average density of 471.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 85. 1% White,0. 5% African American,10. 9% Native American,0. 6% Asian,0. 5% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 9% of the population. 35. 0% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.87. The median age in the city was 39.3 years. 22. 9% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,26. 7% were from 25 to 44,28. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 9% were 65 years of age or older
28.
Rapid City, South Dakota
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Rapid City is the second-largest city in South Dakota and the county seat of Pennington County. Named after Rapid Creek, on which the city is established, the population was 67,956 as of the 2010 Census. Known as the Gateway to the Black Hills and the City of Presidents, Ellsworth Air Force Base is located on the outskirts of the city. Camp Rapid, a part of the South Dakota Army National Guard, is located in the part of the city. The historic Old West town of Deadwood is nearby, in the neighboring Black Hills are the popular tourist attractions of Mount Rushmore, the Crazy Horse Memorial, Custer State Park, and Wind Cave National Park. The public discovery of gold in 1874 by the Black Hills Expedition brought an influx of settlers into the Black Hills region of South Dakota. Rapid City was founded, and originally known as Hay Camp, in 1876 by a group of disappointed miners, who promoted their new city as the Gateway to the Black Hills. John Richard Brennan and Samuel Scott, with a group of men, laid out the site of the present Rapid City in February 1876. A square mile was measured off and the six blocks in the center were designated as a business section, committees were appointed to bring in prospective merchants and their families to locate in the new settlement. The city soon began selling supplies to miners and pioneers and its location on the edge of the Plains and Hills and its large river valley made it the natural hub of railroads arriving in the late 1880s from both the south and east. By 1900, Rapid City had survived a boom and bust and was establishing itself as an important regional center for the upper midwest. The work was halted due to leading to the US entry into World War II. The city benefited greatly from the opening of Rapid City Army Air Base, later Ellsworth Air Force Base, as a result, the population of the area nearly doubled between 1940 and 1948, from almost 14,000 to nearly 27,000 people. Military families and civilian personnel soon took every available living space in town, Rapid City businesses profited from the military payroll. During the Cold War, missile installations proliferated in the area, in the early 60s the construction of three Titan missile launch sites containing a total of nine Titan I missiles in the general vicinity of Rapid City took place. A construction boom continued into the 1950s, growth slowed in the 1960s, but the worst natural disaster in South Dakota history, the Black Hills Flood, led to another building boom a decade later. On June 9,1972, heavy rains caused flooding of the Rapid Creek. More than 250 people lost their lives and more than $100 million in property was destroyed, new homes and businesses were constructed to replace those that had been destroyed
29.
Sioux Falls, South Dakota
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Sioux Falls is the largest city in the U. S. state of South Dakota. It is the county seat of Minnehaha County, and also extends into Lincoln County to the south and it is the 47th fastest-growing city in the United States and the fastest-growing metro area in South Dakota, with a population increase of 22% between 2000 and 2010. As of 2016, Sioux Falls had an population of 178,500. The metropolitan population of 251,854 accounts for 29% of South Dakotas population and it is also the primary city of the Sioux Falls-Sioux City Designated Market Area, a larger media market region that covers parts of four states and has a population of 1,043,450. Chartered in 1856 on the banks of the Big Sioux River, the history of Sioux Falls revolves around the cascades of the Big Sioux River. The falls were created about 14,000 years ago during the last ice age, the lure of the falls has been a powerful influence. Ho-Chunk, Ioway, Otoe, Missouri, Omaha, Quapaw, Kansa, Osage, Arikira, Dakota, Nakota and Cheyenne people inhabited and settled the previous to Europeans. Numerous burial mounds still exist on the bluffs near the river and are spread throughout the general vicinity. Indigenous people maintained an agricultural society with fortified villages, and the later rebuilt on many of the same sites that were previously settled. Lakota populate urban and reservation communities in the state and many Lakota, Dakota, Nakota. French voyagers/explorers visited the area in the early 18th century, the first documented visit by an American was by Philander Prescott, who camped overnight at the falls in December 1832. Captain James Allen led an expedition out of Fort Des Moines in 1844. Jacob Ferris described the Falls in his 1856 book The States and Territories of the Great West, each laid out 320-acre claims, but worked together for mutual protection. They built a barricade of turf which they dubbed Fort Sod. Seventeen men then spent the first winter in Sioux Falls, the following year the population grew to near 40. Although conflicts in Minnehaha County between Native Americans and white settlers were few, the Dakota War of 1862 engulfed nearby southwestern Minnesota, the town was evacuated in August of that year when two local settlers were killed as a result of the conflict. The settlers and soldiers stationed here traveled to Yankton in late August 1862, the abandoned townsite was pillaged and burned. Fort Dakota, a reservation established in present-day downtown, was established in May 1865
30.
Brookings, South Dakota
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Brookings is a city in Brookings County, South Dakota, United States. Brookings is the fourth largest city in South Dakota, with a population of 22,056 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Brookings County, and home to South Dakota State University, the largest institution of higher education in the state. The county and city were named after one of South Dakotas pioneer promoters, Wilmot Brookings. Brookings set out for the Dakota Territory in June 1857 and he arrived at Sioux Falls on August 27,1857, and became one of the first settlers there. He and his group represented the Western Town Company, after a time in Sioux Falls, Brookings and a companion set out for the Yankton area to locate a town in an area that was soon to be ceded by the Native Americans. This trip was begun in January 1858, and the two encountered a blizzard that froze Brookings feet which both had to be amputated. He rose to a position in the Territory, once being a member of the Squatter Territorial Legislature. Brookings then became appointed superintendent of a road that was to be built from the Minnesota state line west to the Missouri River about 30 miles north of Ft. Pierre. It was during the construction of road that Brookings came into contact with land that was part of this county at the time. Because of his drive to settle the Dakota Territory, Brookings County and city were named for a pioneer promoter. Wilmot W. Brookings made settlement of this area a real possibility for many people, the first real town that was organized in Brookings County was Medary in 1857. Along with Sioux Falls and Flandreau, Medary was one of the first three European settlements to be established in South Dakota, in 1857, the men put up quarters in preparation to live out the winter in Medary. Many other settlers moved into the area in 1858, but in the spring of that year, a large group of Yankton and Yanktonnia Indians drove the settlers from the area, and Medary remained nearly abandoned for the next 11 years. In 1869, a group of 10 Norwegian pioneers moved west into the Dakota Territory and resettled the area of Medary, the county of Brookings was formally organized in Medary in the cabin of Martin Trygstad on July 3,1871. The original boundaries of the county extended to two miles south of Flandreau, until the legislature relocated the boundaries of the county to the current location on January 8,1873. Two other small settlements, Oakwood and Fountain, appeared in the Brookings County area around this time. All three settlements hoped that they would be the town by which the railroad would decide to lay tracks through as it moved westward. As it turned out, none of the three towns were chosen to be passed through by the railroad
31.
Bismarck, North Dakota
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Bismarck is the capital of the U. S. state of North Dakota and the county seat of Burleigh County. It is the second-most populous city in North Dakota after Fargo, the citys population was 61,272 at the 2010 census, while its metropolitan population was 129,517. In 2015, Forbes magazine ranked Bismarck as the seventh fastest-growing small city in the United States, Bismarck was founded by European Americans in 1872 on the east bank of the Missouri River. It has been North Dakotas capital city since 1889, when the state was created from the Dakota Territory, Bismarck is located across the river from Mandan, named after a historic Native American tribe of the area. The two cities make up the core of the Bismarck-Mandan Metropolitan Statistical Area, the North Dakota State Capitol, the tallest building in the state, is in central Bismarck. The state government employs more than 4,000 in the city, as a hub of retail and health care, Bismarck is the economic center of south-central North Dakota and north-central South Dakota. For thousands of years, present-day central North Dakota was inhabited by indigenous peoples, the historic Mandan Native American tribe occupied the area long before Europeans arrived. The Hidatsa name of Bismarck is mirahacii arumaaguash, the Arikara name is ituhtaáwe and it had been an area of Mandan settlement. Later the new town was called Edwinton, after Edwin Ferry Johnson and its construction of railroads in the territory attracted workers and settlers. In 1873, the Northern Pacific Railway renamed the city as Bismarck, railroad officials hoped to attract German immigrant settlers to the area and German investment in the railroad. The discovery of gold in the nearby Black Hills of South Dakota the following year was an impetus for growth. Thousands of miners came to the area, encroaching on what the Lakota considered sacred territory, Bismarck became a freight-shipping center on the Custer Route from the Black Hills. In 1883 Bismarck was designated as the capital of the Dakota Territory, Bismarck is located at 46°48′48″N 100°46′44″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 31.23 square miles. The city has developed around downtown Bismarck, the center of historic development and it is distinctive because the citys major shopping center, Kirkwood Mall, is located in the center city rather than in the suburbs. Several other major stores are in the vicinity of Kirkwood Mall. The two Bismarck hospitals, St. Alexius Medical Center and Sanford Health are both downtown, the streets are lined with small stores and restaurants, providing numerous amenities. Much recent commercial and residential growth has taken place in the section of the city
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Fargo, North Dakota
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Fargo is the most populous city in the state of North Dakota, accounting for over 15% of the state population. Fargo is also the county seat of Cass County, according to the 2015 United States Census estimates, its population was 118,523. In 2014, Forbes magazine ranked Fargo as the fourth fastest-growing small city in the United States. Founded in 1871 and located on the Red River of the North floodplain, Fargo is a cultural, retail, health care, educational, in addition, Fargo is home to North Dakota State University. Historically part of Sioux territory, the area that is present-day Fargo was a stopping point for steamboats traversing the Red River during the 1870s and 1880s. The city was originally named Centralia, but was later renamed Fargo after Northern Pacific Railway director, the area started to flourish after the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railroad and the city became known as the Gateway to the West. During the 1880s, Fargo became the capital of the Midwest because of lenient divorce laws. A major fire struck the city on June 7,1893, but the city was immediately rebuilt with new buildings made of brick, new streets, and a water system. More than 246 new buildings were built within 1 year, there were several rumors concerning the cause of the fire. The North Dakota Agricultural College was founded in 1890 as North Dakotas land-grant university, in 1960, NDAC became known as North Dakota State University. Early in the century, the industry flourished, and in 1905. Fargo-Moorhead boomed after World War II and the city grew rapidly despite being hit by a violent tornado in 1957, the tornado destroyed a large portion of the north end of the city. Ted Fujita, famous for his Fujita tornado scale, analyzed pictures of the Fargo tornado and these were the first major scientific descriptive terms associated with tornadoes. The coming of two interstates revolutionized travel in the region and pushed growth of Fargo to the south and west of the city limits. In 1972, the West Acres Shopping Center, currently the largest shopping mall in North Dakota, was constructed near the intersection of the two Interstates and this mall would become the catalyst for retail growth in the area. Fargo has continued to expand rapidly but steadily, since the mid-1980s, the bulk of new residential growth has occurred in the south and southwest areas of the city due to geographic constraints on the north side. The citys major retail districts on the southwest side have likewise seen rapid development, downtown Fargo has been gentrified due in part to investments by the city and private developers in the Renaissance Zone. Most older neighborhoods, such as Horace Mann, have either avoided decline or been revitalized through housing rehabilitation promoted by planning agencies to strengthen the citys core, NDSU has grown rapidly into a major research university, and forms a major component of the citys identity and economy
33.
Grand Forks, North Dakota
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Grand Forks is the third-largest city in the State of North Dakota and is the county seat of Grand Forks County. According to the 2010 census, the population was 52,838, while the total of the city. Located on the banks of the north-flowing Red River of the North, in a flat region known as the Red River Valley. The Red River Flood of 1997 devastated the city, the Grand Forks post office was established in 1870, and the town was incorporated on February 22,1881. The city was named for its location at the fork of the Red River, historically dependent on local agriculture, the citys economy now encompasses higher education, defense, health care, manufacturing, food processing, and scientific research. Grand Forks is served by Grand Forks International Airport and Grand Forks Air Force Base, the citys University of North Dakota is the oldest institution of higher education in the state. The Alerus Center and Ralph Engelstad Arena host athletic and other events, while the North Dakota Museum of Art, early French explorers, fur trappers, and traders called the area Les Grandes Fourches, meaning The Grand Forks. By the 1740s, French fur trappers relied on Les Grandes Fourches as an important trading post, the United States acquired the territory from British Ruperts Land with the Treaty of 1818, but indigenous tribes dominated the area until the late nineteenth century. After years of warfare, the United States made treaties to extinguish the land claims of the Objibwe, when a U. S. post office was established on the site on June 15,1870, the name was changed to the English Grand Forks. Alexander Griggs, a captain, is regarded as The Father of Grand Forks. Griggs steamboat froze in the Red River on a voyage in late 1870, forcing the captain, Griggs platted a community in 1875, and Grand Forks was officially incorporated on February 22,1881. Thousands of settlers were attracted to the Dakota Territory in the 1870s and 1880s for its land. Many established small farms, but some investors bought thousands of acres for bonanza farms. The city grew quickly after the arrival of the Great Northern Railway in 1880, in 1883, the University of North Dakota was established, six years before North Dakota was formally admitted as an independent state born from the Dakota Territory. During the first half of the 20th century, new neighborhoods were developed south. In the 1920s the state-owned North Dakota Mill and Elevator was constructed on the side of the city. In 1954, Grand Forks was chosen as the site for an Air Force base, Grand Forks Air Force Base brought thousands of new jobs and residents to the community. The military base and the University of North Dakota became integral to the citys economy, with construction of federal highways, during the postwar years residential and business development became suburbanized, spreading to new areas as land was available
34.
Minot, North Dakota
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Minot is a city in and the county seat of Ward County, North Dakota, United States, in the states north-central region. It is most widely known for the Air Force base located approximately 15 miles north of the city, founded in 1886 during the construction of the Great Northern Railway, Minot is also known as Magic City, commemorating its remarkable growth in size over a short time. It was the end of the line, so whenever a train came into the town and the stop was announced, the conductor would call out Minot. The town site was chosen by the railroad to be placed on the land of then-homesteader Erik Ramstad, Ramstad was convinced to relinquish his claim, and became one of the city leaders. The town was named after Henry D. Minot, a railroad investor and its Arikara name is niwaharít sahaáhkat, its Hidatsa name is dibiarugareesh. The city was incorporated on June 28,1887, the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railroad later built a line from Valley City up to Canada, while initially their plan was to cross the Souris River at Burlington, local interests and arguments convinced them otherwise, landholders along the new route donated the right-of-way. Minot and its area were wide open throughout 1905-20. Population grew rapidly due to construction and availability of unclaimed land. The hotbed of bootlegging, prostitution, and opium dens that sprang up in the Downtown area soon led people to give Minot the nickname Little Chicago. The Smugglers used a network of tunnels to transport and conceal the illicit cargo entering from Canada. In 1969, a flood on the Souris River devastated the city. Afterward, the Army Corps of Engineers straightened the path of the river through the city, on January 18,2002, a severe train derailment west of the city sent a gigantic cloud of anhydrous ammonia toward Minot, and Burlington. One man died and many of Minots citizens were sickened and severely injured by the noxious gas, in early 2006, court cases were heard in Minneapolis, Minnesota, against Canadian Pacific Railway, the owner of the derailed train. The anhydrous ammonia spill was the largest such spill in U. S. history, the 2011 Souris River flood caused extensive damage throughout the Souris River Valley. On June 21,2011, KXMC-TV reported that a flood of historic proportions was imminent in the Souris River Valley, largely due to large dam releases upstream. On June 26, flooding exceeded previous records when the river crested at 1,561.72 feet above sea level and it is estimated that 20 percent of Minot sustained damage from the flood. This figure includes over 4,100 homes which were affected,2,376 extensively damaged
35.
Williston, North Dakota
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Williston is a city in and the county seat of Williams County, North Dakota, United States. The 2010 census gave its population as 14,716, the North Dakota oil boom is largely responsible for the sharp increase in population. Willistons newspapers, both in print and online, are the daily Williston Herald and the weekly The Williston Trader, sloulin Field International Airport is a public airport 3.2 km north of the business district. Williston is the home of Williston State College and the Miss North Dakota Scholarship Pageant, founded in 1887, Williston was named for Daniel Willis James, a board member of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, by his friend, railroad owner, James J. Hill. Williston is located at the crossroads of U. S and it is near the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri rivers, at the upper end of the Lake Sakakawea reservoir. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 7.56 square miles. The municipality is 18 miles from the Montana-North Dakota border and 60 miles from the Canada–United States border, Williston has a semi-arid climate, it is part of USDA Hardiness zone 4a. The normal monthly mean ranges from 11.0 °F in January to 70.1 °F in July. The average window for freezing temperatures is September 19 thru May 20, precipitation is greatest in June and July and averages 14.37 in annually, but has ranged from 6.13 in in 1934 to 22.04 in in 1896. Due to the aridity, there are only 4.1 days where 24-hour snowfall exceeds 3 in. Williston is in northwestern North Dakotas booming oil patch where adequate, according to a February 2014 article in Business Insider, Williston had the highest apartment rents in the United States. The 2010 census counted a population of 14,716, up from 12,680 in 2000, in September 2011, the mayor estimated the actual population at 20,000. The aforementioned 2014 Business Insider story estimated that the population was over 30,000, as of the census of 2010, there were 14,716 people,6,180 households, and 3,589 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,962.1 inhabitants per square mile, there were 6,542 housing units at an average density of 872.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 92. 6% White,0. 3% African-American,3. 3% Native American or Alaska Native,0. 3% Asian,0. 4% from other races, hispanics or Latinos of any race were 2. 2% of the population. 34. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.99. The median age in the city was 35.5 years. 23. 6% of residents were under the age of 18, 10% were between the ages of 18 and 24,26. 7% were from 25 to 44,25. 4% were from 45 to 64, and 14. 4% were 65 years of age or older
36.
The Californias
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The Californias, or Province of the Californias, or Spanish, Las Californias, Provincia de las Californias, was the northwestern-most area of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. There has been confusion about use of the plural The Californias by Spanish colonial authorities. Afterwards, when its peninsular character was ascertained, it was called simply California, when the expeditions for the settlement of San Diego and Monterey marched, it was understood that they were going, not out of California, but into a new part of it. The peninsula then began to be spoken of as Antigua or Old California. At the same time the old name of The Californias was revived. The first attempted Spanish occupation of California was by the Jesuit missionary Eusebio Kino and his Misión San Bruno failed, however, and it wasnt until 1697 that Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó was successfully established by another Jesuit, Juan María de Salvatierra. The mission became the nucleus of Loreto, first permanent settlement, the Jesuits went on to found a total of 18 missions in the lower two-thirds of the Baja California Peninsula. In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from the missions, gaspar de Portolá was appointed governor to supervise the transition. At the same time, a new visitador, José de Gálvez, was dispatched from Spain with authority to organize and expand the fledgling province. The more ambitious name, Las Californias, was established by a joint dispatch to the King from Viceroy de Croix and visitador José de Gálvez. Gálvez sought to make a distinction between the Antigua area of established settlement and the Nueva unexplored areas to the north, the single province was divided in 1804, into Alta California province and Baja California province. By the time of the 1804 split, the Alta province had expanded to coastal areas as far north as what is now the San Francisco Bay Area in the U. S. state of California. Expansion came through exploration and colonization expeditions led by Portolá, his successor Pedro Fages, Juan Bautista de Anza, independent Mexico retained the division but demoted the former provinces to territories, due to populations too small for statehood. In 1836, the designation Las Californias was revived, reuniting Alta, the Seven Laws were repealed in 1847, during the Mexican-American War, and the split of the two Californias was restored. Following Mexicos defeat in the war, most of the former Alta California territory was ceded on 2 February 1848 to the United States, under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The new Mexico-United States border was established slightly to the north of the previous Alta-Baja border, the areas in North America acquired by the U. S. were designated as unorganized territory under a military governor, pending reestablishment of civilian control and organization. California was the first section of the territory to achieve statehood, the Baja California Peninsula is bordered on three sides by water, the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California, while Alta California had the Pacific Ocean on the west and deserts on the east. A northern boundary was established by the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 and that boundary line remains the northern boundary of the U. S. states of California, Nevada, and the western part of Utah
37.
The Canadas
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The Canadas is the collective name for Upper Canada and Lower Canada, two British historical colonies in present-day Canada. They were both created by the Constitutional Act of 1791 and abolished in 1841 with the union of Upper and Lower Canada, the northern part of the current provinces of Ontario and Quebec was at that time part of Ruperts Land. The British colony of the Province of Quebec was divided by the Constitutional Act of 1791 into two provinces, with the Ottawa River forming a part of the border. The creation of Upper Canada was in response to the desire expressed by recently arrived United Empire Loyalist settlers for British institutions and laws, especially British laws of land tenure. The political structure of the colonies was changed after Lord Durhams 1838 Report on the Affairs of British North America recommended they be merged into a colonial province. Lower Canada, Upper Canada and their legislatures were abolished by the British Act of Union 1840 of July 23,1840 and united as one political entity, the Californias The Carolinas The Dakotas The Floridas The Virginias
38.
The Carolinas
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The Carolinas are the U. S. states of North Carolina and South Carolina, considered collectively. Combining North Carolinas population of 10,042,802 and South Carolinas of 4,896,146, if the Carolinas were a single state of the United States, it would be the fifth-most populous state, behind California, Texas, Florida, and New York. The Carolinas were known as the Province of Carolina during Americas early colonial period, prior to that, the land was considered part of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia, from 1609 to 1663. The province, named Carolina to honor King Charles I of England, was divided into two colonies in 1729, although the date is the subject of debate. The territory was declared as Spanish territory by Ponce de Leon in 1512, nor was it colonized by any Spaniards, it was largely just proclaimed for a future that never came. But as French settlers arrived in 1562, they were thrown out by the Spaniards. However it was during this time that the Carolina first was named. The territory was named after the English King instead, which however had no impact on the spelling, in 1729 British politicians regretted this gift and redeemed the heirs of the first eight British inhabitants. Now the Carolinas became divided into North Carolina and South Carolina, both the new colonies were among the thirteen first states of the United States. Sir Robert Heath was an English judge and politician who was also a member of the English House of Commons from 1621 to 1625, Sir Robert Heath was granted charter over the lands between latitudes 31° and 36° north, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Heaths patent required he plant a colony but that was never fully realized, the 1663 charter granted the Lords Proprietor title to all of the land from the southern border of the Colony of Virginia at 36 degrees north to 31 degrees north. The charter also granted all the land, between these northerly and southerly bounds, from the Atlantic Ocean, westward to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, the Charter of 1663 chartered the territory as an English Proprietary colony assigning rights to eight English Noblemen. These noblemen are known as the Lords Proprietors of Carolina forming the Province of Carolina, in 1729 the Province of Carolina was divided when the descendants of seven of the eight Lords Proprietors sold their shares back to the Crown. Only the heirs of Sir George Carteret retained their rights to what would become the Granville District. Both the Province of North Carolina and the Province of South Carolina became English Crown Colonies in 1729, the culture of the Carolinas is a distinct subset of larger Southern culture. Though the two states both form part of the South, there are historically a number of differences in the settlement patterns, political development, and economic growth of the two states. For example, during the Civil War, South Carolina was the first Southern state to secede from the Union, North Carolinians ultimately voted instead in all 100 counties to raise an army, join the Confederacy, and go to war. During the war, South Carolina was generally one of the strongest supporters of the Confederacy, the war began in Charleston, South Carolina, where Citadel Cadets fired the opening shots at the Union Ship Star of The West
39.
The Virginias
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The Virginias is a region in the United States comprising the states of Virginia and West Virginia. If they were a state, the Virginias would have a combined population of 9,854,018 as of the 2010 national census. This would give Virginia the 9th largest population of any US state, with less than 20,000 less than number 8, the total area of the two states is about 175,000 square kilometers. The Californias The Canadas The Carolinas The Dakotas The Floridas History of Virginia
40.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
United States of America
North Dakota
South Dakota