1.
The New Leader (album)
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The New Leader is the first solo album from DJ Starscream. This album contains most of his Remix work with fellow N20 artists Rob Gee and it was released on 22 June 2006 in Japan, and the US release date being 29 August 2006. The song Twinpusher is a based on Aphex Twin and Squarepusher. The title of the album references a line said by the Decepticon Starscream from the Transformers movie
2.
James Oneal
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James J. Oneal was born March 13,1875 in Indianapolis, Indiana, the son of an iron worker. Upon the death of his father, Oneal was forced to leave school to go to work in a mill to help support his family. Oneal attended public school only to the 6th grade, relying instead upon self-education, Debs shortly after its founding in 1897. Long a resident of Terre Haute, Indiana, Oneal was a personal friend of his neighbor Debs. Oneal was a delegate to the 1900 convention of the SDP and he was also elected as the first State Secretary of the Socialist Party of Indiana, state affiliate of the SPA, shortly after establishment of the new party. The following year Oneal was elected to the governing National Committee of the SPA as the representative of the Socialist Party of Indiana, in 1903, Oneal moved to Omaha and went to work in the partys National Office as an assistant to Executive Secretary William Mailly. He continued in that role until 1905, at time he left to become the Associate Editor of the New York Worker, forerunner of the great Socialist daily. After leaving the Worker in 1908, Oneal returned home to Indiana, by 1915, Oneal had relocated again, this time to Massachusetts, where he was elected State Secretary of that party in 1915, continuing in that post until 1917. Oneal also ran for office on the Socialist ticket, standing for President of the Brooklyn Board of Aldermen in 1919, oneals main occupation in these years was that of Socialist journalist. From 1918 until the end of the publication in 1923, Oneal was the writer for the SPA daily. After the demise of the daily Call, Oneal was instrumental in starting its weekly successor, The New Leader, the inner-party political situation during the war years has long been caricatured as a struggle between an ultra-revolutionary Left Wing and a conservative Right Wing. In actuality, the views within the partys so-called Right Wing were more akin to a rainbow than a dichotomy. Katterfeld and the Communist Party of America headed by C. E. Ruthenberg, in 1934, Oneal played a role as a prominent member of the so-called Old Guard faction, which opposed the new Declaration of Principles passed by the partys Detroit Convention of 1934. Oneal raised funds to publish a pamphlet, issued under his own name in 1934. Oneals pamphlet included a coupon which readers could tear out, fill in, the coupons accumulated doubtlessly proved invaluable as the Old Guard faction left the SP to establish itself as the Social Democratic Federation of America. The Old Guard-dominated Socialist Party of New York was expelled en bloc by the National Executive Committee of the SPA in 1936 and Oneal and The New Leader followed. A national convention to establish the SDF was scheduled for the end of May 1937. The relationship between the New Leader staff and the SDF political leadership was never completely cordial because of differing opinions as to editorial policy
3.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
4.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
5.
Magazine
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A magazine is a publication, usually a periodical publication, which is printed or electronically published. Magazines are generally published on a schedule and contain a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, by a price, by prepaid subscriptions. At its root, the magazine refers to a collection or storage location. In the case of written publication, it is a collection of written articles and this explains why magazine publications share the word root with gunpowder magazines, artillery magazines, firearms magazines, and, in French, retail stores such as department stores. By definition, a magazine paginates with each issue starting at three, with the standard sizing being 8 3/8 ×10 7/8 inches. However, in the sense a journal has continuous pagination throughout a volume. Some professional or trade publications are also peer-reviewed, an example being the Journal of Accountancy, academic or professional publications that are not peer-reviewed are generally professional magazines. That a publication calls itself a journal does not make it a journal in the technical sense, magazines can be distributed through the mail, through sales by newsstands, bookstores, or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. The subscription business models for distribution fall into three main categories. In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a basis or by subscription. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics and this means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed and this is the model used by many trade magazines distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. This allows a level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertisers target audience. This latter model was used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including Computer Weekly and Computing, for the global media industry, an example would be VideoAge International. The earliest example of magazines was Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen, a literary and philosophy magazine, the Gentlemans Magazine, first published in 1731, in London was the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentlemans Magazine under the pen name Sylvanus Urban, was the first to use the term magazine, founded by Herbert Ingram in 1842, The Illustrated London News was the first illustrated magazine
6.
Socialist Party of America
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In the first decades of the 20th century, it drew significant support from many different groups, including trade unionists, progressive social reformers, populist farmers, and immigrants. However it refused to form coalitions with other parties, or even to allow its members to vote for other parties, the partys staunch opposition to American involvement in World War I, although welcomed by many, also led to prominent defections, official repression and vigilante persecution. After endorsing Robert La Follette Sr. s presidential campaign in 1924 and it had modest growth in the early 1930s behind presidential candidate Norman Thomas. While the party was always strongly anti-Fascist, as well as anti-Stalinist, the party stopped running presidential candidates after 1956, when its nominee Darlington Hoopes won fewer than 6,000 votes. In 1970–1973, these differences had become so acute that the Socialist Party changed its name to Social Democrats. Leaders of two of its caucuses formed separate socialist organizations, the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee and the Socialist Party USA, from 1901 to the onset of World War I, the Socialist Party had numerous elected officials throughout the United States. There were two Socialist members of Congress, Meyer London of New York City and Victor Berger of Milwaukee, over 70 mayors and its voting strength was greatest among recent Jewish, Finnish and German immigrants, coal miners, and former Populist farmers in the Midwest. From 1900 to 1912, the Socialist Party ran Eugene Debs for president at each election, the best showing ever for a Socialist ticket was in 1912, when Debs gained 901,551 total votes, or 6% of the popular vote. In 1920 Debs ran again, this time imprisoned for opposing World War I. Debs, on the wing of the party. The party outsourced its newspapers and publications so that it would not have an editorial board that was a power in its own right. The Appeal to Reason newspaper thus became part of its radical left-wing, kerr Publishing Company of Chicago, which produced over half of the pamphlets and books that were sold at party meetings. The party had a tense and complicated relationship with the American Federation of Labor, many moderate Socialists, such as Victor Berger and International Typographical Union President Max S. Hayes, urged close cooperation with the American Federation of Labor and its member unions. In 1911, IWW leader William Big Bill Haywood was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party, Hillquit replied that he had no new message rather than to reiterate a belief in a two-sided workers movement, with separate and equal political and trade union arms. A mere change of structural forms would not revolutionize the American labor movement as claimed by our extreme industrialists, the memory of this split made the intra-party battles of 1919-1921 all the more bitter. The partys opposition to World War I caused a decline in membership. An increase in the membership of its language federations from areas involved in the Bolshevik Revolution proved illusory, since these members were soon lost to the Communist Party. The party also lost some of its most prominent members, who had been in favor of Americas entry into World War I, including Walter Lippmann, John Spargo, phelps Stokes, and William English Walling
7.
Eugene V. Debs
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Through his presidential candidacies, as well as his work with labor movements, Debs eventually became one of the best-known socialists living in the United States. Early in his career, Debs was a member of the Democratic Party. He was elected as a Democrat to the Indiana General Assembly in 1884, after workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company organized a wildcat strike over pay cuts in the summer of 1894, Debs signed many into the ARU. To keep the running, President Grover Cleveland used the United States Army to break the strike. As a leader of the ARU, Debs was convicted of charges for defying a court injunction against the strike. In jail, Debs read various works of socialist theory and emerged six months later as an adherent of the international socialist movement. Debs was a member of the Social Democracy of America, the Social Democratic Party of America. Debs ran as a Socialist candidate for President of the United States five times, including 1900,1904,1908,1912, and 1920 and he was also a candidate for United States Congress from his native state Indiana in 1916. Debs was noted for his oratory, and his speech denouncing American participation in World War I led to his second arrest in 1918 and he was convicted under the Sedition Act of 1918 and sentenced to a term of 10 years. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence in December 1921, Debs died in 1926, not long after being admitted to a sanatorium due to cardiovascular problems that developed during his time in prison. He has since cited as the inspiration for numerous politicians. Eugene Debs was born on November 5,1855, in Terre Haute, Indiana, to Jean Daniel and Marguerite Mari Debs and his father, who came from a prosperous family, owned a textile mill and meat market. Debs was named after the French authors Eugene Sue and Victor Hugo, Debs attended public school, dropping out of high school at age 14. He took a job with the Vandalia Railroad cleaning grease from the trucks of freight engines for fifty cents a day and he later became a painter and car cleaner in the railroad shops. In December 1871, when a locomotive fireman failed to report for work. He decided to remain a fireman on the run between Terre Haute and Indianapolis, earning more than a dollar a night for the three and half years. In July 1875 Debs left to work at a wholesale grocery house, Debs had joined the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen in February 1875 and became active in the organization. In 1877 he served as a delegate of the Terre Haute lodge to the national convention
8.
Norman Thomas
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Norman Mattoon Thomas was an American Presbyterian minister who achieved fame as a socialist, pacifist, and six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. Thomas was the oldest of six children, born November 20,1884 in Marion, Ohio, to Emma Williams and Weddington Evans Thomas, a Presbyterian minister. Thomas had an uneventful Midwestern childhood and adolescence, helping to put himself through Marion High School as a carrier for Warren G. Hardings Marion Daily Star. Like other paper carriers, he reported directly to Florence Kling Harding, no pennies ever escaped her, said Thomas. The summer after he graduated high school his father accepted a pastorate at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. He left Bucknell after one year to attend Princeton University, the beneficiary of the largesse of an uncle by marriage. Thomas graduated magna cum laude from Princeton University in 1905, after some settlement house work and a trip around the world, Thomas decided to follow in his fathers footsteps and enrolled in Union Theological Seminary. He graduated from the seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1911, Union Theological Seminary had been at that time a center of the Social Gospel movement and liberal politics, and as a minister, Thomas preached against American participation in the First World War. This pacifist stance led to his being shunned by many of his fellow alumni from Princeton, when church funding of the American Parishs social programs was stopped, Thomas resigned his pastorate. Despite his resignation, Thomas did not formally leave the ministry until 1931 and it was Thomas position as a conscientious objector which drew him to the Socialist Party of America, a staunchly antimilitarist organization. When SPA leader Morris Hillquit made his campaign for Mayor of New York in 1917 on an anti-war platform, to his surprise, Hillquit wrote back, encouraging the young minister to work for his campaign, which Thomas energetically did. Soon thereafter he joined the Socialist Party. Thomas was the secretary of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation even before the war, when the organization started a magazine called The World Tomorrow in January 1918, Thomas was employed as its paid editor. Together with Devere Allen, Thomas helped to make The World Tomorrow the leading voice of liberal Christian social activism of its day, in 1921, Thomas moved to secular journalism, when he was employed as associate editor of The Nation magazine. In 1922 Thomas became co-director of the League for Industrial Democracy, later, he was one of the founders of the National Civil Liberties Bureau, the precursor of the American Civil Liberties Union. Thomass political activity also included attempts at the US presidency, following Eugene Debss death in 1926, there was a leadership vacuum in the Socialist Party. Neither of the two top political leaders, Victor L. Berger and Hillquit, were eligible to run for president because of their foreign birth. The third main figure, Daniel Hoan, was occupied as mayor of Milwaukee, the 1928 campaign was the first of Thomass six consecutive campaigns as the presidential nominee of the Socialist Party
9.
Left-wing politics
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Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy and social inequality. The term left wing can also refer to the radical, reforming, use of the term Left became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815 when it was applied to the Independents. The word wing was appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, throughout the 19th century in France, the main line dividing left and right was between supporters of the French Republic and those of the Monarchy. The June Days Uprising during the Second Republic was an attempt by the Left to assert itself after the 1848 Revolution, in the mid-19th century, nationalism, socialism, democracy, and anti-clericalism became features of the French Left. After Napoleon IIIs 1851 coup and the subsequent establishment of the Second Empire, Marxism began to rival radical republicanism, the influential Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848, asserted that all human history is the history of class struggle. They predicted that a revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois capitalism and create a classless, stateless. It was in period that the word wing was appended to both Left and Right. Following a split between supporters of Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchists formed the International Workers Association, the Second International became divided over the issue of World War I. Those who opposed the war, such as Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, in the United States after Reconstruction, the phrase the Left was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement. More recently in the United States, left-wing and right-wing have often used as synonyms for Democratic and Republican. Since the Right was populist, both in the Western and the Eastern Bloc, anything viewed as art was called leftist in all Europe. The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics, during the industrial revolution, leftists supported trade unions. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy, leftists continue to criticize what they perceive as the exploitative nature of globalization, the race to the bottom, and unjust lay-offs. Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, which are based on the theories of Karl Marx. Marxian economics does not exclusively rely upon Marx, it draws from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources, the political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In Das Kapital, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject, Mao Zedong believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the proletarian revolution. Both Karl Marx and the early socialist William Morris arguably had a concern for environmental matters, according to Marx, Even an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together. Are not owners of the earth and they are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations
10.
Anti-communism
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Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. It reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States, anti-communism has been an element of movements of many different positions, including capitalist, liberal, socialist, anarchist, and fascist viewpoints. They accuse communists of causing several famines, such as the Russian Famine of 1921, some anti-communists see both communism and fascism as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. Opponents argue that communist parties that have come to power have tended to be intolerant of political opposition. Communist states have also accused of creating a new ruling class, with powers. Examples of left-wing critics of Communist states and parties are Boris Souveraine, Bayard Rustin, Irving Howe, the American Federation of Labor has always been strongly anti-Communist. The more leftist CIO purged its Communists in 1947 and has been staunchly anti-Communist ever since, in Britain, the Labour Party strenuously resisted Communist efforts to infiltrate its ranks and take control of locals in the 1930s. Although some anarchists describe themselves as communists, all anarchists criticize authoritarian Communist parties and states and they argue that Marxist concepts such as dictatorship of the proletariat and state ownership of the means of production are anathema to anarchism. Some anarchists criticize communism from an individualist point of view, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin debated with Karl Marx in the First International, arguing that the Marxist state is another form of oppression. He loathed the idea of a vanguard party ruling the masses from above, anarchists initially participated in, and rejoiced over, the 1917 revolution as an example of workers taking power for themselves. However, after the October revolution, it became evident that the Bolsheviks, what is needed is local construction by local forces … Russia has already become a Soviet Republic only in name. Many anarchists fought against Russian, Spanish and Greek Communists, many were killed by them, such as Lev Chernyi, Camillo Berneri, neither Marxs 10-point plan nor the rest of the manifesto say anything about who has the right to carry out the plan. Milton Friedman argued that the absence of economic activity makes it too easy for repressive political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers. Friedmans view was shared by Friedrich Hayek and John Maynard Keynes. Objectivists who follow Ayn Rand are strongly anti-Communist and this is demonstrated, they believe, by the comparative prosperity of free market and socialist economies. Objectivist Ayn Rand writes that communist leaders typically claim to work for the common good, many ex-communists have turned into anti-communists. Mikhail Gorbachev turned from a Communist into a social democrat, milovan Đilas, was a former Yugoslav Communist official, who became a prominent dissident and critic of Communism. Leszek Kołakowski was a Polish Communist who became a famous anti-communist, the God That Failed is a 1949 book which collects together six essays with the testimonies of a number of famous ex-Communists, who were writers and journalists
11.
Liberalism
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Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a philosophical tradition. Locke argued that man has a natural right to life, liberty and property. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy, prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution, the 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state, today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means free. One of the first recorded instances of the word occurs in 1375. The words early connection with the education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someones generosity or indiscretion, in Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare wrote of a liberal villaine who hath. confest his vile encounters. With the rise of the Enlightenment, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, being defined as free from narrow prejudice in 1781, in 1815, the first use of the word liberalism appeared in English. In Spain, the Liberales, the first group to use the label in a political context. From 1820 to 1823, during the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitution, by the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide. Over time, the meaning of the word began to diverge in different parts of the world. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, In the United States, liberalism is associated with the policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres
12.
Joseph Brodsky
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Iosif Aleksandrovich Brodsky was a Russian and American poet and essayist. Born in Leningrad in 1940, Brodsky ran afoul of Soviet authorities and was expelled from the Soviet Union in 1972, settling in the United States with the help of W. H. Auden and other supporters. He taught thereafter at Mount Holyoke College, and at universities including Yale, Columbia, Cambridge, Brodsky was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize in Literature for an all-embracing authorship, imbued with clarity of thought and poetic intensity. He was appointed United States Poet Laureate in 1991, Brodsky was born into a Jewish family in Leningrad. He was a descendant of a prominent and ancient rabbinic family Schorr and his direct male-line ancestor is Joseph ben Isaac Bekhor Shor. His father, Aleksandr Brodsky, was a photographer in the Soviet Navy. They lived in apartments, in poverty, marginalized by their Jewish status. In early childhood Brodsky survived the Siege of Leningrad where he and his parents died of starvation. He later suffered from health problems caused by the siege. Brodsky commented that many of his teachers were anti-Semitic and that he felt like a dissident from an early age. He noted I began to despise Lenin, even when I was in the first grade, not so much because of his philosophy or practice. As a young student Brodsky was a child known for his misbehavior during classes. At fifteen, Brodsky left school and tried to enter the School of Submariners without success and he went on to work as a milling machine operator. Later, having decided to become a physician, he worked at the morgue at the Kresty Prison and he subsequently held a variety of jobs in hospitals, in a ships boiler room, and on geological expeditions. At the same time, Brodsky engaged in a program of self-education and he learned Polish so he could translate the works of Polish poets such as Czesław Miłosz, and English so that he could translate John Donne. On the way, he acquired a deep interest in philosophy, religion, mythology. In 1955, Brodsky began writing his own poetry and producing literary translations and he circulated them in secret, and some were published by the underground journal Sintaksis. By 1958 he was well known in literary circles for his poems The Jewish cemetery near Leningrad
13.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
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Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn was a Russian novelist, historian, and short story writer. He was a critic of the Soviet Union and communism. He was allowed to only one work in the Soviet Union, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. After this he had to publish in the West, most notably Cancer Ward, August 1914, Solzhenitsyn was awarded the 1970 Nobel Prize in Literature for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature. Solzhenitsyn was afraid to go to Stockholm to receive his award for fear that he would not be allowed to reenter and he was eventually expelled from the Soviet Union in 1974, but returned to Russia in 1994 after the states dissolution. Solzhenitsyn was born in Kislovodsk, RSFSR and his mother, Taisiya Zakharovna was of Ukrainian descent. Her father had risen from humble beginnings to become a wealthy landowner, during World War I, Taisiya went to Moscow to study. While there she met and married Isaakiy Solzhenitsyn, a officer in the Imperial Russian Army of Cossack origins. The family background of his parents is vividly brought to life in the chapters of August 1914. In 1918, Taisia became pregnant with Aleksandr, on 15 June, shortly after her pregnancy was confirmed, Isaakiy was killed in a hunting accident. Aleksandr was raised by his mother and aunt in lowly circumstances. His earliest years coincided with the Russian Civil War, by 1930 the family property had been turned into a collective farm. Later, Solzhenitsyn recalled that his mother had fought for survival and his educated mother encouraged his literary and scientific learnings and raised him in the Russian Orthodox faith, she died in 1944. As early as 1936, Solzhenitsyn began developing the characters and concepts for an epic work on World War I. This eventually led to the novel August 1914 – some of the chapters he wrote then still survive, Solzhenitsyn studied mathematics at Rostov State University. At the same time he took courses from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History. As he himself makes clear, he did not question the state ideology or the superiority of the Soviet Union until he spent time in the camps. During the war Solzhenitsyn served as the commander of a battery in the Red Army, was involved in major action at the front
14.
Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was an American Baptist minister and activist who was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, with the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech, on October 14,1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, in the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include opposition towards poverty and the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled Beyond Vietnam. In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D. C. to be called the Poor Peoples Campaign, Kings death was followed by riots in many U. S. cities. Ray, who fled the country, was arrested two months later at London Heathrow Airport, King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, hundreds of streets in the U. S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, King was born on January 15,1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. It was during this time he chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther, King had Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather, as well as African ancestry. King was a child, between an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King. King sang with his choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind. His mother was an accomplished organist and choir leader, and she took him to various churches to sing and he received attention for singing I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus. King later became a member of the choir in his church. King said that his father regularly whipped him until he was fifteen, King saw his fathers proud and fearless protests against segregation, such as King Sr. When King was a child, he befriended a boy whose father owned a business near his familys home. When the boys were six, they started school, King had to attend a school for African Americans, King lost his friend because the childs father no longer wanted the boys to play together. King suffered from depression throughout much of his life, in his adolescent years, he initially felt resentment against whites due to the racial humiliation that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South
15.
Letter from Birmingham Jail
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The Letter from Birmingham Jail, also known as the Letter from Birmingham City Jail and The Negro Is Your Brother, is an open letter written on April 16,1963, by Martin Luther King Jr. The letter defends the strategy of nonviolent resistance to racism and it says that people have a moral responsibility to break unjust laws and to take direct action rather than waiting potentially forever for justice to come through the courts. Responding to being referred to as an outsider, King writes, the letter, written during the 1963 Birmingham campaign, was widely published, and became an important text for the American Civil Rights Movement. The Birmingham campaign began on April 3,1963, with coordinated marches and sit-ins against racism and racial segregation in Birmingham, the nonviolent campaign was coordinated by the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights and Kings Southern Christian Leadership Conference. On April 10, Circuit Judge W. A. Jenkins issued an injunction against parading, demonstrating, boycotting, trespassing and picketing. Leaders of the announced they would disobey the ruling. King was met with harsh conditions in the Birmingham jail. An ally smuggled in a newspaper from April 12, which contained A Call for Unity, the letter provoked King, and he began to write a response on the newspaper itself. As a minister, King responded to criticisms on religious grounds. As an activist challenging an entrenched social system, he argued on legal, political, as an African American, he spoke of the countrys oppression of black people, including himself. As an orator, he used many techniques to reach the hearts. Altogether, Kings letter was a defense of the motivations, tactics, and goals of the Birmingham campaign. King began the letter by responding to the criticism that he, to this, King referred to his responsibility as the leader of the SCLC, which had numerous affiliated organizations throughout the South. Referring to his belief that all communities and states were interrelated, King wrote and we are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly… Anyone who lives inside the United States can never be considered an outsider anywhere within its bounds, the clergymen also disapproved of tensions created by public actions such as sit-ins and marches. To this, King confirmed that he and his fellow demonstrators were indeed using nonviolent direct action in order to create constructive tension and this tension was intended to compel meaningful negotiation with the white power structure, without which true civil rights could never be achieved. Citing previous failed negotiations, King wrote that the community was left with no alternative. We know through experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor
16.
James Baldwin
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James Arthur Baldwin was an American novelist, essayist, playwright, poet, and social critic. His essays, as collected in Notes of a Native Son, explore palpable yet unspoken intricacies of racial, sexual, some Baldwin essays are book-length, for instance The Fire Next Time, No Name in the Street, and The Devil Finds Work. An unfinished manuscript, Remember This House, was expanded upon and adapted for cinema as the Academy Award nominated documentary film, such dynamics are prominent in Baldwins second novel, Giovannis Room, written in 1956, well before the gay liberation movement. Baldwin was born after his mother, Emma Berdis Jones, left his father because of his drug abuse and moved to Harlem. There, she married a preacher, David Baldwin, Baldwin spent much time caring for his several younger brothers and sisters. At the age of 10, he was teased and abused by two New York police officers, an instance of racist harassment by the NYPD that he would experience again as a teenager and document in his essays. His adoptive father, whom Baldwin in essays called simply his father and his stepfather died of tuberculosis in summer of 1943 just before Baldwin turned 19. The quest to answer or explain family and social rejection—and attain a sense of selfhood,24 on 128th Street between Fifth and Madison Avenues in Harlem, where he wrote the school song, which was used until the school closed down. He then went on to DeWitt Clinton High School, in the Bronxs Bedford Park section, there, along with Richard Avedon, Baldwin worked on the school magazine as literary editor but disliked school because of the constant racial slurs. The difficulties of his life, including his stepfathers abuse, led Baldwin to seek solace in religion, at the age of 14 he attended meetings of the Pentecostal Church and, during a euphoric prayer meeting, he converted and became a junior Minister. Before long, at the Fireside Pentecostal Assembly, he was drawing larger crowds than his stepfather had done in his day. At 17, however, Baldwin came to view Christianity as based on false premises, Baldwin once visited Elijah Muhammad, leader of the Nation of Islam, who inquired about Baldwins religious beliefs. He answered, I left the church 20 years ago and havent joined anything since, Elijah asked, And what are you now. Still, his church experience significantly shaped his worldview and writing, Baldwin reflected that being in the pulpit was like working in the theatre, I was behind the scenes and knew how the illusion was worked. Baldwin accused Christianity of reinforcing the system of American slavery by palliating the pangs of oppression, Baldwin praised religion, however, for inspiring some American blacks to defy oppression. He once wrote, If the concept of God has any use, it is to make us larger, freer, If God cant do that, its time we got rid of him. Baldwin publicly described himself as not religious, a recording of him singing Precious Lord, Take My Hand a cappella was played at his funeral. When Baldwin was 15, his high-school running buddy, Emile Capouya, skipped school one day and, in Greenwich Village, met Beauford Delaney, Capouya gave Baldwin Delaneys address and suggested paying him a visit
17.
Daniel Bell
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Daniel Bell was an American sociologist, writer, editor, and professor at Harvard University, best known for his contributions to the study of post-industrialism. He has been described as one of the leading American intellectuals of the postwar era and his three best known works are The End of Ideology, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society and The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. Daniel Bell was born in 1919 in the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City and his parents, Benjamin and Anna Bolotsky, were Jewish immigrants originally from Eastern Europe. They worked in the garment industry and his father died when he was eight months old, and he grew up poor living with relatives along with his mother and his yonger brother. When he was 13 years old, the name was changed from Bolotsky to Bell. Bell graduated from Stuyvesant High School and City College of New York with a degree in science and social science in 1938. He spent most of the twenty years as a journalist. In 1960, it was published in hardcover, Bell began his professional life as a journalist, being managing editor of The New Leader magazine, labor editor of Fortune and later co-editor of The Public Interest magazine. In the late 1940s Bell was Instructor in the Social Sciences in the College of the University of Chicago, during the 50s, it was close to the Congress for Cultural Freedom. Subsequently, he taught sociology, first at Columbia and then at Harvard until his retirement in 1990 and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1964. Bell also was the visiting Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at Cambridge University in 1987 and he served as a member of the President’s Commission on Technology in 1964–1965 and as a member of the President’s Commission on a National Agenda for the 1980s in 1979. Bell received honorary degrees from Harvard, the University of Chicago, fourteen other universities in the United States, Edinburgh Napier University and he was given the Tocqueville Award by the French government in 1995. Bell was a director of Suntory Foundation and a scholar in residence of the American Academy of Arts, Bell once described himself as a socialist in economics, a liberal in politics, and a conservative in culture. Bell is best known for his contributions to post-industrialism and his most influential books are The End of Ideology, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism and The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. Besides Bell only Isaiah Berlin, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Albert Camus, George Orwell, in The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, A Venture in Social Forecasting, Bell outlined a new kind of society, the post-industrial society. He argued that post-industrialism would be information-led and service-oriented, Bell also argued that the post-industrial society would replace the industrial society as the dominant system. Bell discussed the manuscript of The Coming of Post-Industrial Society with Talcott Parsons before its publication, Bell articulates this through his three realms methodology, which divides modern society into the cultural, economic and political spheres. That dovetails with the requirement for the state to maintain the kind of strong economic environment conducive to continual growth
18.
Willy Brandt
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He was the first Social Democrat chancellor since 1930. Brandt was originally considered one of the leaders of the wing of the SPD. He served as Foreign Minister and as Vice Chancellor in Kurt Georg Kiesingers cabinet, Brandt was controversial on both the right wing, for his Ostpolitik, and on the left wing, for his support of American policies, including the Vietnam War, and right-wing authoritarian regimes. The Brandt Report became a measure for describing the general North-South divide in world economics and politics between an affluent North and a poor South. Brandt was also known for his fierce anti-communist policies at the domestic level, Brandt resigned as chancellor in 1974, after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service. Willy Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Carl Frahm in the Free City of Lübeck on 18 December 1913 and his mother was Martha Frahm, a single parent, who worked as a cashier for a department store. His father was an accountant from Hamburg named John Möller, whom Brandt never met, as his mother worked six days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mothers stepfather, Ludwig Frahm, and his second wife, Dora. After passing his Abitur in 1932 at Johanneum zu Lübeck, he became an apprentice at the shipbroker and he joined the Socialist Youth in 1929 and the Social Democratic Party in 1930. He left the SPD to join the left wing Socialist Workers Party, which was allied to the POUM in Spain. In 1933, using his connections with the port and its ships and it was at this time that he adopted the pseudonym Willy Brandt to avoid detection by Nazi agents. In 1934, he took part in the founding of the International Bureau of Revolutionary Youth Organizations, Brandt was in Germany from September to December 1936, disguised as a Norwegian student named Gunnar Gaasland. The real Gunnar Gaasland was married to Gertrud Meyer from Lübeck in a marriage of convenience to protect her from deportation, Meyer had joined Brandt in Norway in July 1933. In 1937, during the Civil War, Brandt worked in Spain as a journalist, in 1938, the German government revoked his citizenship, so he applied for Norwegian citizenship. In 1940, he was arrested in Norway by occupying German forces, on his release, he escaped to neutral Sweden. In August 1940, he became a Norwegian citizen, receiving his passport from the Norwegian legation in Stockholm, in exile in Norway and Sweden Brandt learned Norwegian and Swedish. Brandt spoke Norwegian fluently, and retained a relationship with Norway. In late 1946, Brandt returned to Berlin, working for the Norwegian government, in 1948, he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany and became a German citizen again, formally adopting the pseudonym Willy Brandt as his legal name. In 1950, Brandt, being a member of the federal parliament, being confronted with this during his life, Brandt always denied
19.
Milovan Djilas
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Milovan Djilas was a Yugoslav communist politician, theorist and author. He was a key figure in the Partisan movement during World War II, a self-identified democratic socialist, Djilas became one of the best-known and most prominent dissidents in Yugoslavia and the whole of the Eastern Bloc. Born in Podbišće near Mojkovac, Kingdom of Montenegro, he joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia as a University of Belgrade student in 1932 and he was a political prisoner from 1933-36. In 1938 he was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party, the Uprising in Montenegro which Đilas had an important role in was a national one, spanning ideological lines, and large parts of Montenegro were quickly liberated. Đilas remained in Montenegro until November, in early November 1941 Tito dismissed Đilas from the command of Partisan forces in Montenegro because of his mistakes during the uprising, including his leftist errors. Đilas was appointed as editor of the paper Borba, the Partys main propaganda organ, Đilas then left for the communist-controlled town of Užice in Serbia, where he took up his work for Borba. At this time, there were no divisions between communists and non-communists among the insurgents. It was only in March of next year that he went back again to Montenegro, in March 1944, he went as part of the military- and party-mission to the Soviet Union. During this time he met others with Georgi Dimitrov, Vyacheslav Molotov. He fought among the Partisans to liberate Belgrade from the Wehrmacht, with the establishment of the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia, Đilas became Vice-president in Titos government. Djilas later claimed to have sent at that time to pressure Italians to leave from Istria. Đilas was sent to Moscow to meet Stalin again in 1948 to try and he became one of the leading critics of attempts by Stalin to bring Yugoslavia under greater control from Moscow. Later that year, Yugoslavia broke with the Soviet Union and left the Cominform, Đilas was very much part of that, but he began to take things further. Having responsibility for propaganda, he created a platform for new ideas and he launched a new journal, Nova Misao, Đilas was widely regarded as Titos possible successor and in 1953 he was about to be chosen President of Yugoslavia. He became President of the Federal Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and he resigned from the League of Communists soon afterwards, in March 1954. He also appealed for the formation of a new democratic Socialist party, for this hostile propaganda he was brought to trial and conditionally sentenced to 1.5 years in prison. He was sentenced to three years imprisonment, in 1957, Đilas published abroad The New Class, An Analysis of the Communist System, which he had already sent to the American publisher Praeger before he was jailed. The book had a success and was translated into more than 40 languages
20.
Max Eastman
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Max Forrester Eastman was an American writer on literature, philosophy and society, a poet, and a prominent political activist. Moving to New York City for graduate school, Eastman became involved with liberal and radical circles in Greenwich Village and he supported socialism and became a leading patron of the Harlem Renaissance, and an activist for a number of liberal and radical causes. For several years, he edited The Masses, with his sister Crystal Eastman, in 1917 he co-founded The Liberator, a radical magazine of politics and the arts. He was influenced by the rivalry between Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin, in which Trotsky was ultimately assassinated, as well as the mass killings committed during Stalins Great Purge. Eastman became an advocate of free-market economics and anti-communism, while remaining an atheist, in 1955, he published Reflections on the Failure of Socialism. Eastman was born in 1883 in Canandaigua, Ontario County, New York and his older brother died the following year at age seven. They served together as pastors at the church of Thomas K. Beecher near Elmira and this area was part of the burned-over district, which earlier in the 19th century had generated much religious excitement, resulting in the founding of the Shakers and the Mormon movement. In addition, religion inspired such progressive social causes as abolitionism, through his parents, Max became acquainted in his youth with their friend, the noted author Samuel Clemens, better known as Mark Twain. Eastman graduated with a degree from Williams College in 1905. His good friend and roommate while at Williams was Charles Whittlesey, later known as the Lost Battalion commanding officer and a World War I hero. Settling in Greenwich Village with his older sister Crystal Eastman, he involved in a number of political causes. While at Columbia, he was an assistant in the philosophy department, after completing the requirements for his doctoral degree, he refused to accept it and simply withdrew in 1911. After moving to New York City, Eastman married Ida Rauh, in 1924 he married the painter Elena Krylenko, a native of Moscow, whom he had met during his nearly two-year stay in the Soviet Union. Elena was sister to Nikolai Krylenko, who later was the Soviet Commissar of Justice and he organized many of Joseph Stalins infamous show trials of the 1930s. In 1958 Eastman married Yvette Szkely, who was born in Budapest and she emigrated to New York with her divorced step-mother. She had a relationship with Theodore Dreiser before her marriage to Eastman. In 1995 she published a memoir, Dearest Wilding, Yvette Eastman died in New York in 2014 at the age of 101. Eastman became a key figure in the left-leaning Greenwich Village community and he combined this with his academic experience to explore varying interests, including literature, psychology and social reform
21.
Ralph Ellison
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Ralph Waldo Ellison was an American novelist, literary critic, and scholar. Ellison is best known for his novel Invisible Man, which won the National Book Award in 1953 and he also wrote Shadow and Act, a collection of political, social and critical essays, and Going to the Territory. For The New York Times, the best of these essays in addition to the novel put him among the gods of Americas literary Parnassus, a posthumous novel, Juneteenth, was published after being assembled from voluminous notes he left after his death. Ralph Waldo Ellison, named after Ralph Waldo Emerson, was born at 407 East First Street in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, to Lewis Alfred Ellison and Ida Millsap, on Saturday March 1,1913. He was the second of three brothers, firstborn Alfred died in infancy, and younger brother Herbert Maurice was born in 1916. The elder Ellison loved literature, and doted on his children, in 1921, Ellisons mother and her children moved to Gary, Indiana, where she had a brother. According to Ellison, his mother felt that my brother and I would have a chance of reaching manhood if we grew up in the north. She did not find a job and her brother lost his, the returned to Oklahoma, where Ellison worked as a busboy, a shoeshine boy, hotel waiter. From the father of a friend he received free instructions for playing trumpet and alto saxophone. Ida remarried three times after Lewis died, however, the family life was precarious, and Ralph worked various jobs during his youth and teens to assist with family support. While attending Douglass High School, he found time to play on the schools football team. He graduated from school in 1931. He worked for a year, and found the money to make a payment on a trumpet, using it to play with local musicians. At Douglass, he was influenced by principal Inman E. Page and his daughter, Ellison applied twice for admission to Tuskegee Institute, the prestigious all-black university in Alabama founded by Booker T. Washington. He was finally admitted in 1933 for lack of a player in its orchestra. Ellison hopped freight trains to get to Alabama, and was soon to find out that the institution was no less class-conscious than white institutions generally were. Ellisons outsider position at Tuskegee sharpened his satirical lens, critic Hilton Als believes, in passages of Invisible Man, he looks back with scorn and despair on the snivelling ethos that ruled at Tuskegee. Tuskegees music department was perhaps the most renowned department at the school, Ellison also was guided by the departments piano instructor, Hazel Harrison
22.
Hubert Humphrey
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Hubert Horatio Humphrey Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th Vice President of the United States under President Lyndon B. Johnson from 1965 to 1969. Humphrey twice served in the United States Senate, representing Minnesota from 1949 to 1964 and 1971 to 1978 and he was the nominee of the Democratic Party in the 1968 presidential election, losing to the Republican nominee Richard M. Nixon. Born in Wallace, South Dakota in 1911, Humphrey attended the University of Minnesota before earning his pharmacist license from the Capitol College of Pharmacy in 1931. He helped run his fathers pharmacy until 1937 when he returned to academia, graduating with a degree from Louisiana State University in 1940. He returned to Minnesota during World War II and became a supervisor for the Works Progress Administration and he was then appointed state director of the Minnesota war service program before becoming the assistant director of the War Manpower Commission. In 1943, Humphrey became a professor of Political Science at Macalester College, Humphrey helped found the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party in 1944, and in 1945, became the DFL candidate for mayor of Minneapolis for a second time, winning with 61% of the vote. Humphrey served as mayor from 1945 to 1948, he was reelected and he served three terms in the Senate from 1949 to 1964 and was the Democratic Majority Whip from 1961 to 1964. Humphrey ran for two failed Presidential campaigns in the 1952 and 1960 Democratic primaries, after Johnson made the surprise announcement that he would not seek reelection in March 1968, Humphrey launched his campaign for the presidency the following month. Humphreys main Democratic challengers were anti-Vietnam War Senators Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy, Humphreys delegate strategy succeeded in clinching the nomination, choosing Senator Edmund Muskie as his running mate. On November 5,1968, Humphrey lost to former Vice President Richard Nixon in the general election, Humphrey then returned to teaching in Minnesota before returning to the Senate in 1971. He became the first Deputy President pro tempore of the United States Senate, Humphrey died of bladder cancer at his home in Waverly, Minnesota, and is buried at the Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis. He was succeeded by his wife of forty-one years Muriel Humphrey as interim Senator for Minnesota, Humphrey was born in a room over his fathers drugstore in Wallace, South Dakota. In the late 1920s, an economic downturn hit Doland. After his son graduated from Dolands high school, Hubert Humphrey Sr. left Doland and opened a new drugstore in the town of Huron, South Dakota. Because of the financial struggles, Humphrey had to leave the University of Minnesota after just one year. He earned a license from the Capitol College of Pharmacy in Denver, Colorado. Both father and son were innovative businessmen in finding ways to attract customers, to supplement their business, a sign featuring a wooden pig was hung over the drugstore to tell the public about this unusual service. Farmers got the message, and it was Humphreys that became known as the farmers drugstore, Humphrey himself later wrote that we made Humphreys Sniffles, a substitute for Vicks Nose Drops
23.
George F. Kennan
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George Frost Kennan was an American diplomat and historian. He was known best as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War on which he reversed himself. He lectured widely and wrote histories of the relations between USSR and the United States. He was also one of the group of foreign policy known as The Wise Men. During the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and these texts provided justification for the Truman administrations new anti-Soviet policy. Kennan played a role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions. Soon after his concepts had become U. S. policy, subsequently, prior to the end of 1948, Kennan became confident that positive dialogue could commence with the Soviet government. His proposals were discounted by the Truman administration and Kennans influence was marginalized, Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality, causing Kennan to lament about what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments. In 1950, Kennan left the Department of State—except for two brief stints in Moscow and Yugoslavia—and became a realist critic of U. S. foreign policy. He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death at age 101. Mrs. Kennan died two months due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix, though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him. The boy always lamented not having a mother, he was never close to his father or stepmother, however, at the age of eight he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German. He attended St. Johns Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin, unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League, the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely. After receiving his bachelors degree in 1925, Kennan considered applying to law school and he passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington he gained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva, Switzerland. Within a year he was transferred to a post in Hamburg, in 1929 Kennan began his program on history, politics, culture, and the Russian language at the University of Berlins Oriental Institute. During the course of his career, Kennan would master a number of other languages, including German, French, Polish, Czech, Portuguese. In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga, Latvia, from his job, Kennan grew to mature interest in Russian affairs. When the U. S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Kennan accompanied ambassador William C
24.
Murray Kempton
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James Murray Kempton was an American journalist and social and political commentator. He won a National Book Award in 1974 for The Briar Patch, The People of the State of New York versus Lumumba Shakur, et al. Reprinted,1997, with new subtitle The Trial of the Panther 21. )He won a Pulitzer Prize in 1985 for witty and insightful reflection on issues in 1984. Kempton was born on December 16,1917 in Baltimore, the son of Sally Ambler and James Branson Kempton, kemptons father died of influenza shortly after his birth, leaving the family in financial straits. He worked as a copyboy for H. L. Mencken at the Baltimore Evening Sun and he entered Johns Hopkins in 1935, where he was editor-in-chief of the Johns Hopkins News-Letter. He served in the U. S. Army Air Forces during World War II and was stationed in New Guinea and he rejoined New York Post in 1949 as labor editor and later as a columnist. His 1955 book Part of Our Time, Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties was a farewell to his youthful Communism, during 1958 and 59 he spent a year in Rome on a scholarship of the U. S. -Italy Fulbright Commission. During the 1960s he edited The New Republic and he returned to the New York Post yet again in 1977 after it was bought by Rupert Murdoch. In 1981, he became a columnist for Newsday, the Long Island-based daily, Buckley, Jr. Kempton had enjoyed a longtime friendship that grew from their ideological rivalry. Known as a modest, courtly man who was generous with fellow journalists and friends and he never learned to drive, and could often be spotted riding a bicycle in New York City wearing a three-piece suit. Kempton dedicated the book to Buckley, whom he once admitted had nagged him for years to assemble the collection, For William F. Buckley, Jr. genius at friendships that surpass all understanding. An indefatigable journalist who filed four columns a week for most of his career, ten years later, he received the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award as well as an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Colby College. Kempton, who was ill with cancer, died of a heart attack in 1997. It was easy to think of Murray as indestructible, wrote Newsday Sunday Currents editor Chris Lehmann, although he was at an age when many people settle into dotage, he could, and did, run circles around us all. Lehmann also recalled Kempton, a devout Episcopalian, ending nearly all conversations with people with, God bless you, my friend. Murray, bicycling around New York in his pinstripes with some classical music singing along in his earphones, was not up to Menckens savage snooty despair, Buckley wrote that e was the most thoughtful and amusing and resourceful journalist in town. He was a great artist, and a great friend, incomplete Collection of Murray Kempton commentaries on CBS Radio Spectrum, 1972-1973
25.
Irving Kristol
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Irving Kristol was an American columnist, journalist, and writer who was dubbed the godfather of neo-conservatism. Kristol was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of non-observant Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe, Bessie and it was at these meetings that Kristol met Gertrude Himmelfarb, whom he later married in 1942. During World War II, he served in Europe in the 12th Armored Division as a combat infantryman and he was the founder and publisher of The National Interest from 1985 to 2002. Kristol was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, as a member of the board of contributors of the Wall Street Journal, he contributed a monthly column from 1972 to 1997. He served on the Council of the National Endowment for the Humanities from 1972 to 1977, in July 2002, he received from President George W. Bush the Medal of Freedom, the nations highest civilian honor. Kristol married Himmelfarb, a historian, in 1942 and they had two children, Elizabeth Nelson and William Kristol, the editor of The Weekly Standard. Kristol died aged 89 on September 18,2009 at the Capital Hospice in Falls Church, intended by Harrington as a pejorative term, it was accepted by Kristol as an apt description of the ideas and policies exemplified by The Public Interest. In February 1979, Kristol was featured on the cover of Esquire, the caption identified him as the godfather of the most powerful new political force in America – Neo-conservatism. That year also saw the publication of the book The Neo-conservatives, like Harrington, the author, Peter Steinfels, was critical of neo-conservatism, but he was impressed by its growing political and intellectual influence. Kristols response appeared under the title Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed – Perhaps the Only – Neo-conservative, Neo-conservatism, Kristol maintains, is not an ideology but a persuasion, a way of thinking about politics rather than a compendium of principles and axioms. It is classical rather than romantic in temperament, and practical, one of Kristols most celebrated quips defines a neo-conservative as a liberal who has been mugged by reality. These concepts lie at the core of philosophy to this day. That reality, for Kristol, is a complex one, and a second cheer, because it is congenial to a large measure of personal liberty. These are no achievements, he argues, and only capitalism has proved capable of providing them. But it also imposes a great psychic burden upon the individual, because it does not meet the individuals existential human needs, it creates a spiritual malaise that threatens the legitimacy of that social order. As much as anything else, it is the withholding of that third cheer that is the mark of neo-conservatism. Men and Ideas, Niccolo Machiavelli, Encounter, December 1954, American Intellectuals and Foreign Policy, Foreign Affairs, July 1967. Memoirs of a Cold Warrior, New York Times Magazine, February 11,1968, when Virtue Loses All Her Loveliness, The Public Interest, Fall 1970
26.
Hans Morgenthau
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Hans Joachim Morgenthau was one of the major twentieth-century figures in the study of international politics. Morgenthau made landmark contributions to international relations theory and the study of international law and his Politics Among Nations, first published in 1948, went through five editions during his lifetime. He knew and corresponded with many of the intellectuals and writers of his era, such as Reinhold Niebuhr, George F. Kennan. At one point in the early Cold War, Morgenthau was a consultant to the U. S, for most of his career, however, Morgenthau was esteemed as an academic interpreter of U. S. foreign policy. He taught and practiced law in Frankfurt before emigrating to the United States in 1937, after several years in Switzerland. Morgenthau taught in Kansas City from 1939–1943, during which time he attended the Keneseth Israel Shalom Congregation, Morgenthau then taught at the University of Chicago until 1973, when he moved to New York and took a professorial chair at the City University of New York. On moving to New York, Morgenthau separated from his wife, Morgenthau completed his doctoral dissertation in Germany in the late 1920s. It was published in 1929 as his first book, The International Administration of Justice, Its Essence, the book was reviewed by Carl Schmitt, who was then a jurist teaching at the University of Berlin. By the late 1920s Schmitt was becoming the leading jurist of the rising National Socialist movement in Germany, following completion of his doctoral dissertation, Morgenthau left Germany to complete his Habilitation dissertation in Geneva. It was published as The Reality of Norms and in Particular the Norms of International Law, the legal scholar Hans Kelsen, who had just arrived in Geneva as a professor, was an adviser to Morgenthaus dissertation. Kelsen was among the strongest critics of Carl Schmitt, Kelsen and Morgenthau became lifelong colleagues even after both emigrated from Europe to take their respective academic positions in the United States. In 1933, Morgenthau wrote a book in French, The Concept of the Political. In this book Morgenthau sought to articulate the difference between legal disputes between nations and political disputes between nations or other litigants, the end goal of any legal system in this context for Morgenthau is to ensure justice and peace. Morgenthau sought in the 1920s and 1930s a realist alternative to mainstream international law and he borrowed ideas from Sigmund Freud, Max Weber, Roscoe Pound, and others. In 1940 Morgenthau set out a program for legal functionalism in the article Positivism, Functionalism. Francis Boyle has written that Morgenthaus post-war writings perhaps contributed to a break between political science and international legal studies. Hans Morgenthau is considered one of the fathers of the realist school in the 20th century. This school of thought holds that nation-states are the actors in international relations
27.
Daniel Patrick Moynihan
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Daniel Patrick Pat Moynihan was an American politician and sociologist. A member of the Democratic Party, he was first elected to the United States Senate for New York in 1976 and he declined to run for re-election in 2000. Kennedy, and continuing through that of Gerald Ford and he is currently the longest-serving Senator from the State of New York, if Chuck Schumer completes his current term, he will tie Moynihan for the record. Moynihan was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the son of Margaret Ann, a homemaker, and John Henry Moynihan and he moved at the age of six with his family to New York City. Brought up in a neighborhood, he shined shoes, attended various public, private, and parochial schools. He was a parishioner of St. Raphaels Church, Hells Kitchen and he and his brother, Michael Willard Moynihan, spent most of their childhood summers at their grandfathers farm in Bluffton, Indiana. Moynihan briefly worked as a longshoreman before entering the City College of New York, following a year at CCNY, Moynihan joined the United States Navy in 1944. He completed active service as officer of the USS Quirinus at the rank of lieutenant in 1947. Moynihan then returned to Tufts, where he completed an undergraduate degree in sociology cum laude in 1948 and earned an M. A. from the Fletcher School of Law. After failing the Foreign Service Officer exam, he continued his studies at the Fletcher School as a Fulbright fellow at the London School of Economics from 1950 to 1953. During this period, Moynihan was a delegate to the 1960 Democratic National Convention as part of John F. Kennedys delegate pool. In this capacity, he did not have operational responsibilities, allowing him to all of his time to trying to formulate national policy for what would become the War on Poverty. He had a staff including Paul Barton, Ellen Broderick. They took inspiration from the book Slavery written by Stanley Elkins, Elkins essentially contended that slavery had made black Americans dependent on the dominant society, and that that dependence still existed a century later. Moynihans research of Labor Department data demonstrated that even as people were unemployed. These recipients were families with children but only one parent, the laws at that time permitted such families to receive welfare payments in certain parts of the United States. Moynihan issued his research under the title The Negro Family, The Case For National Action, Moynihans report fueled a debate over the proper course for government to take with regard to the economic underclass, especially blacks. Critics on the left attacked it as blaming the victim, a slogan coined by psychologist William Ryan, some suggested that Moynihan was propagating the views of racists because much of the press coverage of the report focused on the discussion of children being born out of wedlock
28.
Reinhold Niebuhr
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Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr was an American theologian, ethicist, commentator on politics and public affairs, and professor at Union Theological Seminary for more than 30 years. Niebuhr was one of Americas leading public intellectuals for several decades of the 20th century, andrew Bacevich labelled Niebuhrs book The Irony of American History the most important book ever written on U. S. foreign policy. Niebuhrs realism deepened after 1945 and led him to support American efforts to confront Soviet communism around the world, a powerful speaker, he was one of the most influential thinkers of the 1940s and 1950s in public affairs. During this time he was viewed by many as the rival of John Dewey. Niebuhrs long-term impact on political philosophy involve his utilizing the resources of the Christian faith to argue for political realism and his work has also significantly influenced international relations theory, leading many scholars to move away from idealism and embrace realism. Recent years have seen a renewed interest in Niebuhrs work, in part because of Obamas stated admiration for Niebuhr, aside from his political commentary, Niebuhr is also known for having composed the Serenity Prayer, a widely-recited prayer which was popularized by Alcoholics Anonymous. Niebuhr was also one of the founders of both Americans for Democratic Action and the International Rescue Committee and also spent time at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton and he was also the brother of another prominent theologian, H. Richard Niebuhr. Niebuhr was born in Wright City, Missouri, the son of German immigrants Gustav Niebuhr and his father was a German Evangelical pastor, his denomination was the American branch of the established Prussian Church Union in Germany. It is now part of the United Church of Christ, the family spoke German at home. His brother H. Richard Niebuhr also became a famous theological ethicist, the Niebuhr family moved to Lincoln, Illinois, in 1902 when Gustav Niebuhr became pastor of Lincolns St. Johns German Evangelical Synod church. Reinhold Niebuhr first served as pastor of a church when he served from April to September 1913 as interim minister of St. Johns following his fathers death, Niebuhr attended Elmhurst College in Illinois and graduated in 1910. He studied at Eden Theological Seminary in Webster Groves, Missouri, Press in biblical and systematic subjects, and Yale Divinity School, where he earned a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1914 and a Master of Arts degree the following year. He always regretted not taking a doctorate and he said that Yale gave him intellectual liberation from the localism of his German-American upbringing. In 1931 Niebuhr married Ursula Keppel-Compton and she was a member of the Church of England and was educated at Oxford University in theology and history. She met Niebuhr while studying for her masters degree at Union Theological Seminary, for many years, she was on faculty at Barnard College where she helped establish and then chaired the religious studies department. The Niebuhrs had two children, Christopher Niebuhr and Elisabeth Niebuhr Sifton, Ursula Niebuhr left evidence in her professional papers at the Library of Congress showing that she co-authored some of her husbands later writings. In 1915, Niebuhr was ordained a pastor, the German Evangelical mission board sent him to serve at Bethel Evangelical Church in Detroit, Michigan. The congregation numbered sixty-six on his arrival and grew to nearly 700 by the time he left in 1928, the increase reflected his ability to reach people outside the German American community and among the growing population attracted to jobs in the booming automobile industry
29.
George Orwell
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Eric Arthur Blair, better known by the pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is marked by lucid prose, awareness of injustice, opposition to totalitarianism. Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction, and polemical journalism and he is best known for the allegorical novella Animal Farm and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Bengal Presidency, in British India. His grandfather, Thomas Richard Arthur Blair, was a clergyman, although the gentility passed down the generations, the prosperity did not, Eric Blair described his family as lower-upper-middle class. His father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked in the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service and his mother, Ida Mabel Blair, grew up in Moulmein, Burma, where her French father was involved in speculative ventures. Eric had two sisters, Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five years younger, when Eric was one year old, his mother took him and his sister to England. His birthplace and ancestral house in Motihari has been declared a monument of historical importance. In 1904, Ida Blair settled with her children at Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire, Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit in mid-1907, they did not see the husband and father Richard Blair until 1912. His mothers diary from 1905 describes a lively round of social activity, before the First World War, the family moved to Shiplake, Oxfordshire where Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, especially their daughter Jacintha. When they first met, he was standing on his head in a field, on being asked why, he said, You are noticed more if you stand on your head than if you are right way up. Jacintha and Eric read and wrote poetry, and dreamed of becoming famous writers and he said that he might write a book in the style of H. G. Wellss A Modern Utopia. During this period, he enjoyed shooting, fishing and birdwatching with Jacinthas brother and sister. At the age of five, Eric was sent as a day-boy to a convent school in Henley-on-Thames and it was a Roman Catholic convent run by French Ursuline nuns, who had been exiled from France after religious education was banned in 1903. His mother wanted him to have a school education, but his family could not afford the fees. Ida Blairs brother Charles Limouzin recommended St Cyprians School, Eastbourne, Limouzin, who was a proficient golfer, knew of the school and its headmaster through the Royal Eastbourne Golf Club, where he won several competitions in 1903 and 1904. The headmaster undertook to help Blair to win a scholarship, in September 1911 Eric arrived at St Cyprians. He boarded at the school for the five years, returning home only for school holidays
30.
Bertrand Russell
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Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic, political activist and Nobel laureate. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist and he was born in Monmouthshire into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in the United Kingdom. In the early 20th century, Russell led the British revolt against idealism and he is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague G. E. Moore, and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held to be one of the 20th centurys premier logicians, with A. N. Whitehead he wrote Principia Mathematica, an attempt to create a logical basis for mathematics. His philosophical essay On Denoting has been considered a paradigm of philosophy, Russell mostly was a prominent anti-war activist, he championed anti-imperialism. Occasionally, he advocated preventive nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the monopoly is gone. He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I, in 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought. Bertrand Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire and his parents, Viscount and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their times. Lord Amberley consented to his wifes affair with their childrens tutor, both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. Lord Amberley was an atheist and his atheism was evident when he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russells secular godfather, Mill died the year after Russells birth, but his writings had a great effect on Russells life. His paternal grandfather, the Earl Russell, had asked twice by Queen Victoria to form a government. The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power, Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley. Russell often feared the ridicule of his grandmother, one of the campaigners for education of women. Russell had two siblings, brother Frank, and sister Rachel, in June 1874 Russells mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachels death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis following a period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly Victorian paternal grandparents and his grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the Countess Russell, was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russells childhood, the countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a provision in Amberleys will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Her favourite Bible verse, Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression, and formality, Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings
31.
Bayard Rustin
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Bayard Rustin was an American leader in social movements for civil rights, socialism, nonviolence, and gay rights. He was born and raised in Pennsylvania, where his family was involved in civil rights work, in 1936, he moved to Harlem, New York City, where he earned a living as a nightclub and stage singer. He continued activism for civil rights, in the pacifist groups Fellowship of Reconciliation and the War Resisters League, Rustin practiced nonviolence. A member of the Communist Party before 1941, he collaborated with A, philip Randolph on the March on Washington Movement in 1941 to press for an end to discrimination in employment. He was a leading activist of the early Civil Rights Movement, helping to initiate a 1947 Freedom Ride to challenge, with civil disobedience and he recognized Martin Luther King, Jr. s leadership, and helped to organize the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to strengthen Kings leadership. Rustin became a leading strategist of the Civil Rights Movement from 1955 to 1968 and he was the chief organizer of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which was headed by A. Philip Randolph, the leading African-American labor-union president and socialist, Rustin also influenced young activists, such as Tom Kahn and Stokely Carmichael, in organizations such as the Congress on Racial Equality and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Rustin became the head of the AFL–CIOs A, philip Randolph Institute, which promoted the integration of formerly all-white unions and promoted the unionization of African Americans. The Institute under Rustins leadership also advanced and campaigned for A Freedom Budget for All Americans, linking the concepts of racial justice with economic justice. Rustin became a chairperson of the Socialist Party of America in 1972, before it changed its name to Social Democrats, USA. During the 1970s and 1980s, Rustin served on many missions, such as aiding refugees from Communist Vietnam. At the time of his death in 1987, he was on a mission in Haiti. Rustin was a gay man who had arrested for homosexual activity in 1953. Rustins sexuality, or at least his public criminal charge, was criticized by some fellow pacifists and civil-rights leaders because it detracted from his effectiveness. Rustin was attacked as a pervert or immoral influence by political opponents from segregationists to black power militants, in addition, his pre-1941 Communist Party affiliation when he was a young man was controversial, having caused scrutiny by the FBI. To avoid such attacks, Rustin served rarely as a public spokesperson and he usually acted as an influential adviser behind the scenes to civil-rights leaders. In the 1980s, he became an advocate on behalf of gay. President Ronald Reagan issued a statement on Rustins death in 1987, praising his work for civil rights, on November 20,2013, President Barack Obama posthumously awarded Rustin the Presidential Medal of Freedom
32.
Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
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Arthur Meier Schlesinger Jr. was an American historian, social critic, and public intellectual. The son of the influential historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr. in particular, his work focused on leaders such as Harry S. Truman, Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, and Robert F. Kennedy. In the 1952 and 1956 presidential campaigns, he was a speechwriter and adviser to the Democratic presidential nominee both times, Adlai Stevenson II. Schlesinger served as assistant and court historian to President Kennedy from 1961 to 1963. In 1968, Schlesinger actively supported the campaign of Senator Robert F. Kennedy. Schlesinger wrote a biography, Robert Kennedy and His Times. He later popularized the term imperial presidency during the Nixon administration book of the same name, Schlesinger was born in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Elizabeth Harriet and Arthur M. Schlesinger, who was an influential social historian at Ohio State University and Harvard University. His paternal grandfather was a Prussian Jew who converted to Protestantism and his mother, a Mayflower descendant, was of German and New England ancestry, as well as a relative of historian George Bancroft, according to family tradition. Schlesinger attended the Phillips Exeter Academy, New Hampshire, and received his first degree at the age of 20 from Harvard College, where he graduated summa cum laude in 1938. After spending the 1938–1939 academic year at Peterhouse, Cambridge as a Henry Fellow, at the time, Fellows were not allowed to pursue advanced degrees, a requirement intended to keep them off the standard academic treadmill, as such, Schlesinger would never earn a doctorate. His fellowship was interrupted by the United States entering World War II, after failing his military medical examination, Schlesinger joined the Office of War Information. From 1943 to 1945, he served as an intelligence analyst in the Office of Strategic Services, Schlesingers service in the OSS allowed him time to complete his first Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Age of Jackson, in 1945. From 1946 to 1954, he was a professor at Harvard. Schlesinger acted as the ADAs national chairman from 1953 to 1954, in the 1956 election, Schlesinger, along with 30-year-old Robert F. Kennedy, again worked on Stevensons campaign staff. Schlesinger had known John F. Kennedy since attending Harvard and increasingly socialized with Kennedy, during the 1960 campaign, Schlesinger supported Kennedy, causing much consternation to Stevenson loyalists. At the time, however, Kennedy was a candidate while Stevenson refused to run unless he was drafted at the convention. After Kennedy won the nomination, Schlesinger helped the campaign as a speechwriter, speaker, and member of the ADA. He also wrote the book Kennedy or Nixon, Does It Make Any Difference. in which he lauded Kennedys abilities and scorned Vice President Richard M. Nixon as having no ideas, only methods
33.
Partisan Review
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Partisan Review was a small circulation quarterly little magazine dealing with literature, politics, and cultural commentary published in New York City. The magazine was launched in 1934 by the Communist Party, USA-affiliated John Reed Club of New York and was part of the Communist political orbit. Growing disaffection on the part of PRs primary editors began to make felt, however. When the magazine reemerged late in 1937, it came with the addition of additional editors, by the 1950s the magazine had evolved towards a moderate social democratic and staunchly anti-Communist perspective and was generally supportive of American foreign policy. Partisan Review received covert funding from the Central Intelligence Agency during the 1950s and 1960s as part of the efforts to shape intellectual opinion during the Cold War. The journal moved its offices to the campus of Rutgers University in 1963, then to the campus of Boston University in 1978, the final issue of the publication appeared in April 2003. The literary journal Partisan Review was launched in New York City in 1934 by the John Reed Club of New York — a mass organization of the Communist Party, the publication was published and edited by two members of the New York club, Philip Rahv and William Phillips. The launch of the magazine was assisted by the editors of New Masses, PR editors Phillips and Rahv were disaffected by the change, seeing the new organization as a watering down and mainstreaming of the partys commitment to a new, radical, proletarian literature. Intellectual interest turned to events abroad and interest in PR faltered to the point that effective with its October 1936 issue, while Partisan Review was relaunched by Rahv and Phillips in December 1937, it was changed at a fundamental level. News of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union and of Soviet duplicity in the Spanish Civil War pushed the pair of editors to a new outspokenly critical perspective, the CPUSA press was hostile, claiming that a party asset had been stolen. A new group of left wing writers deeply critical of the Soviet Union began to write for the publication, including James Burnham, the new period of independence had begun. Effective with the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939, the magazine began to divorce itself from the Communist movement altogether, Rahv and Phillips gave qualified support to the campaign for American rearmament and the countrys preparation for war, opposed by Macdonald and another editor at the time, Clement Greenberg. A tentative truce between the editors averted a split, with Macdonald finally departing in 1943 to form the pacifist magazine politics. Increasingly conservative and nationalist, by the early 1950s the magazine had become devoutly supportive of American virtues and values, in 1953 PR found itself in financial difficulties when one its primary backstage financial angel, Allan D. Dowling, became embroiled in a costly divorce proceeding. Additional CIA money came later in the 1950s, when the ACCF terminated its operations, half of the money remaining in the organizations coffers was transferred to Partisan Review. Additional funds came to the magazine to alleviate its problems in the 1950s in the form of a $10,000 donation from Time magazine publisher Henry Luce. Luce seems to have been instrumental in expediting contacts between PR publisher Phillips and Director of Central Intelligence Walter Bedell Smith, in 1963 William Phillips negotiated a move of the editorial offices of Partisan Review to the campus of Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. This arrangement proved satisfactory for both parties until June 1978, when Phillips approached the Universitys then mandatory faculty retirement age of 70, learning that no exception would be made for him to the schools mandatory retirement rules, Phillips began shopping for a new home for Partisan Review
34.
The New Republic
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The New Republic is a liberal American magazine of commentary on politics and the arts published since 1914, with influence on American political and cultural thinking. It supported American entry into World War One, but discarded much of its faith in the possibility of a scientific liberalism, after the 1980s it incorporated elements of conservatism. In early 2016, Hughes announced he was putting the magazine up for sale, indicating the need for new vision and it was sold in February 2016 to Win McCormack. As of 2004, however, some, like Anne Kossedd and Steven Rendall, the magazine endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 general election. Supply side economics, especially the idea of reducing higher marginal tax rates. Moreover, The New Republic is strongly in favor of health care. On certain high-profile social issues, such as its support of same-sex marriage, in its March 2007 issue, The New Republic ran an article by Paul Starr where he defined the type of modern American liberalism in his article War and Liberalism, Liberalism wagers that a state. Can be strong but constrained – strong because constrained, rights to education and other requirements for human development and security aim to advance equal opportunity and personal dignity and to promote a creative and productive society. The New Republic does not focus solely on domestic policy, as it also brings analysis, Support for Israel has been another strong theme in The New Republic. According to Martin Peretz, former owner of The New Republic, unsigned editorials prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq expressed strong support for military action, citing the threat of Weapons of mass destruction as well as humanitarian concerns. In the November 27,2006 issue, the editors wrote, At this point, it seems almost beside the point to say this, the past three years have complicated our idealism and reminded us of the limits of American power and our own wisdom. We were against the confirmation of Justice Alito, in its May 2007 issue the magazine ran an editorial pointing to the humanitarian beliefs of liberals as being responsible for the recent plight of the American left. Such editorials and articles exemplify the political orientation of The New Republic. The magazines first issue was published on November 7,1914, the magazine is widely considered important in changing the character of liberalism in the direction of governmental interventionism, both foreign and domestic. Among the most important of these was the emergence of the U. S. as a Great Power on the international scene, and in 1917 TNR urged Americas entry into World War I on the side of the Allies. One consequence of World War I was the Russian Revolution of 1917 and it reversed course with the start of the Cold War in 1947 and the 1948 departure of leftist editor Henry A. Wallace to run for president on the Progressive ticket. After Wallace, TNR moved towards positions more typical of mainstream American liberalism, during the 1950s it was critical of both Soviet foreign policy and domestic anti-communism, particularly McCarthyism. During the 1960s the magazine opposed the Vietnam War, but was often critical of the New Left
35.
National Review
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National Review is an American semi-monthly magazine focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by the author William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955 and it is currently edited by Rich Lowry. The online version, National Review Online, is edited by Charles C. W. Cooke and includes free content and they also wanted to marginalize what they saw as the antiwar, noninterventionistic views of the Old Right. In 1953 moderate Republican Dwight D. Louis Globe-Democrat, a few small-circulation conservative magazines, such as Human Events and The Freeman, preceded National Review in developing Cold War Conservatism in the 1950s. In 1953, Russell Kirk published The Conservative Mind, which sought to trace an intellectual bloodline from Edmund Burke to the Old Right in the early 1950s and this challenged the popular notion that no coherent conservative tradition existed in the United States. A young William F. Buckley Jr. was greatly influenced by Kirks concepts, Buckley, from a wealthy oil family, first tried to purchase Human Events, but was turned down. The statement of intentions read, Middle-of-the-Road, qua Middle of the Road, is politically, intellectually and we shall recommend policies for the simple reason that we consider them right, and we consider them right because they are based on principles we deem right. On November 19,1955, Buckley’s magazine began to take shape, Buckley assembled an eclectic group of writers, traditionalists, Catholic intellectuals, libertarians and ex-Communists. The group included, Russell Kirk, James Burnham, Frank Meyer, the former Time editor Whittaker Chambers, who had been a Communist spy in the 1930s, eventually became a senior editor. In the magazine’s founding statement Buckley wrote, Let’s Face it, Unlike Vienna, it seems possible that did National Review not exist. When James Burnham became one of the senior editors, he urged the adoption of a more pragmatic editorial position that would extend the influence of the magazine toward the political center. For it is the fact that nowadays there are no conservative or reactionary ideas in general circulation. The conservative impulse and the reactionary impulse do not, express themselves in ideas but only. In irritable mental gestures which seek to resemble ideas, there never was an age of conformity quite like this one, or a camaraderie quite like the Liberals’. National Review promoted Barry Goldwater heavily during the early 1960s, Buckley and others involved with the magazine took a major role in the Draft Goldwater movement in 1960 and the 1964 presidential campaign. National Review spread his vision of conservatism throughout the country, the early National Review faced occasional defections from both left and right. Garry Wills broke with N. R. and became a liberal commentator, Buckley’s brother-in-law, L. Brent Bozell Jr. who ghostwrote The Conscience of a Conservative for Barry Goldwater, left and started the short-lived traditionalist Catholic magazine, Triumph in 1966. Buckley and his editors used his magazine to define the boundaries of conservatism—and to exclude people or ideas or groups they considered unworthy of the conservative title, therefore, they attacked the John Birch Society, George Wallace, and anti-Semites
36.
Anti-Stalinist left
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Associates and followers of Leon Trotsky were organised in the Left Opposition within the Communist parties before they were purged in the Moscow Trials in the 1930s. Subsequently, his followers formed the Fourth International in opposition to the Stalinist Third International, Trotsky saw the Stalinist states as deformed workers states, where a political structure gave most workers very little power in decision making. Less orthodox Trotskyists and other critics of Stalin have seen it as a new form of class state, the communist left was initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution, but lines of tension between the communist left and the leadership of the Communist International opened up very soon. Left communists such as Sylvia Pankhurst and Rosa Luxemburg were among the first left-wing critics of Bolshevism, Left communists see communism as something that can only be achieved by the proletariat itself, and not through the dictatorship of a vanguard party acting on its behalf. A reformist communism, and a branch of Maoism, however it is criticised by traditional Maoists. In order to encourage and promote the advancement of the productivity by creating competition and innovation, but at the same time, private ownership is allowed and encouraged in industries of finished goods and services. According to the Dengism theory, private owners in those industries are not bourgeois, because as Marx teaches, bourgeois owns land and raw materials. Therefore, in a Dengist country, private owners are called minyinqiyejia. The Peoples Republic of China was the first country which adopted this belief and it boosted its economy and achieved the China Miracle. It has increased the Chinese GDP growth rate to over 8% per year for 30 years, due to the influence of Dengism, Vietnam and Laos have also adopted this belief, which allowed Laos to increase its real GDP growth rate to 8. 3%. Cuba is also starting to embrace this idea, dengists also take a very strong position against any form of personality cults which appeared in the Soviet Union during Stalins rule and the current North Korea. However, the relations between the anarchists and the Bolsheviks soured in Soviet Russia, anarchists and Stalinist Communists were also in armed conflict during the Spanish civil war. Anarchists are critical of the statist, totalitarian nature of Stalinism, a significant current of the democratic socialist movement has defined itself in opposition to Stalinism. This includes George Orwell, H. N. Brailsford, Fenner Brockway, there were also a number of anti-Stalinist socialists in France, including writers such as Simone Weil and Albert Camus as well as the group around Marceau Pivert. In America, the New York Intellectuals around the journals Partisan Review, another major split in the international Communist movement was that between Stalin and the Right Opposition. In several countries parallel Communist parties were formed that either were rejected by the Comintern or distanced themselves from it and their criticism did in some ways become similar to positions raised by the Trotskyists, but as a tendency they were far less coherent. The Right Opposition developed contacts with groups that did not fit into either the international Social democracy or Comintern. This tendency largely died out at the time of the Second World War, in other cases dissident Marxist trends developed outside of the established Communist movement, such as the Anushlian Marxists in India
