1.
Royal Artillery
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The Royal Regiment of Artillery, commonly referred to as the Royal Artillery, is the artillery arm of the British Army. Despite its name Royal Regiment of Artillery it actually consists of 13 Regular Regiments and 5 Reserve Regiments, the introduction of artillery into the English army came as early as the Battle of Crécy in 1346. Henry VIII made the armys artillery semi-permanent in the sixteenth century, before the 18th century, artillery traynes were raised by royal warrant for specific campaigns and disbanded again when they were over. On 26 May 1716, however, by warrant of George I two regular companies of field artillery, each 100 men strong, were raised at Woolwich. The title Royal Artillery was first used in 1720, in 1741 the Royal Military Academy was formed in the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich to provide training for RA and Royal Engineers officers. The regiment expanded rapidly and, by 1757, had 24 companies divided into two battalions, as well as a company formed in 1741. During 1748, the presidential artilleries of Bengal, Madras and Bombay were formed,1756 saw the creation of the Royal Irish Regiment of Artillery. In 1762 the Royal Artillery Band was formed at Minden, by 1771 there were 32 companies in four battalions, as well as two invalid companies comprising older and unfit men employed in garrison duties. During 1782, the regiment moved to the Royal Artillery Barracks on Woolwich Common, in January 1793, two troops of Royal Horse Artillery were raised to provide fire support for the cavalry, augmented by two more in November 1793. The Royal Irish Artillery was absorbed into the RA in 1801, during 1805, the Royal Military Academy moved to Woolwich Common. In 1819, the Rotunda was given to the regiment by the Prince Regent to celebrate end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1832, the regimental motto, Ubique Quo Fas Et Gloria Ducunt, was granted. The motto signified that the regiment had seen action in all the conflicts of the British Army. The regiment was under the control of the Board of Ordnance until the board was abolished in 1855, thereafter the regiment came under the War Office along with the rest of the army. The School of Gunnery established at Shoeburyness, Essex in 1859, the third group continued to be titled simply Royal Artillery, and was responsible for ammunition storage and supply. Which branch a gunner belonged to was indicated by metal shoulder titles, the RFA and RHA also dressed as mounted men, whereas the RGA dressed like foot soldiers. In 1920 the rank of Bombardier was instituted in the Royal Artillery, the three sections effectively functioned as separate corps. This arrangement lasted until 1924, when the three amalgamated once more to one regiment. In 1938, RA Brigades were renamed Regiments, during the World War II there were over 1 million men serving in 960 gunner regiments
2.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
3.
Siege of Louisbourg (1758)
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The British government realized that with the Fortress of Louisbourg under French control, there was no way that the Royal Navy could sail up the St. Lawrence River for an attack on Quebec unmolested. Pitt assigned the duty of capturing the fortress to Major General Jeffrey Amherst, amhersts brigadiers were Charles Lawrence, James Wolfe and Edward Whitmore, and command of naval operations was assigned to Admiral Edward Boscawen. As they had in 1757, the French planned to defend Louisbourg by a large naval build-up, however, the French fleet sailing from Toulon was blockaded in Cartagena by a British force, and a relief force was defeated at the Battle of Cartagena. After this the French abandoned their attempt to reinforce Louisbourg from the Mediterranean, British forces assembled at Halifax, Nova Scotia where army and navy units spent most of May training together as the massive invasion fleet came together. After a large gathering at the Great Pontack, on 29 May the Royal Navy fleet departed from Halifax for Louisbourg, the fleet consisted of 150 transport ships and 40 men-of-war. Housed in these ships were almost 14,000 soldiers, almost all of whom were regulars, the force was divided into three divisions, Red, commanded by James Wolfe, Blue, commanded by Charles Lawrence and White commanded by Edward Whitmore. On 2 June the British force anchored in Gabarus Bay,3 miles from Louisbourg, however, unlike the previous year, the French navy was unable to assemble in significant numbers, leaving the French squadron at Louisbourg outnumbered five to one by the British fleet. Drucour ordered trenches to be prepared and manned by some 2,000 French troops, along with other defences, such as an artillery battery, at Kennington Cove. Weather conditions in the first week of June made any landing impossible, however, conditions improved, and at daybreak on 8 June Amherst launched his assault using a flotilla of large boats, organized in 7 divisions, each commanded by one of his brigadiers. French defenses were successful and after heavy losses, Wolfe ordered a retreat. However, at the last minute, a boatload of light infantry in Wolfes division found a rocky inlet protected from French fire, Wolfe redirected the rest of his division to follow. Outflanked, the French retreated rapidly back to their fortress, continuing heavy seas and the difficulty inherent to moving siege equipment over boggy terrain delayed the commencement of the formal siege. In the meantime, Wolfe was sent with 1,220 picked men around the harbour to seize Lighthouse Point, after eleven days, on 19 June, the British artillery batteries were in position and the orders were given to open fire on the French. The British battery consisted of seventy cannons and mortars of all sizes, within hours, the guns had destroyed walls and damaged several buildings. On 21 July a mortar round from a British gun on Lighthouse Point struck a 74 gun French ship of the line, LEntreprenant, a stiff breeze fanned the fire, and shortly after the LEntreprenant caught fire, two other French ships had caught fire. LEntreprenant exploded later in the day, depriving the French of the largest ship in the Louisbourg fleet, the next major blow to French morale came on the evening of 23 July, at 10,00. A British hot shot set the Kings Bastion on fire, the Kings Bastion was the fortress headquarters and the largest building in North America in 1758. Its destruction eroded confidence and reduced morale in the French troops, most historians regard the British actions of 25 July as the straw that broke the camels back
4.
Expulsion of the Acadians
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The Expulsion occurred during the French and Indian War and was part of the British military campaign against New France. The British first deported Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies, and after 1758 transported additional Acadians to Britain, in all, of the 14,100 Acadians in the region, approximately 11,500 Acadians were deported. After the British Siege of Port Royal in 1710, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht allowed the Acadians to keep their lands, over the next forty-five years, however, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During the same period, they participated in various military operations against the British. As a result, the British sought to eliminate any future threat posed by the Acadians. In the first wave of the expulsion, Acadians were deported to other British colonies, during the second wave, they were deported to Britain and France, from where they migrated to Louisiana. Acadians fled initially to Francophone colonies such as Canada, the northern part of Acadia, Isle Saint-Jean. During the second wave of the expulsion, these Acadians were either imprisoned or deported, throughout the expulsion, Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy continued a guerrilla war against the British in response to British aggression which had been continuous since 1744. Thousands of Acadians died in the expulsions, mainly from diseases, on July 11,1764, the British government passed an order-in-council to permit Acadians to legally return to British territories, provided that they take an unqualified oath of allegiance. The American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow memorialized the event in his poem about the plight of the fictional character Evangeline. After the British officially gained control of Acadia in 1713, the Acadians refused to sign an oath of loyalty to become British subjects. Instead, they negotiated a conditional oath that promised neutrality, some Acadians remained neutral and refused the unconditional oath. The difficulty was partly religious, as the British monarch was the head of the Protestant Church of England, other Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath because they were anti-British. Various historians have observed that some Acadians were labelled neutral when they were not, by the time of the Expulsion of the Acadians, there was already a long history of political and military resistance by Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy to the British occupation of Acadia. The Mikmaq and the Acadians were allies through their Catholicism and numerous inter-marriages, while the Acadians were the largest population, the Wabanaki Confederacy, particularly the Mikmaq, held the military strength in Acadia even after the British conquest. They resisted the British occupation and were joined on occasions by Acadians. These efforts were supported and led by French priests in the region. In 1753, French troops from Canada marched south and seized and fortified the Ohio Valley, Britain protested the invasion and claimed Ohio for itself
5.
Battle of the Thousand Islands
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The Battle of the Thousand Islands during the French and Indian war was fought 16–24 August 1760, in the upper St. The engagement took place at Fort Lévis, Pointe au Baril, the small French garrison at Fort Lévis held the much larger British army at bay for over a week, managing to sink two British warships and to cripple a third. Their resistance delayed the British advance to Montreal from the west, by August 1760, the French were building Fort Lévis at Île Royale in the St. Lawrence River. Captain Pierre Pouchot was assigned its defense, Pouchot had been taken prisoner after the siege of Fort Niagara, but he was later released in a prisoner exchange. Chevalier de Lévis original design for the called for stone walls,200 guns. What Pouchot had was a fort with wooden stockades, five cannon and 200 soldiers. Also under Pouchots command were the corvettes lOutaouaise and lIroquoise, crewed by 200 sailors and voyageurs, lIroquoise, under command of Commodore René Hypolite Pépin dit La Force, was armed with ten 12-pound cannon and swivel guns. LOutaouaise, commanded by Captain Pierre Boucher de LaBroquerie carried ten 12-pounders, one 18-pound gun, after the fall of Quebec in the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham, British Commander-in-Chief General Jeffrey Amherst prepared to launch a three-pronged attack to take Montreal. Columns were to advance along the Saint Lawrence River from Quebec to the northeast, up the Richelieu River from Lake Champlain to the south, the latter force, which Amherst led personally, numbered some 10,000 men and 100 siege guns. La Force had run his corvette lIroquoise aground at Pointe au Baril on 1 August, although lIroquoise was raised, it was deemed too damaged to be put into action. It was beached again under the guns at Fort Lévis, Amhersts force set out from Oswego on 10 August. Captain Joshua Loring, who commanded the British snows Onondaga and Mohawk, had sent ahead of Amhersts force as an advance guard. The Onondaga, had launched at Fort Niagara as the Apollo in 1759. Commanded by Loring, it carried four 9-pound guns, fourteen 6-pounders, the Mohawk, commanded by Lieutenant David Phipps, carried sixteen 6-pounders and a crew of 90 seamen and 30 soldiers. On 7 August, French lookouts sighted the Onondaga and the Mohawk from their outpost at Ile aux Chevreuils, the French withdrew in a row galley, pursued by the Onondaga and the Mohawk. The two British ships got lost in the maze of islands, and did not find their way back to the channel for several days. Amhersts force arrived at Pointe au Baril on 16 August, fearing the remaining French ship might attack his transports, Amherst ordered Colonel George Williamson to capture lOutaouaise the following day. At dawn of 17 August, Williamson set out in a gig, the galleys took shelter fore and aft of lOutaouaise, where they could not be hit by the ships broadsides
6.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
7.
Battle of Long Island
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The Battle of Long Island is also known as the Battle of Brooklyn and the Battle of Brooklyn Heights. It was fought on August 27,1776 and was the first major battle of the American Revolutionary War to take place after the United States declared its independence on July 4,1776. It was a victory for the British Army and the beginning of a campaign that gave them control of the strategically important city of New York. In terms of troop deployment and fighting, it was the largest battle of the entire war, Washington understood that the citys harbor would provide an excellent base for the British Navy during the campaign, so he established defenses there and waited for the British to attack. After five days of waiting, the British attacked American defenses on the Guan Heights, unknown to the Americans, however, Howe had brought his main army around their rear and attacked their flank soon after. The Americans panicked, resulting in twenty percent losses through casualties and captures, the remainder of the army retreated to the main defenses on Brooklyn Heights. The British dug in for a siege but, on the night of August 29–30, Washington and the Continental Army were driven out of New York entirely after several more defeats and forced to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. In the first stage of the war, the British Army was trapped in the city of Boston and they abandoned it on March 17, setting sail to Halifax. Washington then began to transfer regiments to New York City which he believed the British would next attack because of its strategic importance. Washington left Boston on April 4, arrived at New York on April 13, Washington had sent his second in command Charles Lee ahead to New York the previous February to establish the citys defenses. Lee remained in New York City until March, when the Continental Congress sent him to South Carolina, troops were in limited supply, so Washington found the defenses incomplete, but Lee had concluded that it would be impossible to hold the city with the British commanding the sea. He reasoned that the defenses should be located with the ability to inflict casualties upon the British if any move was made to take. Barricades and redoubts were established in and around the city, Lee also saw that the immediate area was cleared of Loyalists. Washington began moving troops to Brooklyn in early May, and there were several thousand of them there in a short time. Three more forts were under construction on the side of the East River to support Fort Stirling. These new fortifications were Fort Putnam, Fort Greene, and Fort Box and they lay from north to south, with Fort Putnam farthest to the north, Greene slightly to the southwest, and Box slightly farther southwest. Each of these structures was surrounded by a large ditch, all connected by a line of entrenchments. Fort Defiance was also being constructed at this time, located farther southwest, past Fort Box, hulks were sunk at strategic locations to deter the British from entering the East River and other waterways
8.
Battle of White Plains
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The Battle of White Plains was a battle in the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on October 28,1776, near White Plains, New York. Alerted to this move, Washington retreated farther, establishing a position in the village of White Plains, Howes troops drove Washingtons troops from a hill near the village, following this loss, Washington ordered the Americans to retreat farther north. Later British movements chased Washington across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, Washington then crossed the Delaware and surprised a brigade of Hessian troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton. British General William Howe, after evacuating Boston in March 1776, regrouped in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the campaign began with an unopposed landing on Staten Island in early July. After losing the Battle of Long Island on August 27, General Washington, General Howe followed up with a landing on Manhattan on September 15, but his advance was checked the next day at Harlem Heights. Howe established a camp at New Rochelle, but advance elements of his army were near Mamaroneck, only 7 miles from White Plains, on October 20, General Washington sent Colonel Rufus Putnam out on a reconnaissance mission from his camp at Harlem Heights. Putnam discovered the general placement of the British troop locations and recognized the danger to the army, when he reported this to Washington that evening, Washington immediately dispatched Putnam with orders to Lord Stirling, whose troops were furthest north, to immediately march to White Plains. They arrived at White Plains at 9 am on October 21, Washington decided to withdraw most of the army to White Plains, leaving a garrison of 1,200 men under Nathanael Greene to defend Fort Washington on Manhattan. General Howes army advanced slowly, with troops from his center and right moving along the road from New Rochelle to White Plains, while a unit of Loyalists occupied Mamaroneck. The latter was attacked that night by a detachment of Lord Stirlings troops under John Haslet, who more than thirty prisoners as well as supplies. As a result, Howe moved elements of his wing to occupy Mamaroneck. On October 22, Howe was reinforced by the landing at New Rochelle of an additional 8,000 troops under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen. Washington established his headquarters at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains on October 23, the trenches were situated on raised terrain, protected on the right by the swampy ground near the Bronx River, with steeper hills further back as a place of retreat. The American defenses were 3 miles long, beyond that, on the right, was Chattertons Hill, which commanded the plain over which the British would have to advance. The hill was occupied by militia companies numbering several hundred. On October 24 and 25, Howes army moved from New Rochelle to Scarsdale and this move was apparently made in the hopes of catching Charles Lees column, which had to alter its route toward White Plains and execute a forced march at night to avoid them. While Washington was inspecting the terrain to determine where it was best to station his troops, messengers alerted him that the British were advancing. Spencers force advanced to a position on the old York road at Harts corners, Ralls troops attempted to gain the hill, but were repelled by fire from Haslets troops and the militia, and retreated to a nearby hilltop on the same side of the river
9.
Battle of Fort Washington
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The Battle of Fort Washington was a battle fought in New York on November 16,1776 during the American Revolutionary War between the United States and Great Britain. It was a British victory that gained the surrender of the remnant of the garrison of Fort Washington near the end of Manhattan Island. It was one of the worst Patriot defeats, General Washington issued a discretionary order to General Nathanael Greene to abandon the fort and remove its garrison – then numbered at 1,200 men but later to grow to 3,000 – to New Jersey. Colonel Robert Magaw, commanding the fort, declined to abandon it as he believed it could be defended from the British, howes forces attacked the fort before Washington reached it to assess the situation. Howe launched his attack on November 16 and he led an assault from three sides, the north, east and south. Tides in the Harlem River prevented some troops from landing and delayed the attack, when the British moved against the defenses, the southern and western American defenses fell quickly. Patriot forces on the north side offered stiff resistance to the Hessian attack, with the fort surrounded by land and sea, Colonel Magaw chose to surrender. A total of 59 Americans were killed and 2,837 were taken as prisoners of war, after this defeat, most of Washingtons army was chased across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, and the British consolidated their control of New York and eastern New Jersey. During the American Revolutionary War, Fort Washington was located at the highest point of the island of Manhattan, along with Fort Lee, located just across the Hudson River atop the New Jersey Palisades, the twin forts were intended to protect the lower Hudson from British warships. Later in June, the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, George Washington, inspected the location, shortly after Washingtons survey, troops from Pennsylvania began construction on the fort under the supervision of Rufus Putnam. They first prepared a cheval de frise to prevent British ships from sailing up the Hudson, when the cheval de frise was finished, they began work on the fort. Little soil covered the surface, so men had to haul soil up from the low ground. They were unable to dig the ditches or trenches around the fort. The fort was built in the shape of a pentagon with five bastions, the main walls were made of earth, constructed with ravelins with openings for guns from every angle. The fort enclosed a total of three to four acres, the troops built an abbattis around the fort. After the barracks were finished in September, all the troops in the area were placed under the command of Major General William Heath, Washington established his headquarters near the fort. Supporting the fort were numerous defenses, to the south of the fort were three lines of defense. The lines went through the hills and were made of trenches and foxholes, the first line was supported by a second line about 0.33 mi to the north, and a third line was planned to be built 0.25 mi north of the second
10.
Fort Lee Historic Park
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Fort Lee Historic Park is located atop a bluff of the Hudson Palisades overlooking Burdetts Landing, known as Mount Constitution, in Fort Lee, New Jersey. Native Americans appear to have lived in the area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, site of George Washingtons 1776 encampment opposite Fort Washington at the northern end of Manhattan. Fort Lee is named for General Charles Lee, the site is a reconstruction of the encampment including the blockhouse, battery, quarters as well as a visitors center. It is adjacent to Palisades Interstate Park, General George Washington issued orders to General Mercer to summon all available troops and erect a fort on the west side of the Hudson River. Construction commenced in July 1776 on the new fort, to be called Fort Constitution and it was located on the western side of the road that led up the hill from the landing. Concurrently, Fort Washington was being built almost directly across the North River in New York, chevaux-de-frise, south of the Hudson River Chain, were laid between them. These twin forts were intended to protect the lower Hudson from British warships, at first efforts were concentrated close to the water level near Burdetts Landing. Later, fortifications were added atop the bluff under the supervision of Joseph Philips, at the end of September 1776, Fort Constitution was renamed Fort Lee, for General Charles Lee of the Continental Army. George Washington used the stone Bourdette house for his headquarters when he passed time at Fort Lee, at this stage of the war the ferry operated as a supply line and the only link between Forts Lee and Washington. Peter Bourdettes sixteen-year-old son, also named Peter, provided assistance by direct use of the landing, during the week leading up to the evacuation of Fort Lee he rowed back and forth across the river gathering information for General Washington on the anticipated movements of the British forces. On November 16,1776 George Washington witnessed the battle for New York from across the river on the bluff of Fort Lee, Fort Lee was rendered defenseless after Continental Army troops holding Fort Washington were defeated and captured on November 16,1776. The Royal Navy controlled the Hudson River, General William Howe ordered Charles Cornwallis to clear the rebel troops from New Jersey without a major engagement, and to do it quickly before the weather changed. The force included Hessian units commanded by Colonel Carl von Donop, the invasion of New Jersey began the night of November 19–20, when 5,000 British troops ferried across the Hudson on barges and began landing near New Dock Landing. George Washington and Nathanael Greene quickly ordered the evacuation of the fort on the morning of November 20,1776, Fort Lee Museum is located in Monument Park. Which was created by the Daughters of the American Revolution and dedicated in 1908 at ceremony attended by General John Black Jack Pershing, the park was part of the original Fort Constitution of the Continental Army under the leadership of General George Washington. Over 2,600 troops were stationed in and around the Monument Park area, in 2004, the park was reconstructed for the Fort Lee Centennial Celebration. A time capsule was placed at the foot of the monument, Monument Park and Continental Army Plaza in Williamsburg, Brooklyn are the only parks in the United States dedicated to the soldiers of the American Revolution. New Jersey during the American Revolution Battle of Fort Washington Hudson River Chain New Bridge Landing Palisades Interstate Park Adams, Cornwallis and the Conquest of New Jersey
11.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
12.
Linnean Society of London
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The Linnean Society of London is a society dedicated to the study of, and the dissemination of information concerning, natural history and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections and publishes academic journals and books on plant, the society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes for achievement. A product of the 18th century enlightenment, the society is important as the venue for the first public presentation of the Theory of Evolution. The patron of the society is Queen Elizabeth II, the Linnean Society was founded in 1788 by botanist Sir James Edward Smith. The society derives its name from the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus, the father of taxonomy and he was known as Carl von Linné after his ennoblement, hence the spelling Linnean, rather than Linnaean. The society had a number of minor name variations before it gained its Royal Charter on 26 March 1802, in 1802, as a newly incorporated society, it comprised 228 fellows. It is the oldest extant natural history society in the world, throughout its history the society has been a non-political and non-sectarian institution, existing solely for the furtherance of natural history. The society has numbered many prominent scientists amongst its fellows, one such was the botanist Robert Brown, who was president, he named the cell nucleus and discovered Brownian motion. In 1854 Charles Darwin was elected a fellow, he is undoubtedly the most illustrious scientist ever to appear on the rolls of the society. Another famous fellow was biologist Thomas Huxley, who gained the nickname Darwins bulldog for his defence of evolution. At this meeting a joint presentation of papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace was made, sponsored by Joseph Hooker, in 1904 the society experienced the novelty of electing women fellows, this followed a number of years of campaigning by the botanist Marian Farquharson. Whilst the societys council was reluctant to admit women, the fellows were much less so, among the first to benefit from this were, Lilian J. Veley, a microbiologist and Annie Lorrain Smith, a lichenologist and mycologist, both formally admitted on 19 January 1905. Also amongst the first women to be elected in 1904 was the paleobotanist, the societys connection with evolution remained strong into the 20th century. Sir Edward Poulton, who was president 1912-1916, was a defender of natural selection and was the first biologist to recognise the importance of frequency-dependent selection. The first female president of the society was Irene Manton, who pioneered the use of electron microscopy. Her work revealed the structure of the flagellum and cilia, which are central to systems of cellular motility. Recent years have seen an increased interest within the society in issues of biodiversity conservation and this was highlighted by the inception in 2015 of an annual award, the John Spedan Lewis Medal, specifically honouring persons making significant and innovative contributions to conservation. Fellowship requires nomination by at least one fellow, and election by a minimum of two thirds of those electors voting, fellows may employ the post-nominal letters FLS
13.
Shooter's Hill
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Shooters Hill is a district in South East London within the Royal Borough of Greenwich. It borders the London Borough of Bexley and it lies north of Eltham and south of Woolwich. With a height of 132 metres, it is the highest point in the Borough of Greenwich, Shooters Hill also gives its name to the A road which passes through east to west and is part of the A207 road, the A2 road, and also Watling Street. The name is linked to the Second World War, where it was the site of an array of anti-aircraft guns which protected London. As part of London Stop Line Central it was a last line of defence from a German land invasion, a number of devices were under the control of the Home Guard including a fougasse and a flame thrower. Eltham Common was the site of Shooters Hill police station, Eltham was allegedly the only town in England with two fully functional police stations, having been placed there due to the lawlessness associated with that area. Oxleas Wood remains an open space close to the top of the hill, there is also a golf-course and one of the last remaining areas of farmland in inner London. Shooters Hill Road stretches eastwards from the heath at Blackheath up and over the hill, initially as part of the A2 road as far as the Sun in the Sands, and then the A207. The road follows the route of Watling Street, a Roman Road linking London with Roman settlements in north Kent and this was used as a route for horse-drawn mail-coaches linking London with Dover. Byrons Don Juan is waylaid while romantically musing on Shooters Hill when he first arrives in London. The name Shooters Hill is also mentioned in Bram Stokers Dracula although referring to the Hampstead area, some distance away, on 11 April 1661, diarist Samuel Pepys mentions passing under the man that hangs upon Shooters Hill. In the graphic novel V for Vendetta by Alan Moore and David Lloyd, the distinctive Victorian Gothic water tower at the top of Shooters Hill is a landmark that can be seen from far around. Another water tower is further west down Shooters Hill and this was originally built in the 1890s to designs by Thomas W. Aldwinckle to supply water to the Brook Fever hospital, which was demolished in the 1990s, to be replaced by a housing development. The tower consists of a brick pillar ornamented simply with bands of terracotta tiles. It is not listed, but it was cleaned, repointed and underpinned for conversion into a family home and it is the centrepiece of the housing estate. Immediately to the east of the estate is the Grade II listed former Royal Herbert Hospital. Further up the hill is the still-functioning Memorial Hospital, during the 1950s alterations were made to the road surface to make the incline less steep. Low-powered motor vehicles of the era frequently struggled to get to the top, as a remedy, a small section of the road surface west of the summit was excavated and removed to slightly decrease the gradient
14.
Blackheath, London
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Blackheath is an area of south-east London, divided between the Royal Borough of Greenwich and the London Borough of Lewisham, located east of the town of Lewisham, and south of the town of Greenwich. It is notable for its pubs, village-y feel. The name is recorded in 1166 as Blachehedfeld and means the dark coloured heathland and it is formed from the Old English blæc and hǣth and refers to the open space that was the meeting place of the ancient hundred of Blackheath. The name was applied to the Victorian suburb that developed in the 19th century and was extended to the areas known as Blackheath Park. An urban myth is that Blackheath was associated with the 1665 Plague or the Black Death of the mid-14th century, virtually every part of London has a local tradition about plague pits under, say, a local school or shop. The sheer number of bodies meant that the traditional churchyards became, as one put it. During the seventeenth century Blackheath was, along with Hounslow Heath, in 1673 the Blackheath Army was assembled under Marshal Schomberg to serve in the Third Anglo-Dutch War. The Roman road that became known as Watling Street crosses the northern edge of Blackheath, probably heading for the mouth of Deptford Creek. Blackheath was a point for Wat Tylers Peasants Revolt of 1381. Wat Tyler is remembered by Wat Tyler Road on the heath, after pitching camp on Blackheath, Cornish rebels were defeated in the Battle of Deptford Bridge, just to the west, on 17 June 1497. With Watling Street carrying stagecoaches across the heath, en route to north Kent, in 1909 Blackheath had a local branch of the London Society for Womens Suffrage. The Vanbrugh Pits are on the north-east part of the heath, the site of old gravel workings, Vanbrugh Pits have long been reclaimed by nature and form one of the more attractive parts of the generally rather flat Blackheath. It is particularly attractive in spring when the extensive gorse blossoms, the pits are named after Sir John Vanbrugh, architect of Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard, who had a house nearby, adjacent to Greenwich Park, now called Vanbrugh Castle. Mince Pie House built for his family, survived until 1911, the sizeable estate of Blackheath Park, created on lands of Wricklemarsh Manor by John Cator is situated east of Blackheath. The Cator Estate was built on part of the formerly owned by Sir John Morden. The Cator Estate also contains innovative 1960s Span houses and flats by the renowned Span Developments, St Michael and All Angels Church, designed by local architect George Smith and completed in 1830, was dubbed the Needle of Kent in honour of its tall, thin spire. All Saints Church, situated on the heath, designed by the architect Benjamin Ferrey, another Anglican church, St John the Evangelists, was designed in 1853 by Arthur Ashpitel. The Pagoda is an example of a beautiful property situated in Blackheath
15.
Watercolour painting
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Watercolor or watercolour, also aquarelle, a diminutive of the Latin for water, is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. Watercolor refers to both the medium and the resulting artwork, the traditional and most common support—material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is paper. Other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum, leather, fabric, wood, Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton, which gives a good texture and minimizes distortion when wet. Watercolors are usually translucent, and appear luminous because the pigments are laid down in a form with few fillers obscuring the pigment colors. Watercolors can also be made opaque by adding Chinese white, in East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, india, Ethiopia and other countries have long watercolor painting traditions as well. Fingerpainting with watercolor paints originated in mainland China, however, its continuous history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer, who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, an important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons. Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, however, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with such as John James Audubon. Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti, to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal, the confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English national art. William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dantes Inferno, from the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were extremely popular. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin, were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, the Swiss painter Louis Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists, in particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s
16.
Superb lyrebird
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The superb lyrebird is an Australian songbird, one of two species from the family Menuridae. It is one of the worlds largest songbirds, and is noted for its elaborate tail, the species is endemic to the south east of the country, and has been introduced to Tasmania. The superb lyrebird is featured on the side of the Australian 10 cent coin. An Australian endemic, the superb lyrebird can be found in the forests of south-eastern Australia and its diet consists mainly of small invertebrates found on the forest floor or in rotting logs. In the 1930s a small number were introduced to Tasmania amongst ill-founded fears it was in danger of becoming extinct, the Tasmanian population is currently thriving. Now widespread and common throughout its range, the superb lyrebird is evaluated as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The superb lyrebird is a pheasant-sized Australian songbird, with males measuring approximately 100 cm long, males weigh around 1.1 kg, and females 890 g. Among all extant songbirds only the common and thick-billed ravens regularly outweigh it, the plumage is brownish grey on upper body with a red-brown wash on the coverts and wings. The wings are round and short, with a wingspan of 68 to 76 cm, the legs and feet are long and strong, and capable of running quickly on the ground and digging for food. The ornate tail of the male is 55 to 70 cm long, next within are two guard plumes and twelve long, lace-like feathers, known as filamentaries. Seven years are required for the tail to fully develop, during courtship displays, the male inverts his tail over his head, fanning his feathers to form a silvery white canopy. Young males and females have brown tail feathers which are camouflaged against the forest floor, superb lyrebirds are ground-living birds that typically live solitary lives. Adults usually live singly in territories, but young birds without territories may associate in groups which can be single or mixed-sex. These groups may in turn travel for time with territorial adults when they cross their territory. Superb lyrebirds breed in the depth of winter, adult males start singing half an hour before sunrise from roosts high above the forest floor. Superb lyrebirds sing less often at times of year but a stroll through their habitat on a rainy or misty day will sometimes find them active. Superb lyrebirds have a mating system. During the breeding adult females and males defend separate territories
17.
Earl of Derby
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Earl of Derby is a title in the Peerage of England. The title was first adopted by Robert de Ferrers, 1st Earl of Derby under a creation of 1139 and it continued with the Ferrers family until the 6th Earl forfeited his property toward the end of the reign of Henry III and died in 1279. Most of the Ferrers property and, by a creation in 1337, the title merged in the Crown upon Henry IVs accession to the throne. It was created again for the Stanley family in 1485, Lord Derbys subsidiary titles are Baron Stanley of Bickerstaffe in the County Palatine of Lancaster, and Baron Stanley of Preston, in the County Palatine of Lancaster. The courtesy title of the heir apparent is Lord Stanley and they were at times one of the richest landowning families in England. The family seat is Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool, Merseyside, Ferrières in Normandy, the hometown of the de Ferrers family, was an important centre for iron and takes it name from the iron ore mines used during the Gallo-Roman period. Lord of Longueville, Normandy, and a Domesday Commissioner, he built Tutbury Castle, the Ferrers, lords of the barony of Ferrières in Normandy, were accompanied to England by three other families who were their underlords in France, the Curzons, the Baskervilles and the Levetts. Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Earl of Ferrières was created Earl of Derby by King Stephen in 1138 for his valiant conduct at the Battle of Northallerton and he was married to Hawise de Vitre and died in 1139. His son Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Earl of Derby became the earl and was married to Margaret Peverel. He founded Darley Abbey and Merevale Abbey and his son William de Ferrers, 3rd Earl of Derby was married to Sybil de Braose. He rebelled against King Henry II and was imprisoned at Caen and he died in the Crusades at the Siege of Acre. He was succeeded by his son William de Ferrers, 4th Earl of Derby who married Agnes de Kevelioc, daughter of Hugh de Kevelioc, through one line the descent of the Earls of Derby eventually gave rise to the Earls Ferrers. Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, was the only peer of the realm to be hanged for murder, another familial line takes in the Baron Ferrers of Chartley descent. The large estates which were taken from Robert in 1266 were given by Henry III to his son, Edmund Crouchback, John of Gaunt’s son and successor was Henry Bolingbroke, who acceded to the throne as Henry IV in 1399. The title Earl of Derby merged into the Crown, the Stanley family was descended from Ligulf of Aldithley, who was also the ancestor of the Audleys. One of his descendants married an heiress whose marriage portion included Stoneley, Sir Thomas Stanley served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and represented Lancashire in the House of Commons. In 1456 he was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Stanley and his eldest son Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley, married Lady Margaret Beaufort, the mother of King Henry VII, and also Eleanor Nevill. The title of Earl of Derby was conferred on him in 1485 by his stepson Henry VII after the Battle of Bosworth Field where Thomas decided not to support King Richard III
18.
National Gallery of Canada
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The National Gallery of Canada, located in the capital city of Ottawa, Ontario, is one of Canadas premier art galleries. The Gallery is now housed in a glass and granite building on Sussex Drive with a view of the Canadian Parliament buildings on Parliament Hill. The building was designed by Moshe Safdie and opened in 1988, the Gallerys former director Jean Sutherland Boggs was chosen especially by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau to oversee construction of the national gallery and museums. Marc Mayer was named the director, succeeding Pierre Théberge. In 1911, the Gallery moved to the Victoria Memorial Museum, in 1913, the first National Gallery Act was passed outlining the Gallerys mandate and resources. In 1962, the Gallery moved to the Lorne Building site, adjacent to the British High Commission, the building has since been demolished for a 17 storey office building that is to house the Federal Finance Department. The museum moved into its current building on Sussex Drive in 1988, in 1985, the newly created Canadian Museum of Contemporary Photography, formerly the Stills Photography Division of the National Film Board of Canada, was affiliated to the National Gallery. The CMCPs mandate, collection and staff moved to its new location in 1992, at 1 Rideau Canal, in 1998, the CMCPs administration was amalgamated to that of the National Gallerys. In 2000, the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada chose the National Gallery as one of the top 500 buildings produced in Canada during the last millennium, although its focus is on Canadian art, it holds works by many noted American and European artists. It has a contemporary art collection with some of Andy Warhols most famous works. In 1990 the Gallery bought Barnett Newmans Voice of Fire for $1.8 million, since that time its value has appreciated sharply. In 2005, the Gallery acquired a painting by Italian Renaissance painter Francesco Salviati for $4.5 million and its most famous painting is likely The Death of General Wolfe by Anglo-American artist Benjamin West. In 2005, a sculpture of a giant spider, Louise Bourgeoiss Maman, was installed in the plaza in front of the Gallery. The Canadian collection, the most comprehensive in Canada, holds works by Louis-Philippe Hébert, Tom Thomson, the Gallery organizes its own exhibits which travel across Canada and beyond, and hosts shows from around the world, often co-sponsored with other national art galleries and museums. The Gallerys collection has been built up through purchase and donations, much of the collection was donated, notably the British paintings donated by former Governor General Vincent Massey and that of the Southam family. The museum features Canadian, Native and Inuit art, American and European painting, sculpture, prints and drawings, modern and contemporary art and photographs. After the convent was demolished in 1972, the chapel was dismantled, stored and reconstructed within the gallery as a work of art in 1988. Francis Bacon, Study for Portrait No.1 Hans Baldung, Eve, the Serpent and Death Pompeo Batoni, Vulcan at his forge
19.
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
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The Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, in south-east London, was a British Army military academy for the training of commissioned officers of the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. It later also trained officers of the Royal Corps of Signals, RMA Woolwich was commonly known as The Shop because its first building was a converted workshop of the Woolwich Arsenal. Education in the Academy focused at first on mathematics and the principles of gunnery. French was also taught, for a small fee, in the 1760s the Military Academy acquired its Royal title. At the same time the institution was split, younger cadets entered the Lower Academy, if they performed well in examinations they were allowed to proceed to the Upper Academy, where they learned military skills and sciences. The possibility of moving the Royal Military Academy out of the Warren was mooted as early as 1783, Wyatts Academy was built of yellow brick in the Tudor Gothic style. It consisted of a central block flanked by a pair of accommodation blocks, the central block contained classrooms, a library and offices, the accommodation blocks housed officers in the three-storey central sections and cadets in the two-storey wings. Behind the central block Wyatt placed a large dining hall flanked by spacious quadrangles having service buildings around the sides,128 cadets moved to the new Academy, these comprised the four senior years. Of the younger cadets, sixty were kept at the Warren, practical teaching continued to be given in the working context of the Arsenal. In 1810, military cadets of the East India Company, who had previously educated at the Academy, were moved to a new college at Addiscombe. In this way the Academy took on something of the ethos of an English public school and these contained new classrooms, with accommodation provided in similar new blocks behind. Sports facilities were added along with gun batteries for training. In 1873 Wyatts central block had to be rebuilt following a devastating fire. Arguments in favour of a merger gained momentum in the 1920s when the specialist, in 1936 it was decided that the merger should take place, but the Second World War intervened and in 1939 both institutions closed as their cadets were called up for active service. Thereafter, the old Academy site became part of Woolwich Garrison, the central block was taken over by the Royal Artillery Institution and housed a museum, archives and offices. The chapel became the Garrison Church, durkan Group bought the Woolwich site by public tender in 2006 and redevelopment started in 2008. The Woolwich buildings, several of which are grade II listed, are now being converted and extended into 334 houses and apartments, in 2017 the scaffolding around the main facade has been removed and refurbishment is nearing completion. Since 2013 the RMA cricket field, one of the oldest in the UK, is being used again by the 3rd and 4th team of Blackheath Cricket Club
20.
Halifax, Nova Scotia
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Halifax, legally known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, is the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The municipality had a population of 403,131 in 2016, the regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996, Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and the Municipality of Halifax County. Halifax is an economic centre in Atlantic Canada with a large concentration of government services. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource found in the rural areas of the municipality. Additionally, Halifax has consistently placed in the top 10 for business friendliness of North and South American cities, the first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families, St. Margarets Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during the American Revolution. The resulting explosion, the Halifax Explosion, devastated the Richmond District of Halifax, killing approximately 2,000 people, the blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons. Significant aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities, the municipal boundary thus now includes all of Halifax County except for several First Nation reserves. Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, on April 15,2014, the regional council approved the implementation of a new branding campaign for the region developed by the local firm Revolve Marketing. The campaign would see the region referred to in promotional materials simply as Halifax, mayor Mike Savage defended the decision, stating, Im a Westphal guy, Im a Dartmouth man, but Halifax is my city, we’re all part of Halifax. Because when I go and travel on behalf of this municipality, metropolitan Halifax is a term used to describe the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada population centre of Halifax, the dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to the west, Cole Harbour to the east and this urban area is the most populous on Canadas Atlantic coast, and the second largest coastal population centre in the country after Vancouver, British Columbia. Halifax currently accounts for 40% of Nova Scotias population, and 15% of that of Atlantic Canada, Halifaxs urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. The downtowns office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock, Dalhousie Universitys campus is often featured in films and documentaries. Dartmouth also has its share of historic neighbourhoods and this has resulted in some modern high rises being built at unusual angles or locations
21.
Louisbourg Expedition (1757)
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The Louisbourg Expedition was a failed British attempt to capture the French Fortress of Louisbourg on Île Royale during the Seven Years War. The French and Indian War started in 1754 over territorial disputes between the North American colonies of France and Great Britain in areas that are now western Pennsylvania, the first few years of the war had not gone particularly well for the British. A major expedition by General Edward Braddock in 1755 ended in disaster, in a major setback, a French and Indian army led by General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm captured the garrison and destroyed fortifications in the Battle of Fort Oswego in August 1756. In July 1756 the Earl of Loudoun arrived to command of the British forces in North America, replacing William Shirley. Loudouns plan for the 1757 campaign was submitted to the government in London in September 1756, and was focused on an expedition aimed at the heart of New France. It called for a purely defensive postures along the frontier with New France, including the corridor of the Hudson River. Loudoun consequently did not receive any feedback from London on his campaign until March 1757. When William Pitts instructions finally reached Loudoun in March 1757, they called for the expedition to first target Louisbourg on the Atlantic coast of Île Royale, now known as Cape Breton Island. Loudoun was to command the forces, while a squadron under Francis Holburne would transport the troops. French military leaders had early intelligence that the British were planning an expedition, between January and April 1757 squadrons sailed from Brest and Toulon, some of which went to reinforce the squadron based at Louisbourg. Admiral Holburne was aware of the arrival of French reinforcements, but the expedition was not yet ready, by the middle of the month his ships were patrolling off Louisbourg, but Dubois de La Motte chose to stay in the harbour. As the days progressed, the weather deteriorated, finally, on 24 September 1757, the British fleet was scattered by a gale, but the French could not pursue them due to a typhus epidemic. Dubois de La Motte would return to Brest with his men on 30 October 1757. The British succeeded in capturing Louisbourg the following year, there were significant consequences in the frontier war because of the delays in Loudouns instructions, and the redirection of the expedition to Louisbourg instead of Quebec. In August 1757 General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm led a force of 8,000, including 1,800 Indians, after a short siege the British surrendered. After the surrender, the French-allied Indians harassed and eventually attacked the defenceless retreating British, taking many captives, the incident was one of the most controversial events of the war. Military history of Nova Scotia Pargellis, Stanley McRory, steele, Ian K. Betrayals, Fort William Henry & the Massacre
22.
Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst
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Field Marshal Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst KB served as an officer in the British Army and as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces. Amherst is best known as the architect of Britains successful campaign to conquer the territory of New France during the Seven Years War, under his command, British forces captured the cities of Louisbourg, Quebec City and Montreal, as well as several major fortresses. He was also the first British Governor General in the territories that eventually became Canada, numerous places and streets are named for him, in both Canada and the United States. Born the son of Jeffrey Amherst, a Kentish lawyer, and Elizabeth Amherst, Jeffery Amherst was born in Sevenoaks, England and his brothers included Admiral John Amherst and Lieutenant General William Amherst. At an early age, he became a page to the Duke of Dorset, Amherst became an ensign in the Grenadier Guards in 1735. Amherst served in the War of the Austrian Succession becoming an aide to General John Ligonier and participating in the Battle of Dettingen in June 1743, promoted to lieutenant colonel on 25 December 1745, he also saw action at the Battle of Rocoux in October 1746. He then became an aide to the Duke of Cumberland, the commander of the British forces and he was made colonel of the 15th Regiment of Foot on 12 June 1756. In the wake of action, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in North America. Amherst served as the nominal Crown Governor of Virginia from 12 September 1759, half the continent changed hands at the scratch of a pen. The British settlers were relieved and proclaimed a day of thanksgiving, boston newspapers recount how the occasion was celebrated with a parade, a grand dinner in Faneuil Hall, music, bonfires, and firing of cannon. He was appointed Knight of the Order of the Bath on 11 April 1761, the uprising of many Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes region, commonly referred to as Pontiacs War after one of its most notable leaders, began in early 1763. One of the most infamous and well documented issues during Pontiacs War was the use of warfare against the Native Americans. The suggestion was posed by Amherst himself in letters to Colonel Henry Bouquet and we must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them. Bouquet, who was marching to relieve Fort Pitt, agreed with this suggestion in a postscript when he responded to Amherst just days later on 13 July 1763. I will try to inocculate the Indians by means of Blankets that may fall in their hands, as it is pity to oppose good men against them, I wish we could make use of the Spaniards Method, and hunt them with English Dogs. Supported by Rangers, and some Light Horse, who would I think effectively extirpate or remove that Vermine, in response, also in a postscript, Amherst replied, P. S. You will Do well to try to Innoculate the Indians by means of Blankets, I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, but England is at too great a Distance to think of that at present. Historians Elizabeth Fenn and Benedict Kiernan have shown, Fort Pitt had anticipated these orders, reporting on parleys with Delaware chiefs on June 24, a trader wrote, gave them two Blankets and an Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital
23.
Battle of Ticonderoga (1759)
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The 1759 Battle of Ticonderoga was a minor confrontation at Fort Carillon on July 26 and 27,1759, during the French and Indian War. The forts powder magazine was destroyed, but its walls were not severely damaged, the British then occupied the fort, which was afterwards known by the name Fort Ticonderoga. They embarked on a series of improvements to the area and began construction of a fleet to conduct operations on Lake Champlain. The French tactics were sufficient to prevent Amhersts army from joining James Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, however, they also tied up 3,000 of their own troops that were not able to assist in Quebecs defense. The capture of the fort, which had repulsed a large British army a year earlier. The British were successful in capturing Louisbourg and Fort Frontenac in 1758, the only significant French victory in 1758 came when a large British army commanded by James Abercrombie was defeated by a smaller French force in the Battle of Carillon. Instructions were sent to the governors of the Thirteen Colonies to raise up 20,000 provincial militia for these campaigns, about 8,000 provincial men were raised and sent to Albany by provinces as far south as Pennsylvania and New Jersey. New York sent 3,000 men and New Jersey sent 1,000, Massachusetts mustered 6,500 men, about 3,500 went to Albany, while the remainder were dispatched for service with Wolfe at Quebec or other service in Nova Scotia. The balance of the men came from the other New England provinces. He sent 2,000 of the provincials west from Albany along with 3,000 regular troops under Brigadier General John Prideaux in May. He led the remainder of the provincials, consisting primarily of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Connecticut men, north to Fort Edward, in the 1759 campaign, French war planners directed most of their war resources into the European theater of the Seven Years War. Belle-Isle impressed on Montcalm the importance of maintaining at least a foothold in North America, Montcalm responded, Unless we have unexpected luck, or stage a diversion elsewhere within North America, Canada will fall during the coming campaign season. The English have 60,000 men, we have 11,000, Montcalm decided to focus French manpower on defending the core territory of Canada, Montreal, the city of Quebec, and the Saint Lawrence River Valley. He knew that this force was too small to hold Carillon against a determined British attack by competent leaders, there were several reasons for the late departure. One was logistical, Prideauxs expedition to forts Oswego and Niagara also departed from Albany, when his troops landed and began advancing on the fort, Amherst was pleased to learn that the French had abandoned the outer defenses. He still proceeded with caution, occupying the old French lines from the 1758 battle on July 22 and his original plan had been to flank the fort, denying the road to Fort St. Frédéric as a means of French escape. In the absence of French resistance outside the fort, he decided instead to focus his attention on the fort itself, for the next three days, the British entrenched and began laying siege lines to establish positions near the fort. This work was complicated by the fact there was little diggable ground near the fort, during this time, the French gun batteries fired, at times quite heavily, on the British positions
24.
Fort Crown Point
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Erected to secure the region against the French, the fort is in upstate New York near the town of Crown Point and was the largest earthen fortress built in the United States. The forts ruins, a National Historic Landmark, are now administered as part of Crown Point State Historic Site, the French built a fortress at Crown Point in the 1730s with 12-foot thick limestone walls named Fort St. Frederic. British forces targeted it twice during the French and Indian War before the French destroyed it in the summer of 1759, amherst used the construction of the fort as a means of keeping his men working through the winter of 1759 after pushing the French into modern Canada. The fort was never directly assaulted, mostly built after the threat of French invasion had ended, it was used largely for staging rather than as a position in its own right. On April 21,1773, a fire broke out in the soldiers barracks. It quickly spread, burning for days, in May 1774, British military engineer John Montresor described the fort with the following words, the conflagration of the late fort has rendered it an amazing useless mass of earth only. Montresor proposed expanding and improving one of the rather than attempting to repair the main fort. After the French and Indian War, the British left a force at the fort. They quickly yielded to Capt. Seth Warner and 100 Green Mountain Boys, the Americans captured 111 cannons from the British at Crown Point, and transported 29 to Boston for the defense of Boston Harbor. The fort was used as a ground by Benedict Arnold during the Revolution for his navy on Lake Champlain. After the destruction of that navy in 1776 during the Battle of Valcour Island, in 1780 the British abandoned the fort and, following their success in the Revolution, the United States had no need for it, so left it to deteriorate. The large earthen walls of the Fort are still today in the 21st century. The fire of April 1773 had entirely destroyed the log and earth fortress, the stone ruins of two barracks buildings remain at the site and are being preserved. The fort was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1968
25.
Lake Ontario
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Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Ontario, Canadas most populous province, was named for the lake, in the Wyandot language, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie, the last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area and it is the 14th largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 miles long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean elevation of the lakes at 243 feet above sea level,326 feet lower than its neighbor upstream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles and its width is 53 statute miles. The lakes average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot, with a depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet. The lakes primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, the drainage basin covers 24,720 square miles. As with all the Great Lakes, water levels both within the year and among years. These water level fluctuations are a part of lake ecology. The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has negatively affected by factors including over-fishing, water pollution. Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near Prince Edward County, Ontario, perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada capital for its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presquile Bay, the bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species. Presquile, on the shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age, the action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as todays basin. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence valley outlet and this stage is known as Lake Iroquois
26.
Genesee River
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The Genesee River is a tributary of Lake Ontario flowing northward through the Twin Tiers of Pennsylvania and New York in the United States. The river provided the power for the Rochester areas 19th century mills. It begins in exposing the Allegheny Plateaus characteristic conglomerates, sandstones and shales in the columns of the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian subperiods. With cuttings in the record showing so many early ages. The most recent glacier that left evidence here was about 100,000 years ago, about 12,000 years ago, the area underwent massive changes, which included the rerouting of the Genesee and other water bodies. Nowadays only a creek flows in what is left of this large paleogeologic valley. The area of the river was also affected. Since the earth rebounded from the melting glaciers more rapidly in Canada than in New York, during this time, the original outlet of the Genesee River, Irondequoit Bay, was flooded out, creating the current bay. As these waters later retreated, glacial debris caused the river to be rerouted to the west along its current path, the Seneca nation traditionally lived between the Genesee River and Canandaigua Lake. The region was surveyed by Thomas Davies in 1766, the High Falls was then also known as the Great Seneca Falls, and the Genesee river was also spelled Zinochsaa by early writers. If not for hydropower, the mills, clothing mills, and tool fabricators would not have located in Rochester. A few hundred feet north of the center of the village of Rochester, the Erie Canal crossed the Genesee River via an 1823 stone aqueduct, from 1801 to 1846 the entire region was sold to individual owners from the Holland Land office in Batavia, New York. The river demarcates the Genesee Country of New York to the west and the Finger Lakes geographic region, on Friday, November 13,1829, the daredevil Sam Patch jumped to his death before 8,000 spectators at the Upper Falls in Rochester. In 1836 the Genesee Valley Canal was begun to build a new canal from the Erie Canal near Rochester, up the Genesee Valley, construction of new sections extended upriver until 1880. Although an important commercial route, the canal was plagued by frequent flood damage, the most difficult section to build was the bypass around the gorge and falls at present day Letchworth Park. The canal followed the old Native American portage route, which necessitated many locks and these old locks can still be seen near Nunda. The project was abandoned and the right of way was sold in 1880, the property became the roadbed for the Genesee Valley Canal Railroad, which eventually merged with the Pennsylvania Railroad. Much of the canal and railroad right-of-way is open to the today as the Genesee Valley Greenway
27.
Niagara Falls
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They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge. From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls, the Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the American side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the American side, the international boundary line was originally drawn through Horseshoe Falls in 1819, but the boundary has long been in dispute due to natural erosion and construction. Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by vertical height and flow rate. The falls are 17 miles north-northwest of Buffalo, New York, while not exceptionally high, the Niagara Falls are very wide. More than six cubic feet of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow. The Niagara Falls are famed both for their beauty and as a source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet, while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet wide, the distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet. The volume of water approaching the falls during peak season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet per second. The average annual rate is 85,000 cubic feet per second. Since the flow is a function of the Lake Erie water elevation. This is accomplished by employing a weir – the International Control Dam – with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control. The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot per year and it is estimated that 50,000 years from now, even at this reduced rate of erosion, the remaining 20 miles to Lake Erie will have been undermined and the falls will cease to exist. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago, the same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by an ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes
28.
William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe
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General William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, KB, PC was a British Army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence. Howe was one of three brothers who had distinguished military careers, having joined the army in 1746, Howe saw extensive service in the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years War. Howe also participated in the campaigns to take Louisbourg, Belle Île and he was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Wight, a post he would hold until 1795. Howe was sent to North America in March 1775, arriving in May after the American War of Independence broke out. After leading British troops to a victory in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Howes record in North America was marked by the capture of both New York City and Philadelphia. However, poor British campaign planning for 1777 contributed to the failure of John Burgoynes Saratoga campaign, Howes role in developing those plans and the degree to which he was responsible for British failures that year have both been subjects of contemporary and historic debate. He resigned his post as Commander in Chief, North America, in 1778, and returned to England and he served for many years in Parliament, and was knighted after his successes in 1776. He inherited the Viscountcy of Howe upon the death of his brother Richard in 1799 and he married, but had no children, and the viscountcy was extinguished with his death in 1814. His mother was a regular in the courts of George II and this connection with the crown may have improved the careers of all four sons, but all were also very capable officers. His father was a politician, who served as Governor of Barbados where he died in 1735, williams eldest brother, General George Howe, was killed just before the 1758 Battle of Carillon at Fort Ticonderoga. Another brother, Admiral Richard Howe, rose to one of Britains leading naval commanders. A third brother, Thomas, commanded ships for the East India Company, Winchelsea in 1762–4 and Nottingham in 1766, William entered the army when he was 17 by buying a cornets commission in the Duke of Cumberlands Dragoons in 1746. He then served for two years in Flanders during the War of the Austrian Succession, after the war he was transferred to the 20th Regiment of Foot, where he became a friend of James Wolfe. During the Seven Years War Howes service first brought him to America and he joined the newly formed 58th Regiment of Foot in February 1757, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in December of that year. He commanded the regiment at the Siege of Louisbourg in 1758 and this action won the attackers a flanking position and earned Howe a commendation from Wolfe. Howe commanded an infantry battalion under General Wolfe during the 1759 Siege of Quebec. Howe led a brigade in the 1761 Capture of Belle Île, off the French coast and he served as adjutant general of the force that captured Havana in 1762, playing a part in a skirmish at Guanabacoa
29.
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis
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In the United States and the United Kingdom he is best remembered as one of the leading British generals in the American War of Independence. His surrender in 1781 to a combined American and French force at the Siege of Yorktown ended significant hostilities in North America, born into an aristocratic family and educated at Eton and Cambridge, Cornwallis joined the army in 1757, seeing action in the Seven Years War. Upon his fathers death in 1762 he became Earl Cornwallis and entered the House of Lords, from 1766 until 1805 he was Colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot. He next saw action in 1776 in the American War of Independence. Active in the forces of many campaigns, in 1780 he inflicted an embarrassing defeat on the American army at the Battle of Camden. He also commanded British forces in the March 1781 Pyrrhic victory at Guilford Court House, Cornwallis surrendered his army at Yorktown in October 1781 after an extended campaign through the Southern states, marked by disagreements between him and his superior, General Sir Henry Clinton. Despite this defeat, Cornwallis retained the confidence of successive British governments, knighted in 1786, he was in that year appointed to be Governor-General and commander-in-chief in India. From 1789 to 1792 he led British and Company forces in the Third Anglo-Mysore War to defeat the Mysorean ruler Tipu Sultan, returning to Britain in 1794, Cornwallis was given the post of Master-General of the Ordnance. Following his Irish service, Cornwallis was the chief British signatory to the 1802 Treaty of Amiens and was reappointed to India in 1805 and he died in India not long after his arrival. Cornwallis was born in Grosvenor Square in London, though his familys estates were in Kent and he was the eldest son of Charles Cornwallis, 5th Baron Cornwallis. His mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend and his uncle, Frederick, was Archbishop of Canterbury. Fredericks twin brother, Edward, was an officer, colonial governor. His brother William became an Admiral in the Royal Navy and his other brother, James, eventually inherited the earldom from Cornwalliss son, Charles. The family was established at Brome Hall, near Eye, Suffolk, in the 14th century, Frederick Cornwallis, created a Baronet in 1627, fought for King Charles I, and followed King Charles II into exile. He was made Baron Cornwallis, of Eye in the County of Suffolk, in 1661, Cornwallis was educated at Eton College and Clare College, Cambridge. While at Eton, he received an injury to his eye by an accidental blow while playing hockey, from Shute Barrington and he obtained his first commission as Ensign in the 1st Foot Guards, on 8 December 1757. He then sought and gained permission to engage in studies abroad. After travelling on the continent with a Prussian officer, Captain de Roguin, upon completion of his studies in Turin in 1758, he traveled to Geneva, where he learned that British troops were to be sent to the Continent in the Seven Years War
30.
The Palisades (Hudson River)
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The cliffs stretch north from Jersey City about 20 miles to near Nyack, New York. They rise nearly vertically from near the edge of the river, north of Fort Lee, the Palisades are part of Palisades Interstate Park and are a National Natural Landmark. They sit in the Newark Basin, a basin located mostly in New Jersey. Palisade is derived from the root as the word pale, ultimately from the Latin word palus. A palisade is, in general, a fence or wall made up of wooden stakes or tree trunks. The Lenape called the cliffs rocks that look like rows of trees, a phrase that became Weehawken, the name of a town in New Jersey that sits at the top of the cliffs across from Midtown Manhattan. The basalt cliffs are the margin of a sill, formed about 200 million years ago. The molten material cooled and solidified before reaching the surface, water erosion of the softer sandstone left behind the columnar structure of harder rock that exists today. The cliffs are about 300 ft thick in sections and originally may have reached 1,000 ft. Franklyn Van Houten did trailblazing research on a formation known as the Newark Basin. His discovery of a consistent geological pattern in which lake levels rose, during the early stages of the American Revolution, British military Commander Lord Cornwallis landed a force of between 2,500 and 5,000 at the Closter Dock Landing on Nov.20,1776. The Palisades were the site of 18 documented duels and probably many unrecorded ones in the years 1798–1845, the most famous is the Burr–Hamilton duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr, which took place in a spot known as the Heights of Weehawken on July 11,1804. After the Civil War, signs advertising patent medicines and other covered the rock face in letters 20 feet high. In the 19th century, the cliffs were heavily quarried for railroad ballast, beginning in the 1890s, several unsuccessful efforts were made to turn much of the Highlands into a forest preserve. In 1908, the State of New York announced plans to move Sing Sing Prison to Bear Mountain, work was begun in the area near Highland Lake and in January 1909, the state purchased the 740-acre Bear Mountain tract. Conservationists, inspired by the work of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission, however, the prison project was continued. New York state appropriated a matching $2.5 million and the state of New Jersey appropriated $500,000 to build the Henry Hudson Drive, ultimately, the Sing Sing relocation was discontinued. In the 1910s, when Fort Lee was a center of film production, the most notable of these films was The Perils of Pauline, a serial which helped popularize the term cliffhanger. In October 1931, after four years of construction, the George Washington Bridge opened between Upper Manhattan and Fort Lee
31.
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings
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He had also served with British forces for years during the American Revolutionary War and in 1794 during the French Revolutionary Wars. He took the additional surname Hastings in 1790 in compliance with the will of his uncle, Francis Hastings. Hastings was born at Moira, County Down, the son of John Rawdon, 1st Earl of Moira and Elizabeth Hastings and he grew up there and in Dublin, Ireland. He joined the British Army on 7 August 1771 as an ensign in the 15th Foot and he was at Harrow School and matriculated at University College, Oxford, but dropped out. He became friends there with Banastre Tarleton, with his uncle Lord Huntington, he went on the Grand Tour. On 20 October 1773, he was promoted to lieutenant in the 5th Foot and he returned to England to join his regiment, and sailed for America on 7 May 1774. In May 1789 he acted as the Duke of Yorks second in his duel with Lieut. -Colonel Lennox on Wimbledon Common, Rawdon was posted at Boston as a Lieutenant in the 5th Regiment of Foots Grenadier company, which was then under the command of Captain Francis Marsden. He first saw action at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, serving with the grenadiers, he participated in the second assault against Breeds Hill, and the third assault against the redoubt. As his superior, a Captain George Harris, was wounded beside him, he took command of his company, John Burgoyne noted in dispatches, Lord Rawdon has this day stamped his fame for life. He also was wounded during the assault and he was promoted Captain, and given a company in the 63rd Foot. After having recognized him, it is said that it was Lieutenant Lord Rawdon killed the American general Joseph Warren, Lord Rawdon is depicted in John Trumbulls famous painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Rawdon is in the far background holding the British ensign, during the Boston winter quarters, Rawdon made his stage debut, delivering a prologue for Aaron Hills tragedy, Zara, which had been written by John Burgoyne. He returned with him to New York, on 4 August, he dined with General Clinton, Admiral Lord Howe, Lord Cornwallis, General Vaughan, and others. During the Battle of Long Island, he was at headquarters with Clinton, on 15 September, Rawdon led his men at Kips Bay, an amphibious landing on Manhattan island. The next day, he led his troops in support of the Light Infantry that attacked Harlem Heights until the Americans withdrew and he participated at the landings at Pells Point. The British pressed the Americans to White Plains, where on 1 November the Americans withdrew from their entrenchments, on 8 December Rawdon landed with Clinton at Rhode Island, securing the ports for the British Navy. On 13 January 1777, with Clinton, he departed for London, during a ball at Lord George Germains, he met Lafayette, who was visiting London. Returning to America in July, while Howe went to his Philadelphia campaign and he participated in the battles of the New York Highlands, where on 7 October, Fort Constitution was captured
32.
Fort Washington (Manhattan)
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Fort Washington was a fortified position near the north end of Manhattan Island and was located at the highest point on the island. The Fort Washington Site is listed on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places, general Washington realized he would have to defend New York but did not think he could hold it against the British. Fort Washington was held by American forces under the command of Colonel Robert Magaw and he informed the British that he would fight to the last extremity. They did so on November 16,1776, taking 2,818 prisoners, the British renamed it Fort Knyphausen. The English had been assisted by one of Magaws officers, William Demont. The American losses were 53 killed and 96 wounded in addition to the rest of the taken prisoner. The British and Hessian troops suffered 132 killed and 374 wounded,2838 American troops were taken prisoner and marched through the streets of New York to the jeering and mockery of the pro-British populace. Most of the prisoners were interned in British ships in New York harbor, at the exchange a year later, only 800 had survived. At this battle was Margaret Corbin of Virginia, who is recognized as the first female soldier to fight in the American Army. Married to John Corbin of the First Company of the Pennsylvania Artillery, although severely injured, Margaret survived the battle but never fully recovered from her wounds, leaving her unable to use her left arm. She is at least one of the candidates as the woman, or women, the site of Fort Washington is now Bennett Park on Fort Washington Ave. between West 183rd and West 185th streets in the Hudson Heights neighborhood of the Washington Heights section of New York City. The locations of the walls are marked in the park by stones. Nearby is a tablet indicating that the schist outcropping is the highest natural point on Manhattan Island, Bennett Park is located a few blocks north of the George Washington Bridge. The Greatest Street in the World, The Story of Broadway, Old and New, from the Bowling Green to Albany, New York, G. P. Putnams Sons,1911. The Battle of Fort Washington / Manhattan Fort Washington 1898 account
33.
Gibraltar
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Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. It has an area of 6.7 km2 and shares its border with Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the landmark of the region. At its foot is a populated city area, home to over 30,000 Gibraltarians. An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of the Habsburg claim to the Spanish throne, the territory was subsequently ceded to Great Britain in perpetuity under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Today Gibraltars economy is based largely on tourism, online gambling, financial services, the sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians overwhelmingly rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum, under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the British government. The name Gibraltar is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq, earlier, it was known as Mons Calpe, a name of Phoenician origin and one of the Pillars of Hercules. The pronunciation of the name in modern Spanish is, evidence of Neanderthal habitation in Gibraltar between 28,000 and 24,000 BP has been discovered at Gorhams Cave, making Gibraltar possibly the last known holdout of the Neanderthals. Within recorded history, the first inhabitants were the Phoenicians, around 950 BC, subsequently, Gibraltar became known as one of the Pillars of Hercules, after the Greek legend of the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar by Heracles. The Carthaginians and Romans also established semi-permanent settlements, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, Gibraltar came briefly under the control of the Vandals. The area later formed part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania from 414 AD until the Islamic conquest of Iberia in 711 AD, in 1160, the Almohad Sultan Abd al-Mumin ordered that a permanent settlement, including a castle, be built. It received the name of Medinat al-Fath, on completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to look at the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months. The Tower of Homage of the Moorish Castle remains standing today, from 1274 onwards, the town was fought over and captured by the Nasrids of Granada, the Marinids of Morocco and the kings of Castile. In 1462, Gibraltar was finally captured by Juan Alonso de Guzmán, after the conquest, King Henry IV of Castile assumed the additional title of King of Gibraltar, establishing it as part of the comarca of the Campo Llano de Gibraltar. In 1501, Gibraltar passed back to the Spanish Crown, the occupation of the town by Alliance forces caused the exodus of the population to the surrounding area of the Campo de Gibraltar. As the Alliances campaign faltered, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht was negotiated and ceded control of Gibraltar to Britain to secure Britains withdrawal from the war. Unsuccessful attempts by Spanish monarchs to regain Gibraltar were made with the siege of 1727 and again with the Great Siege of Gibraltar, during the American War of Independence
34.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
35.
Ornithology
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Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. The word ornithology derives from the ancient Greek ὄρνις ornis and λόγος logos, several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of studies undertaken by amateurs working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology, most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as ornithologists has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, the origins of the word ornithology come from the Greek ornithologos and late 17th-century Latin ornithologia meaning bird science. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory, with some stone age drawings being amongst the oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as a source, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland. Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds, traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic, many still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine, hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of the world, artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their scripts, many of which. Early written records provide information on the past distributions of species. For instance Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria, other old writings such as the Vedas demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and includes the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel. Like writing, the art of China, Japan, Persia and India also demonstrate knowledge. Aristotle in 350 BC in his Historia Animalium noted the habit of migration, moulting, egg laying and life spans. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese, around 77 AD, Pliny the Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis. The origins of falconry have been traced to Mesopotamia and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II, falconry made its entry to Europe only after AD400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen learned about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and he had this work translated into Latin and also conducted experiments on birds in his menagerie
36.
Southern emu-wren
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The southern emu-wren is a species of bird in the Maluridae family. Its natural habitats are forests and Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. The southern emu-wren is one of three species of the genus Stipiturus, commonly known as emu-wrens, found across southern and central Australia and it was first characterized by naturalist George Shaw in 1798 as Muscicapa malachura, after being collected in the Port Jackson district. Its species name is derived from the Ancient Greek ouros tail and it described as the soft-tailed flycatcher, native name mur-re-a-nera when painted between 1788 and 1797 by Thomas Watling, one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter. Another painting in the same series yielded the indigenous name mereangeree, notes on this latter drawing suggest an alternate name of emu- or cassowary titmouse, from its soft tail feathers. The skin of a male southern emu-wren somehow ended up in the collection of Coenraad Jacob Temminck, from there it as named by François Levaillant la queue gazée The gauze-tailed warbler. The mistake was not picked up for another 55 years, veillot defined the genus Malurus and placed the southern emu-wren within it, giving it the name Malurus palustris. Up to eleven subspecies have been described, with seven currently recognised and it remains east and south of the Great Dividing Range. S. malachurus littleri was described by Gregory Mathews in 1912, S. malachurus intermedius is a darker-plumaged race from the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia. S. malachurus halmaturinus described by Parsons in 1920 is found on Kangaroo Island, S. malachurus parimeda is found on the southern tip of the Eyre Peninsula. This subspecies is distinguishable from others by its paler plumage. S. malachurus westernensis is found in southwest Western Australia, S. malachurus hartogi is restricted to Dirk Hartog Island. The adult male has rusty-brown upperparts with streaks of black, the more reddish. It has a sky blue throat, upper chest and eyebrow, the tail is double the body length, and is composed of six filamentous feathers, the central two of which are longer than the lateral ones. The underparts are pale red-brown, paler on the belly, the bill is black and the feet and eyes are brown. The female is streaked and lacks the blue plumage and redder crown. Its bill is brown with a grey base. Throughout its range, the southern emu-wren inhabits marshes, low heathland, bird Families of the World, Fairy-wrens and Grasswrens
37.
Meadow jumping mouse
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The meadow jumping mouse is the most widely distributed mouse in the subfamily Zapodinae. In mid-2014, the New Mexico subspecies of the jumping mouse. The meadow jumping mouse can range in length, from 180 mm to 240 mm, with its tail taking credit for most of its length, usually about 108 mm to 165 mm. A distinct characteristic about this species is its enlarged hind feet, which can be 28 to 35 mm long and this gives it a kangaroo rat-like look, although its tail shows that it is not a kangaroo rat because it is not bushy at the tip. The pelage of this creature is short, and with dense, coarse hair. The color of the pelage has a few variations, but a broad stripe is always present. This broad dorsal stripe is of a brown color, with black tips. The sides are usually a color, usually bright yellow to orange. These mice have eight mammary glands, four inguinal, two pectoral, and two abdominal, the male genitalia are inconspicuous except during mating season when the scrotal sac becomes enlarged and more visible. The tail is bicolored, showing a color from above. It is lightly covered with hair, which gets longer as it approaches the tip and its ears are very noticeable, and its whiskers are prominent. The head is small, and narrow, and it is considered to be relatively high crowned, the nose is short, yet it is pointy, and the eyes are relatively big. These mice also have a large infraorbital foramen, with the exception of the Aye-Aye, the meadow jumping mouse is the only mammal to have eighteen teeth with a dental formula of, 1/1, 0/0, 1/0, and 3/3. The upper jaw is short, and narrow, the incisors are longitudinally grooved, and its cheek teeth are small. Preceding the molars is a small peg-like premolar, as a whole the female jumping mouse is slightly larger, and heavier than the male, but their weight varies quite a bit depending on the season. Their weight during summer seasons can range from 11.15 grams to 24,8 grams, with an average at about 16 to 19 grams. Just prior to hibernation, jumping mice can obtain a weight of 35 grams or larger, meadow jumping mice prefer a habitat which is high in humidity. Although they may live in different areas usually with high herbaceous cover, they prefer moist grasslands
38.
Henri Rousseau
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Henri Julien Félix Rousseau was a French post-impressionist painter in the Naïve or Primitive manner. He was also known as Le Douanier, a description of his occupation as a toll collector. Ridiculed during his lifetime by critics, he came to be recognized as a genius whose works are of high artistic quality. Rousseaus work exerted an influence on several generations of avant-garde artists. Rousseau was born in Laval, France, in 1844 into the family of a plumber, he was forced to work there as a small boy. He attended Laval High School as a day student, and then as a boarder after his father became a debtor, though mediocre in some of his high school subjects, Rousseau won prizes for drawing and music. After high school, he worked for a lawyer and studied law and he served four years, starting in 1863. With his fathers death, Rousseau moved to Paris in 1868 to support his mother as a government employee. In 1868, he married Clémence Boitard, his landlords 15-year-old daughter, in 1871, he was appointed as a collector of the octroi of Paris, collecting taxes on goods entering Paris. His wife died in 1888 and he married Josephine Noury in 1898 and he started painting seriously in his early forties, by age 49, he retired from his job to work on his art full-time. Rousseau claimed he had no other than nature, although he admitted he had received some advice from two established Academic painters, Félix Auguste Clément and Jean-Léon Gérôme. Essentially, he was self-taught and is considered to be a naïve or primitive painter and his best-known paintings depict jungle scenes, even though he never left France or saw a jungle. Stories spread by admirers that his service included the French expeditionary force to Mexico are unfounded. His inspiration came from illustrations in books and the botanical gardens in Paris. He had also met soldiers during his term of service who had survived the French expedition to Mexico, along with his exotic scenes there was a concurrent output of smaller topographical images of the city and its suburbs. Rousseaus flat, seemingly childish style was disparaged by many critics and his ingenuousness was extreme, and he always aspired, in vain, to conventional acceptance. Many observers commented that he painted like a child, but the work shows sophistication with his particular technique, from 1886, he exhibited regularly in the Salon des Indépendants, and, although his work was not placed prominently, it drew an increasing following over the years. Yet it was more than a decade before Rousseau returned to depicting his vision of jungles, in 1893, Rousseau moved to a studio in Montparnasse where he lived and worked until his death in 1910
39.
George Edwards (naturalist)
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George Edwards was an English naturalist and ornithologist, known as the father of British ornithology. Edwards was born at Stratford, Essex, in his early years he travelled extensively through mainland Europe, studying natural history, and gained some reputation for his coloured drawings of animals, especially birds. In 1733, on the recommendation of Sir Hans Sloane, he was appointed librarian to the Royal College of Physicians in London and he served as librarian for thirty-six years. He was chosen Fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies and he was rewarded with the Copley Medal. The two works contain engravings and descriptions of more than 600 subjects in history not before described or delineated. He likewise added an index in French and English, which was afterwards supplied with Linnaean names by Linnaeus himself. About 1764 he retired to Plaistow, Essex, where he died at the age of eighty. He also wrote Essays of Natural History, Elements of Fossilogy Edwardss plates appeared in Johann Seligmanns Sammlung verschiedener ausländischer und seltener Vögel, some of the colour plates in his Natural History of Birds were painted by Peter Paillou. The puffadder shyshark, first described by Edwards in 1760, is now named Haploblepharus edwardsii, diadophis punctatus edwardsii, a subspecies of North American snake, is named in his honor. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Edwards. Gaedike, R. Groll, E. K. & Taeger, A.2012, Bibliography of the literature from the beginning until 1863
40.
Paul Sandby
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Paul Sandby RA was an English map-maker turned landscape painter in watercolours, who, along with his older brother Thomas, became one of the founding members of the Royal Academy in 1768. Sandby was born in Nottingham, and baptised there in 1731, in 1745 he moved to London where he followed his brother Thomas in obtaining an appointment in the military drawing department at the Tower of London. He was later appointed draughtsman to the survey and he left his post with the survey in 1751, and spent some time living with his brother, who had been appointed Deputy Ranger of Windsor Great Park. There he assisted his brother, and made a series of drawings of the castle, the town, and its neighbourhood, which were purchased by Sir Joseph Banks. He also etched a number of plates after his own drawings, a hundred of which (including views of Edinburgh. In 1760 he issued twelve etchings of The Cries of London and he also made many plates after other artists, including his brother. In 1753–4 he published, anonymously, several single caricatures satirising William Hogarth and he returned to the attack in 1762, and produced other satirical work sporadically throughout his career. It is not recorded how long Sandby lived with his brother at Windsor, but he is said to have spent part of year in London. On 3 May 1757 he married Anne Stogden, and by 1760 he was settled in London, in 1760 he contributed to the first exhibition of the Society of Artists. He exhibited regularly with the society until the foundation of the Royal Academy eight years later, in 1768, he was appointed chief drawing master to the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, a position he retained until 1799. On the formation of the Royal Academy in the year he was one of the 28 founder-members nominated by George III. He often served on its council, and contributed to all, Sandby made extensive journeys around Britain and Ireland, sketching scenery and ancient monuments. He died at his house in Paddington on 7 November 1809 and he was described in his obituaries as the father of modern landscape painting in watercolors. English school of painting Monkhouse, William Cosmo, London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 251–254. The Collection in the City of Hamilton Art Gallery, the Great Age of British Watercolours. ISBN 3-7913-1254-5 Anne Lyles & Robin Hamlyn, British watercolours from the Oppé Collection. ISBN 1-85437-240-8 Michael Charlesworth, Landscape and Vision, Chapter One, Michael Charlesworth, Thomas Sandby climbs the Hoober Stand, Art History,19,2, Paul Sandby online. Paul Sandby, Unlikely Founder of Dazzling School of European Art, Souren Melikian, text by Alexander J Finberg & E A Taylor
41.
St. John River Campaign
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The St. Monckton was accompanied by Captain George Scott as well as New England Rangers led by Joseph Goreham, Captain Benoni Danks, as well as William Stark and Moses Hazen, both of Rogers Rangers. Under the naval command of Silvanus Cobb, the British started at the bottom of the river with raiding Kennebecasis and Managoueche, then they moved up the river and raided Grimross, Jemseg, and finally they reached Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas. The Acadian militia was led by French officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot, there were about 100 Acadian families on the Saint John River, with a large concentration at Ste Anne. Most of them had taken there from earlier deportation operations. There were also about 1000 Maliseet, according to one historian, the level of Acadian suffering greatly increased in the late summer of 1758. Along with campaigns on Ile Saint-Jean, in the Gult of St. Lawrence, at Cape Sable and the Petitcodiac River Campaign, the British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg. Acadians had lived in the Saint John valley almost continuously since the seventeenth century. After the Conquest of Acadia, Acadians migrated from peninsula Nova Scotia to the French-occupied Saint John River and these Acadians were seen as the most resistant to British rule in the region. The Saint John River residents had always proven effective at resisting the British, the Maliseet militia, from their base at Meductic, conducted effective warfare along with the Mikmaq militia against New England throughout the colonial wars. As late as 1748, there were only twelve French-speaking families living on the river, on October 28,1748, at the end of King Georges War, the Acadians and Mikmaq prevented John Gorham from landing to acquire an oath of allegiance. His rangers were fired upon killing three of the rangers and wounding three, while Gorham took two Mikmaq prisoner, in 1749, at the beginning of Father Le Loutres War, Boishebert rebuked British naval officer John Rous at St. John. Boishébert built Fort Boishebert after withdrawing from the mouth of the Saint John River under the terms of an agreement arranged by Captain John Rous and Edward How. The fort was abandoned in 1751 by Ignace-Philippe Aubert de Gaspé when the French reestablished their control. In 1749, Boishebert assigned Acadian Joseph Godin dit Bellefontaine to lead the Acadian militia in the St. John Region. In April 1755, while searching for a vessel at Port La Tour, Cobb discovered the French schooner Marguerite. During this time the British took captive a sergeant of Boisheberts detachment Grandcour, immediately after the Battle of Fort Beauséjour, Robert Monckton sent a detachment under the command of John Rous to take Fort Menagoueche
42.
Fort Frederick (Saint John, New Brunswick)
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Fort Frederick was a British fort at what is now Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada. It was built during the St. John River Campaign of the French and it was one of three significant forts which the British built on the major rivers in the Northeast to cut off the natives water way to the ocean. On September 13,1758, Robert Monckton and a force of regulars and rangers left Halifax. He established a new base of operations by reconstructing Fort Menagoueche, which had destroyed in 1755. Establishing Fort Frederick allowed the British to virtually cut off the communications, major Roger Morris Lt Col Arbuthnot Lt Tong Ensign Jeremiah Mears Military history of Nova Scotia Primary sources Journal of the 35th Regiment Monctons journal Secondary sources Campbell, Gary. The Road to Canada, The Grand Communications Route from Saint John to Quebec, goose Lane Editions and the New Brunswick Military Heritage Project. The Far Reaches of Empire, War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760, 199–200 Macfarlane, W. G. Fredericton History, Two Centuries of Romance, War, Privation and Struggle,1981 Maxwell, L. M. B. An Outline of the History of Central New Brunswick to the Time of Confederation,1937, patterson, Stephen E. 1744-1763, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples. In Phillip Buckner and John Reid The Atlantic Region to Conderation, New England Soldiers in the Saint John River Valley, 1758-1760 in New England and the Maritime provinces, connections and comparisons By Stephen Hornsby, John G. Reid. The River St. John, Its Physical Features, Legends, le village acadien de la Pointe-Sainte-Anne, George MacBeath, “GODIN, Bellefontaine, Beauséjour, JOSEPH, ” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 4, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, AD, Calvados, C1020, mémoire de Joseph Bellefontaine,1774 Placide Gaudet, “Acadian genealogy and notes, ” PAC Report,1905, II, pt. Template, Iii,140,241. Archives, III Joseph Rôbinau de Villebon, Acadia at the end of the century, letters, journals
43.
Christie's
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Christies is a historic British auction house. It was founded in 1766 by James Christie and its main premises are in King Street, St. Jamess, in London, and on Rockefeller Plaza in New York City in the United States. The company is owned by Groupe Artémis, the company of François-Henri Pinault. Sales in 2015 totalled £4.8 billion, however, other sources note that James Christie rented auction rooms from 1762, and newspaper advertisements of Christies sales dating from 1759 have also been traced. Christies soon established a reputation as an auction house. From 1859, the company was called Christie, Manson & Woods, in 1958, it established its first overseas office, by placing a representative in Rome. The first overseas salesroom opened in Geneva, where Christies holds jewellery auctions, Christies was a public company, listed on the London Stock Exchange from 1973 to 1999. In 1974, Jo Floyd was appointed chairman of Christies and he served as chairman of Christies International plc. from 1976 to 1988, until handing over to Lord Carrington, and later was a non-executive member of the board of directors until 1992. The auction houses subsidiary Christies International Inc. held its first sale in the United States in 1977,13 years later than Sothebys, Christies growth was slow but steady since 1989, when it had 42 percent of the auction market. In 1990, the company reversed a policy and guaranteed a minimum price for a collection of artworks in its May auctions. In 1996, the auction houses sales eclipsed Sothebys for the first time since 1954. In 1993, Christies paid $10.9 million for the London gallery Spink & Sons, which specialised in Oriental art and British paintings, the company bought Leger Gallery for $3.3 million in 1996, and merged it with Spink to become Spink-Leger. The company has not been reporting profits, though it gives sale totals twice a year. Its policy, in line with U. K. accounting standards, is to convert non-U. K, results using an average exchange rate weighted daily by sales throughout the year. In 2002, Christies France held its first auction in Paris, like Sothebys, Christies became increasingly involved in high-profile private transactions. Under the original deal, the gallery was meant to be the channel for all of Christies private-client business as well as the focus of its primary trade. Also, the house originally announced that Haunch employees could not bid at auction because of conflicts of interest or issues of market manipulation. Today, the continues to operate as an independent company in London and New York
44.
University of Toronto
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The University of Toronto is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on the grounds that surround Queens Park. It was founded by charter in 1827 as Kings College. Originally controlled by the Church of England, the university assumed the present name in 1850 upon becoming a secular institution, as a collegiate university, it comprises twelve colleges, which differ in character and history, each with substantial autonomy on financial and institutional affairs. It has two campuses in Scarborough and Mississauga. Academically, the University of Toronto is noted for influential movements and curricula in literary criticism and communication theory, by a significant margin, it receives the most annual scientific research funding of any Canadian university. It is one of two members of the Association of American Universities outside the United States, the other being McGill University, the Varsity Blues are the athletic teams that represent the university in intercollegiate league matches, with long and storied ties to gridiron football and ice hockey. The universitys Hart House is an example of the North American student centre. The founding of a college had long been the desire of John Graves Simcoe. As an Oxford-educated military commander who had fought in the American Revolutionary War, the Upper Canada Executive Committee recommended in 1798 a college be established in York, the colonial capital. On March 15,1827, a charter was formally issued by King George IV, proclaiming from this time one College, with the style. For the education of youth in the principles of the Christian Religion, the granting of the charter was largely the result of intense lobbying by John Strachan, the influential Anglican Bishop of Toronto who took office as the colleges first president. The original three-storey Greek Revival school building was built on the present site of Queens Park, under Strachans stewardship, Kings College was a religious institution closely aligned with the Church of England and the British colonial elite, known as the Family Compact. Reformist politicians opposed the control over colonial institutions and fought to have the college secularized. Having anticipated this decision, the enraged Strachan had resigned a year earlier to open Trinity College as a private Anglican seminary, University College was created as the nondenominational teaching branch of the University of Toronto. Established in 1878, the School of Practical Science was precursor to the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, while the Faculty of Medicine opened in 1843, medical teaching was conducted by proprietary schools from 1853 until 1887, when the faculty absorbed the Toronto School of Medicine. Meanwhile, the university continued to set examinations and confer medical degrees, the university opened the Faculty of Law in 1887, followed by the Faculty of Dentistry in 1888, when the Royal College of Dental Surgeons became an affiliate. Women were first admitted to the university in 1884, over the next two decades, a collegiate system took shape as the university arranged federation with several ecclesiastical colleges, including Strachans Trinity College in 1904. The university operated the Royal Conservatory of Music from 1896 to 1991, the University of Toronto Press was founded in 1901 as Canadas first academic publishing house
45.
The Canadian Encyclopedia
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The Canadian Encyclopedia is a source of information on Canada published in English and French. It is available online, at no cost, in addition to articles, The Canadian Encyclopedia has interactive timelines, education guides and over 15,000 multimedia items. The resource is continually updated and has over 5000 accredited authors, the website also provides access to the Encyclopedia of Music in Canada, The Canadian Encyclopedia Junior Edition, Macleans articles and Timelines of Canadian history. Canada had been without a national encyclopedia since the 1957 Encyclopedia Canadiana, when looking through the Canadian entries in existing encyclopedias such as Random House, Canadian nationalist Mel Hurtig found blatant errors and omissions. In response, in the 1980s he launched a project to create a wholly new Canadian encyclopedia with support from Alberta Premier Peter Lougheed, the Editor-in-Chief James Harley Marsh recruited more than 3,000 authors to write for it. They made index cards for every fact in the encyclopedia, signed off by the researcher and they had to have every article read by three outside readers. Then the whole thing was proofread by an independent source, there were over 3,000 people who contributed to the content and accuracy of the encyclopedias entries. The first edition of The Canadian Encyclopedia was published in three volumes in 1985 for $125/set and sold out within days of publication - a Canadian bestseller, a revised and expanded edition was released in 1988 and sold out as well. It was the first encyclopedia in the world to use a computer to help compile, typeset, design and it was encoded in a markup language precursor of HTML. In September 1990, Hurtig published the five-volume Junior Encyclopedia of Canada, Hurtig sold his publishing company to McClelland & Stewart in May 1991 and with it the encyclopedia. In 1995, McClelland & Stewart published the first digital CD-ROM edition, today, Historica Canada, a not-for-profit foundation, publishes the encyclopedia for free online. To date, the Encyclopedia’s growing collection contains more than 19,600 bilingual, list of online encyclopedias The Canadian Encyclopedia
46.
University of Toronto Press
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University of Toronto Press is Canadas leading scholarly publisher and one of the largest university presses in North America. Founded in 1901, UTP has published over 6,500 books, in 2008, UTP made more than 1,200 of its titles available to the academic library community, that number has since grown to more than 2,500. In 2011, UTP began selling eBooks to the reader through its own website. 1901, UTP is founded as an operation by the University of Toronto. 1912, UTPs first book, A Short Handbook of Latin Accidence,1919, Publishing program is approved by the University of Toronto. 1920, Canadian Historical Review was founded,1931, University of Toronto Quarterly is founded. 1932, University of Toronto Bookstore begins operation as part of UTP,1932, Diamond Jennesss The Indians of Canada is published. 1935, University of Toronto Law Journal is founded,1947, Robert MacGregor Dawsons Government of Canada wins the Governor Generals literary prize for non-fiction. 1949, Robert MacGregor Dawsons Democratic Government of Canada wins the Governor Generals literary prize for non-fiction, mortons The Progressive Party in Canada wins the Governor Generals literary prize for non-fiction. 1951, Harold Inniss The Bias of Communication is published,1951, Frank McKinnons The Government of Prince Edward Island wins the Governor Generals literary prize for non-fiction. 1955, Established in 1925, the Toronto Legal Directory is first published by UTP,1958, Press building opens at 21 Kings College Circle, Scholarly Publishings home until 1989. 1959, First book of photographs by Yousuf Karsh, Portraits of Greatness, is published,1960, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill project commences. 1960, Margaret Avisons Winter Sun wins the Governor Generals literary prize for poetry,1962, Marshall McLuhans The Gutenburg Galaxy is published. This work popularizes the term the global village and it wins the Governor Generals literary prize for non-fiction. 1966, John Porters The Vertical Mosaic is published,1966, First volume of the Dictionary of Canadian Biography is published. The series is described by critic Robert Fulford as the most ambitious project in the history of Canadian scholarship,1967, Canadian Books in Print, the complete reference and buying guide to Canadian books, is established as a centennial project. 1967, Carl Dairs Design with Type becomes the first Canadian book to be a recipient of one of the Book of the Year awards presented annually by the American Institute of Graphic Arts,1968, Collected Works of Erasmus project commences. 1968, Warehouse in Buffalo, New York, is opened to serve U. S. customers,1969, Journal of Scholarly Publishing, the first journal to be devoted to the work of academic publishers, is established
Kingdom of Great Britain
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lyre-Bird". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 179.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
