1.
Carl Larsson
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Carl Larsson was a Swedish painter representative of the Arts and Crafts Movement. His many paintings include oils, watercolors, and frescoes and he considered his finest work to be Midvinterblot, a large painting now displayed inside the Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts. Larsson was born on 28 May 1853 in the old town of Stockholm and his parents were extremely poor, and his childhood was not happy. 7 in what was then Ladugårdsplan, present-day Östermalm, as a rule, each room was home to three families, penury, filth and vice thrived there, leisurely seethed and smouldered, eaten-away and rotten bodies and souls. Such an environment is the breeding ground for cholera, he wrote in his autobiographical novel Me. Larssons father worked as a laborer, sailed as a stoker on a ship headed for Scandinavia. In contrast, Carls mother worked long hours as a laundress to provide for her family. However, at the age of thirteen, his teacher Jacobsen, at the school for poor children urged him to apply to the principskola of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts, during his first years there, Larsson felt socially inferior, confused, and shy. In 1869, at the age of sixteen, he was promoted to the school of the same academy. There Larsson gained confidence, and even became a figure in student life. Carl earned his first medal in nude drawing, in the meantime, Larsson worked as a caricaturist for the humorous paper Kasper and as a graphic artist for the newspaper Ny Illustrerad Tidning. His annual wages were sufficient to allow him to support his parents financially. Larsson was not eager to contact with the French progressive Impressionists, instead, along with other Swedish artists. It was there that he met the artist Karin Bergöö, who became his wife. This was to be a point in Larssons life. In Grez, Larsson painted some of his most important works, now in watercolour, Carl and Karin Larsson had eight children and his family became Larssons favourite models. Many of the interiors depicted were the work of Karin Larsson, in 1888 the young family was given a small house, named Little Hyttnäs, in Sundborn by Karins father Adolf Bergöö. Carl and Karin decorated and furnished this house according to their artistic taste
2.
Parenting
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Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship, governments and society may have a role in child-rearing as well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent blood relations, others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent, the English pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott described the concept of good-enough parenting in which a minimum of prerequisites for healthy child development are met. Views on the characteristics that one a good or good-enough parent vary from culture to culture. Social class, wealth, culture and income have a strong impact on what methods of child rearing are used by parents. Cultural values play a role in how a parent raises their child. A familys social class plays a role in the opportunities and resources that will be made available to a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling, communities, a parenting style is the overall emotional climate in the home. Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early development, authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. These parenting styles were later expanded to four, including an uninvolved style and these four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand and demand and control on the other. Recent research has found that style is significantly related to childrens subsequent mental health. In particular, authoritative parenting is positively related to health and satisfaction with life. Authoritative parenting Described by Baumrind as the just right style, in combines a medium level demands on the child, authoritative parents rely on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment. Parents are more aware of a childs feelings and capabilities and support the development of an autonomy within reasonable limits. There is a give-and-take atmosphere involved in communication and both control and support are balanced. Research shows that this style is more beneficial than the too-hard authoritarian style or the too-soft permissive style, an example of authoritative parenting would be the parents talking to their child about their emotions. Authoritarian parenting styles Authoritarian parents are very rigid and strict and they place high demands on the child, but are not responsive to the child
3.
Pediatrician
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Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents, and the age limit usually ranges from birth up to 18-21 years of age. A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician, the word pediatrics and its cognates mean healer of children, they derive from two Greek words, παῖς and ἰατρός. Pediatricians work both in hospitals, particularly working in its specialized subfields such as neonatology, and as primary care physicians. Pediatrics is known as a new modern medicine in the society today, hippocrates, Aristotle, Celsus, Soranus, and Galen, understood the differences in growing and maturing organisms that necessitated different treatment, Ex toto non sic pueri ut viri curari debent. Some of the oldest traces of pediatrics can be discovered in Ancient India where childrens doctors were called kumara bhrtya, sushruta Samhita an ayurvedic text, composed during the sixth century BC contains the text about pediatrics. Another ayurvedic text from this period is Kashyapa Samhita, a second century AD manuscript by the Greek physician and gynecologist Soranus of Ephesus dealt with neonatal pediatrics. Byzantine physicians Oribasius, Aëtius of Amida, Alexander Trallianus, islamic writers served as a bridge for Greco-Roman and Byzantine medicine and added ideas of their own, especially Haly Abbas, Serapion, Avicenna, and Averroes. The Persian scholar and doctor al-Razi published a treatise on diseases among children. The first book about pediatrics was Libellus de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium 1472 and he was born in Germany, where he received his medical training, but later practiced in New York City. The first generally accepted pediatric hospital is the Hôpital des Enfants Malades, in 1852 Britains first pediatric hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Streets. The first Childrens hospital in Scotland opened in 1860 in Edinburgh, in the US, the first similar institutions were the Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, which opened in 1855, and then Boston Childrens Hospital. The body size differences are paralleled by maturation changes, the smaller body of an infant or neonate is substantially different physiologically from that of an adult. Congenital defects, genetic variance, and developmental issues are of concern to pediatricians than they often are to adult physicians. A common adage is that children are not simply little adults, the clinician must take into account the immature physiology of the infant or child when considering symptoms, prescribing medications, and diagnosing illnesses. A major difference between the practice of pediatric and adult medicine is that children, in most jurisdictions and with certain exceptions, the issues of guardianship, privacy, legal responsibility and informed consent must always be considered in every pediatric procedure. Pediatricians often have to treat the parents and sometimes, the family, adolescents are in their own legal class, having rights to their own health care decisions in certain circumstances. The training of pediatricians varies considerably across the world, depending on jurisdiction and university, a medical degree course may be either undergraduate-entry or graduate-entry. The former commonly takes five or six years, and has been usual in the Commonwealth, entrants to graduate-entry courses, usually lasting four or five years, have previously completed a three- or four-year university degree, commonly but by no means always in sciences
4.
Developmental psychology
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Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and this field examines change across three major dimensions, physical development, cognitive development, and socioemotional development. Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of human development, many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individuals behavior and environmental factors, including social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development, influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky. Watson and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are typically cited as providing the foundations for modern developmental psychology, in the mid-18th century Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development, infants, puer and adolescence in Emile, Or, On Education. Rousseaus ideas were taken up strongly by educators at the time, stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of mankind. James Mark Baldwin who wrote essays on topics that included Imitation, A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness and Mental Development in the Child, Baldwin was heavily involved in the theory of developmental psychology. Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were developmental, had a significant impact on public perceptions, Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In the conscious we are aware of our mental process, the preconscious involves information that, though not currently in our thoughts, can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes mental processes we are unaware of and he believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious, because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this he developed three personality structures, the id, ego, and superego, the id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle, seek pleasure and avoid pain. The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, and the ego is the organized, based on this, he proposed five universal stages of development, that each are characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the childs psychosexual energy. The first is the stage, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral stage the libido is centered in a babys mouth, the baby is able to suck. The second is the stage, from one to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus, the third is the phallic stage, which occurs from three to five years of age. During the phallic stage, the child is aware of their sexual organs, the fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the sexual interests are repressed
5.
Supernanny
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Supernanny is a reality TV programme which originated in the United Kingdom, about parents struggling with their childrens behaviour, mealtime, potty training, etc. The United Kingdom version has aired on Channel 4 with E4 showing repeats since 2004, the program returned to Channel 4 after a two-year break in 2010, with E4 also showing more repeats. The show features professional nanny Jo Frost, who devotes each episode to helping a family where the parents are struggling with their child-rearing, through instruction and observation, she shows the parents alternative ways to discipline their children and regain order in their households. Frost is a proponent of the naughty chair theory of discipline and is opposed to spanking. Its competing series was Nanny 911, in the United States, it aired on ABC and Style Network and currently airs on Up TV. The series ended in the US on 18 March 2011, due to low ratings, a spin-off of the show was produced and is titled Americas Supernanny. Supernanny starring Jo Frost was originally broadcast in the UK on Channel 4 on 7 July 2004, Supernanny is one of Channel 4s most popular shows, reaching nearly 5 million viewers in the first series, with consistently high ratings throughout the series. Supernanny USA is also shown on Channel 4 with respectable viewing figures, the premiere episode for the third series attracted 3.1 million viewers with a 14% audience share. These values are half of those from the two series. Series 2 episodes 5 to 12 and Supernanny USA etc. is narrated by Nick Frost, the theme song is Be Good Johnny by Men at Work. Katharina Saalfrank was the Supernanny in the German version, aired on RTL in a docufiction format and it is broadcast by TVN Style. Cathy Kalthoum Sarrai was the Supernanny in the French version, aired by M6, after a period of mourning, a new version of the show called Nannies aired on 10 September 2013. Rocio Ramos is the Supernanny in the Spanish version, broadcast on Cuatro, another version with teenagers called S. O. S. Adolescentes is also aired on Cuatro, in the Spanish regions of Catalonia and Basque Country, the original version is broadcast by TV3 with Catalan dubbing and by ETB1 with Basque dubbing respectively. The Dutch version is called Eerste Hulp Bij Opvoeden, the name is a play on Eerste Hulp Bij Ongevallen the Dutch term for first aid. The Italian version is called S. O. S, the Czech version is called Superchůva k pohledání. The Singaporean version network on MediaCorp TV12 okto, the Malaysian version network on Ntv7. The Indonesian version network on MetroTV, the first Romanian nanny was Irina Petrea
6.
University of Washington
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The University of Washington, commonly referred to as simply Washington, UW, or informally U-Dub, is a public flagship research university in Seattle, Washington, United States. Founded in 1861, Washington is one of the oldest universities on the West Coast, the university has three campuses, the oldest and largest in the University District of Seattle and two others in Tacoma and Bothell. Washington is a member of the Association of American Universities and is ranked among the top 15 universities in the world by a variety of international publications. In athletics, the university competes in the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference and its athletic teams are called the Huskies. Seattle was one of several settlements in the mid to late 19th century vying for primacy in the new Washington Territory, in 1854, territorial governor Isaac Stevens recommended the establishment of a university in Washington. Several prominent Seattle-area residents, chief among them Methodist preacher Daniel Bagley and they convinced early founder of Seattle and member of the territorial legislature Arthur A. Denny of the importance of Seattle winning the school. When no site emerged, the legislature, encouraged by Denny, in 1861, scouting began for an appropriate 10 acres site in Seattle to serve as the campus for a new university. Arthur and Mary Denny donated eight acres, and fellow pioneers Edward Lander and Charlie and this tract was bounded by 4th and 6th Avenues on the west and east and Union and Seneca Streets on the north and south. UW opened on November 4,1861, as the Territorial University of Washington, the following year, the legislature passed articles incorporating the University and establishing a Board of Regents. The school struggled initially, closing three times, in 1863 for lack of students, and again in 1867 and 1876 due to shortage of funds. However, Clara Antoinette McCarty Wilt became the first graduate of UW in 1876 when she graduated from UW with a degree in science. By the time Washington entered the Union in 1889, both Seattle and the University had grown substantially, enrollment increased from 30 students to nearly 300, and the relative isolation of the campus had given way to encroaching development. A special legislative committee headed by UW graduate Edmond Meany was created to find a new campus able to serve the growing student population. The committee selected a site on Union Bay northeast of downtown, the university relocated from downtown to the new campus in 1895, moving into the newly built Denny Hall. The regents tried and failed to sell the old campus, the University still owns what is now called the Metropolitan Tract. In the heart of the city, it is among the most valuable pieces of estate in Seattle. The original Territorial University building was torn down in 1908 and its former site houses the Fairmont Olympic Hotel. The sole surviving remnants of UWs first building are four 24-foot, white, hand-fluted cedar and they were salvaged by Edmond S. Meany—one of the Universitys first graduates and the former head of the history department
7.
Punishment (psychology)
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As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is determined by its effect on the rate that the behavior occurs, for example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals. Negative punishment, punishment by removal, or type II punishment, as with reinforcement, it is not usually necessary to speak of positive and negative in regard to punishment. Punishment is not an effect of reinforcement. Punishment is considered by some psychologists to be a primary process – a completely independent phenomenon of learning. Others see it as a category of negative reinforcement, creating a situation in which any punishment-avoiding behavior is reinforced, positive punishment occurs when a response produces a stimulus and that response decreases in probability in the future in similar circumstances. Example, A mother yells at a child when he or she runs into the street, if the child stops running into the street, the yelling ceases. The yelling acts as positive punishment because the mother presents an unpleasant stimulus in the form of yelling, example, A barefoot person walks onto a hot asphalt surface, creating pain, a positive punishment. When the person leaves the asphalt, the pain subsides, negative punishment occurs when a response produces the removal of a stimulus and that response decreases in probability in the future in similar circumstances. Example, A teenager comes home after curfew and the take away a privilege. If the frequency of the coming home late decreases, the privilege is gradually restored. The removal of the phone is negative punishment because the parents are taking away a pleasant stimulus, the table below illustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment. Aversive stimulus, punisher, and punishing stimulus are somewhat synonymous, punishment may be used for an aversive stimulus or the occurrence of any punishing change or the part of an experiment in which a particular response is punished. However, some things considered aversive can become reinforcing, in addition, some things that are aversive may not be punishing if accompanying changes are reinforcing. A classic example would be mis-behavior that is punished by a teacher, pain, loud noises, foul tastes, bright lights, and exclusion are all things that would pass the caveman test as an aversive stimulus, and are therefore primary punishers. One variable affecting punishment is contingency, which is defined as the dependency of events, a behavior may be dependent on a stimulus or dependent on a response. For example, if a rat receives a stimulus, such as a shock each time it presses a lever. In this case, the punisher is contingent upon the appearance of the behavior, punishment is most effective when contingency is present between a behavior and a punisher
8.
Reinforcement
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In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organisms future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a frequency of behavior, longer duration, greater magnitude. Reinforcement does not require an individual to perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior, however, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. An ibuprofen is a reinforcer because it takes away pain. Kennedy or of the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks, Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning. B. F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the constructs of reinforcement. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing. If the frequency of cookie-requesting behavior increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing cookie-requesting behavior, If however, cookie-requesting behavior does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer, the study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinners conclusions, the term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response, the experimenter waits for the response to occur, Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning - see punishment, Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases. A positive reinforcer is an event for which the animal will work in order to acquire it. Verbal and physical reward is very useful positive reinforcement Example, Whenever a rat presses a button, If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior. Example, A father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys, If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer. Example, A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold, the prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales
9.
Thomas Gordon (psychologist)
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Thomas Gordon was an American clinical psychologist and colleague of Carl Rogers. He is widely recognized as a pioneer in teaching skills and conflict resolution methods to parents, teachers, leaders, women, youth. The model he developed came to known as the Gordon Model or the Gordon Method, Gordon strongly believed that the use of coercive power damages relationships. As an alternative, he taught people skills for communicating and resolving conflicts that they can use to establish or improve good relationships at home, school and at work. These skills, which include listening, I-messages and No-Lose Conflict Resolution, are now widely known. He first applied some of these methods in the 1950s as a consultant to business organizations, then in 1962, he introduced Parent Effectiveness Training, a course which is widely recognized as the first skill-based training program for parents. He taught the first class to a group of 14 parents in a Pasadena, the courses proved to be so popular with parents that he began training instructors throughout the U. S. to teach it in their communities. Over the next years, the course spread to all 50 states. In 1970, Gordon wrote the Parent Effectiveness Training book which many more parents access to this new parenting philosophy. As a result, people in parts of the world became interested in making the program available in their countries. Book has been published in 33 languages and sold five million copies. Over a million people have participated in the course in 45 countries around the world, course has been offered around the world as a model that eliminates authoritarian teaching and punitive discipline in the classroom. Although it was a new idea in the 1950s, Gordons Leader Effectiveness Training program became popular in the 1970s with the increasing acceptance of participative management in the U. S. This course has been taught in hundreds of companies, including many of the Fortune 500 and he is recognized as a pioneer in developing a model of democratic and collaborative leadership and identifying the effective communication skills it requires. Both the American Psychological Foundation and the California Psychological Association presented him with lifetime achievement awards, Gordon Training International in Solana Beach, California, the company he founded in 1974, continues his work. His widow, Linda Adams, is the current President and CEO of Gordon Training International, the method emphasizes effective communication and conflict resolution using the win-win strategy. Other skills from his program are active listening and the use of I-messages, dr. Gordon and his organization has introduced Gordon workshops for leaders, adults, youth, teachers, salespeople. Children Dont Misbehave by Thomas Gordon, Ph. D, the Power of the Language of Acceptance by Thomas Gordon, Ph. D
10.
Alfie Kohn
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Alfie Kohn is an American author and lecturer in the areas of education, parenting, and human behavior. Kohn was born in Miami Beach, Florida and he lives in the Boston area and works as an independent scholar, writing books about research in the areas of education, parenting, and human behavior. Kohns ideas on education have been influenced by the works of John Dewey and he has written that learning should be organized around problems, projects, and questions – rather than around lists of facts, skills, and separate disciplines. Kohn has been critical of aspects of traditional schooling. Classroom management and discipline are, in his view, focused more on eliciting compliance than on helping students become caring, responsible problem-solvers. More recently, Kohn has been critical of the place homework holds in the American classroom, noting that research does not support claims of any benefit from homework, academically or otherwise. While Unconditional Parenting is Kohns first book deals primarily with raising children. The key question, he argues, is What do kids need –, two of Kohns books, No Contest and Punished by Rewards, address competition and pop behaviorism in workplaces as well as in families and schools. Both attracted considerable attention in business circles, particularly when the late W. Edwards Deming, known for inspiring the quality improvement movement in organizations and this includes eight on issues in education, two on parenting, and four on general topics. His books have been translated into two dozen languages, No Contest, The Case Against Competition You Know What They Say. And Other Unorthodox Essays About Education Edited by Kohn, Education, Inc. Turning Learning into a Business DVDs of Kohns lectures, Unconditional Parenting, Moving from Rewards and Punishments to Love, No Grades + No Homework = Better Learning. Kohn has written articles for journals, magazines and newspapers. Among the publications to which he has contributed are The Atlantic, The New York Times, Harvard Business Review, The Chronicle of Higher Education, and Parents
11.
Aletha Solter
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Aletha Jauch Solter, PhD is a Swiss/American developmental psychologist who studied with Jean Piaget in Switzerland before earning a PhD in psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Her specialist areas are attachment, psychological trauma, and non-punitive discipline and her first book The Aware Baby has sold over 150,000 copies worldwide. Subsequent publications are Helping Young Children Flourish, Tears and Tantrums, Raising Drug-Free Kids, in 1990 she founded The Aware Parenting Institute, an international organization with certified instructors in many countries. Aletha Solter has written five books on parenting, which have translated into many languages. Attachment Play, How to Solve Childrens Behavior Problems with Play, Laughter, Tears and Tantrums, What To Do When Babies and Children Cry. Raising Drug-Free Kids,100 Tips for Parents, a 2-year-old childs memory of hospitalization during early infancy. Infant and Child Development,2008,17, 593-605, a case study of traumatic stress disorder in a 5-month-old infant following surgery. Infant Mental Health Journal,2007,28, 76-96, the importance of physical contact with infants. Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Health,2001,15, in T. Harms, Auf die Welt gekommen, Die neuen Baby Therapien. Farber, Guiding Young Children’s Behavior, Helpful Ideas for Parents, Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Health,1995,10, 21-43. Speed, accuracy, and strategy differences in spatial processing, bulletin of the Psychonomics Society,1981,18, 58-59. Broader transfer produced by guided discovery of number concepts with preschool children, Journal of Educational Psychology,1978,70, 363-371. Www. awareparenting. com Gordon Training International Works by or about Aletha Solter in libraries
12.
Abusive power and control
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Power and control in abusive relationships is the way that abusers gain and maintain control over a victim for an abusive purpose such as psychological, physical and sexual abuse. Controlling abusers use multiple tactics to exert power and control over their partners, the goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship. Isolation, gaslighting and other strategies are often used to facilitate power. Due to their shallow affect and lack of remorse or empathy and those with histrionic personality disorder need to be the center of attention, and in turn, draw people in so they may use their relationship. To maintain their self-esteem, and protect their true selves. Such persons manipulate and pressure others to change so as to avoid having to change themselves, when a control freaks pattern is broken, the controller is left with a terrible feeling of powerlessness but feeling their pain and fear brings them back to themselves. In terms of theory, control freaks are very much the Type A personality, driven by the need to dominate. An obsessive need to others is also associated with antisocial personality disorder. Negative reinforcement, involves removing one from a situation as a reward. You wont have to do your homework if you allow me to do this to you, intermittent or partial reinforcement, Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist, punishment, includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim. The silent treatment is used as a control mechanism. The model is used in many batterer intervention programs, and is known as the Duluth model, power and control is generally present with violent physical and sexual abuse. Often the abusers are initially attentive, charming and loving, gaining the trust of the individual that will become the victim. When there is a connection and a degree of trust, the abusers become unusually involved in their partners feelings, thoughts, next, they set petty rules and exhibit pathological jealousy. A conditioning process begins with alternation of loving followed by abusive behavior, according to Counselling Survivors of Domestic Abuse, These serve to confuse the survivor leading to potent conditioning processes that impact on the survivors self-structure and cognitive schemas. The abuser projects responsibility for the abuse on to the victim, or survivor, traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change. Controlling abusers use multiple tactics to exert power and control over their partners, no matter what tactics your partner uses, the effect is to control and intimidate you or to influence you to feel that you do not have an equal voice in the relationship
13.
Child discipline
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Child discipline is the methods used to prevent future behavioral problems in children. The word discipline is defined as imparting knowledge and skill, in other words, in its most general sense, discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a disciple. To discipline means to instruct a person to follow a code of conduct. Discipline is used by parents to teach their children about expectations, children need to be given regular discipline to be taught right from wrong and to be maintained safe. Child discipline can involve rewards and punishments to teach self-control, increase desirable behaviors, because the values, beliefs, education, customs and cultures of people vary so widely, along with the age and temperament of the child, methods of child discipline vary widely. Historical research suggests there has been a great deal of individual variation in methods of discipline over time. Salvation was the goal of discipline, and parents were driven to ensure their children a place in heaven. In one incident in early 14th-century London, neighbors intervened when a cook, a scuffle ensued and the childs tormentors were subdued. The neighbors didnt even know the boy, but they stood up for him even when they were physically attacked. During colonial times in the United States, parents were able to provide enjoyments for their children in the form of toys, according to David Robinson, Robinson notes that even the Puritans permitted their young children to play freely. Older children were expected to swiftly adopt adult chores and accountabilities, harsh punishments for minor infractions were common. Beatings and other forms of corporal punishment occurred regularly, one legislator even suggested capital punishment for childrens misbehavior, the Book of Proverbs mentions the importance of disciplining children, as opposed to leaving them neglected or unruly, in several verses. Interpretation of these varies, as do many passages from the Bible. The most often paraphrased is from Proverbs 13,24, He that spareth his rod hateth his son, the Contemporary English Version of Proverbs 13,24 is, If you love your children you will correct them, if you dont love them, you wont correct them. The primary guidelines followed by medieval parents in training their children were from the Bible, scolding was considered ineffectual, and cursing a child was a terrible thing. In general, the use of punishment was as a disciplinary action taken to shape behavior. Corporal punishment was undoubtedly the norm, the medieval world was a dangerous place, and it could take harsh measures to prepare a child to live in it. Pain was the way of illustrating that actions had consequences
14.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
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Adoption
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Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. Adoption for the well-born While the modern form of adoption emerged in the United States, the Code of Hammurabi, for example, details the rights of adopters and the responsibilities of adopted individuals at length. The practice of adoption in ancient Rome is well documented in the Codex Justinianus, the use of adoption by the aristocracy is well documented, many of Romes emperors were adopted sons. Infant adoption during Antiquity appears rare, abandoned children were often picked up for slavery and composed a significant percentage of the Empires slave supply. Roman legal records indicate that foundlings were occasionally taken in by families, although not normally adopted under Roman Law, the children, called alumni, were reared in an arrangement similar to guardianship, being considered the property of the father who abandoned them. Other ancient civilizations, notably India and China, used some form of adoption as well, evidence suggests the goal of this practice was to ensure the continuity of cultural and religious practices, in contrast to the Western idea of extending family lines. China had a idea of adoption with males adopted solely to perform the duties of ancestor worship. The practice of adopting the children of members and close friends was common among the cultures of Polynesia including Hawaii where the custom was referred to as hānai. Adoption and commoners The nobility of the Germanic, Celtic, in medieval society, bloodlines were paramount, a ruling dynasty lacking a natural-born heir apparent was replaced, a stark contrast to Roman traditions. The evolution of European law reflects this aversion to adoption, english Common Law, for instance, did not permit adoption since it contradicted the customary rules of inheritance. Some adoptions continued to occur, however, but became informal, for example, in the year 737, in a charter from the town of Lucca, three adoptees were made heirs to an estate. Europes cultural makeover marked a period of significant innovation for adoption, without support from the nobility, the practice gradually shifted toward abandoned children. Abandonment levels rose with the fall of the empire and many of the foundlings were left on the doorstep of the Church, initially, the clergy reacted by drafting rules to govern the exposing, selling, and rearing of abandoned children. The Churchs innovation, however, was the practice of oblation, whereby children were dedicated to lay life within monastic institutions and this created the first system in European history in which abandoned children did not have legal, social, or moral disadvantages. As a result, many of Europes abandoned and orphaned children became alumni of the Church, oblation marks the beginning of a shift toward institutionalization, eventually bringing about the establishment of the foundling hospital and orphanage. This system of apprenticeship and informal adoption extended into the 19th century, despite its intent, though, in practice, the system operated much the same as earlier incarnations. The experience of the Boston Female Asylum is a good example, adopting to create a family The next stage of adoptions evolution fell to the emerging nation of the United States. Rapid immigration and the American Civil War resulted in unprecedented overcrowding of orphanages, Charles Loring Brace, a Protestant minister became appalled by the legions of homeless waifs roaming the streets of New York City
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Extended family
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An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or in the same household. An example is a couple that lives with either the husband or the wifes parents. The family changes from immediate household to extended household, in some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the immediate family. These families include, in one household, near relatives in addition to an immediate family, an example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children due to old age. However, it may refer to a family unit in which several generations live together within a single household. In some cultures, the term is used synonymously with consanguineous family, in these cases, the child who cares for the parents usually receives the house in addition to his or her own share of land and moveable property. In an extended family, parents and their childrens families may often live under a single roof and this type of joint family often includes multiple generations in the family. From culture to culture, the variance of the term may have different meanings, for instance, in India, the family is a patriarchal society, with the sons families often staying in the same house. In the joint family set-up, the workload is shared among the members, the roles of women are often restricted to housewives and this usually involves cooking, cleaning, and organizing for the entire family. The patriarch of the family lays down the rules and arbitrates disputes, other senior members of the household babysit infants in case their mother is working. They are also responsible in teaching the children their mother tongue, manners. Grandparents often take the roles because they have the most experience with parenting and maintaining a household. The second most popular is a grandparent moving in with a childs family, usually for care-giving reasons. She noted that 2.5 million grandparents say they are responsible for the needs of the grandchild living with them. The house often has a reception area and a common kitchen. Each family has their own bedroom, the members of the household also look after each other when a member is ill. Particularly in working-class communities, grown children tend to establish their own households within the general area as their parents, aunts, uncles. These extended family members tend to gather often for events and to feel responsible for helping and supporting one another
17.
Foster care
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Foster care is a system in which a minor has been placed into a ward, group home, or private home of a state-certified caregiver, referred to as a foster parent. The placement of the child is normally arranged through the government or a service agency. The institution, group home or foster parent is compensated for expenses, the vast majority of children who would otherwise need foster care are in kinship care, that is, in the care of grandparents or other relatives. Most kinship care is done informally, without the involvement of a court or public organization, however, in the U. S. formal kinship care is increasingly common. In 2012, a quarter of all children in foster care were placed with relatives. In Australia foster care was known as boarding-out, Foster care had its early stages in South Australia in 1866 and stretched to the second half of the 19th century. It is said that the system was run by women until the early 20th century. Then the control was centered in many state childrens departments, although boarding-out was also implemented by nongovernment child rescue organizations, many large institutions remained. These institutions assumed an importance from the late 1920s when the system went into decline. The system was re-energized in the era, and in the 1970s. The system is still the structure for out-of-home care. The system took care of local and foreign children. New baby adoption dropped dramatically from the mid-1970s, with the tolerance of. Foster care in Cambodia is relatively new as a practice within the government. However, despite a later start, the practice is currently making strides within the country. Most notably, the found that the percentage of children within orphanages that had parents approached 80%. At the same time, local NGOs like Children In Families began offering limited foster care services within the country and these actions lead to an increase in the number of NGOs providing foster care placements, and helped to set the course for care reform around the country. Foster children in Canada are known as permanent wards, a ward is someone, in this case a child, placed under protection of a legal guardian and are the legal responsibility of the government
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Nuclear family
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A nuclear family, elementary family or conjugal family is a family group consisting of two parents and their children. It is in contrast to a single-parent family, to the extended family. Nuclear families typically center on a couple, the nuclear family may have any number of children. Family structures of a couple and their children were present in Western Europe and New England in the 17th century, influenced by church. With the emergence of proto-industrialization and early capitalism, the family became a financially viable social unit. The term nuclear family first appeared in the twentieth century. Little is known about how parental behavior and identification processes work, historians have found that nuclear families have been a primary arrangement in England since the 13th century. In England multi-generational households were uncommon because young adults would save money to move out. Sociologist Brigitte Berger argued, the nuclear family had to be flexible and mobile as it searched for opportunity and property. Forced to rely on their own ingenuity, its members also needed to plan for the future and develop bourgeois habits of work, berge also mentions that this could be one of the reasons why the Industrial Revolution begun in England, and other Northwest European countries. As a fertility factor, single family households generally have a higher number of children than co-operative living arrangements according to studies from both the Western world and India. There have been studies done that shows a difference in the number of children wanted per household according to where they live, families that live in rural areas wanted to have more kids than families in urban areas. A study done in Japan between October 2011 and February 2012 further researched the affect of are of residence on mean desired number of children. Researchers of the came to the conclusion that the women living in rural areas with larger families were more likely to want more children. Merriam-Webster dates the term back to 1947, while the Oxford English Dictionary has a reference to the term from 1925, in its most common usage, the term nuclear family refers to a household consisting of a father, a mother and their children all in one household dwelling. George Murdock, an observer of families, offered a description, The family is a social group characterized by common residence. It contains adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults. Many individuals are part of two families in their lives, the family of origin in which they are offspring
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Orphan
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An orphan is a child whose parents are dead or have permanently abandoned the child. In common usage, only a child who has lost both parents due to death is called an orphan, when referring to animals, only the mothers condition is usually relevant. If she has gone, the offspring is an orphan, regardless of the fathers condition, various groups use different definitions to identify orphans. One legal definition used in the United States is a minor bereft through death or disappearance of, abandonment or desertion by, or separation or loss from, in the common use, an orphan does not have any surviving parent to care for him or her. However, the United Nations Childrens Fund, Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS, in this approach, a maternal orphan is a child whose mother has died, a paternal orphan is a child whose father has died, and a double orphan has lost both parents. This contrasts with the use of half-orphan to describe children that had lost only one parent. Orphans are relatively rare in developed countries, because most children can expect both of their parents to survive their childhood, much higher numbers of orphans exist in war-torn nations such as Afghanistan. 2001 figures from 2002 UNICEF/UNAIDS report China, A survey conducted by the Ministry of Civil Affairs in 2005 showed that China has about 573,000 orphans below 18 years old. Russia, According to Russian reports from 2002 cited in the New York Times,650,000 children are housed in orphanages and they are released at age 16, and 40% become homeless, while 30% become criminals or commit suicide. Latin America, Street children have a presence in Latin America. Although not all children are orphans, all street children work. Famous orphans include world leaders such as Nelson Mandela and Andrew Jackson, the Hebrew prophet Moses and the Muslim prophet Muhammad, writers such as Edgar Allan Poe, the American orphan Henry Darger portrayed the horrible conditions of his orphanage in his art work. Wars and great epidemics, such as AIDS, have created many orphans. The Second World War, with its numbers of deaths and population movements. Orphaned characters are common as literary protagonists, especially in childrens. The lack of leaves the characters to pursue more interesting and adventurous lives, by freeing them from familial obligations and controls. It creates characters that are self-contained and introspective and who strive for affection, Orphans can metaphorically search for self-understanding through attempting to know their roots. Parents can also be allies and sources of aid for children, all these characteristics make orphans attractive characters for authors
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Single parent
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A single parent is an uncoupled individual who shoulders most or all of the day-to-day responsibilities for raising a child or children. A mother is often the primary caregiver in a single-parent family structure that has arisen due to death of the partner, intentional artificial insemination. Historically, death of a partner was a cause of single parenting. Single parenting can also result from the breakup or divorce of coupled parents, custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with. Recent years have seen the increasing incidence and visibility of uncoupled women who choose to be single parents, when single women seek to get pregnant intentionally in order to become single mothers by choice, they often seek an anonymous or known sperm donor. Single parent adoption or fostering is also sometimes an option for adults who want to raise a family. The demographics of single parenting show a general increase worldwide in children living in single parent homes, Single parenting has become a norm in the United States and is a trend found in multiple other countries. The morality and advisability of single motherhood has long been debated in the US, Single American mothers live in poverty 5 times more often than married parents. The topic is less contentious in Western European countries where all families enjoy more robust state-sponsored social benefits, Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental mortality rate. In the United States, since the 1960s, there has been an increase in the number of children living with a single parent. The 1980 United States Census reported that 19. 5% were single parent households, from 1980 to 2009, the percentage of single-parent households jumped to 29. 5%. The jump was caused by an increase in births to unmarried women, in 2010,40. 7% of births in the US were to unmarried women. In 2000, 11% of children were living with parents who had never married,15. 6% of children lived with a divorced parent. The results of the 2010 United States Census showed that 27% of children live with one parent, consistent with the trend noted in 2000. Mississippi leads the nation with the highest percent of births to unmarried mothers with 54% in 2014, followed by Louisiana, New Mexico, Florida, about 16% of children worldwide live in a single-parent household. In 2006,12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, in 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent families. At the 2013 census,17. 8% of New Zealand families were single-parent, in the United Kingdom, about 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families,8 to 11 percent of which have a male single-parent. UK poverty figures show that 52% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line, Single parents in the UK are almost twice as likely to be in low-paid jobs as other workers
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Stepfamily
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A stepfamily is a family where at least one parent has children that are not genetically related to the other spouse or partner. Either one parent may have children from a previous relationship, Children in a stepfamily may live with one biological parent, or they may live with each biological parent for a period of time. In addition, visitation rights mean that children in stepfamilies often have contact with both parents, even if they permanently live with only one. A child is referred to as the stepchild, stepdaughter or stepson of their parents new spouse. A stepfather is the husband of ones mother, and not ones biological father, a stepmother is the wife of ones father, and not ones biological mother. A step-grandmother is the stepmother of ones father or mother and wife of ones grandfather, a step-grandfather is the stepfather of ones father or mother and husband of ones grandmother, and not ones biological grandfather. Similarly, a stepbrother is the son of a stepparent who one is not biologically related to, a stepsister is the daughter of a stepparent to whom one is not biologically related. A step-grandson is the son of a stepbrother or stepsister who one is not biologically related to, a step-granddaughter is the daughter of a stepbrother or stepsister who one is not biologically related. A parents spouse of the sex may also count as a stepparent. The traditional and strictest definition of a stepfamily is a couple where one or both members of the couple have pre-existing children who live with them. More recently, the definition is expanded to include all cohabiting couples. Some people also apply the term to non-custodial relationships, where stepparent can refer to the partner of a parent with whom the child does not live. The term is not generally used to refer to the relationship with a child who never lived in the home with the parents new partner. A simple stepfamily is one in only one member of the couple has a prior child or children. If both members of the couple have children, those children are stepbrothers and stepsisters to one another. Any subsequent child born to the couple is a half-sibling of the respective members prior children, if a stepparent legally adopts the partners child or children, he or she becomes the childs legal parent. The most common form of a family is a mother and stepfather arrangement. One-third of all children entering stepfamilies were born to an unmarried mother, of the 60 million American children under the age of 13, half are currently living with one biological parent and that parents current partner
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Surrogacy
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Surrogacy is a method or agreement whereby a woman agrees to carry a pregnancy for another person or persons, who will become the newborn childs parent after birth. Monetary compensation may or may not be involved in these arrangements, the legality and costs of surrogacy vary widely between jurisdictions, sometimes resulting in interstate or international surrogacy arrangements. There are laws in countries which restrict and regulate surrogacy. The fertilisation of the surrogate may take place in a number of ways, each of which has implications for the relationship of the resulting child with the surrogate. There are two types of surrogacy, gestational surrogacy and traditional surrogacy. In the United States, gestational surrogacy is more common than traditional surrogacy and is considered less legally complex, traditional surrogacy involves natural or artificial insemination of a surrogate. If the intended fathers sperm is used in the insemination, then the child is genetically related to the intended father. If donor sperm is used, the child is not genetically related to either intended parent but is genetically related to the surrogate. In some cases, an insemination may be performed privately by the parties without the intervention of a doctor or physician, in some jurisdictions, the commissioning parents using donor sperms need to go through an adoption process in order to have legal rights in respect to the resulting child. Many fertility centers which provide for surrogacy assist the parties through the process, gestational surrogacy was first achieved in April 1986. It takes place when a created by in vitro fertilization technology is implanted in a surrogate. The resulting child is related to both intended parents. The embryo is created using the fathers sperm and a donor egg where the donor is not the surrogate. The resulting child is related to the intended father. The embryo is created using the mothers egg and donor sperm. The resulting child is related to the intended mother. A donor embryo is implanted in a surrogate, such an embryo may be available when others undergoing IVF have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The resulting child is unrelated to the intended parent
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Attachment theory
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Attachment theory is a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans. However, attachment theory is not formulated as a theory of relationships. It addresses only a specific facet, how human beings respond within relationships when hurt, separated from loved ones, essentially all infants become attached if provided any caregiver, but there are individual differences in the quality of the relationships. Fathers or any other individuals, are likely to become principal attachment figures if they provide most of the child care. In the presence of a sensitive and responsive caregiver, the infant will use the caregiver as a base from which to explore. It should be recognized that even sensitive caregivers get it right only about 50 percent of the time and their communications are either out of synch, or mismatched. There are times when parents feel tired or distracted, the telephone rings or there is breakfast to prepare. In other words, attuned interactions rupture quite frequently, but the hallmark of a sensitive caregiver is that the ruptures are managed and repaired. Attachments between infants and caregivers form even if this caregiver is not sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, infants cannot exit unpredictable or insensitive caregiving relationships. Instead they must manage themselves as best they can within such relationships, early patterns of attachment, in turn, shape — but do not determine — the individuals expectations in later relationships. Four different attachment classifications have been identified in children, secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, anxious-avoidant attachment, and disorganized attachment. Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health, treatment of children, and related fields. Secure attachment is when children feel they can rely on their caregivers to attend to their needs of proximity, emotional support and it is considered to be the best attachment style. Anxious-ambivalent attachment is when the infant feels separation anxiety when separated from the caregiver, anxious-avoidant attachment is when the infant avoids their parents. Disorganized attachment is when there is a lack of attachment behavior, in the 1980s, the theory was extended to attachment in adults. Attachment applies to adults when adults feel close attachment to their parents, within attachment theory, attachment means a biological instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort. Attachment behaviour anticipates a response by the attachment figure which will remove threat or discomfort. Such bonds may be reciprocal between two adults, but between a child and a caregiver these bonds are based on the childs need for safety, security and protection, paramount in infancy, in the most complex organisms, instinctive behaviors may be goal-corrected with continual on-course adjustments
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Child development
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It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence, yet having a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the rate and each stage is affected by the preceding developmental experiences. Related terms include developmental psychology, referring to development throughout the lifespan, and pediatrics and it may also occur as a result of human nature and our ability to learn from our environment. There are various definitions of periods in a development, since each period is a continuum with individual differences regarding start. Some age-related development periods and examples of defined intervals are, newborn, infant, toddler, preschooler, school-aged child, promoting child development through parental training, among other factors, promotes excellent rates of child development. Parents play a role in a childs life, socialization. Having multiple parents can add stability to the life and therefore encourage healthy development. Another influential factor in a development is the quality of their care. Child care programs present an opportunity for the promotion of child development. The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, with specific regard to practice that promotes development within the school system. In addition there are some theories that seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child development. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem, each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. Jean Piaget was a Swiss scholar who began his studies in intellectual development in the 1920s, Piaget’s first interests were those that dealt with the ways in which animals adapt to their environments and his first scientific article about this subject was published when he was 10 years old. This eventually led him to pursue a Ph. D. in Zoology, epistemology branches off from philosophy and deals with the origin of knowledge. As he carried out this intelligence testing he began developing a profound interest in the way children’s intellectualism works, as a result, he developed his own laboratory and spent years recording children’s intellectual growth and attempted to find out how children develop through various stages of thinking. This led to Piaget develop four important stages of development, sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete-operational stage. Piaget concluded that adaption to an environment is mananged through schemes, sensorimotor, This is the first stage in Piagets theory, where infants have the following basic senses, vision, hearing, and motor skills. In this stage, knowledge of the world is limited but is constantly developing due to the childs experiences, an example of this would be hiding the child’s favorite toy under a blanket, although the child cannot physically see it they still know to look under the blanket
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Love
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Love is a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal affection to pleasure. It can refer to an emotion of an attraction and personal attachment. Love can also be a virtue representing human kindness, compassion and it may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, ones self or animals. Ancient Greeks identified four forms of love, kinship or familiarity, friendship, sexual and/or romantic desire, modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love. Non-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states, Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning—notably in Abrahamic religions. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. Love in its various forms acts as a facilitator of interpersonal relationships and. Love may be understood as a function to human beings together against menaces. The word love can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts, cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition. Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, abstractly discussed love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing, including oneself, in addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages. The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché, several common proverbs regard love, from Virgils Love conquers all to The Beatles All You Need Is Love. St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as to will the good of another, bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of absolute value, as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is to be delighted by the happiness of another, meher Baba stated that in love there is a feeling of unity and an active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love. Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as unconditional selflessness, a person can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. People can also love material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things, if sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia. Interpersonal love refers to love human beings
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Maternal bond
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A maternal bond is the relationship between a mother and her child. While typically associated with pregnancy and childbirth, a bond may also develop in cases where the child is unrelated. Both physical and emotional influence the mother-child bonding process. In separation anxiety disorder a child becomes fearful and nervous when away from a loved one, new mothers do not always experience instant love toward their child. Instead, the bond can strengthen over time, bonds can take hours, days, weeks, or months to develop. The maternal bond between a female and her biological child usually begins to develop during pregnancy. The pregnant female adapts her lifestyle to suit the needs of the developing infant, at around 18 to 25 weeks, the mother begins to feel the fetus moving. Similar to seeing her child for the first time in an ultrasound scan, the developing fetus has some awareness of the mothers heartbeat and voice and has the ability to respond to touch or movement. By the seventh month of pregnancy, two-thirds of women report a strong bond with their unborn child. Mothers who did not want the pregnancy typically do not have a relationship with the child. They are more likely to suffer from depression or other mental health problems. Childbirth is an experience that can strengthen the mother and child bond, factors such as a traumatic birth, the mothers childhood, medical stress, lack of support and the influence of a spouse or partner can weaken the bond. Emotional bonding theory first appeared in the mid-1970s, and by the 1980s had become an accepted phenomenon, soon, the process became analyzed and scrutinized to the point of creating another term – poor bonding. Production of oxytocin during childbirth and lactation increases parasympathetic activity, maternal oxytocin circulation can predispose women to bond and show bonding behavior. Breastfeeding is also believed to foster the bond, via touch, response. A2014 study claimed that oxytocin promotes dishonesty when the outcome favors the closely bonded groups to which an individual belongs, a real-world example of this effect can be seen when parents lie about their address to gain admission to better schools for their children. These capacities bring with them separation anxiety as the infant becomes more vulnerable away from mother, most parents welcome these explorations and this increased independence. However, in the context of depression, trauma or disturbed bonding in her own early life
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Nature versus nurture
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The alliterative expression nature and nurture in English has been in use since at least the Elizabethan period and goes back to medieval French. The combination of the two concepts as complementary is ancient, galton was influenced by the book On the Origin of Species written by his half-cousin, Charles Darwin. The view that humans acquire all or almost all their traits from nurture was termed tabula rasa by John Locke in 1690. A blank slate view in human developmental psychology assuming that human behavioral traits develop almost exclusively from environmental influences, was held during much of the 20th century. The debate between blank-slate denial of the influence of heritability, and the view admitting both environmental and heritable traits, has often been cast in terms of nature versus nurture. These two conflicting approaches to human development were at the core of a dispute over research agendas throughout the second half of the 20th century. As both nature and nurture factors were found to contribute substantially, often in an extricable manner, in their 2014 survey of scientists, many respondents wrote that the dichotomy of nature versus nurture had outlived its usefulness, and should be retired. The reason is that in many fields of research, close feedback loops have been found in nature and nurture influence one another constantly. As in ecology and behavioral genetics, researchers think nurture has an influence on nature. Similarly in other fields, the line between an inherited and an acquired trait becomes unclear, as in epigenetics or fetal development. John Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is often cited as the document of the blank slate view. Locke was criticizing René Descartes claim of an idea of God universal to humanity. Lockes view was criticized in his own time. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury complained that by denying the possibility of any innate ideas, Locke threw all order and virtue out of the world, Lockes was not the predominant view in the 19th century, which on the contrary tended to focus on instinct. The question of innate ideas or instincts were of importance in the discussion of free will in moral philosophy. In 18th-century philosophy, this was cast in terms of innate ideas establishing the presence of a universal virtue, during this time, the social sciences developed as the project of studying the influence of culture in clean isolation from questions related to biology. Franz Boass The Mind of Primitive Man established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the fifteen years. The tool of twin studies was developed after World War I as an experimental setup intended to exclude all confounders based on inherited behavioral traits, such studies are designed to decompose the variability of a given trait in a given population into a genetic and an environmental component
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Parental investment
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Components of fitness include the wellbeing of existing offspring, parents future sexual reproduction, and inclusive fitness through aid to kin. Parental investment may be performed by both the male and female, the mother alone or the father alone. Initially introduced in 1930 by the English biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher, parental care is found in a range of taxonomic groups. An alternative to Fishers theory is Trivers parental investment theory proposed in 1972 and this theory has been influential in explaining sex differences in phenomena such as sexual selection and mate preference. The main premise of this theory is the investment of males and females. Another aspect of the theory is mate preferences of each sex, for example female choosiness, Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory. Clutton-Brock expanded the concept of PI to include costs to any other component of parental fitness, however, such expenditure is typically beneficial to the offspring, enhancing their condition, survival, and reproductive success. These differences may lead to parent-offspring conflict, Parental investment can be provided by the female, the male, or both. Parents are naturally selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will tend to exist when the benefits are greater than the costs. Penguins are an example of a species that drastically sacrifices their own health and well-being in exchange for the survival of their offspring. This altruistic behavior, one that not necessarily benefit the individual. Although some animals do exhibit altruistic behaviors towards individuals that are not of direct relation, while breeding, males remain in a fasting-period at the breeding site for five weeks, waiting for the female to return for her own incubation shift. However, during time period, males may decide to abandon their egg if the female is delayed in her return to the breeding grounds. In a study, Olof Olsson investigated the correlation between how many experiences in breeding an individual has and the duration an individual will wait until abandoning his egg. He proposed that the more experienced the individual, the better that individual will be at replenishing his exhausted body reserves, a study found that male dunnocks tend to not discriminate between their own young and those of another male in polyandrous or polygynandrous systems. This indiscriminative parental care by males is also observed in redlip blennies, in iteroparous species, where individuals may go through several reproductive bouts during their lifetime, a tradeoff may exist between investment in current offspring and future reproduction. Parents need to balance their offsprings demands against their own self-maintenance, the benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival, and ultimately on reproductive success of the offspring. In doing this, her young are larger, heavier, and these benefits are very advantageous since it lowers their risk of being eaten by predators and size is usually the determining factor in conflicts over resources
29.
Paternal bond
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A paternal bond refers to the relationship between a father and his child. In the U. S. Paternity may also be established between a man and a person, commonly in adoption, without the two being biologically related. The father of a child can develop the bond during the pregnancy of his partner, research indicates that this may have some biological basis. Statistics show that levels of testosterone tend to decline several months before the birth of the child. Since high testosterone levels seem to more aggressive behaviour, low levels may enhance the ability to develop a new relationship bond. Fathers find many ways to strengthen the bond with their children, such as soothing, consoling, feeding, changing diapers, bathing, dressing, playing. Carrying the infant in a sling or backpack or pushing him or her in a transport can build the bond. Fathers rights Fathers as attachment figures Human bonding Cinderella effect Maternal bond Parental leave Responsible fatherhood Shared Earning/Shared Parenting Marriage
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Pediatrics
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Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents, and the age limit usually ranges from birth up to 18-21 years of age. A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician, the word pediatrics and its cognates mean healer of children, they derive from two Greek words, παῖς and ἰατρός. Pediatricians work both in hospitals, particularly working in its specialized subfields such as neonatology, and as primary care physicians. Pediatrics is known as a new modern medicine in the society today, hippocrates, Aristotle, Celsus, Soranus, and Galen, understood the differences in growing and maturing organisms that necessitated different treatment, Ex toto non sic pueri ut viri curari debent. Some of the oldest traces of pediatrics can be discovered in Ancient India where childrens doctors were called kumara bhrtya, sushruta Samhita an ayurvedic text, composed during the sixth century BC contains the text about pediatrics. Another ayurvedic text from this period is Kashyapa Samhita, a second century AD manuscript by the Greek physician and gynecologist Soranus of Ephesus dealt with neonatal pediatrics. Byzantine physicians Oribasius, Aëtius of Amida, Alexander Trallianus, islamic writers served as a bridge for Greco-Roman and Byzantine medicine and added ideas of their own, especially Haly Abbas, Serapion, Avicenna, and Averroes. The Persian scholar and doctor al-Razi published a treatise on diseases among children. The first book about pediatrics was Libellus de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium 1472 and he was born in Germany, where he received his medical training, but later practiced in New York City. The first generally accepted pediatric hospital is the Hôpital des Enfants Malades, in 1852 Britains first pediatric hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Streets. The first Childrens hospital in Scotland opened in 1860 in Edinburgh, in the US, the first similar institutions were the Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, which opened in 1855, and then Boston Childrens Hospital. The body size differences are paralleled by maturation changes, the smaller body of an infant or neonate is substantially different physiologically from that of an adult. Congenital defects, genetic variance, and developmental issues are of concern to pediatricians than they often are to adult physicians. A common adage is that children are not simply little adults, the clinician must take into account the immature physiology of the infant or child when considering symptoms, prescribing medications, and diagnosing illnesses. A major difference between the practice of pediatric and adult medicine is that children, in most jurisdictions and with certain exceptions, the issues of guardianship, privacy, legal responsibility and informed consent must always be considered in every pediatric procedure. Pediatricians often have to treat the parents and sometimes, the family, adolescents are in their own legal class, having rights to their own health care decisions in certain circumstances. The training of pediatricians varies considerably across the world, depending on jurisdiction and university, a medical degree course may be either undergraduate-entry or graduate-entry. The former commonly takes five or six years, and has been usual in the Commonwealth, entrants to graduate-entry courses, usually lasting four or five years, have previously completed a three- or four-year university degree, commonly but by no means always in sciences
. PMID 16033175.
