1.
Common Time
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The time signature is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats are to be contained in each bar and which note value is to be given one beat. A mid-score time signature, usually following a barline, indicates a change of meter. | Simple time signatures consist of two numerals, one stacked above the other, The lower numeral indicates the value that represents one beat. The upper numeral indicates how many beats there are grouped together in a bar. For instance,24 means two quarter-note beats per bar—38 means three eighth-note beats per bar, the most common simple time signatures are 24,34, and 44. The symbol is used for 44 time, also called common time or imperfect time. In modern notation, it is used in place of 22 and is called alla breve or, colloquially, in compound meter, subdivisions of the main beat are in three equal parts, so that a dotted note becomes the beat unit. Compound time signatures are named as if they were simple time signatures, in which the part of the beat unit is the beat. The lower number is most commonly an 8, as in 98 or 128,34 is a simple signature that represents three quarter notes. To the ear, a bar may seem like one singular beat, for example, a fast waltz, notated in 34 time, may be described as being one in a bar. Terms such as quadruple, quintuple, and so on are also occasionally used, as mentioned above, though the score indicates a 34 time, the actual beat division can be the whole bar, particularly at faster tempos. Correspondingly, at slow tempos the beat indicated by the time signature could in actual performance be divided into smaller units, on a formal mathematical level the time signatures of, e. g.34 and 38 are interchangeable. In a sense, all simple triple time signatures, such as 38,34,32, etc. —and all compound duple times, such as 68,616, a piece in 34 can be easily rewritten in 38, simply by halving the length of the notes. Other time signature rewritings are possible, most commonly a simple time signature with triplets translates into a compound meter, though formally interchangeable, for a composer or performing musician, different time signatures often have different connotations. First, a note value in the beat unit implies a more complex notation. Second, beaming affects the choice of actual beat divisions and it is, for example, more natural to use the quarter note/crotchet as a beat unit in 64 or 22 than the eight/quaver in 68 or 24. Third, time signatures are traditionally associated with different music styles—it might seem strange to notate a rock tune in 48 or 42. For all meters, the first beat is stressed, in time signatures with four groups in the bar
2.
Four-wheel drive
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Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
3.
Half-time (music)
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In popular music, half-time is a type of meter and tempo that alters the rhythmic feel by essentially doubling the tempo resolution or metric division/level in comparison to common-time. It is not to be confused with alla breve or odd time, though notes usually get the same value relative to the tempo, the way the beats are divided is altered. The length of each note is doubled while its frequency is halved), time signatures are defined by how they divide the measure. In common-time, often considered 4/4, each level is divided in two. In a common-time rock drum pattern each measure is divided in two by the drum, each half is divided in two by the snare drum, and each quarter note is divided in two by a ride pattern. Half-time refers to halving this division, while double-time refers to doubling this division, a classic example is the half-time shuffle, a variation of a shuffle rhythm, which is used extensively in hip-hop and some blues music. Some of the variations of the groove are notoriously difficult to play on drum set. It is also a favorite in some pop and rock tunes, some classic examples are the Purdie Shuffle by Bernard Purdie which appears in Home At Last and Babylon Sisters, both of which are Steely Dan songs. It is important to realize that while in time, the feel of notes are chopped in half. For example, at the tempo, 8th notes would sound like 16ths. In the case of the half time shuffle, triplets sound like 16th note triplets, by preserving the tempo, the beat is stretched by a factor of 2. In music and dance, double-time is a type of meter and it is also associated with specific time signatures such as 22. In jazz the term means using note values twice as fast as previously and it is often used during improvised solos. Double time doubling a rhythm pattern within its original bar structure
4.
Meter (music)
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The metre of music is its rhythmic structure, the patterns of accents heard in regularly recurring measures of stressed and unstressed beats at the frequency of the musics pulse. A variety of systems exist throughout the world for organising and playing music, such as the Indian system of tala. Later music for such as the pavane and galliard consisted of musical phrases to accompany a fixed sequence of basic steps with a defined tempo. The term is not very precisely defined, macPherson preferred to speak of time and rhythmic shape, Imogen Holst of measured rhythm. This perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a definition of musical metre requires the possibility of identifying a repeating pattern of accented pulses — a pulse-group — which corresponds to the foot in poetry. Frequently a pulse-group can be identified by taking the accented beat as the first pulse in the group, frequently metres can be broken down into a pattern of duples and triples. The level of musical organisation implied by musical metre includes the most elementary levels of musical form, metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm are general classes of rhythm and may be distinguished in all aspects of temporality. Measured rhythm is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a time unit. Free rhythm is where there is neither, some music, including chant, has freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse. Some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric. Senza misura is an Italian musical term for without metre, meaning to play without a beat, Metric levels may be distinguished, the beat level is the metric level at which pulses are heard as the basic time unit of the piece. Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels, a rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. In duple metre, each measure is divided into two beats, or a multiple thereof, for example, in the time signature 24, each measure contains two quarter-note beats, and with the time signature 68, each measure contains two dotted-quarter-note beats. Corresponding quadruple metres are 44, with 2 ×2 =4 quarter-note beats per measure, triple metre is a metre in which each measure is divided into three beats, or a multiple thereof. For example, in the time signature 34, each contains three quarter-note beats, and with a time signature of 98, each measure contains three dotted-quarter beats. Simple metre and compound metre are distinguished by the way the beats are subdivided, Simple metre or simple time is a metre in which each beat of the measure divides naturally into two equal parts. The top number in the signature will be 2,3,4,5
5.
Western culture
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The term also applies beyond Europe, to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization, or influence. For example, Western Culture includes countries in the Americas and Australasia, whose language, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of Western culture, with the worlds first democratic system of government and major advances in philosophy, science, Greece was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization. European culture developed with a range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism, and mysticism. Rational thinking developed through an age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment. More often an ideology is what will be used to categorize it as a Western society. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today but were Eastern in the past. Since the context is highly biased and context-dependent, there is no agreed definition what the West is and it is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all cultures are, to some extent. Stereotyped views of the West have been labeled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism—the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of the East, as Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly considered the Orient became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Meiji Japan and Qing China for the first time. Thus, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 occurred in the Far East, the Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbors, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom, Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all cultures, it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity. Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves as something between the wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle-Easterners. In the meantime, however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, the Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity
6.
Musical notation
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Types and methods of notation have varied between cultures and throughout history, and much information about ancient music notation is fragmentary. Although many ancient cultures used symbols to represent melodies and rhythms, none of them were particularly comprehensive, the seeds of what would eventually become modern western notation were sown in medieval Europe, starting with the Catholic churchs goal for ecclesiastical uniformity. The church began notating plainchant melodies so that the same chants could be used throughout the church, Music notation developed in the Renaissance and Baroque music eras. The introduction of figured bass notation in the Baroque era marked the beginning of the first compositions based around chord progressions, in the classical period and the Romantic music era, notation continued to develop as new musical instrument technologies were developed. Music notation has been adapted to many kinds of music, including music, popular music. The earliest form of notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, in Sumer. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, a tablet from about 1250 BC shows a more developed form of notation. Although the interpretation of the system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre. Although they are fragmentary, these represent the earliest notated melodies found anywhere in the world. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables, an example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript, the Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BC, also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved. Ancient Greek notation appears to have out of use around the time of the Decline of the Roman Empire. Byzantine music has survived as music for court ceremonies, including vocal religious music. It is not known if it is based on the monodic modal singing, unlike Western notation Byzantine neumes always indicate modal steps in relation to a clef or modal key. These step symbols themselves, or better phonic neumes, resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called gántzoi in Modern Greek, Notes as pitch classes or modal keys are represented in written form only between these neumes. In modern notation they simply serve as a reminder and modal and tempo directions have been added. In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a change into another echos. With exception of vú and zō they do correspond to Western solmization syllables as re, mi, fa, sol, la, si
7.
Beat (music)
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In music and music theory, the beat is the basic unit of time, the pulse, of the mensural level. In popular use, beat can refer to a variety of related concepts including, tempo, meter, specific rhythms, Rhythm in music is characterized by a repeating sequence of stressed and unstressed beats and divided into bars organized by time signature and tempo indications. Metric levels faster than the level are division levels. Beat has always been an important part of music, some music genres such as disco will in general de-emphasize the beat, while other such as funk emphasize the beat to accompany dance. The downbeat is the first beat of the bar, i. e. number 1, the upbeat is the last beat in the previous bar which immediately precedes, and hence anticipates, the downbeat. Both terms correspond to the direction taken by the hand of a conductor, an anticipatory note or succession of notes occurring before the first barline of a piece is sometimes referred to as an upbeat figure, section or phrase. Alternative expressions include pickup and anacrusis, the latter term was borrowed from the field of poetry, in which it refers to one or more unstressed extrametrical syllables at the beginning of a line. In music that progresses regularly in 44 time, counted as 1234,1234. The first beat of the bar is usually the strongest accent in the melody and the likeliest place for a change, the third is the next strongest. The second and fourth are weaker—the off-beats, subdivisions that fall between the pulse beats are even weaker and these, if used frequently in a rhythm, can also make it off-beat. The effect can be simulated by evenly and repeatedly counting to four. This is a technique of African polyrhythm that transferred to popular western music. According to Grove Music, the Offbeat is where the downbeat is replaced by a rest or is tied over from the preceding bar, the downbeat can never be the off-beat because it is the strongest beat in 44 time. Certain genres tend to emphasize the off-beat, where this is a characteristic of rocknroll. A back beat, or backbeat, is a syncopated accentuation on the off beat, in a simple 44 rhythm these are beats 2 and 4. A big part of R&Bs attraction had to do with the stompin backbeats that make it so eminently danceable, an early record with an emphasised back beat throughout was Good Rockin Tonight by Wynonie Harris in 1948. There is a back beat on Roll Em Pete by Pete Johnson and Big Joe Turner. A distinctive back beat can be heard on Back Beat Boogie by Harry James And His Orchestra, outside U. S. popular music, there are early recordings of music with a distinctive backbeat, such as the 1949 recording of Mangaratiba by Luiz Gonzaga in Brazil
8.
Bar (music)
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Dividing music into bars provides regular reference points to pinpoint locations within a piece of music. It also makes written music easier to follow, since each bar of staff symbols can be read and played as a batch. Typically, a piece consists of bars of the same length. In simple time, the top figure indicates the number of beats per bar, the word bar is more common in British English, and the word measure is more common in American English, although musicians generally understand both usages. In international usage, it is correct to speak of bar numbers and measure numbers. Along the same lines, it is wise to reserve the abbreviated form ‘bb, 3–4’ etc. for beats only, bars should be referred to by name in full. The first metrically complete measure within a piece of music is called ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’, when the piece begins with an anacrusis, ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’ is the following measure. Originally, the bar came from the vertical lines drawn through the staff to mark off metrical units. In British English, these lines are called bar, too. Note that double bar refers not to a type of bar, another term for the bar line denoting the end of a piece of music is music end. A repeat sign looks like the end, but it has two dots, one above the other, indicating that the section of music that is before is to be repeated. The beginning of the passage can be marked by a begin-repeat sign. This begin-repeat sign, if appearing at the beginning of a staff, does not act as a bar line because no bar is before it, in music with a regular meter, bars function to indicate a periodic accent in the music, regardless of its duration. Igor Stravinsky said of bar lines, The bar line is much, much more than a mere accent, bars and bar lines also indicate grouping, rhythmically of beats within and between bars, within and between phrases, and on higher levels such as meter. The earliest barlines, used in keyboard and vihuela music in the 15th and 16th centuries, didnt reflect a regular meter at all but were only section divisions, or in some cases marked off every beat. Barlines began to be introduced into music in the late 16th century. Not until the mid-17th century were used in the modern style with every measure being the same length. Modern editions of music that was originally notated without barlines sometimes use a mensurstrich as a compromise
9.
Note value
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A rest indicates a silence of an equivalent duration. The breve appears in different versions, as shown at right. The first two are used, the third is a stylistic alternative. Sometimes the longa or breve is used to indicate a long note of indefinite duration. When a stem is present, it can go either up or down, in most cases, the stem goes down if the notehead is on the center line or above, and up otherwise. Any flags always go to the right of the stem, a note value may be augmented by adding a dot after it. This dot adds the next briefer note value, making it one, a number of dots lengthen the note value by 2n − 1/2n its value, so two dots add two lower note values, making a total of one and three quarters times its original duration. The rare three dots make it one and seven eighths the duration, and so on, the double dot was first used in 1752 by J. J. Quantz, in music of the 18th century and earlier the amount by which the dot augmented the note varied, it could be more or less than the modern interpretation, to fit into the context. To divide a note value to three parts, or some other value than two, tuplets may be used. However, see swung note and notes inégales, around 1250, Franco of Cologne invented different symbols for different durations, although the relation between different note values could vary, three was the most common ratio. Philippe de Vitrys treatise Ars nova described a system in which the ratios of different note values could be 2,1 or 3,1 and this black mensural notation gave way to white mensural notation around 1450, in which all note values were written with white noteheads. In white notation the use of triplets was indicated by coloration, both black and white notation periodically made use of ligatures, a holdover from the clivis and porrectus neumes used in chant. Around 1600 the modern system was generally adopted, along with barlines. In the 17th century, however, old usages came up occasionally, the British names go back at least to English renaissance music, and the terms of Latin origin had international currency at that time. Obviously, longa means long, and the rest rarely indicate relative shortness, breve is from Latin brevis, short, minim is from minimus, very small, and quaver refers to the quavering effect of very fast notes. The elements semi-, demi- and hemi- mean half in Latin, French, the chain semantic shift whereby notes which were originally perceived as short came progressively to be long notes is interesting both linguistically and musically. On-line activity that counts musical notes
10.
Key signature
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In musical notation, a key signature is a set of sharp, flat, and rarely, natural symbols placed together on the staff. Key signatures are written immediately after the clef at the beginning of a line of musical notation, although they can appear in other parts of a score. A key signature designates notes that are to be played higher or lower than the natural notes and applies through to the end of the piece or up to the next key signature. A sharp symbol on a line or space in the key raises the notes on that line or space one semitone above the natural. An accidental is an exception to the key signature, applying only in the measure in which it appears. Although a key signature may be using any combination of sharp and flat symbols, fifteen diatonic key signatures are by far the most common. A piece scored using a diatonic key signature and no accidentals contains notes of at most seven of the twelve pitch classes. Each major and minor key has a key signature that sharpens or flattens the notes which are used in its scale. However, it is not uncommon for a piece to be written with a key signature that does not match its key, for example, in some Baroque pieces, for example, in his Sonata No.31 in A♭ major, Op. In principle, any piece can be written with any key signature, using accidentals to correct the pattern of whole, the purpose of the key signature is to minimize the number of such accidentals required to notate the music. The sequence of sharps or flats in key signatures is generally rigid in modern music notation and this allows musicians to identify the key simply by the number of sharps or flats, rather than their position on the staff. For example, if a key signature has one sharp, it must be an F sharp. However, in 20th-century music, there are exceptions to this, where a piece uses an unorthodox or synthetic scale. This may consist of a number of sharps or flats that are not the normal ones, key signatures of this kind can be found in the music of Béla Bartók, for example. The effect of a key signature continues throughout a piece or movement, for example, if a five-sharp key signature is placed at the beginning of a piece, every A in the piece in any octave will be played as A sharp, unless preceded by an accidental. In a score containing more than one instrument, all the instruments are usually written with the key signature. Exceptions include, If an instrument is a transposing instrument, If an instrument is a percussion instrument with indeterminate pitch. Composers usually omit the key signature for timpani parts. g, timpani in D–A, if they were tuned A and D
11.
Clef
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A clef is a musical symbol used to indicate the pitch of written notes. Placed on one of the lines at the beginning of the stave, it indicates the name and this line serves as a reference point by which the names of the notes on any other line or space of the stave may be determined. Only one clef that references a note in a rather than on a line has ever been used. There are three types of clef used in music notation, F, C, and G. Each type of clef assigns a different reference note to the line on which it is placed, once one of these clefs has been placed on one of the lines of the stave, the other lines and spaces can be read in relation to it. The use of three different clefs makes it possible to music for all instruments and voices, even though they may have very different tessituras. The use of different clefs for various instruments and voices allows each part to be written comfortably on the stave with a minimum of ledger lines, to facilitate writing for different tessituras, any of the clefs may theoretically be placed on any of the lines of the stave. The further down on the stave a clef is placed, the higher the tessitura it is for, conversely, the higher up the clef, since there are five lines on the stave, and three clefs, it might seem that there would be fifteen possible clefs. Six of these, however, are redundant clefs, each of these clefs has a different name based on the tessitura for which it is best suited. In modern music, only four clefs are used regularly, the treble clef, the bass clef, the alto clef, of these, the treble and bass clefs are by far the most common. Here follows a complete list of the clefs, along with a list of instruments, each clef is shown in its proper position on the stave, followed by its reference note. An obelisk after the name of a clef indicates that that clef is no longer in common use, where the G-clef is placed on the second line of the stave, it is called the treble clef. This is the most common used today, and the only G-clef still in use. For this reason, the terms G-clef and treble clef are often seen as synonymous, the treble clef was historically used to mark a treble, or pre-pubescent, voice part. Treble clef is the upper stave of the grand stave used for harp and it is also sometimes used, along with tenor clef, for the highest notes played by bass-clef instruments such as the cello, double bass, bassoon, and trombone. The viola also sometimes uses treble clef for very high notes, treble clef is used for the soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, contralto and tenor voices. The tenor voice sounds an octave lower, and is written using an octave clef or double-treble clef. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a special clef was used for violin music, for this reason it is known as the French clef or French violin clef although it was more commonly used for flute music
12.
Barline
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Dividing music into bars provides regular reference points to pinpoint locations within a piece of music. It also makes written music easier to follow, since each bar of staff symbols can be read and played as a batch. Typically, a piece consists of bars of the same length. In simple time, the top figure indicates the number of beats per bar, the word bar is more common in British English, and the word measure is more common in American English, although musicians generally understand both usages. In international usage, it is correct to speak of bar numbers and measure numbers. Along the same lines, it is wise to reserve the abbreviated form ‘bb, 3–4’ etc. for beats only, bars should be referred to by name in full. The first metrically complete measure within a piece of music is called ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’, when the piece begins with an anacrusis, ‘bar 1’ or ‘m. 1’ is the following measure. Originally, the bar came from the vertical lines drawn through the staff to mark off metrical units. In British English, these lines are called bar, too. Note that double bar refers not to a type of bar, another term for the bar line denoting the end of a piece of music is music end. A repeat sign looks like the end, but it has two dots, one above the other, indicating that the section of music that is before is to be repeated. The beginning of the passage can be marked by a begin-repeat sign. This begin-repeat sign, if appearing at the beginning of a staff, does not act as a bar line because no bar is before it, in music with a regular meter, bars function to indicate a periodic accent in the music, regardless of its duration. Igor Stravinsky said of bar lines, The bar line is much, much more than a mere accent, bars and bar lines also indicate grouping, rhythmically of beats within and between bars, within and between phrases, and on higher levels such as meter. The earliest barlines, used in keyboard and vihuela music in the 15th and 16th centuries, didnt reflect a regular meter at all but were only section divisions, or in some cases marked off every beat. Barlines began to be introduced into music in the late 16th century. Not until the mid-17th century were used in the modern style with every measure being the same length. Modern editions of music that was originally notated without barlines sometimes use a mensurstrich as a compromise
13.
Alla breve
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Alla breve is a musical meter notated by the time signature symbol, which is the equivalent of 22. The term is Italian for in the style of the breve, alla breve is a simple-duple meter with a half-note pulse. The note denomination which represents one beat in is the minim or half-note, there are two of these per bar, so that the time signature 22 may be interpreted as two minim beats per bar. In Italian, breve means short, and alla breve is also known as cut time or cut common time, in contemporary usage ala breve suggests a fairly quick tempo. Thus, it is used frequently for military marches, from about 1600 to 1900 its usage with regard to tempo varied, so it cannot always be taken to mean a quick tempo. The reason for the usage of alla breve is to allow the musician to read notes of short duration more cleanly with fewer beats. Prior to 1600 the term alla breve derives from the system of mensural or proportional notation in which values were related by the ratio 2,1. In this context it means that the tactus or metrical pulse is switched from its place on the whole note to the double whole note. Early music notation was developed by religious orders, which has resulted in religious associations in notation. The most obvious is that music in time was called tempus perfectum, deriving its name from the Holy Trinity and represented by the perfect circle. Music in duple time was called tempus imperfectum. Its symbol was the circle, which is still used — although it has evolved to mean 44, or common time. When cut through by a line, it means 22 — cut common. It sometimes had other functions, including non-mensural ones, the following is an example with the same rhythm notated in 22 and in 44, Randel, Don Michael. Harvard dictionary of music, fourth edition, cambridge, Massachusetts, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition, the Contemporary Keyboardist, Hal Leonard Corporation, ISBN 0-634-01091-3
14.
Quarter-note
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A quarter note or crotchet is a note played for one quarter of the duration of a whole note. Often, musicians say that a crotchet is one beat, but this is not always correct, as the beat is indicated by the time signature of the music. Quarter notes are notated with a filled-in oval note head and a straight, the stem usually points upwards if it is below the middle line of the stave or downwards if it is on or above the middle line. However, the direction may differentiate more than one part. The head of the note also reverses its orientation in relation to the stem, in Unicode, the symbol is U+2669. A related value is the quarter rest and it denotes a silence of the same duration as a quarter note. It typically appears as the symbol, or occasionally, as the older symbol, the note derives from the semiminima of mensural notation. The word crotchet comes from Old French crochet, meaning hook, diminutive of croc, hook. However, because the hook appeared on the note in the later white notation. The quarter note is played for half the length of a half note and it is one beat in a bar of 44. The term quarter note is a calque of the German term Viertelnote, the Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Russian, Serbian and Slovak names mean quarter and quarters pause
15.
Eighth-note
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It is the equivalent of the fusa in mensural notation Eighth notes are notated with an oval, filled-in note head and a straight note stem with one flag note flag. A related symbol is the eighth rest, which denotes a silence for the same duration, in Unicode, the symbols U+266A and U+266B are an eighth note and beamed pair of eighth notes respectively. The two symbols are inherited from the early 1980s code page 437, where they occupied codes 13 and 14 respectively, unicodes Musical Symbols block includes several variations of the eighth note, these are the versions intended to be used in computerized musical notation. Eighth notes in 38,68,98, and 128 are beamed three eighth notes at a time, the word quaver comes from the now archaic use of the verb to quaver meaning to sing in trills. The note derives from the fusa of mensural notation, however, fusa is the modern Spanish, Catalan, the names of this note in many languages vary greatly, The French name, croche is from the same source as crotchet, the British name for the quarter note. The name derives from croccata, to apply to the flags of the semiminima and fusa in mensural notation, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell
16.
Compound meter (music)
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The metre of music is its rhythmic structure, the patterns of accents heard in regularly recurring measures of stressed and unstressed beats at the frequency of the musics pulse. A variety of systems exist throughout the world for organising and playing music, such as the Indian system of tala. Later music for such as the pavane and galliard consisted of musical phrases to accompany a fixed sequence of basic steps with a defined tempo. The term is not very precisely defined, macPherson preferred to speak of time and rhythmic shape, Imogen Holst of measured rhythm. This perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a definition of musical metre requires the possibility of identifying a repeating pattern of accented pulses — a pulse-group — which corresponds to the foot in poetry. Frequently a pulse-group can be identified by taking the accented beat as the first pulse in the group, frequently metres can be broken down into a pattern of duples and triples. The level of musical organisation implied by musical metre includes the most elementary levels of musical form, metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm are general classes of rhythm and may be distinguished in all aspects of temporality. Measured rhythm is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a time unit. Free rhythm is where there is neither, some music, including chant, has freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse. Some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric. Senza misura is an Italian musical term for without metre, meaning to play without a beat, Metric levels may be distinguished, the beat level is the metric level at which pulses are heard as the basic time unit of the piece. Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels, a rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. In duple metre, each measure is divided into two beats, or a multiple thereof, for example, in the time signature 24, each measure contains two quarter-note beats, and with the time signature 68, each measure contains two dotted-quarter-note beats. Corresponding quadruple metres are 44, with 2 ×2 =4 quarter-note beats per measure, triple metre is a metre in which each measure is divided into three beats, or a multiple thereof. For example, in the time signature 34, each contains three quarter-note beats, and with a time signature of 98, each measure contains three dotted-quarter beats. Simple metre and compound metre are distinguished by the way the beats are subdivided, Simple metre or simple time is a metre in which each beat of the measure divides naturally into two equal parts. The top number in the signature will be 2,3,4,5
17.
Dotted note
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In Western musical notation, a dotted note is a note with a small dot written after it. In modern practice the first dot increases the duration of the note by half of its original value. A dotted note is equivalent to writing the basic note tied to a note of half the value, or with more than one dot, a rhythm using longer notes alternating with shorter notes is sometimes called a dotted rhythm. Historical examples of performance styles using dotted rhythm include notes inégales. The precise performance of dotted rhythms can be a complex issue, even in notation that includes dots, their performed values may be longer than the dot mathematically indicates, a practice known as over-dotting. If the note to be dotted is on a space, the dot goes on the space, while if the note is on a line. Theoretically, any note value can be dotted, as can rests of any value, if the rest is in its normal position, dots are always placed in third staff space from the bottom. The use of a dot for augmentation of a note dates back at least to the 10th century, although the amount of augmentation is disputed. More than one dot may be added, each dot adds half of the duration added by the previous dot, a double-dotted note is a note with two small dots written after it. Its duration is 1 3⁄4 times its basic note value, the double-dotted note is used less frequently than the dotted note. Typically, as in the example below, it is followed by a note whose duration is one-quarter the length of the note value. Before the mid 18th century, double dots were not used, until then, in some circumstances, single dots could mean double dots. Example 2 is a fragment of the movement of Joseph Haydns string quartet, Op.74. Haydns theme was adapted for piano by a composer, the adapted version can be heard here. In a French overture, notes written as dotted notes are often interpreted to mean double-dotted notes, a triple-dotted note is a note with three dots written after it, its duration is 1 7⁄8 times its basic note value. Use of a note value is not common in the Baroque and Classical periods. An example of the use of double- and triple-dotted notes is the Prelude in G major for piano, Op.28, the piece, in common time, contains running semiquavers in the left hand. Several times during the piece Chopin asks for the hand to play a triple-dotted minim
18.
Duple time
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44 is the most common time signature in rock, blues, country, funk, and pop. Although jazz writing has become more adventurous since Dave Brubecks seminal Time Out, duple time is common in many styles including the polka, notorious for its obvious oom-pah duple feel. Tunes in duple metre tend to be lyrical and more martial than those in triple. Binary measure refers to common time
19.
Triple time
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He began his career as an infant in television commercials. Peter was born in New York City and his father, Alwin Michaelsen, is a financial consultant and his mother, Gail, was once Alwins secretary. Gail was the one who took the children around to auditions. She once took the children to Browns Mills, New Jersey for a commercial commemorating our troops, all five of the children in the family had acting careers when they were young. The oldest of Billingsleys siblings, Dina and Win, had the briefest acting careers working mostly in commercials with brief guest spots on television shows, peters elder sister, Melissa, may be best known for her role as Maxx Davis on Me and Maxx. Peters older brother, Neil, began playing Danny Walton on the soap opera Search for Tomorrow in 1975 and has had numerous roles in commercials. Following his acting career, Neil works in finance in New York City and he seems to have also attended some public secondary schools following the GED including Arcadia High School, Phoenix, Arizona. In the late 1980s, he took a break from show business to attend Phoenix College. On January 28th,1986, Billingsley was on-hand at launch pad 39B for the launch of the Space Shuttle Challenger. He and classmates of the son of Americas first teacher-astronaut cheered as the space shuttle Challenger lifted skyward and their delight turned to horror as the shuttle exploded 73 seconds into flight. Billingsley was a spokesman for the astronaut program. Billingsleys first acting role was as a two-year-old in a Geritol commercial with Betty Buckley playing his mom and he went on to star in about 120 television ads throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. At 12 he was quoted as saying, After 100, you lose count and he was likely best known for a series of commercials for Hersheys chocolate syrup in which he portrayed the popular character Messy Marvin. One of Billingsleys earliest film roles was in 1978s If Ever I See You Again, written and his role in 1981s Paternity opposite Burt Reynolds earned a nomination for Best Young Comedian – Motion Picture or Television at The Young Artist Awards. In 1981, he appeared in Honky Tonk Freeway, and that October was a guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. In 1982 Billingsley starred in features, including Death Valley, Massarati and the Brain. The film earned Billingsley another Young Artist Award nomination, and is arguably the one role he is most associated with and he has been quoted as saying that people still approach him on the street, only to say youll shoot your eye out, kid. In 1984 Billingsley starred in an adaptation of The Hoboken Chicken Emergency with Dick Van Patten and Gabe Kaplan and he appeared on a Super Teen special edition of Family Feud, and on Celebrity Hot Potato
20.
Tuplet
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In music a tuplet is any rhythm that involves dividing the beat into a different number of equal subdivisions from that usually permitted by the time-signature. This is indicated by a number, indicating the fraction involved, the notes involved are also often grouped with a bracket or a slur. The most common type is the triplet, an alternative modern term, irrational rhythm, was originally borrowed from Greek prosody where it referred to a syllable having a metrical value not corresponding to its actual time-value, or. A metrical foot containing such a syllable, the term would be incorrect if used in the mathematical sense or in the more general sense of unreasonable, utterly illogical, absurd. Alternative terms found occasionally are artificial division, abnormal divisions, irregular rhythm, the term polyrhythm, sometimes incorrectly used of tuplets, actually refers to the simultaneous use of opposing time signatures. Besides triplet, the terms duplet, quadruplet, quintuplet, sextuplet, septuplet, the terms nonuplet, decuplet, undecuplet, dodecuplet, and tredecuplet had been suggested but up until 1925 had not caught on. By 1964 the terms nonuplet and decuplet were usual, while subdivisions by greater numbers were commonly described as group of eleven notes, group of twelve notes. The most common tuplet is the triplet, shown at right, similarly, three triplet eighth notes are equal in duration to one quarter note. If several note values appear under the bracket, they are all affected the same way. If the notes of the tuplet are beamed together, the bracket may be omitted, for other tuplets, the number indicates a ratio to the next lower normal value in the prevailing meter. Some numbers are used inconsistently, for example septuplets usually indicate 7 notes in the duration of 4—or in compound meter 7 for 6—but may sometimes be used to mean 7 notes in the duration of 8. Thus, a septuplet lasting a whole note can be written with either quarter notes or eighth notes, a French alternative is to write pour or de in place of the colon, or above the bracketed irregular number. This reflects the French usage of, for example, six-pour-quatre as a name for the sextolet. There are disagreements about the sextuplet —which is also called sestole, sestolet, sextole, some go so far as to call the latter, when written with a numeral 6, a false sextuplet. In compound meter, even-numbered tuplets can indicate that a value is changed in relation to the dotted version of the next higher note value. Thus, two eighth notes take the time normally totaled by three eighth notes, equal to a dotted quarter note. Four quadruplet eighth notes would also equal a dotted quarter note, the duplet eighth note is thus exactly the same duration as a dotted eighth note, but the duplet notation is far more common in compound meters. A duplet in compound time is often written as 2,3 than 2, 1 1⁄2
21.
Anacrusis
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In poetry and music, and by analogy in other fields, an anacrusis is a brief introduction. In poetry, a set of extrametrical syllables at the beginning of a verse is said to stand in anacrusis. The technique is seen Old English poetry, and in lines of iambic pentameter, in music, an anacrusis is a note or sequence of notes which precedes the first downbeat in a bar in a musical phrase. The musical term is inferred from the terminology of poetry, where it refers to one or more first, the anacrusis is a perceived grouping which is context generated in the individual phrasing of a concrete composition. The grouping of one or more antecedent tone events to a perceived phrase gestalt may be evoked by their temporal proximity to the phrases first downbeat. An anacrusis may also be evoked solely metrically, i. e. tonally, although the anacrusis is integrated in a musical phrase gestalt, it is not located in the perceived body of the phrase, but before the phrase. If anacrusis is present, the first bar after the anacrusis is assigned bar number 1, in the song Happy Birthday to You, the anacrusis forms the Happy and the accent is on the first syllable of Birthday. In academic publishing, the term is used in an article to mark an introductory idea standing between the abstract and the introduction proper
22.
Reggae
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Reggae is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A1968 single by Toots and the Maytals Do the Reggay was the first popular song to use the word reggae, effectively naming the genre, Reggae usually relates news, social gossip, and political comment. Reggae spread into a commercialized jazz field, being known first as ‘Rudie Blues’, then ‘Ska’, later ‘Blue Beat’ and it is instantly recognizable from the counterpoint between the bass and drum downbeat, and the offbeat rhythm section. The immediate origins of reggae were in ska and rock steady, from the latter, stylistically, reggae incorporates some of the musical elements of rhythm and blues, jazz, mento, calypso, African music, as well as other genres. One of the most easily recognizable elements is offbeat rhythms, staccato chords played by a guitar or piano on the offbeats of the measure, the tempo of reggae is usually slower than ska but faster than rocksteady. The concept of call and response can be found throughout reggae music, the genre of reggae music is led by the drum and bass. The bass guitar often plays the dominant role in reggae, the bass sound in reggae is thick and heavy, and equalized so the upper frequencies are removed and the lower frequencies emphasized. The guitar in reggae usually plays on the off beat of the rhythm and it is common for reggae to be sung in Jamaican Patois, Jamaican English, and Iyaric dialects. Reggae is noted for its tradition of criticism and religion in its lyrics, although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love. Reggae has spread to countries across the world, often incorporating local instruments. Reggae en Español spread from the mainland South America countries of Venezuela, Caribbean music in the United Kingdom, including reggae, has been popular since the late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Many reggae artists began their careers in the UK, and there have been a number of European artists and bands drawing their inspiration directly from Jamaica, Reggae in Africa was boosted by the visit of Bob Marley to Zimbabwe in 1980. In Jamaica, authentic reggae is one of the biggest sources of income, the 1967 edition of the Dictionary of Jamaican English lists reggae as a recently estab. Sp. for rege, as in rege-rege, a word that can mean either rags, ragged clothing or a quarrel, a row. Reggae as a term first appeared in print with the 1968 rocksteady hit Do the Reggay by The Maytals which named the genre of Reggae for the world. Reggae historian Steve Barrow credits Clancy Eccles with altering the Jamaican patois word streggae into reggae, however, Toots Hibbert said, Theres a word we used to use in Jamaica called streggae. If a girl is walking and the look at her and say Man, shes streggae it means she dont dress well
23.
March (music)
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A march, as a musical genre, is a piece of music with a strong regular rhythm which in origin was expressly written for marching to and most frequently performed by a military band. In mood, marches range from the death march in Wagners Götterdämmerung to the brisk military marches of John Philip Sousa. Marches can be written in any time signature, but the most common time signatures are 44,22, however, some modern marches are being written in 12 or 24 time. The modern march tempo is typically around 120 beats per minute, many funeral marches conform to the Roman standard of 60 beats per minute. The tempo matches the pace of walking in step. Both tempos achieve the standard rate of 120 steps per minute, each section of a march typically consists of 16 or 32 measures, which may repeat. Most importantly, a march consists of a strong and steady percussive beat reminiscent of military field drums, Marches frequently change keys once, modulating to the subdominant key, and occasionally returning to the original tonic key. If it begins in a key, it modulates to the relative major. Marches frequently have counter-melodies introduced during the repeat of a main melody, Marches frequently have a penultimate dogfight strain in which two groups of instruments alternate in a statement/response format. In most traditional American marches, there are three strains, the third strain is referred to as the trio. A military music event where various marching bands and units perform is called tattoo, Marches werent notated until the late 16th century, until then, time was generally kept by percussion alone, often with improvised fife embellishment. With the extensive development of instruments, especially in the 19th century. Composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Gustav Mahler wrote marches, often incorporating them into their operas, sonatas, the later popularity of John Philip Sousas band marches was unmatched. The march tempo of 120 beats or steps per minute was adapted by Napoleon Bonaparte so that his army could move faster. Since he planned to occupy the territory he conquered, instead of his soldiers carrying all of their provisions with them, they would live off the land and march faster. The French march tempo is faster than the traditional tempo of British marches, traditional American marches use the French or quick march tempo. There are two reason for this, First, U. S. military bands adopted the march tempos of France, Second, the composer of the greatest American marches, John Philip Sousa, was of Portuguese and German descent. Portugal used the French tempo exclusively—the standard Sousa learned during his musical education, a military band playing or marching at the traditional British march tempo would seem unusually slow in the United States
24.
Musical theater
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Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement, since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals. These were followed by the numerous Edwardian musical comedies and the theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan. Musicals are performed around the world and they may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller fringe theatre, Off-Broadway or regional theatre productions, musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada, the three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The interpretation of a musical is the responsibility of its team, which includes a director. A musicals production is also characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties, lighting. The creative team, designs and interpretations generally change from the production to succeeding productions. Some production elements, however, may be retained from the production, for example. There is no fixed length for a musical, while it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length, most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one intermission, and the first act is frequently longer than the second. A book musical is usually built four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End have been presented in one act in recent decades, moments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, when the emotion becomes too strong for speech, you sing, typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters, the material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adapted from novels, plays, classic legends, historical events or films. On the other hand, many musical theatre works have been adapted for musical films, such as West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver
25.
Polka
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The polka is originally a Czech dance and genre of dance music familiar throughout Europe and the Americas. It originated in the middle of the 19th century in Bohemia, local varieties of this dance are also found in the Nordic countries, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Latin America and the United States. The name polka possibly comes from the Czech word půlka, referring to the short half-steps featured in the dance. e, the absence of diacritics, both referring to the half-tempo 24 and the half-jump step of the dance. Zíbrt also ironically dismisses the etymology suggested by A. Fähnrich that polka comes from the Czech word pole, on the other hand, Zdeněk Nejedlý suggests that the etymology given by Fr. Doucha is nothing but an effort to prove the true Czech folk origin of Polka, Nejedlý also writes that Václav Vladivoj Tomek also claims the Hradec Králové roots of a Polka. OED also suggests that the name may have derived from the Czech polka meaning Polish woman. The word was introduced into the major European languages in the early 1840s. It should not be confused with the polska, a Swedish 34-beat dance with Polish roots, a related dance is the redowa. Polkas almost always have a 24 time signature, folk music of Polka style appeared in written music about 1800. She is said to have called the dance Maděra, because of its liveliness, the dance was further propagated by the music teacher Josef Neruda, who witnessed Anna dance in an unusual way, put the tune to paper, and taught other young men to dance it. Čeněk Zíbrt notices that a claim that the events happened in Týnec nad Labem. Zibrt writes that when he published this story in 1894 in Narodni Listy newspaper. In particular, he wrote according to further witness, the originating event actually happened in 1830, in Kostelec nad Labem. Zíbrt writes that he published the first version of the story in Bohemia, from where it was reprinted all over Europe and in the United States. Zíbrt also wrote that simple Czech folk claimed that knew and danced Polka long before the nobles got hold of it. By 1835, this dance had spread to the ballrooms of Prague, from there, it spread to Vienna by 1839, and in 1840 was introduced in Paris by Raab, a Prague dance instructor. It was so well received by both dancers and dance masters in Paris that its popularity was referred to as polkamania, the dance soon spread to London and was introduced to America in 1844. It remained a popular dance until the late 19th century
26.
Galop
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In the same closed position familiar in the waltz, the step combined a glissade with a chassé on alternate feet, ordinarily in a fast 24 time. In Australian bush dance, the dance is often called galopede, an even more lively, faster version of the galop called the can-can developed in Paris around 1830. The galop was particularly popular as the dance of the evening. The Post Horn Galop, written by the cornet virtuoso Herman Koenig, was first performed in London,1844, numerous galops were written by the Waltz King Johann Strauss II. Dmitri Shostakovich employed a posthorn galop as the second, Allegro scherzo of his Eighth Symphony,1943, franz Schubert also composed the fourth movement of his Symphony No.2 on the galop. Particularly famous is the Devils Galop by Charles Williams, the Infernal Galop from Orpheus in the Underworld by Jacques Offenbach and the Comedians Galop from The Comedians by Dmitry Kabalevsky are two other well-known galops. Danish composer Hans Christian Lumbye wrote several galops, of which the Champagne Galop is particularly famous, other notable works include the Copenhagen Steam Railway Galop and the Telegraph Galop. George Gershwin composed the galop French Ballet Class for two pianos for his score to the film Shall We Dance, some galops were also written by Nino Rota. Émile Waldteufel also wrote several galops, of which Prestissimo is particularly famous, streetswings Dance History, Galop William Geary Bunk Johnson, Well-known Soloists From All Walks of Life, Herman Koenig
27.
Waltz (music)
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A waltz, probably deriving from German Ländler, is dance music in triple meter, often written in 34 time. The name waltz comes from the German verb walzen, in turn taken from the Latin verb volvere, classical composers traditionally supplied music for dancing when required, and Franz Schuberts waltzes were written for household dancing, without any pretense at being art music. However, Frédéric Chopins surviving 18 waltzes, along with his mazurkas and they marked the adoption of the waltz and other dance forms as serious composition genres. Other notable contributions to the genre in classical music include 16 by Johannes Brahms. The long period of the popularity was brought to an end by the First World War, which destroyed the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Waltzes nevertheless continued to be written by composers of music, such as Eric Coates, Robert Stolz, Ivor Novello, Richard Rodgers, Cole Porter, Oscar Straus. The Australian composer Julian Cochran composed piano and orchestral works using the French title Valses, closer to the Latin origin, to mitigate assumptions of a Viennese style. The predominant ballroom form in the 20th century has become the slow waltz, examples derived from popular songs include Ramona, Parlami d’amore, Mariù, and The Last Waltz. In a jazz context, waltz signifies any piece of music in 3/4 time and it was only after the bop waltz appeared in the early 1950s that triple meter became at all common in jazz. Austrian folk dancing Landler Schuhplattler Waltz Zwiefacher Anon, the New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, second edition, edited by Barry Dean Kernfeld,3 vols. London, Macmillan Publishers, New York, Grove’s Dictionaries, the New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, second edition, edited by Barry Dean Kernfeld,3 vols. London, Macmillan Publishers, New York, Grove’s Dictionaries, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the Oxford Dictionary of Music, second edition, revised, associate editor, Joyce Bourne. Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press
28.
Minuet
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A minuet, is a social dance of French origin for two people, usually in 34 time. The name may refer to the steps, pas menus, taken in the dance, or else be derived from the branle à mener or amener. The minuet was traditionally said to have descended from the bransle de Poitou, at the period when it was most fashionable it was controlled, ceremonious and graceful. The name is given to a musical composition written in the same time and rhythm. Among Italian composers the minuet was often quicker and livelier and was sometimes written in 38 or 68 time. Because the tempo of a minuet was not standard, the tempo direction tempo di minuetto was ambiguous unless qualified by another direction, as it sometimes was. Initially, before its adoption in other than social dance. But the second section eventually expanded, resulting in a kind of ternary form, the second minuet provided form of contrast by means of different key and orchestration. On a larger scale, two such minuets might be combined, so that the first minuet was followed by a second one. The whole form might in any case be repeated as long as the dance lasted, around Lullys time it became a common practice to score this middle section for a trio. As a result, this section came to be called the minuets trio. 13 in G major, K.525, popularly known under the title Eine kleine Nachtmusik, a livelier form of the minuet simultaneously developed into the scherzo. This term came into existence approximately from Beethoven onwards, but the form itself can be traced back to Haydn, the minuet and trio eventually became the standard third movement in the four-movement classical symphony, Johann Stamitz being the first to employ it thus with regularity. An example of the form of the minuet is to be found in Don Giovanni. A famous example of a more recent instrumental work in minuet form is Ignacy Jan Paderewskis Minuet in G. Scherzo, revisiting Music Theory, A Guide to the Practice. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Dance Research, The Journal of the Society for Dance Research 24 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Classical Form, A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, the Theory of Music as Applied to the Teaching and Practice of Voice and Instruments, 21st edition
29.
Polonaise
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The polonaise is a dance of Polish origin, in 34 time. Its name is French for Polish, the polonaise had a rhythm quite close to that of the Swedish semiquaver or sixteenth-note polska, and the two dances have a common origin. Polonaise is a dance in carnival parties. Polonaise is always a first dance at a studniówka, the Polish equivalent of the prom that occurs approximately 100 days before exams. The notation alla polacca on a score indicates that the piece should be played with the rhythm. For example, the movement of Beethovens Triple Concerto op. 56, marked Rondo alla polacca, and the finale of Chopins Variations on Là ci darem la mano both feature this notation, frédéric Chopins polonaises are generally the best known of all polonaises in classical music. Another more recent prolific polonaise composer was the American Edward Alexander MacDowell, john Philip Sousa wrote the Presidential Polonaise, intended to keep visitors moving briskly through the White House receiving line. Sousa wrote it in 1886 at the request of President Chester A. Arthur who died before it was performed, Polonaise is a Polish dance and is one of the five historic national dances of Poland. The others are the Mazurka, Kujawiak, Krakowiak and Oberek, Polonaise originated as a peasant dance known under various names – chodzony, chmielowy, pieszy or wielki, recorded as early as the 15th century. In later centuries it gained popularity among the nobility and townspeople, waltz Mazurka Varsovienne Redowa Polonaise ‒ The Royal Dance Every Polish Teenager Has to Master
30.
Mazurka
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The mazurka is a Polish folk dance in triple meter, usually at a lively tempo, and with strong accents unsystematically placed on the second or third beat. The folk origins of the mazurek are two other Polish musical forms which are the slow kujawiak, and the fast oberek, the mazurek is always found to have either a triplet, trill, dotted eighth note pair, or an ordinary eighth note pair before two quarter notes. In the 19th century, the dance became popular in many ballrooms in different parts of Europe, the Polish national anthem has a mazurek rhythm but is too slow to be considered a mazurek. In Polish, mazurka is actually the genitive and accusative cases of mazurek, several classical composers have written mazurkas, with the best known being the 69 composed by Frédéric Chopin for solo piano. In 1825 Maria Szymanowska wrote the largest collection of piano mazurkas published before Chopin, Chopin first started composing mazurkas in 1825, but his composing did not become serious until 1830, the year of the November Uprising, a Polish rebellion against the Russian Tsar. Chopin continued composing them until 1849, the year of his death, the stylistic and musical characteristics of Chopins mazurkas differ from the traditional variety because Chopin in effect created a completely separate and new genre of mazurka all his own. For example, he used techniques in his mazurkas, including counterpoint. By including more chromaticism and harmony in the mazurkas, he made them more interesting than the traditional dances. Chopin also tried to compose his mazurkas in such a way that they could not be used for dancing, however, while Chopin changed some aspects of the original mazurka, he maintained others. His mazurkas, like the traditional dances, contain a great deal of repetition, repetition of certain measures or groups of measures, of entire sections, the rhythm of his mazurkas also remains very similar to that of earlier mazurkas. This use of rhythm suggests that Chopin tried to create a genre that had ties to the original form, the dance was common as a popular dance in Europe and the United States in the mid- to late nineteenth century. In Cape Verde the mazurka is also revered as an important cultural phenomenon played with bands led by a violinist. It also takes a variation of the dance form and is found mostly in the north of the archipelago, mainly in São Nicolau. In the south it finds popularity in the island of Brava, czech composers Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, and Bohuslav Martinů all wrote mazurkas to at least some extent. For Smetana and Martinů, these are single pieces, whereas Dvořák composed a set of six mazurkas for piano, and in 1991 Albert Hyden performed a sonet for the president called alpha Q. In France, Impressionistic composers Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel both wrote mazurkas, Debussys is a piece, and Ravels is part of a suite of an early work. Jacques Offenbach included a mazurka in his ballet Gaîté Parisienne, Léo Delibes composed one which appears several times in the first act of his ballet Coppélia, the mazurka appears frequently in French traditional folk music. In the French Antilles, the mazurka has become an important style of dance, a creolised version of the mazurka is mazouk, which was introduced to the French Caribbean during the 19th century
31.
Jig
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The jig is a form of lively folk dance in compound meter, as well as the accompanying dance tune. It developed in 16th-century England, and was adopted on the Continent where it eventually became the final movement of the mature Baroque dance suite. Today it is most associated with Irish dance music, Scottish country dance, the term jig was probably derived from the French giguer, meaning to jump or the Italian giga. Later the dance began to be associated with music particularly in 68 time, during the seventeenth century the dance was adopted in Ireland and Scotland, where it was widely adapted, and the jig is now most often associated with these countries. The jig is second in popularity only to the reel in traditional Irish dance, it is popular and it is transcribed in compound meter, being 68 time. The most common structure of a jig is two parts, performing two different steps, each once on the right foot, and one on the left foot. As with most other types of tunes in Irish music. A light jig is the second-fastest of all the jigs, the performers feet rarely leave the ground for long, as the step is fast, typically performed at a speed around 116 at feiseanna. There are several light jig steps, varying with each dance school and this step is known as the rising step, or the rise and grind. This is the right version of it, Put your weight on your left foot. Hop on your left foot once, hop on your left foot again, bringing your right foot back behind your left foot and then shift your weight onto your right foot, leaving your left foot in the air. Dancers use the phrase hop, hop back for three movements, and there is a slight pause between the hop, and hop back. The next movement is a hop on your right foot, then you shift your weight on your feet, left-right-left-right. The phrase for this movement is, hop, hop back. To do the step on the foot, reverse the left. Slip jigs are in 98 time, because of the longer measures, they are longer than the reel and the light jig, with the same number of bars to the music. The dance is performed high on the toes, and is considered the ballet of Irish dance because of its graceful movements that seem to slip the performers across the floor. Slip jigs are performed at a speed of 112 at feiseanna, single jigs should not be confused with slides, they are the least common of the jigs, performed in ghillies, in a 68 or less commonly a 128 time
32.
Sega music
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Sega is one of the major music genres of Mauritius, the others being its fusion genre Seggae and Bhojpuri songs. It has origins in the music of slaves on the island, the musics traditional form was largely improvised and intensely emotional and expressed the tribulations of a subjugated, initially enslaved, people. It is primarily dance music but was used for dirges. Traditional instruments include, the maravanne moutia the goatskin drum ravanne triangle, there is also the tantam which a stringed instrument consisting of a gourd with a bow attached played in time to the drum. Nowadays, electric guitars and keyboards are used, the lyrics of sega music usually relate to the lives of the inhabitants, they do not usually relate to the musicians ancestral homeland. Sega is danced without the feet leaving the ground. Instead, the rest of the body moves, Sega music originated among the slave populations of Mauritius, it then appeared in Réunion and later spread throughout the Seychelles. It is usually in 6/8 tempo and has a dance form. Segas exact origins outside the islands are unknown, however, it is understood to have Afro-Malagasy roots and be a fusion of African or Malagasy music with European music. The European influence includes folk dance music like polka, waltz, gatan Benoit suggested that sega came from Madagascar and Boswell notes there may be a link between sega and famadihana, a Merina death ritual. Arago instead identifies it with chéga from Mozambique and he states that it is similar to the fandango and chica from Brazil whose origins are in African music from Mozambique and Angola. It was termed African by sega musician Jacques Cantin, Sega was for long looked down upon because it was the music of slaves. It was also looked down upon by the Catholic Church, which was not keen on its association with sexuality, until the Mauritian Ti Frère became popular in the 1960s, sega was only played in private places. A particularly big turning point was his performance at the Night of the Sega at Mount Le Morne on 30 October 1964 and it is now considered the national music of Mauritius and not restricted by ethnicity. Sega is now popular across the islands of Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles, Comoros, Mayotte and Rodrigues, in its modern form, sega is combined with genres like jazz, zouk, and its fusion genre with reggae known as Seggae. Elements of African music have been added to sega since the 1980s, Santé engagé is a genre of Mauritian music which consists of singing protest songs. It is a way to protest against injustices through music, the genre mixes traditional Mauritian sega with Indian influences. Seggae is a fusion of sega with reggae, a kind of Jamaican popular music that is popular across segas range
33.
Salegy
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Salegy is a popular music genre from Madagascar. Its sound is considered emblematic of the island, eusèbe Jaojoby, a Sakalava singer from Antsiranana, was a key originator of the style and is widely considered the King of Salegy. The contemporary, electrified form of popular salegy originated from traditional acoustic roots in northwestern Madagascar around Mahajanga and it has been popularized by originators like Jaojoby and relative newcomers such as Ninie Doniah, Vaiavy Chila and Dr. J. B. and the Jaguars. The syncopated, polyrhythmic beat of salegy is rapid and features a percussion pattern performed on a Western drum kit in 68 or 124 time with accents on the 3rd or 7th beat. The melody and harmonies are often in the A minor key and feature beautiful high-life electric guitar, the sound of salegy can be heard at night clubs, cabarets, parties and dance floors across the island. Salegy represents a version of the antsa musical style that was traditionally performed at Betsimisaraka. Anziza Salema Arsène Félix Dr. J. B
34.
Tarantella
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Tarantella is a group of various folk dances characterized by a fast upbeat tempo, usually in 68 time, accompanied by tambourines. It is among the most recognized forms of traditional southern Italian music, the specific dance-name varies with every region, for instance tammurriata in Campania, pizzica in the Salento region, Sonu a ballu in Calabria. Tarantella is popular in Southern Italy and Argentina and this became known as the Tarantella. R. Lowe Thompson proposed that the dance is a survival from a Dianic or Dionysiac cult, john Compton later proposed that the Roman Senate had suppressed these ancient Bacchanalian rites. In 186 BC the tarantella went underground, reappearing under the guise of emergency therapy for bite victims, the stately courtship tarantella danced by a couple or couples, short in duration, is graceful and elegant and features characteristic music. However, other forms of the dance were and still are couple dances usually either mimicking courtship or a sword fight. The confusion appears to arrive from the fact that the spiders, the condition, its sufferers, the dance originated in the Apulia region, and spread throughout the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Neapolitan tarantella is a dance performed by couples whose rhythms, melodies, gestures. Its origins may lie in a fifteenth-century fusion between the Spanish Fandango and the Moresque ballo di sfessartia. The magico-religious tarantella is a dance performed supposedly to cure through perspiration the delirium. The dance was later applied as a cure for the behavior of neurotic women. There are several traditional tarantella groups, Cantori di Carpino, Officina Zoé, Uccio Aloisi gruppu, Canzoniere Grecanico Salentino, Selva Cupina, the tarantella is most commonly played with a mandolin, a guitar, an accordion and tambourines. Flute, fiddle, trumpet and clarinet are also used, the tarantella is a dance in which the dancer and the drum player constantly try to upstage each other by playing faster or dancing longer than the other, subsequently tiring one person out first. Tarantism, as a ritual, has roots in the ancient Greek myths, reportedly, victims who had collapsed or were convulsing would begin to dance with appropriate music and be revived as if a tarantula had bitten them. The music used to treat dancing mania appears to be similar to that used in the case of tarantism though little is known about either, justus Hecker, describes in his work Epidemics of the Middle Ages, A convulsion infuriated the human frame. Entire communities of people would join hands, dance, leap, scream, the Balanchine ballet Tarantella is set to the Grande Tarantelle for Piano and Orchestra, Op.67 by Louis Moreau Gottschalk, reconstructed and orchestrated by Hershy Kay. Benjamin Britten wrote a tarantella as the third and final movement of his Sinfonietta, mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco wrote a Tarantella for solo guitar, Op. 87b. Frédéric Chopin wrote a Tarantelle in A-flat, Op.43 with the characteristic 68 time signature and it was inspired specifically by Rossiniss song La Danza
35.
The Ride of the Valkyries
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The Ride of the Valkyries is the popular term for the beginning of act 3 of Die Walküre, the second of the four operas by Richard Wagner that constitute Der Ring des Nibelungen. As a separate piece, the Ride is often heard in an instrumental version. Together with the Bridal Chorus from Lohengrin, the Ride of the Valkyries is one of Wagners best-known pieces, the main theme of the Ride, the leitmotif labelled Walkürenritt, was first written down by the composer on 23 July 1851. The preliminary draft for the Ride was composed in 1854 as part of the composition of the entire opera, which was fully orchestrated by the end of the first quarter of 1856. As they are joined by the four, the familiar tune is carried by the orchestra, while, above it. Apart from the song of the Rhinemaidens in Das Rheingold, it is the ensemble piece in the first three operas of Wagners Ring cycle. The complete opera Die Walküre was first performed on 26 June 1870 in the National Theatre Munich against the composers intent, however, the piece was still printed and sold in Leipzig, and Wagner subsequently wrote a complaint to the publisher Schott. Once the Ring had been given in Bayreuth in 1876, Wagner lifted the embargo and he himself conducted it in London on 12 May 1877, repeating it as an encore. Uses in film include the score for The Birth of a Nation. The Ride is the quick march of the British Parachute Regiment. Within the concert repertoire, the Ride of the Valkyries remains a popular encore, apart from where the Ride is included in the recordings of the Walküre opera, it is a very popular piece, included in various popular classics anthologies. Edited and annotated by Martin Gregor-Dellin and Dietrich Mack, translated by Geoffrey Skelton, Ride of the Valkyries, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Ride of the Valkyries at Project Gutenberg Fantasie from Die Walkure, WWV 86B on Musopen
36.
Violin Concerto in A minor (Bach)
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The Violin Concerto in A minor, BWV1041, was composed by Johann Sebastian Bach. In any event, the only source to survive are parts Bach copied out in Leipzig circa 1730 from a now lost score or draft. The piece has three movements,1. Allegro Moderato, in A minor,24 meter, The opening movement is in ritornello form and this means that there is a main section that comes back in fragments in both the solo violin and orchestral parts. This ritornello can be found in the first movement up until bar 24, the motifs of the theme appear in changing combinations and are separated and intensified throughout the movement. 2. Andante, in C major,44 meter, In the Andante second movement and he focuses the variation in the harmonic relations. Butt notes that Bach seems to have associated the ostinato scheme particularly with violin concertos,3. Allegro assai, in A minor 98 meter. In the final movement Bach relies on bariolage figures to generate striking acoustic effects, the meter and rhythm are those of a gigue. Butt describes it as perhaps Bachs most animated and carefree movement in the minor mode, the Clavier Concerto in G minor, BWV1058, is an arrangement of this concerto with piano or harpsichord. Violin Concerto in A minor, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
37.
Suite bergamasque
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The Suite bergamasque is one of the most famous piano suites by Claude Debussy. It was first composed by Debussy around 1890, at the age of 28 and it seems that by the time a publisher came to Debussy in order to cash in on his fame and have these pieces published, the composer loathed their earlier piano style. While it is not known how much of the Suite was written in 1890 and how much was written in 1905, Passepied had first been composed under the name Pavane, while Clair de lune was originally titled Promenade sentimentale. These names also come from Paul Verlaines poems and it is full of dynamic contrasts with a vigorous beginning and ending. It is a piece, which holds much of the Baroque style that is commonly found in preludes. The second part of the Suite bergamasque is the Menuet, in A minor and its playful main theme contrasts with an alternatively mysterious and dramatic middle section. This piece is particularly original, as it does not conform to the style that most minuets share. Rather than being very airy and dainty, it shows much more raw comedy, again, Debussy sets a very novel piece in the guise of an old dance style. The third and most famous movement of Suite bergamasque is Clair de lune and its name comes from Verlaines poem Clair de lune, moonlight in French. It is written in 98 meter, marked andante très expressif, musically, Debussys Clair de lune belongs to French Impressionism. The final movement is Passepied in F♯ minor, allegretto ma non troppo, a passepied is a type of dance, which originated in Brittany. Debussys Passepied is a happy, strangely medieval piece, which is faster than its Baroque counterparts. Throughout most of its duration, the piece is played with staccato arpeggios in the left hand, the Suite bergamasque has been orchestrated by many conductors, including André Caplet, Leopold Stokowski, and Lucien Cailliet. Clair de lune in particular has been arranged for a variety of instrumental combinations. One such is Dimitri Tiomkins arrangement for organ in the score for the 1956 film Giant, the 1953 ballet Lange gris utilised orchestrations by André Caplet and Gustave Cloëz. Passepied has been arranged by the Punch Brothers for bluegrass instrumentation in their album The Phosphorescent Blues. Suite bergamasque at the Internet Movie Database Suite bergamasque, L.75, CD 82a, pour piano at MusicBrainz Suite bergamasque, L.75, CD 82a, pour piano, prélude at MusicBrainz Suite bergamasque, L.75, CD 82a, pour piano, II. Menuet at MusicBrainz Suite bergamasque, L.75, CD 82a, pour piano, Clair de lune at MusicBrainz Suite bergamasque, L.75, CD 82a, pour piano, IV
38.
Blues
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Blues is a genre and musical form originated by African Americans in the Deep South of the United States around the end of the 19th century. The genre developed from roots in African musical traditions, African-American work songs, spirituals, Blues incorporated spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts, chants, and rhymed simple narrative ballads. Blue notes, usually thirds or fifths flattened in pitch, are also a part of the sound. Blues shuffles or walking bass reinforce the trance-like rhythm and form a repetitive effect known as the groove, Blues as a genre is also characterized by its lyrics, bass lines, and instrumentation. Early traditional blues verses consisted of a single line repeated four times, Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative, often relating the troubles experienced in African-American society. Many elements, such as the format and the use of blue notes. The origins of the blues are closely related to the religious music of the Afro-American community. The first appearance of the blues is often dated to after the ending of slavery and, later and it is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the former slaves. Chroniclers began to report about blues music at the dawn of the 20th century, the first publication of blues sheet music was in 1908. Blues has since evolved from unaccompanied vocal music and oral traditions of slaves into a variety of styles and subgenres. Blues subgenres include country blues, such as Delta blues and Piedmont blues, as well as urban blues styles such as Chicago blues, World War II marked the transition from acoustic to electric blues and the progressive opening of blues music to a wider audience, especially white listeners. In the 1960s and 1970s, a form called blues rock evolved. The term blues may have come from blue devils, meaning melancholy and sadness, the phrase blue devils may also have been derived from Britain in the 1600s, when the term referred to the intense visual hallucinations that can accompany severe alcohol withdrawal. As time went on, the phrase lost the reference to devils, by the 1800s in the United States, the term blues was associated with drinking alcohol, a meaning which survives in the phrase blue law, which prohibits the sale of alcohol on Sunday. Though the use of the phrase in African-American music may be older, it has been attested to in print since 1912, in lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood. The lyrics of traditional blues verses probably often consisted of a single line repeated four times. Two of the first published songs, Dallas Blues and Saint Louis Blues, were 12-bar blues with the AAB lyric structure. Handy wrote that he adopted this convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeated three times, the lines are often sung following a pattern closer to rhythmic talk than to a melody
39.
Shuffle note
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In jazz and related musical styles, the term swing has two main uses. The term is used more specifically, to refer to a particular rhythmic technique that involves alternately lengthening and shortening pulse-divisions. Like the term groove, which is used to describe a cohesive rhythmic feel in a funk or rock context, indeed, some dictionaries use the terms as synonyms, Groovy. As a performance technique, swing has been called the most debated word in jazz, when jazz performer Cootie Williams was asked to define it, he joked, Define it. Boogie-woogie pianist Maurice Rocco argues that the definition of swing is just a matter of personal opinion, when asked for a definition of swing, Fats Waller replied, Lady, if you gotta ask, youll never know. Perhaps the best answer, after all, was supplied by the hep-cat who rolled her eyes, stared into the far-off and sighed, You can feel it, but you just cant explain it. Stanley Dance, in The World of Swing, devoted the two first chapters of his work to discussions of the concept of swing with a collection of the musicians who played it and they described a kinetic quality to the music. It was compared to flying, take off was a signal to start a solo, the rhythmic pulse continued between the beats, expressed in dynamics, articulation, and inflection. Swing was as much in the music anticipating the beat, like a the swing of a jumprope anticipating the jump, as in the beat itself. Swing has been presented in terms of formal rhythmic devices. Swing rhythm is notated as a two-element beat with a note leading into the accented main note. The length of the note may vary. Music of the Baroque and Classical notes inégales era follow similar principles, in shuffle rhythm, the first note in the pair may be twice the duration of the second note. In swing rhythm, the ratio of the first notes duration to the second notes duration can take on a range of magnitudes, in traditional jazz, swing is typically applied to eighth notes, commonly notated as a dotted-eight - sixteenth couplet. In other genres, such as funk and jazz-rock, swing is often applied to sixteenth notes. In most jazz music, especially of the big band era and later, the second and fourth beats of a 4/4 measure are emphasized over the first and third, the dah anticipates, or leads into, the DUM. The first note of each pair is often understood to be twice as long as the second, implying a triplet feel, Swing eighth notes are generally played legato. The instruments of a rhythm section express swing in different ways from each other
40.
Doo-wop
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Built upon vocal harmony, doo-wop was one of the most mainstream, pop-oriented R&B styles of the time. Doo-wop features vocal harmony, nonsense syllables, a simple beat, sometimes little or no instrumentation. The first record to use the syllables doo-wop was the 1955 hit When You Dance by The Turbans, the term doo-wop first appeared in print in 1961. During the late 1950s many Italian-American groups contributed a significant part in the doo-wop scene, the peak of doo-wop was in 1961. Doo-wops influence continued in soul, pop, and rock groups of the 1960s, at various times in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, the genre has seen revivals. Doo-wop was a precursor to many of the African-American musical styles seen today, an evolution of jazz and blues, doo-wop also influenced many of the major rock and roll groups that defined the later decades of the 20th century. Doo-wop is iconic for its beats and using the off-beat to keep time. Doo-wop laid the foundation for musical innovations, for example. These were generally slow songs in swing time with simple instrumentation, the subject of the lyrics was generally love and relationships. This characteristic harmonic layout was combined with the AABA chorus form typical for Tin Pan Alley pop, a second stream of doo-wop oriented itself to the harmonic, formal and melodic means of jump blues. From the outset, singers gathered on street corners, and in subways, for instance, Count Every Star by The Ravens, includes vocalizations imitating the doomph, doomph plucking of a double bass. This art dates to The Mills Brothers, who first came to fame in the 1930s with their mimicking of instrumental music, radio, gramophone, and cinema inspired imitation in many U. S. cities. The late 1940s and early 1950s brought the bird groups, The Swallows. A number of names are also drawn from cars. The Orioles helped develop the sound with their hits Its Too Soon to Know. The term doo-wop first appeared in print in 1961 in the Chicago Defender, the phrase was attributed to radio disc jockey Gus Gossert but Gossert suggested doo-wop was already in use to categorize the music in California. The first record to use the syllables doo-wop in the refrain was the 1955 hit When You Dance by The Turbans, previously, the scat backing vocal doo-wop is heard in The Clovers 1953 release Good Lovin and in the chorus of Carlyle Dundee & The Dundees 1954 song Never. After some time, the term doo-wop finally caught on as both a description and category for R&B vocal group harmony, the definition expanded backward to include rhythm and blues groups from the mid-1950s, then cascaded even further back to include groups from the 1940s
41.
Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)
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The Symphony No.6 in F major, Op.68, also known as the Pastoral Symphony, is a symphony composed by Ludwig van Beethoven, and completed in 1808. One of Beethovens few works containing explicitly programmatic content, the symphony was first performed in the Theater an der Wien on 22 December 1808 in a four-hour concert, Beethoven was a lover of nature who spent a great deal of his time on walks in the country. He frequently left Vienna to work in rural locations, the first sketches of the Pastoral Symphony appeared in 1802. It was composed simultaneously with Beethovens more famous—and more fiery—Fifth Symphony, both symphonies were premiered in a long and under-rehearsed concert in the Theater an der Wien in Vienna on 22 December 1808. The composer said that the Sixth Symphony is more the expression of feeling than painting, a point underlined by the title of the first movement. The symphony is scored for piccolo,2 flutes,2 oboes,2 clarinets in B♭,2 bassoons,2 horns in F and B♭,2 trumpets in C and E♭,2 trombones, timpani, and strings. The symphony has five movements, rather than the four typical of symphonies of the Classical era, a performance of the work lasts about 40 minutes. Beethoven wrote a short note at the head of each movement. Awakening of cheerful feelings on arrival in the countryside, the symphony begins with a placid and cheerful movement depicting the composers feelings as he arrives in the country. The movement, in 24 meter, is in sonata form, at several points Beethoven builds up orchestral texture by multiple repetitions of very short motifs. Yvonne Frindle commented, the repetition of pattern in nature conveyed through rhythmic cells. The following audio of the first movement was recorded in London by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Arturo Toscanini, Scene by the brook. This movement, titled by Beethoven By the brook, is in 128 meter, the key is B♭ major, the movement is in sonata form. At the opening the play a motif that clearly imitates flowing water. The cello section is divided, with just two players playing the notes on muted instruments, with the remaining cellos playing mostly pizzicato notes together with the double basses. Toward the end of the movement there is a cadenza for woodwind instruments that imitates bird calls, Beethoven helpfully identified the bird species in the score, nightingale, quail, and cuckoo. The following audio of the movement was recorded in London by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Arturo Toscanini. This is a scherzo in 34 time, which depicts country folk dancing and revelling and it is in F major, returning to the main key of the symphony
42.
Tempo
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In musical terminology, tempo is the speed or pace of a given piece or subsection thereof, how fast or slow. Tempo may be separated from articulation, or articulation may be indicated along with tempo, while the ability to hold a steady tempo is a desirable skill, tempo is changeable, and often indicated by a conductor or drummer. While practicing, an electronic or mechanical device, a metronome, may indicate the tempo, in other words, it is the speed at which a passage of music is or should be played. A piece of musics tempo is written at the start of the score. This means that a note value is specified as the beat. The greater the number of beats per minute, the smaller the amount of time between successive beats, and thus faster a piece must be played. For example, a tempo of 60 beats per minute signifies one beat per second, while a tempo of 120 beats per minute is twice as rapid, signifying one beat every 0.5 seconds. Beethoven was one of the first composers to use the metronome, with the advent of modern electronics, bpm became an extremely precise measure. Music sequencers use the bpm system to denote tempo, instead of beats per minute, some 20th-century composers specify the total playing time for a piece, from which the performer can derive tempo. Tempo is as crucial in contemporary music as it is in classical, in electronic dance music, accurate knowledge of a tunes bpm is important to DJs for the purposes of beatmatching. Some musical pieces do not have a mathematical time indication, in classical music it is customary to describe the tempo of a piece by one or more words. Before the metronome, it was difficult to specify the tempo of a composition, yet, after the metronomes invention, musicians continued to use these words, often additionally indicating the mood of the piece. This blurred the distinction between tempo and mood indicators. For example, presto and allegro both indicate a speedy execution, but allegro also connotes joy, presto, on the other hand, simply indicates speed. Additional Italian words also indicate tempo and mood, for example, the agitato in the Allegro agitato of the last movement of George Gershwins piano concerto in F has both a tempo indication and a mood indication. In some cases, the conventions that governed musical composition were so strong that composers didnt need to indicate tempo, for example, the first movement of Bachs Brandenburg Concerto No.3 has no tempo or mood indication whatsoever. To provide movement names, publishers of recordings resort to ad hoc measures, for marking the Brandenburg movement Allegro. In Renaissance music, performers understood most music to flow at a tempo defined by the tactus, the mensural time signature indicated which note value corresponded to the tactus
43.
Quintuple meter
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Quintuple meter or quintuple time is a musical meter characterized by five beats in a measure. The beats may use any combination, including five equally stressed beats in every bar, each consisting of an accent. Like the more common duple, triple, and quadruple meters, it may be simple, with each divided in half, or compound. The most common time signatures for simple quintuple meter are 54 and 58, simple quintuple meter can be written in 54 or 58 time, but may also be notated by using regularly alternating bars of triple and duple meters, for example 24 +34. Another notational variant involves so-called compound meters, in two or three numerals take the place of the expected numerator. In simple quintuple meter the 5, for example, may be replaced as 2+38 or 2+1+28, a time signature of 158, however, does not necessarily mean the music is in a compound quintuple meter. It may, for example, indicate a bar of triple meter in which each beat is subdivided into five parts, in this case, the meter is sometimes characterized as triple quintuple time. Similarly, the presence of some bars with a 54 or 58 meter signature does not necessarily mean that the music is in quintuple meter overall, the regular alternation of 54 and 44 in Bruce Hornsbys The Tango King, for example, results in an overall nonuple meter. Before the 20th century, quintuple time was rare in European concert music, Rhythm in ancient Greek music was closely tied to poetic meter, and included what are understood today as quintuple patterns. The two Delphic Hymns from the second century BC both provide examples, the First Delphic Hymn, by Athenaeus, son of Athenaeus, is in the quintuple Cretic meter throughout. The first nine of the ten sections of the Second Hymn, in addition to the Cretic meter, which consisted of a long-short-long pattern, ancient Greek music had seven other quintuple meters, Bacchic, Palimbacchic, four species of Paeanic, and hyporchematic. Arabic theorists already in the early Abbasid period described modal rhythmic cycles, the first figure to describe these rhythms was Abū Yūsuf Ya‘qūb al-Kindī, who divided them into two broad categories, ṯẖaqīl and khafīf. Two of his ṯẖaqīl modes—ṯẖaqīl thānī and ramal —and one khafīf mode are quintuple, the most important writers of the later Abbasid period were Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī and Ibn Sīnā. This terminology and these continued to be found as late as the 12th century in Muslim Spain. In the Moroccan Malḥūn repertory,58 rhythms are introduced into the basic meter of 24. Turkish classical music employs a system of modes, which include units ranging from two to ten time units. The five-beat meter is called türk aksağı, the traditional music of Adjara in Western Georgia includes an ancient war-dance called Khorumi, which is in quintuple meter. The cyclically repeating fixed time cycles of Carnatic and Hindustani classical music, called tālas, however, the pattern of beats marking the rotation of the cycle does not necessarily indicate the internal rhythmic organization
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Play first rhythm at 150 bpm or the second rhythm at 225 bpm (help·info)
Detail of score of Tchaikovsky's String Quartet No. 2 in F major, showing a multiple time signature
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tempus imperfectum diminutum, 1:2 proportion (twice as fast);
tempus perfectum diminutum, 1:2 proportion (twice as fast);
or just 
proportio tripla, 1:3 proportion (three times as fast, similar to triplets).
