1.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
2.
Skirt
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A skirt is the lower part of a dress or gown, covering the person from the waist downwards, or a separate outer garment serving this purpose. Most skirts are self-standing garments, but some skirt-looking panels may be part of another garment such as leggings, shorts, some fashion designers, such as Jean Paul Gaultier, have shown mens skirts. Modern skirts are made of light to mid-weight fabrics, such as denim, jersey, worsted. Skirts of thin or clingy fabrics are often worn with slips to make the material of the skirt drape better, a straw-woven skirt dating to 3900 BC was discovered in Armenia at the Areni-1 cave complex. Skirts have been worn by men and women from many cultures, such as the lungi, lehnga, kanga and sarong worn in South Asia and Southeast Asia, and the kilt worn in Scotland and Ireland. The earliest known culture to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao and this was in reference to the short miniskirts that barely cover the buttocks worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times. In the Middle Ages, some upper-class women wore skirts over three metres in diameter at the bottom, at the other extreme, the miniskirts of the 1960s were minimal garments that may have barely covered the underwear when seated. Costume historians typically use the word petticoat to describe skirt-like garments of the 18th century or earlier, during the 19th century, the cut of womens dresses in western culture varied more widely than in any other century. Waistlines started just below the bust and gradually sank to the natural waist, skirts started fairly narrow and increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back by means of bustles. In the 1890s the rainy daisy skirt was introduced for walking or sportswear and it had a significantly shorter hemline measuring as much as six inches off the ground and would eventually influence the wider introduction of shorter hemlines in the early 20th century. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, broomstick skirt, a light-weight ankle-length skirt with many crumpled pleats formed by compressing and twisting the garment while wet, such as around a broomstick. Bubble dress/skirt, a voluminous skirt whose hem is tucked back under to create a “bubble effect” at the bottom, Cargo skirt, a plain utilitarian skirt with belt loops and numerous large pockets, based on the military style of Cargo pants and popularised in the 1990s. Crinoline, a full skirt supported by hoops or multiple petticoats. Hobble skirt, a long and tight skirt with a hem narrow enough to impede the wearers stride Kilt-skirt. Though traditionally designed as womens wear, it is fashioned to mimic the appearance of a mans kilt. Leather skirt, a made of leather Lehenga, a long, pleated skirt, often embroidered, worn mostly as the bottom part of the Gagra choli in North India. Mini-crini, a version of the crinoline, designed by Vivienne Westwood in the mid 1980s. Poodle skirt, a circle or near-circle skirt with an appliqued poodle or other decoration Puffball skirt, popular in the mid-late 1980s when it was inspired by Westwoods mini-crini
3.
Overskirt
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An overskirt, or peplum, is a type of elongated hem resembling a short skirt, worn to lie over another garment, either another skirt such as a petticoat or underskirt, or breeches. Overskirts may serve various purposes, ranging from protecting the underlying clothing from mud and dirt, overskirts have been popular as a clothing detail for both men and women during various periods of history. More recently, they are associated with womens jackets and blouses, included in closely fitted clothing, overskirts first came into fashion during the Victorian Era in 1867, after the pre-hoop and hoop periods of multiple petticoats and crinoline, and before the bustle period. A reduction in overall size was seen at this time. Fashion in ladies dresses changed from the wide, very lacy skirts, early skirts were often looped up for walking, showing a pretty petticoat underneath, which led to the introduction of the overskirt. There have been many predecessors to the fashionable overskirt, such as bibs, today, overskirts can be a separate article worn over shorts or another dress, or a continuation on a shirt or jacket of longer or pleated material. Popular modern overskirt fashion are sheer materials, tulle, and lace patterns that allow see through to garments beneath such as half-skirts, the term peplum originates with the ancient Greek peplos, a womens garment that had the same decorative detail as an overskirt
4.
Dress
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A dress is a garment consisting of a skirt with an attached bodice. It consists of a top piece that covers the torso and hangs down over the legs, a dress can be any one-piece garment containing a skirt of any length. Dresses can be formal or informal, in many cultures, dresses are more often worn by women and girls. The hemlines of dresses vary depending on the whims of fashion, at that time, the most-often used English word for a womans skirted garment was gown. Only in the last few decades has gown lost its meaning of a womans garment in the United States in favor of dress. In the ancient world, for example Ancient Greece and Rome, from this developed the dress worn by women and male clothing such as cassocks and Fustanella worn by priests and soldiers respectively. An ancient Greek tunic, appearing on the Charioteer of Delphi inspired an early twentieth gown designer, dresses increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back. Dresses had a day bodice with a high neckline and long sleeves, throughout this period, the length of fashionable dresses varied only slightly, between ankle-length and floor-sweeping. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, for the next fifty years fashionable dresses became short, then long, then shorter, then long. Since the 1970s, no one type or length has dominated fashion for long, with short and ankle-length styles often appearing side-by-side in fashion magazines. In most varieties of dress codes in Western cultures, a dress of an appropriate style is mandatory for women. They are also popular for special occasions such as proms or weddings. For such occasions they, together with blouse and skirt, remain the de facto standard attire for many girls, the Theory of Fashion Design, Wiley,1965. Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls,1957, tozer, Jane, and Sarah Levitt, Fabric of Society, A Century of People and Their Clothes 1770–1870, Laura Ashley Ltd. 1983, ISBN 0-9508913-0-4 ApparelSeach glossary of textile and apparel terms
5.
Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom
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Court uniform and dress were required to be worn by those in attendance at the royal Court in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Specifically, court uniform was worn by those holding particular offices, a range of office-holders were entitled to wear it, with different grades of uniform specified for different grades of official. It is still today on state occasions by certain dignitaries both in the UK and abroad. Court dress, on the hand, is a stylized form of clothing deriving from fashionable eighteenth-century wear. For men, it comprises a matching tailcoat and waistcoat, breeches and stockings, lace cuffs and cravat, cocked hat, for women, a white or cream evening dress is directed to be worn, together with a train and other specified accoutrements. Male court dress is worn today as part of the formal dress of judges and Queens Counsel, and is also worn by certain Lord Mayors, parliamentary officials. Female court dress was at one time required wear for debutantes being presented at Court, precise descriptions, both of court uniform and of court dress, were laid down in an official publication called Dress Worn at Court which was published by the Lord Chamberlains Office. The 1937 edition remains authoritative for those circumstances in which court uniform or court dress are still required. Court dress was worn by all men not entitled to court uniform or military uniform on occasions of state where such were customarily worn, such occasions are now rare, but formerly they included state balls, evening state parties, courts and levées. It consists of a tail-coat with matching waistcoat and breeches, lace cuffs and jabot, silk stockings, buckled shoes, cocked hat, white gloves and a sword. At one time suits of various colours were to be seen, often gold or silver embroidery, but black is now the predominant colour. Peers robes were worn over normal dress, which gradually became stylised as the court suit and it was only from the late eighteenth century that court dress became fossilised. By the early to mid eighteenth century velvet was largely confined to court dress, Court dress was obligatory in Westminster Abbey for all not wearing official or lordly apparel. The first produced the court suit, a coat with tails, waistcoat and knee breeches, worn with stockings, and a formal court sword with a cut-steel hilt and embellishments. The court suit has undergone a number of changes since the eighteenth century, however, apart from changes in the cut of the sleeves and shoulders, there was little basic alteration until the third quarter of the nineteenth century. In the eighteenth century, dress worn at court comprised gold and silver stuff, brocades, velvets and cloth coats. They were always embroidered, and worn with waistcoats generally of a different colour- gold or silver brocade, damask, silk or satin, from the 1730s at least cloth was popular for court wear. By the 1780s dress was established as dark cloth or velvet, embroidered in silk or metal, single-breasted silk waistcoat, from 1810, the Lord Chamberlain laid down regulations for court dress
6.
Evening gown
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An evening gown is a long flowing womens dress or gown usually worn to a formal affair. It ranges from tea and ballerina to full-length, Evening gowns are usually made of luxurious fabrics such as chiffon, velvet, satin, organza, etc. Silk is a fibre for many evening gowns. It corresponds to both mens wear for black tie events and mens formal wear for white tie events. Wool, in various weaves, was the most dominant fabric for dresses, rich fabrics and fibres were usually the domain of the nobility, and clothing was still used as an identifier of social rank and status. The dawn of the Renaissance slowly changed the social rank system. The art of weaving silk was firmly established in the Mediterranean around 1400, dresses for court balls and similar festivities were often made of intricately woven silk and trimmed with expensive furs to highlight the wearers social status. The vibrant court life of the 16th and 17th centuries with its focus on art, literature, elaborate dinners, dances, and theatre productions allowed fashionable ladies to showcase their finery. The Italian Renaissance courts were the pinnacle of style and elegance in Europe, rich silk weaves, such as satin, taffeta and velvet created luxurious gowns. In the 18th century, formal dress started as the mantua, the farthingale so popular during the 16th/17th centuries, evolved into the pannier to give dresses and skirts extra volume and the desired court silhouette. Starting with the late 18th century, the evening or ball gown emerged, as balls and formal dances were no longer the sole domain of royals. The French Revolution had caused social upheaval, and firmly cemented the place of upper-middle, a common silhouette for evening wear, just as for day wear, was the high-waisted Empire or Regency dress. Evening versions featured lower necklines, short sleeves and elaborate fabrics, during the Edwardian era, or Belle Epoque, the s-shaped figure was fashionable, which included a very narrow waist. Immediately preceding and during World War I, lines became looser, later, in the 1920s, the hemlines of evening gowns rose and cuts were very simple to match the new life style of the Flapper era. The 1930s introduced bias cuts and artificial fibres, along with the Empire cut, over the years the sheath, mermaid, A-line, and trumpet shapes became popular. Also, the dropped waist and princess styles were popular, depending on the era, grace Kelly is noted for wearing understated evening gowns. Today, the gown comes in different silhouettes and even lengths. Evening gowns are worn at various semi-formal black-tie functions, including dinners, opera and theatre premieres, formal dances, evening wedding receptions
7.
Wedding dress
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A wedding dress or wedding gown is the clothing worn by a bride during a wedding ceremony. Color, style and ceremonial importance of the gown can depend on the religion, in Western cultures, brides often choose white wedding dress, which was made popular by Queen Victoria in the 19th century. In eastern cultures, brides often choose red to symbolize auspiciousness, weddings performed during and immediately following the Middle Ages were often more than just a union between two people. They could be a union between two families, two businesses or even two countries, many weddings were more a matter of politics than love, particularly among the nobility and the higher social classes. Brides from wealthy families often wore rich colors and exclusive fabrics and it was common to see them wearing bold colors and layers of furs, velvet and silk. Brides dressed in the height of current fashion, with the richest materials their families money could buy, the poorest of brides wore their best church dress on their wedding day. The amount and the price of material a wedding dress contained was a reflection of the social standing. This was not a trend, however, prior to the Victorian era. White became an option in 1840, after the marriage of Queen Victoria to Albert of Saxe-Coburg. The official wedding portrait photograph was published, and many brides opted for white in accordance with the Queens choice. Even after that, for a period, wedding dresses were adapted to the styles of the day, for example, in the 1920s, they were typically short in the front with a longer train in the back and were worn with cloche-style wedding veils. This tendency to follow current fashions continued until the late 1960s, today, Western wedding dresses are usually white, though wedding white includes shades such as eggshell, ecru and ivory. About 75 percent of wedding dresses on the market are strapless dresses or sleeveless, however, the sleeved wedding gown as well as wedding gowns with straps have both become more popular in recent years. Many wedding dresses in China, India, Pakistan and Vietnam are red, nowadays, many women choose other colours besides red. In modern mainland Chinese weddings, the bride may opt for Western dresses of any colour, in modern Taiwanese weddings, the bride generally picks red or white silk for the wedding gown material, but most will wear the red traditional garment for their formal wedding banquets. Traditionally, the father of the bride is responsible for the banquet hosted on the brides side. Thus out of respect for the elders, wedding banquets are usually done formally and traditionally, red wedding saris are the traditional garment choice for brides in Indian culture. Sari fabric is also traditionally silk, over time, colour options and fabric choices for Indian brides have expanded
8.
Cappa magna
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The cope is a liturgical vestment, more precisely a long mantle or cloak, open in front and fastened at the breast with a band or clasp. It may be of any liturgical colour, a cope may be worn by any rank of the clergy, and also by lay ministers in certain circumstances. If worn by a bishop, it is accompanied by a mitre. The clasp, which is highly ornamented, is called a morse. In art, angels are shown wearing copes, especially in Early Netherlandish painting. There has been little change in the character of the vestment from the earliest ages. Then as now it was made of a piece of silk or other cloth of semicircular shape, both are similar in form and origin to the Orthodox phelonion. The only noticeable modification which the cope has undergone lies in the disappearance of the hood, the earliest mention of a cappa is by St. Gregory of Tours, and in the Miracula of St. Furseus where it seems to mean a cloak with a hood. Moreover, the word more than once in Alcuins correspondence. But in the case of a cappa or cope, this period of specialization seems to have been delayed until much later and it may be that their use in choir was believed to add to the decorum and solemnity of the Divine Office, especially in the winter season. In 831 one of the Saint-Riquier copes is specially mentioned as being of chestnut colour and this, no doubt, implies use by a dignitary, but it does not prove that it was as yet regarded as a sacred vestment. Still, a cope was even then considered a vestment that might be used by any member of the clergy from the highest to the lowest. In this movement the Netherlands, France, and Germany had taken the lead, the custom spread to the secular canons of such cathedrals as Rouen, and cantors nearly everywhere used copes of silk as their own peculiar adornment in the exercise of their functions. Meanwhile, the old cappa nigra, or cappa choralis, a cape of black material, open or partly open in front. Whereas the copes hood had long become a non-functional decorative item. On the other hand, it is worth a note that the cappa clausa, or close cope, was simply a cope or cape sewn up in front for common outdoor use. The wearing of this, says Bishop, instead of the cappa scissa, under all these different forms the cope has not substantially changed its character or shape. The cope is a vestment for processions worn by all ranks of the clergy when assisting at a liturgical function, at a Pontifical High Mass the cope was worn by the assistant priest, a priest who assists the bishop who is the actual celebrant
9.
Cardinal (Catholicism)
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A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, the duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia, a cardinals primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante, the governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the clergy of Rome. The term was applied in this sense as early as the century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Pauls Cathedral. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean principal, eminent, or superior. The name was given to the senior priest in each of the title churches of Rome. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome, by decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244. In cities other than Rome, the name began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V, in the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, in early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs
10.
Bishop
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A bishop is an ordained, consecrated, or appointed member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within these churches, bishops are seen as those who possess the full priesthood, Some Protestant churches including the Lutheran and Methodist churches have bishops serving similar functions as well, though not always understood to be within apostolic succession in the same way. Priests, deacons and lay ministers cooperate and assist their bishop in shepherding a flock, the earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was, according to most scholars, similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters. In, we see a system of government in Jerusalem chaired by James the Just. In, the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in churches in Anatolia, in Timothy and Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen. We are told that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church, Paul commands Titus to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight, telling him to rebuke with all authority. Early sources are unclear but various groups of Christian communities may have had the bishop surrounded by a group or college functioning as leaders of the local churches, eventually, as Christendom grew, bishops no longer directly served individual congregations. Instead, the Metropolitan bishop appointed priests to each congregation. Around the end of the 1st century, the organization became clearer in historical documents. While Ignatius of Antioch offers the earliest clear description of monarchial bishops he is an advocate of monepiscopal structure rather than describing an accepted reality. To the bishops and house churches to which he writes, he offers strategies on how to pressure house churches who dont recognize the bishop into compliance. Other contemporary Christian writers do not describe monarchial bishops, either continuing to equate them with the presbyters or speaking of episkopoi in a city, plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6,1. Your godly bishop — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2,1, therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters. — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7,1. Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father, and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13,2. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3,1. Follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles, and to the deacons pay respect, as to Gods commandment — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8,1. He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God, he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9,1
11.
Prelate
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A prelate is a high-ranking member of the clergy who is an ordinary or who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin prælatus, the past participle of præferre, which means carry before, be set above or over or prefer, hence, the archetypal prelate is a bishop, whose prelature is his particular church. All other prelates, including the regular prelates such as abbots and it equally applies to Cardinals and certain Superior Prelates of the Offices of the Roman Curia who are not bishops, such as the auditors of the Holy Roman Rota and Protonotaries Apostolic. All these enjoy the title of monsignor. ”, at present, the only Personal Prelature in the Catholic Church is that of Opus Dei, founded by St. Josemaria Escriva de Balaguer in 1928 and raised to the status of a personal prelature in 1982. In the Armenian Apostolic Church, prelate refers to a diocesan bishop, a territorial prelature is, in Roman Catholic usage, a prelate whose geographic jurisdiction, called territorial prelature, does not belong to any diocese. As of 2013, there were 44 territorial prelatures, all in the Latin Church, the term also is used in a generic sense, in which case it may equally refer to an apostolic prefecture, an apostolic vicariate or a territorial abbacy. The institution was later reaffirmed in the 1983 Code of Canon Law, such a prelature is an institution having clergy and lay members which would carry out specific pastoral activities. Personal prelatures are fundamentally secular organizations operating in the world, whereas religious institutes are religious organizations operating out of the world, the first personal prelature is Opus Dei, which was elevated to a personal prelature by Pope John Paul II in 1982 through the Apostolic constitution Ut sit. Catholic Church hierarchy § Equivalents of diocesan bishops in law Ordinariate for the faithful of eastern rite Personal ordinariate
12.
Jean-Baptiste Isabey
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Jean-Baptiste Isabey was a French painter born at Nancy. At the age of nineteen, after lessons from Dumont, miniature painter to Marie Antoinette. Although Isabey did homage to Napoleon on his return from Elba, he continued to enjoy the favour of the Restoration, and took part in arrangements for the coronation of Charles X. The July Monarchy conferred on him an important post in connection with the collections, and Napoleon III granted him a pension. A biography of Isabey was published by Edmond Taigny in 1859, univ. is founded on facts furnished by Isabeys family. His son, Eugène, also became a known painter. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Media related to Jean-Baptiste Isabey at Wikimedia Commons
13.
Sack-back gown
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The sack-back gown or robe à la française was a womens fashion of the 18th century. At the beginning of the century, the gown was a very informal style of dress. At its most informal, it was unfitted both front and back and called a sacque, contouche, or robe battante, by the 1770s the sack-back gown was second only to court dress in its formality. This style of gown had fabric at the back arranged in box pleats which fell loose from the shoulder to the floor with a slight train, in front, the gown was open, showing off a decorative stomacher and petticoat. It would have been worn with a wide square hoop or panniers under the petticoat, scalloped ruffles often trimmed elbow-length sleeves, which were worn with separate frills called engageantes. The casaquin was a version of the robe à la française worn as a jacket for informal wear with a matching or contrasting petticoat. The skirt of the casaquin was knee-length but gradually shortened until by the 1780s it resembled a peplum, the loose box pleats which are a feature of this style are sometimes called Watteau pleats from their appearance in the paintings of Antoine Watteau. However, people would comment, Madame de Montespan has put on her robe battante, 1700–1750 in fashion 1750–1775 in fashion Arnold, Janet. Patterns of Fashion 1, Englishwomens dresses & their construction c, fitting and Proper, 18th Century Clothing from the Collection of the Chester County Historical Society. ISBN 1-880655-10-1 Hart, Avril, and Susan North, seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century Fashion in Detail
14.
Isabeau of Bavaria
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Isabeau of Bavaria was born into the House of Wittelsbach as the eldest daughter of Duke Stephen III of Bavaria-Ingolstadt and Taddea Visconti of Milan. She became Queen of France when she married King Charles VI in 1385, at age 15 or 16, Isabeau was sent to France on approval to the young French king, the couple wed three days after their first meeting. Isabeau was honored in 1389 with a coronation ceremony and entry into Paris. In 1392 Charles suffered the first attack of what was to become a lifelong and progressive mental illness, the episodes occurred with increasing frequency, leaving a court both divided by political factions and steeped in social extravagances. A1393 masque for one of Isabeaus ladies-in-waiting—an event later known as Bal des Ardents—ended in disaster with the King almost burning to death, although the King demanded Isabeaus removal from his presence during his illness, he consistently allowed her to act on his behalf. In this way she became regent to the Dauphin of France, Charles illness created a power vacuum that eventually led to the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War between supporters of his brother, Louis of Orléans and the royal dukes of Burgundy. Isabeau shifted allegiances as she chose the most favorable paths for the heir to the throne, when she followed the Armagnacs, the Burgundians accused her of adultery with Louis of Orléans, when she sided with the Burgundians the Armagnacs removed her from Paris and she was imprisoned. In 1407 John the Fearless assassinated Orléans, sparking hostilities between the factions, the war ended soon after Isabeaus eldest son, Charles, had John the Fearless assassinated in 1419—an act that saw him disinherited. Isabeau attended the 1420 signing of the Treaty of Troyes, which decided that the English king should inherit the French crown after the death of her husband and she lived in English-occupied Paris until her death in 1435. Isabeau was popularly seen as a spendthrift and irresponsible philanderess, Isabeaus parents were Duke Stephen III of Bavaria-Ingolstadt and Taddea Visconti, whom he married for a 100,000 ducat dowry. She was most likely born in Munich where she was baptized as Elisabeth at the Church of Our Lady and she was great-granddaughter to the Wittelsbach Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV. At that period Bavaria counted amongst the most powerful German states, Isabeaus uncle, Duke Frederick of Bavaria-Landshut, suggested in 1383 that she be considered as a bride to King Charles VI of France. Charles, then 17, rode in the tourneys at the wedding and he was an attractive, physically fit young man, who enjoyed jousting and hunting and was excited to be married. Charles VIs uncle, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, thought the proposed marriage ideal to build an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire and against the English. Isabeaus father agreed reluctantly and sent her to France with his brother, her uncle, on the pretext of taking a pilgrimage to Amiens. According to the contemporary chronicler Jean Froissart, Isabeau was 13 or 14 when the match was proposed and about 16 at the time of the marriage in 1385, suggesting a birth date of around 1370. Before her presentation to Charles, Isabeau visited Hainaut for about a month, staying with her granduncle Duke Albert I, ruler of some of Bavaria-Straubing and Count of Holland. Alberts wife, Margaret of Brieg, replaced Isabeaus Bavarian style of dress, deemed unsuitable as French courtly attire and she learned quickly, suggestive of an intelligent and quick-witted character
15.
Mantua (clothing)
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A mantua is an article of womens clothing worn in the late 17th century and 18th century. Originally a loose gown, the mantua was an overgown or robe typically worn over stays, stomacher. The mantua or manteau was a new fashion that arose in the 1680s, instead of a bodice and skirt cut separately, the mantua hung from the shoulders to the floor started off as the female version of the mens Banyan, worn for undress wear. Gradually it developed into a draped and pleated dress and eventually evolved into a dress worn looped and draped up over a contrasting petticoat, the mantua-and-stomacher resulted in a high, square neckline in contrast to the broad, off-the-shoulder neckline previously in fashion. The earliest mantuas emerged in the late 17th century as an alternative to the boned bodices. The mantua featured elbow-length, cuffed sleeves, and the overskirt was drawn back over the hips to expose the petticoat beneath. In the earliest mantuas, the long trained skirt was allowed to trail, from about 1710, it became customary to pin up the train. The construction of the mantua was altered so that once the train was pinned up, one of the earliest extant examples of this, dated to 1710–1720, is in the Victoria and Albert Museums collections. By the mid-18th century, the mantua had evolved into a formal version principally worn for court dress, the draping of the overskirt became increasingly stylized, with the back panel of the train almost entirely concealed. The final version of the mantua, circa 1780, bore little resemblance to the original mantuas of nearly a century earlier. Instead of earlier elaborate draperies and folds, the train had evolved into a length of fabric attached to the back of the bodice, as illustrated in an example in the Victoria, the origins of the term mantua to mean a robe are unclear. The garment may have named after Mantua, in Italy. The term may derive from manteau, the French term for a coat. From this garment arose the term mantua-maker, a term for a womens dressmaker. Extant examples of the 17th century mantua are extremely scarce, perhaps the only known extant adult-size example is an embroidered wool mantua and petticoat in the Metropolitan Museum of Arts Costume Institute. A pattern taken from this mantua has been published by Norah Waugh, the Victoria and Albert Museum owns an extremely rare late 17th century fashion doll dressed in a pink silk mantua and petticoat. Also in the Costume Institute is a mantua and petticoat in salmon pink bizarre silk dated to 1708, another early mantua, the silk dated to c. 1708–09 belongs to the Clive House Museum, Shrewsbury, a pattern for this mantua has been taken by Janet Arnold, most mantuas preserved in museum collections are formal versions from the mid-18th century, intended for court dress
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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History of clothing and textiles
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The study of the history of clothing and textiles traces the availability and use of textiles and other materials and the development of technology for the making of clothing over human history. The wearing of clothing is exclusively a characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. Clothing and textiles have been important in history and reflect the materials available to a civilization as well as the technologies that had been mastered. The social significance of the product reflects their culture. Textiles can be felt or spun fibers made into yarn and subsequently netted, looped, knit or woven to make fabrics, scholarship of textile history, especially its earlier stages, is part of material culture studies. The development of textile and clothing manufacture in prehistory has been the subject of a number of studies since the late 20th century. These sources have helped to provide a coherent history of these prehistoric developments, evidence suggests that humans may have begun wearing clothing as far back as 10,000 to 50,000 years ago. These estimates predate the first known human exodus from Africa, although other species who may have worn clothes –. Possible sewing needles have been dated to around 40,000 years ago, the earliest definite examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia. At a slightly later date the Venus figurines were depicted with clothing and those from western Europe were adorned with basket hats or caps, belts worn at the waist, and a strap of cloth that wrapped around the body right above the breast. Eastern European figurines wore belts, hung low on the hips, archaeologists have discovered artifacts from the same period that appear to have been used in the textile arts, net gauges, spindle needles and weaving sticks. The first actual textile, as opposed to skins sewn together, was probably felt, surviving examples of Nålebinding, another early textile method, date from 6500 BC. Our knowledge of ancient textiles and clothing has expanded in the recent past thanks to technological developments. In northern Eurasia peat bogs can also preserve textiles very well, from pre-history through the early middle ages, for most of Europe, the Near East and North Africa, two main types of loom dominate textile production. These are the loom and the two-beam loom. The length of the cloth beam determined the width of the cloth woven upon it, the second loom type is the two-beam loom. Early woven clothing was made of full loom widths draped, tied
18.
Clothing in the ancient world
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The clothing used in the ancient world strongly reflects the technologies that these peoples mastered. Archaeology plays a significant role in documenting this aspect of ancient life, for fabric fibers, in many cultures the clothing worn was indicative of the social status achieved by various members of their society. The attire fashion and clothing is exclusively human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies, clothing and textiles in different periods and ages reflect the development of civilization and technologies in different periods of time at different places. The most common textile in ancient Egypt was flax, while being aware of other materials, the ancient Egyptians preferred to use linen, a product made from the flax plant. Aside from this, other animal based products, such as animal pelts, were reserved for priests and eventually saw adoption by only the highest class of ancient Egyptian citizenry. Linen is also light, strong and flexible which made it ideal for life in the climate, wherein abrasion. Thus, aside from small minority, every ancient Egyptian used linen as their predominant textile. They also used more complex drapery, designs and patterns that included dyed threads and these materials were expensive and the wearer showed greater status by wearing them. On the other hand, cheaper thicker linen was used within the lower class and it was considered acceptable for men and woman alike to bear their chests, in both upper and lower class. Certain clothing was common to both genders such as the tunic and the robe, around 1425 to 1405 BCE, a light tunic or short-sleeved shirt was popular, as well as a pleated skirt. Clothing for adult women remained unchanged over several millennia, save for small details, draped clothes, with very large rolls, gave the impression of wearing several items. It was in fact a hawk, often of very fine muslin and these suspenders were sometimes wide enough to cover the breasts and were painted and colored for various reasons, for instance to imitate the plumage on the wings of Isis. Clothing of the family was different, and was well documented, for instance the crowns of the pharaohs, feather headdresses. Shoes were the same for both sexes, sandals braided with leather, or, particularly for the bureaucratic and priestly classes, beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt Embalming made it possible to develop cosmetic products and perfumery very early. Perfumes in Egypt were scented oils which were very expensive, in antiquity, people made great use of them. The Egyptians used make-up much more than anyone else at the time, kohl, used as eyeliner, was eventually obtained as a substitute for galena or lead oxide which had been used for centuries. Eye shadow was made of crushed malachite and lipstick of ochre, substances used in some of the cosmetics were toxic, and had adverse health effects with prolonged use. Beauty products were mixed with animal fats in order to make them more compact, more easily handled
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Clothing in ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egyptian clothes refers to clothing worn in ancient Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty with the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Egyptian clothing was filled with a variety of colors, adorned with precious gems and jewels, the fashions of the Ancient Egyptians were made for not only beauty but also comfort. Egyptian fashion was created to keep cool while in the hot desert, in ancient Egypt, linen was by far the most common textile. It helped people to be comfortable in the subtropical heat, linen is made from the flax plant by spinning the fibers from the stem of the plant. Spinning, weaving and sewing were very important techniques for all Egyptian societies, plant dyes could be applied to clothing but the clothing was usually left in its natural color. Wool was known, but considered impure, only the wealthy wore animal fibers that were the object of taboos. They were used on occasion for overcoats, but were forbidden in temples and sanctuaries, peasants, workers and other people of modest condition often wore nothing, but the shenti was worn by all people. The most common headdress was the khat or nemes, a cloth worn by men. From about 2130 BC during the Old Kingdom, garments were simple, the men wore wrap around skirts known as the shendyt, which were belted at the waist, sometimes pleated or gathered in the front. During this time, mens skirts were short, as the Middle Kingdom of Egypt,1600 B. C. came, the skirt was worn longer. Then, around 1420 BC, there was a tunic or blouse with sleeves. During the Old, Middle and New Kingdom, Ancient Egyptian women often wore simple sheath dresses called kalasiris, womens clothing in ancient Egypt was more conservative than mens clothing. The dresses were held up by one or two straps and were worn down to the ankle, while the edge could be worn above or below the breasts. The length of the dress denoted the social class of the wearer, beading or feathers were also used as an embellishment on the dress. Over the dress, women had a choice of wearing shawls, capes, the shawl was a piece of cloth around 4 feet wide by 13 or 14 feet long. This was mostly worn pleated as well, female clothes only changed slightly through the millennia. Draped clothing sometimes gave the impression of different clothing. It was made of haïk, a fine muslin
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Biblical clothing
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The clothing of the people in Biblical times was made from wool, linen, animal skins, and perhaps silk. Most events in the Old and New Testament take place in Ancient Israel and they wore underwear and cloth skirts. Complete descriptions of the styles of dress among the people of the Bible is impossible because the material at hand is insufficient, Assyrian and Egyptian artists portrayed what is believed to be the clothing of the time, but there are few depictions of Israelite garb. One of the few sources on Israelite clothing is the Bible. Ezor, ḥagor The earliest and most basic garment was the ezor or ḥagor, an apron around the hips or loins and it was a simple piece of cloth worn in various modifications, but always worn next to the skin. Priests wore an ezor of linen known as a ephodh, if worn for mourning, it was called a saḳ. When garments were held together by a belt or girdle, the cloth was called an ezor or ḥagor. Kethōneth The ezor later became displaced among the Hebrews by the kethōneth an under-tunic, the kethōneth appears in Assyrian art as a tight-fitting undergarment, sometimes reaching only to the knee, sometimes to the ankle. In its early form the kethōneth was without sleeves and even left the left shoulder uncovered, in time men of leisure wore kethōneth with sleeves. In later times, anyone dressed only in the kethōneth was described as naked, deprived of it he would be absolutely naked, sādhı̄n The well-off might also wear a ṣādhı̄n under the kethōneth. This rather long under garment had sleeves and was of fine linen, simlāh The simlāh was the heavy outer garment or shawl of various forms. It consisted of a rectangular piece of rough, heavy woolen material, crudely sewed together so that the front was unstitched. It is translated into Greek as himation, and the ISBE concludes that it resembled, if it was not identical with. In the day it was protection from rain and cold, the front of the simlāh also could be arranged in wide folds and all kinds of products could be carried in it. Every respectable man generally wore the simlāh over the kethōneth, but since the simlāh hindered work, from this simple item of the common people developed the richly ornamented mantle of the well-off, which reached from the neck to the knees and had short sleeves. Meīl The meīl stands for a variety of garments worn over the undergarment like a cloak, the meı̄l was a costly wrap and the description of the priests meı̄l was similar to the sleeveless abaya. This, like the meı̄l of the high priest, may have reached only to the knees, but it is commonly supposed to have been a long-sleeved garment made of a light fabric. Addereth, maaṭafah At a later period the nobles wore over the simlāh, or in place of it, the leather garment worn by the prophets was called by the same name because of its width
21.
Clothing in ancient Greece
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Clothing in Ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. Ancient Greek men and women typically wore two pieces of clothing draped about the body, an undergarment and a cloak. Clothes were customarily homemade out of lengths of rectangular linen or wool fabric with little cutting or sewing, and secured with ornamental clasps or pins. Pieces were generally interchangeable between men and women, while no clothes have survived from this period, descriptions exist in contemporary accounts and artistic depictions. Clothes were mainly homemade, and often served many purposes, common clothing of the time was plain white, sometimes incorporating decorative borders. There is evidence of design and bright colors, but these were less common. The chiton was a simple garment of lighter linen that was worn by both sexes and all ages. It consisted of a wide, rectangular tube of material secured along the shoulders, chitons typically fell to the ankles of the wearer, but shorter chitons were sometimes worn during vigorous activities by athletes, warriors or slaves. Often excess fabric would be pulled over a girdle, or belt, to deal with the bulk sometimes a strap, or anamaschalister was worn around the neck, brought under the armpits, crossed in the back and tied in the front. A himation, or cloak, could be worn over-top of the chiton, a predecessor to the himation, the peplos was a square piece of cloth that was originally worn over the chiton. The top third of the cloth was folded over and pinned at both shoulders, leaving the cloth open down one side, sometimes the peplos was worn alone as an alternative form of chiton. As with the chiton, often a girdle or belt would be used to fasten the folds at the waist, the himation was a simple outer garment worn over the peplos or chiton. It consisted of a heavy material, passing under the left arm. The cloak would be twisted around a strap that also passed under the left arm, a more voluminous himation was worn in cold weather. The himation could be pulled up over the head to cover the wearer when they were overcome by emotion or shame, the chlamys was a seamless rectangle of woolen material worn by men for military or hunting purposes. It was worn as a cloak and fastened at the shoulder with a brooch or button. The chlamys was typical Greek military attire from the 5th to the 3rd century BC, women often wore a strophion, the bra of the time, under their garments. The strophion was a band of wool or linen wrapped across the breasts
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Clothing in ancient Rome
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Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless, knee-length tunic for men and boys, and a longer, usually sleeved tunic for women and girls. Clothing, footwear and accoutrements identified gender, status, rank and social class and this was probably most apparent in the segregation of seating tiers at public theatres, games and festivals. Magistrates, priesthoods and the military had their own distinctive and privileged forms of dress. It was usually made of linen, and was augmented as necessary with underwear, or with various kinds of weather wear, such as knee-breeches for men. In colder parts of the empire, full length trousers were worn, most urban Romans wore shoes, slippers, boots or sandals of various types, in the countryside, some wore clogs. Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous, frugal occupations for Roman women of all classes, relative to the overall basic cost of living, even simple clothing was expensive, and was recycled many times down the social scale. Romes governing elite produced laws designed to limit public displays of personal wealth, none were particularly successful, the same wealthy elite had an appetite for luxurious clothing. Exotic fabrics were available, at a price, silk damasks, translucent gauzes, cloth of gold, and intricate embroideries, not all dyes were costly, however, and most Romans wore colourful clothing. Clean, bright clothing was a mark of respectability and status among all social classes, the fastenings and brooches used to secure garments such as cloaks provided further opportunities for personal embellishment and display. The basic garment for both sexes and all classes was the tunica, often worn beneath one or more additional layers, in its simplest form, the tunic was a single rectangle of woven fabric, originally woolen, but from the mid-republic onward, increasingly made from linen. It was sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a Greek chiton, to form openings for the neck. In some examples from the part of the empire, neck openings were formed in the weaving. Most working men wore knee-length, short-sleeved tunics, secured at the waist with a belt, some traditionalists considered long sleeved tunics appropriate only for women, very long tunics on men as a sign of effeminacy, and short or unbelted tunics as marks of servility. Womens tunics were usually ankle or foot-length, long-sleeved, and could be loosely or belted. Though essentially simple in design, tunics could also be luxurious in their fabric, colours. Loincloths, known as subligacula or subligaria could be worn under a tunic and they could also be worn on their own, particularly by slaves who engaged in hot, sweaty or dirty work. Women wore both loincloth and strophium under their tunics, and some wore tailored underwear for work or leisure, a 4th century AD Sicillian mosaic shows several bikini girls performing athletic feats, in 1953 a Roman leather bikini bottom was excavated from a well in London. Roman society was graded into several citizen and non-citizen classes and ranks, ruled by a minority of wealthy
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Hanfu
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Hanfu is the traditional, historical dress of the Han people. The term Hanfu was originally recorded by the Book of Han, Chinese clothing is influential to Japanese kimono and Korean hanbok. From the beginning of its history, Hanfu was inseparable from silk, supposedly discovered by the Yellow Emperors consort, vivid primary colors and green were used, due to the degree of technology at the time. Such markers included the length of a skirt, the wideness of a sleeve, in addition to these class-oriented developments, Han Chinese clothing became looser, with the introduction of wide sleeves and jade decorations hung from the sash which served to keep the yi closed. The yi was essentially wrapped over, in a known as jiaoling youren, or wrapping the right side over before the left. The style of traditional / historical Han clothing can be summarized as containing garment elements that are arranged in distinctive, one can often tell the profession or social rank of someone by what they wear on their heads. The typical types of male headwear are called jin for soft caps, mao for stiff hats, officials and academics have a separate set of hats, typically the putou, the wushamao, the si-fang pingding jin and the Zhuangzi jin. A typical hairpiece for women is the ji but there are more elaborate hairpieces, in addition, managing hair was also a crucial part of ancient Han peoples daily life. Commonly, males and females would stop cutting their hair once they reached adulthood and this was marked by the Chinese coming of age ceremony Guan Li, usually performed between ages 15 to 20. They allowed their hair to grow long naturally until death, including facial hair, children were exempt from the above commandment, they could cut their hair short, make different kinds of knots or braids, or simply just let them hang without any care. However, once they entered adulthood, every male was obliged to tie his hair into a bun called ji either on or behind his head. Females on the hand, had more choices in terms of decorating their hair as adults. They could still arrange their hair into as various kinds of hairstyles as they pleased, there were different fashions for women in various dynastic periods. Han children and females were spared from this order, also Taoist monks were allowed to keep their hair, Han defectors to the Qing like Li Chengdong and Liu Liangzuo and their Han troops carried out the queue order to force it on the general population. Han-Chinese clothing had changed and evolved with the fashion of the days since its commonly assumed beginnings in the Shang dynasty, many of the earlier designs are more gender-neutral and simple in cuttings. Later garments incorporate multiple pieces with men commonly wearing pants and women wearing skirts. Clothing for women usually accentuates the bodys natural curves through wrapping of upper garment lapels or binding with sashes at the waist, each dynasty has their own styles of Hanfu as they evolved and only few styles are fossilized. Types include tops and bottoms, and one-piece robes that wrap around the body once or several times, note, Daopao doesnt necessarily means Taoists robe, it actually is a style of robe for scholars
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History of clothing in India
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Indians have mainly worn clothing made up of locally grown cotton. India was the one of the first places where cotton was cultivated and used even as early as 2500 BC during the Harappan Era and these scriptures view the figures of human wearing the clothes which can be wrapped around the body. Taking the instances of the Sari to that of turban and the dhoti, the clothing system was also related to the social and economic status of the person. The upper classes of the society wore fine muslin garments and silk fabrics while the common classes wore garments made up of locally made fabrics. For instance, Women from Rich families wore clothes made up of silk from China, the Indus civilisation knew the process of silk production. Recent analysis of Harappan silk fibres in beads have shown that silk was made by the process of reeling, evidences for textiles in Indus Valley Civilisation are not available from preserved textiles but from impressions made into clay and from preserved pseudomorphs. The only evidence found for clothing is from iconography and some unearthed Harappan figurines which are usually unclothed and these little depictions show that usually men wore a long cloth wrapped over their waist and fastened it at the back. Turban was also in custom in some communities as shown by some of the male figurines, evidences also show that there was a tradition of wearing a long robe over the left shoulder in higher class society to show their opulence. The normal attire of the women at that time was a very scanty skirt up to knee length leaving the waist bare, cotton made head dresses were also worn by the women. Fibre for clothing generally used were cotton, flax, silk, wool, linen, leather, one fragment of colored cloth is available in evidences which is dyed with red madder show that people in Harappan civilisation dyed their cotton clothes with a range of colors. One thing was common in both the sexes that both men and women were fond of jewellery, orthodox males and females usually wore the uttariya by throwing it over the left shoulder only, in the style called upavita. There was another garment called pravara that they used to wear in cold and this was the general garb of both the sexes but the difference existed only in size of cloth and manner of wearing. Sometimes the poor used to wear the lower garment as a loincloth only while wealthy would wear it extending to the feet as a sign of prestige. Sari was the costume for women in Vedic culture. Women used to wrap it around their waist, pleated in front over the belly and drape it over their shoulder covering their bust area, ‘Choli’ or blouse, as an upper garment was introduced in the later Vedic period with sleeves and a neck. A new version of sari, little smaller than sari, called dupatta, was incorporated later. The word sari is derived from Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī which means strip of clothand शाडी śāḍī or साडी sāḍī in Prakrit, most initial attires of men in those times were dhoti and lungi. Dhoti is basically a single cloth wrapped around the waist and by partitioning at the center, is fastened at the back, a dhoti is from four to six feet long white or colour strip of cotton
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Anglo-Saxon dress
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Anglo-Saxons clothing usually used only three types of fabric. Wool was a material which was used for most garments. Lower-class people, such as slaves and poorer peasants, could only use wool for their garments, even for those worn against the skin. Linen, harvested from the plant, was a finer material which was used for garments that were worn close to the skin by better-off peasants. Silk was an expensive material and was used only by the very rich. The primary garment consisted of a woollen tunic. For the poorer theow, this would be the clothing worn, although some may have been given woolen trousers. A gebur would be able to afford woollen trousers and leather shoes, and would carry a knife. A linen undertunic and linen braies would be worn by peasants and nobility. During the 11th century, the length of the braies decreased, geneatas and thegns would often have cross-gartering on their hose, along with leather turnshoes. Over the tunic, a cloak would be worn, which was held together by a brooch or, later on, there are several illustrations of warriorlike persons wearing headgear similar to Phrygian caps or helmets found in 10th and 11th century Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. It is possible, though, that these images do not depict any actual fashion of the period, men of the northern tribes of 5th and 6th century England dressed alike regardless of social rank. The fashions during this time consisted of the cloak, tunic, trousers, leggings, the short, fur-lined cloak was designed so that the skin of the animal faced outward and the fur brushed against the undergarments. However, woollen cloaks have also been found, the garment opened either at the front or at the right shoulder. A single brooch, usually circular in shape, fastened the square or rectangular cloak, other means of fastening the cloth together included tying, lacing, or using a clasp, often made of natural materials such as thorn, bones, wood, or horns. The less prosperous wore woollen cloaks, the tunic ended between the hip and the knee and had either long or short sleeves. A belt or girdle was worn with the tunic and might have had a buckle. Trousers, traditionally worn under a tunic or with a small cloak, were ankle length
26.
Byzantine dress
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Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, taste for the middle and upper classes followed the latest fashions at the Imperial Court. In the early stages of the Byzantine Empire the traditional Roman toga was still used as formal or official dress. The hems often curve down to a sharp point, in general, except for military and presumably riding-dress, men of higher status, and all women, had clothes that came down to the ankles, or nearly so. Women often wore a top layer of the stola, for the rich in brocade, all of these, except the stola, might be belted or not. The chlamys, a semicircular cloak fastened to the shoulder continued throughout the period. The length fell sometimes only to the hips or as far as the ankles, much longer than the version worn in Ancient Greece. As well as his courtiers, Emperor Justinian wears one, with a huge brooch, a paragauda or border of thick cloth, usually including gold, was also an indicator of rank. Sometimes an oblong cloak would be worn, especially by the military and ordinary people, cloaks were pinned on the right shoulder for ease of movement, and access to a sword. Leggings and hose were worn, but are not prominent in depictions of the wealthy, they were associated with barbarians. Even basic clothes appear to have been expensive for the poor. Others, when engaged in activity, are shown with the sides of their tunic tied up to the waist for ease of movement, the most common images surviving from the Byzantine period are not relevant as references for actual dress worn in the period. Sandals are worn on the feet and this costume is not commonly seen in secular contexts, although possibly this is deliberate, to avoid confusing secular with divine subjects. The Theotokos is shown wearing a maphorion, a more shaped mantle with a hood and this probably is close to actual typical dress for widows, and for married women when in public. The Virgins underdress may be visible, especially at the sleeves, there are also conventions for Old Testament prophets and other Biblical figures. Apart from Christ and the Virgin, much iconographic dress is white or relatively muted in colour especially when on walls and in manuscripts, many other figures in Biblical scenes, especially if unnamed, are usually depicted wearing contemporary Byzantine clothing. Modesty was important for all except the very rich, and most women appear almost entirely covered by rather shapeless clothes, the basic garment in the early Empire comes down to the ankles, with a high round collar and tight sleeves to the wrist. The fringes and cuffs might be decorated with embroidery, with a band around the arm as well
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English medieval clothing
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Clothing was over-lapped and tightly bound, “The female chest was frequently exposed, yet the true structure of the female body was visually distorted…”. The open surcoat, a garment with a bodice and a skirt that trailed to the ground. In fact, by the end of the 14th century, the gown had replaced all garment items aside from the surcoat, the basic garments for women consisted of the smock, hose, kirtle, gown, surcoat, girdle, cape, hood, and bonnet. The development of the skirt was significant for women’s medieval clothing, medieval clothes provided information about the status of the person wearing them. Early Anglo-Saxon regardless of social rank wore a cloak, tunic, trousers, leggings, the short, fur-lined cloak was designed so that the skin of the animal faced outward and the fur brushed against the undergarments. However, woolen cloaks have also been found, the garment opened either at the front or at the right shoulder. A single brooch, usually circular in shape, fastened the square or rectangular cloak, other means of fastening the cloth together included tying, lacing, or using a clasp, often made of natural materials such as thorn, bones, wood, or horns. The less prosperous wore woolen cloaks, the tunic ended between the hip and the knee and had either long or short sleeves. A belt or girdle was worn with the tunic and might have had a buckle. Multiple tunics were worn at once so that the lower one, trousers, traditionally worn under a short tunic or with a small cloak, were ankle length. If loose, the material was bunched around the waist and, as Owen-Crocker describes. Garters or leggings accompanied narrow trousers, pieces of fabric attached to the trousers forming belt loops so that the garment could be at held in place at the waist by a belt. Leggings, usually worn in pairs, acted as protection for the legs. The first legging, referred to as the proper or stocking. The second was simply a leather of fabric used to tie on the leggings or, if worn around the shin or foot, provided warmth and protection. The lower caste wore leggings made of ripped or cut cloth from old clothes, blankets, the very rich people sometimes wore jewels. Belts worn at the hips were more of a necessity rather than a luxury, buckles were common and most faced the front, however others have been found to face both sides or even, in some cases, were placed at the back of the body. Owen-Crocker mentions that “belt ornaments and tags” dangled from the belts of the Anglo-Saxons in addition to everyday equipment, beads occasionally acted as alternatives, although not often
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Early medieval European dress
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Early medieval European dress changed very gradually from about 400 to 1100. The main feature of the period was the meeting of late Roman costume with that of the peoples who moved into Europe over this period. The most easily recognisable difference between the two groups was in costume, where the invading peoples generally wore short tunics, with belts. The Romanised populations, and the Church, remained faithful to the longer tunics of Roman formal costume, coming below the knee, many aspects of clothing in the period remain unknown. This is partly because only the wealthy were buried with clothing, it was rather the custom that most people were buried in burial shrouds, also called winding sheets. Fully dressed burial may have regarded as a pagan custom. Apart from the elite, most people in the period had low living standards, and clothes were probably home-made, usually from cloth made at a village level, the elite imported silk cloth from the Byzantine, and later Muslim, worlds, and also probably cotton. They also could afford bleached linen and dyed and simply patterned wool woven in Europe itself, but embroidered decoration was probably very widespread, though not usually detectable in art. Most people probably wore only wool or linen, usually undyed, the Sutton Hoo finds and the Tara Brooch are two of the most famous examples from the British Isles in the middle of the period. In France, over three hundred gold and jewelled bees were found in the tomb of the Merovingian king Childeric I, metalwork accessories were the clearest indicator of high-ranking persons. In Anglo-Saxon England, and probably most of Europe, only people could carry a seax or knife. Both mens and womens clothing was trimmed with bands of decoration, variously embroidery, tablet-woven bands, the famous Anglo-Saxon opus anglicanum needlework was sought-after as far away as Rome. The primary garment was the tunic — generally a long fabric panel, folded over with a cut into the fold. It was typical for the wealthy to display their affluence with a tunic made of finer and more colorful cloth. The tunic was usually belted, with either a leather or strong fabric belt, depending on climate, trousers were tailored either loose or tight. The most basic leggings were strips of cloth wound round the leg, and held in place by laces, presumably of leather. This may have been done with loose-fitting trousers also, over this a sleeved tunic was worn, which for the upper classes gradually became longer towards the end of the period. For peasants and warriors it was always at the knee or above, for winter, outside or formal dress, a cloak or mantle completed the outfit
29.
Ottoman clothing
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Ottoman clothing is the style and design of clothing worn by the Ottoman Turks. While the Palace and its court dressed lavishly, the people were only concerned with covering themselves. Starting in the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, administrators enacted sumptuary laws upon clothing, the clothing of Muslims, Christians, Jewish communities, clergy, tradesmen, and state and military officials were particularly strictly regulated during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. In this period men wore outer items such as mintan, zıbın, şalvar, kuşak, potur, entari, kalpak, sarık on the head, çarık, çizme, çedik, Yemeni on the feet. The administrators and the wealthy wore caftans with fur lining and embroidery, whereas the class wore cübbe and hırka. Womens everyday wear was şalvar, a gömlek that came down to the mid-calf or ankle, a short, fitted jacket called a hırka, and a sash or belt tied at or just below the waist. For formal occasions, such as visiting friends, the added an entari. Both hırka and entari were buttoned to the waist, leaving the open in front. Both garments also had all the way to the throat. All of these clothes could be colored and patterned. However, when a left the house, she covered her clothes with a ferace. She also covered her face with a variety of veils or wraps, bashlyks, or hats, were the most prominent accessories of social status. While the people wore külahs covered with abani or Yemeni, the cream of the society wore bashlyks such as yusufi, örfi, katibi, kavaze, during the rule of Süleyman a bashlyk called perişani was popular as the palace people valued bashlyks adorned with precious stones. Kavuk, however, was the most common type of bashlyk, for this reason, a related tradesmenship was formed in the 17th century. Fur was a material of prestige in that period, political crises of the 17th century were reflected as chaos in clothes. The excessively luxurious compulsion of consumption and showing off in the Tulip Era lasted till the 19th century, the modernization attempts of Mahmut II in 1825 first had its effects in the state sector. While sarık was replaced by fez, the employed in Bab-ı Ali began to wear trousers, setre. Womens clothes of the Ottoman period were observed in the mansions, entari, kuşak, şalvar, başörtü, ferace of the 19th century continued their existence without much change
30.
1820s in Western fashion
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During the 1820s in European and European-influenced countries, fashionable womens clothing styles transitioned away from the classically influenced Empire/Regency styles of c. 1795–1820 and re-adopted elements that had been characteristic of most of the 18th century, such as full skirts, the silhouette of mens fashion changed in similar ways, by the mid-1820s coats featured broad shoulders with puffed sleeves, a narrow waist, and full skirts. Trousers were worn for day wear, while breeches continued in use at court. Sleeves also began increasing in size, foreshadowing the styles of the 1830s, however, there was still no radical break with the Empire/Regency aesthetic. Skirts became even wider at the bottom during the 1820s, with ornamentation and definition toward the bottom of the skirt such as tucks, pleats, ruffles. During the second half of the 1820s, this aesthetic was decisively repudiated. Rich colors such as yellow and Turkey red became popular. A bustle was sometimes also worn, belts accentuated the new defined waist. Dresses were often worn with a round ruffled linen collar similar to a soft Elizabethan ruff, early in the decade, hair was parted in the center front and styled into tight curls over the temples. As the decade progressed, these became more elaborate and expansive. The bun on the back became a looped knot worn high on top of the head, wide-brimmed hats and hat-like bonnets with masses of feathers and ribbon trims were worn by mid-decade. These caps were worn under bonnets for street-wear, women also began to wear caps known as a cornette around 1816. These caps were tied under the chin and worn indoors and they also tended to be greatly adorned with plumes, ribbons, flowers, and jewels. Another alternative to the cornette was the turban, also often bejeweled and adorned, cloaks and full-length coats were worn in cold or wet weather. The fashionable shoe was a flat slipper, in the late 1820s, the first high shoe appeared and became vogue for both men and women. The shoe typically consisted of a three-inch high cloth top that laced on the side and a leather vamp that supported a long, narrow. Mademoiselle Gonin wears a dress with small puffed sleeves, with a ruffled collar. Her hair is styled into small curls at her temples, collette Versavels blue dress of 1822 is slightly cone-shaped, and is trimmed with frills around the hem
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Victorian fashion
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The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the decorative and visual arts as well as a perception of the traditional gender roles also influenced fashion. Under Queen Victorias rule, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. Mass production of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion, clothing could be made quicker and more cheaply. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption. During the Victorian Era, a place was at home. Unlike in the centuries when women could help their husbands and brothers in family businesses, in the nineteenth century. Their dress styles reflected their lifestyle, Victorian fashion was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women’s place in society and were hence, middle class women exhibited similar dress styles, however, the decorations were not as extravagant. The layering of these make them very heavy. Corsets were also stiff and restricted movement, although the clothes were not comfortable, the type of fabrics and the in-numerous layers were worn as a symbol of wealth. Neck-line Bertha is the low shoulder neck-line worn by women during the Victorian Era, the cut exposed a woman’s shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six inch deep lace flounce, or the bodice has neckline draped with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats. However, the exposure of neck-line was only restricted to the upper and middle class, the décolleté style made shawls to become an essential feature of dresses. Corsets lost their shoulder straps, and fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening, boning Corsets were used in women’s gowns for emphasizing the small waist of the female body. They function as an undergarment which can be adjusted to bound tightly around the waist, hold and train a person’s waistline, so to slim and it also helped stop the bodice from horizontal creasing. With the corset, a small tight fitting waist would be shown. Yet, corsets have been blamed for causing lots of diseases because of the tight waist bound, ill condition examples were curvature of the spine, deformities of the ribs and birth defects. As a result, people started to oppose the use of corsets in later times, Sleeves Sleeves were tightly fit during the early Victorian era
32.
1830s in Western fashion
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Womens costume featured larger sleeves than were worn in any period before or since, which were accompanied by elaborate hairstyles and large hats. The final months of the 1830s saw the proliferation of a revolutionary new technology—photography, items of historical dress including neck ruffs, ferronnières, and sleeves based on styles of earlier periods were popular. Innovations in roller printing on textiles introduced new dress fabrics, rich colors such as the Turkey red of the 1820s were still found, but delicate floral prints on light backgrounds were increasingly popular. More precise printing eliminated the need for dark outlines on printed designs, and new green dyes appeared in patterns of grasses, ferns, combinations of florals and stripes were fashionable. Overall, both mens and womens fashion showed width at the shoulder above a tiny waist, Mens coats were padded in the shoulders and across the chest, while womens shoulders sloped to huge sleeves. In the 1830s, fashionable womens clothing styles had distinctive large leg of mutton or gigot sleeves, above large full conical skirts, heavy stiff fabrics such as brocades came back into style, and many 18th-century gowns were brought down from attics and cut up into new garments. The combination of sloping shoulders and sleeves which were very large over most of the arm is distinctive to the day dresses of the 1830s. Pelerines, tippets, or lace coverings draped over the shoulders, were popular, the fashionable feminine figure, with its sloping shoulders, rounded bust, narrow waist and full hips, was emphasized in various ways with the cut and trim of gowns. To about 1835, the small waist was accentuated with a wide belt, later the waist and midriff were unbelted but cut close to the body, and the bodice began to taper to a small point at the front waist. The fashionable corset now had gores to individually cup the breasts, evening gowns had very wide necklines and short, puffed sleeves reaching to the elbow from a dropped shoulder, and were worn with mid-length gloves. The width at the shoulder was often emphasized by gathered or pleated panels of fabric arranged horizontally over the bust, morning dresses generally had high necklines, and shoulder width was emphasized with tippets or wide collars that rested on the gigot sleeves. Summer afternoon dresses might have wide, low necklines similar to evening gowns, skirts were pleated into the waistband of the bodice, and held out with starched petticoats of linen or cotton. Around 1835, the fashionable skirt-length for middle- and upper-class womens clothes dropped from ankle-length to floor-length, early 1830s hair was parted in the center and dressed in elaborate curls, loops and knots extending out to both sides and up from the crown of the head. Braids were fashionable, and were likewise looped over either ear, bonnets with wide semicircular brims framed the face for street wear, and were heavily decorated with trim, ribbons, and feathers. Married women wore a linen or cotton cap for daywear, trimmed with lace, ribbon, and frills, the cap was worn alone indoors and under the bonnet for street wear. For evening wear, hair ornaments including combs, ribbons, flowers, womens undergarments consisted of a knee-length linen chemise with straight, elbow length sleeves. Corsets compressed the waist and skirts were held in shape by layers of starched petticoats, stiffened with tucks, the full sleeves were supported by down-filled sleeve plumpers. Tall top hats with veils were worn, shawls were worn with short-sleeved evening gowns early in the decade, but they were not suited to the wide gigot sleeves of the mid-1830s
33.
1840s in Western fashion
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1840s fashion in European and European-influenced clothing is characterized by a narrow, natural shoulder line following the exaggerated puffed sleeves of the later 1820s and 1830s. The narrower shoulder was accompanied by a lower waistline for both men and women, shoulders were narrow and sloping, waists became low and pointed, and sleeve detail migrated from the elbow to the wrists. Where pleated fabric panels had wrapped the bust and shoulders in the previous decade, they now formed a triangle from the shoulder to the waist of day dresses. Skirts evolved from a shape to a bell shape, aided by a new method of attaching the skirts to the bodice using organ or cartridge pleats which cause the skirt to spring out from the waist. Full skirts were achieved mainly through layers of petticoats, the increasing weight and inconvenience of the layers of starched petticoats would lead to the development of the crinoline of the second half of the 1850s. Sleeves were narrower and fullness dropped from just below the shoulder at the beginning of the decade to the lower arm, evening gowns were worn off the shoulder and featured wide flounces that reached to the elbow, often of lace. They were worn with sheer shawls and opera-length gloves, another accessory was a small bag. At home, bags were often white satin and embroidered or painted, outdoor bags were often green or white and tasseled. There were also crocheted linen bags, shoes were made from the same materials as handbags. There were slippers of crocheted linen and bright colored brocade satin slippers that tied around the ankle with silk ribbon. The wide hairstyles of the previous decade gave way to fashions which kept the hair closer to the head, hair was still generally parted in the center. Isolated long curls dangling down towards the front were worn, often without much relationship to the way that the rest of the hair was styled. Alternately the side hair could be smoothed back over the ears or looped and braided, linen caps with frills, lace, and ribbons were worn by married women indoors, especially for daywear. These could also be worn in the garden with a parasol, bonnets for street wear were smaller than in the previous decade, and were less heavily decorated. The decorations that did adorn bonnets included flowers on the brim or a veil that could be draped over the face. Married women wore their caps under their bonnets, the crown and brim of the bonnet created a horizontal line and when tied under the chin, the brim created a nice frame around the face. This style was often called the coal-scuttle bonnet because of its resemblance to the metals scoops used to shovel coal into furnaces. For evening, feathers, pearls, lace, or ribbons were worn in the hair, there was also a small brimless bonnet worn with the ribbon untied at the nape of the neck
34.
1850s in Western fashion
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1850s fashion in Western and Western-influenced clothing is characterized by an increase in the width of womens skirts supported by crinolines or hoops, and the beginnings of dress reform. Masculine styles began to more in London, while female fashions originated almost exclusively in Paris. In the 1850s, the skirts of the 1840s continued to expand. Skirts were made fuller by means of flounces, usually in tiers of three, gathered tightly at the top and stiffened with horsehair braid at the bottom. Early in the decade, bodices of morning dresses featured panels over the shoulder that were gathered into a blunt point at the dropped waist. These bodices generally fastened in back by means of hooks and eyes, wider bell-shaped or pagoda sleeves were worn over false undersleeves or engageantes of cotton or linen, trimmed in lace, broderie anglaise, or other fancy-work. Separate small collars of lace, tatting, or crochet-work were worn with morning dresses, sometimes with a ribbon bow, evening ball gowns were very low-necked, off-the-shoulder, and had short sleeves. Pantalettes were essential under this new fashion for modestys sake, cape-like jackets were worn over the very wide skirts. Another fashionable outer garment was an Indian shawl or one woven in Paisley, riding habits had fitted jackets with tight sleeves, worn over a collared shirt or chemisette. They were worn long skirts and mannish top hats. The indoor cap became little more than a lace and ribbon frill worn on the back of the head, the style was promoted by editor Amelia Bloomer and was immediately christened a Bloomer suit by the press. Despite its practicality, the Bloomer suit was the subject of ridicule in the press and had little impact on mainstream fashion. The Bloomer suit, a dress worn over full trousers gathered at the ankle. Male outdoors attire and female riding-habit of 1850,1851 Parisian fashion plate shows the fashionable use of fabrics printed â la disposition on skirt flounces and for bodices and sleeves. Madame Moitessier wears a black evening gown with ruffles. She wears a brooch and bracelets on both wrists, mrs. Coventry Patmore wears a small fancy-work collar and a ribbon at her throat. Her thick, wavy hair is parted in the center and poufed over her ears,1851, matilde Juva-Branca wears a dark morning dress with a lace blouse or chemisette and cuffs and short leather gloves. Her hair is parted and worn in long curls,1851
35.
1860s in Western fashion
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In mens fashion, the three-piece ditto suit of sack coat, waistcoat, and trousers in the same fabric emerged as a novelty. Mauveine Aniline dyes were discovered in 1856 and quickly became fashionable colors, the first ones were mauve and bright purple. Magenta was popularized in England by the Duchess of Sutherland after she was appealed to by the Spitalfields silk weavers, by the early 1860s, skirts had reached their ultimate width. After about 1862 the silhouette of the changed and rather than being bell-shaped it was now flatter at the front. This large area was occupied by all manner of decoration. Puffs and strips could cover much of the skirt, there could be so many flounces that the material of the skirt itself was hardly visible. Lace again became popular and was used all over the dress, any part of the dress could also be embroidered in silver or gold. This massive construct of a dress required gauze lining to stiffen it, even the clothes women would ride horses in received these sorts of embellishments. Day dresses featured wide pagoda sleeves worn over undersleeves or engageantes, high necklines with lace or tatted collars or chemisettes completed the demure daytime look. Evening gowns had low necklines and short sleeves, and were worn with gloves or lace or crocheted fingerless mitts. The voluminous skirts were supported by hoops, petticoats, and or crinolines, the use of hoops was not as common until 1856, prior supporting the skirts with layers if starched petticoats. Bouffant gowns with large crinolines were probably reserved for special occasions, as the decade progressed, sleeves narrowed, and the circular hoops of the 1850s decreased in size at the front and sides and increased at the back. Looped up overskirts revealed matching or contrasting underskirts, a look that would reach its ultimate expression the next two decades with the rise of the bustle, waistlines rose briefly at the end of the decade. Fashions were adopted more slowly in America than in Europe and it was not uncommon for fashion plates to appear in American womens magazines a year or more after they appeared in Paris or London. For walking, jackets were accompanied by floor-length skirts that could be looped or drawn up by means of tapes over a shorter petticoat, as skirts became narrower and flatter in front, more emphasis was placed on the waist and hips. A corset was used to help mold the body to the desired shape. This was achieved by making the longer than before. To increase rigidity, they were reinforced with strips of whalebone, cording
36.
1870s in Western fashion
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1870s fashion in European and European-influenced clothing is characterized by a gradual return to a narrow silhouette after the full-skirted fashions of the 1850s and 1860s. By 1870, fullness in the skirt had moved to the rear and this fashion required an underskirt, which was heavily trimmed with pleats, flounces, rouching, and frills. Day dresses had high necklines that were closed, squared. Sleeves of morning dresses were narrow throughout the period, with a tendency to flare slightly at the wrist early on, women often draped overskirts to produce an apronlike effect from the front. Evening gowns had low necklines and very short, off-the-shoulder sleeves, other characteristic fashions included a velvet ribbon tied high around the neck and trailing behind for evening. Under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and other artistic reformers, newly fashionable tea gowns, an informal fashion for entertaining at home, combined Pre-Raphaelite influences with the loose sack-back styles of the 18th century. Leisure dress was becoming an important part of a womans wardrobe, seaside dress in England had its own distinct characteristics but still followed the regular fashions of the day. Seaside dress was seen as more daring, frivolous, eccentric, even though the bustle was extremely cumbersome, it was still a part of seaside fashion. With the narrower silhouette, emphasis was placed on the bust, waist, a corset was used to help mold the body to the desired shape. This was achieved by making the longer than before. To increase rigidity, they were reinforced with strips of whalebone, cording. Steam-molding, patented in 1868, helped create a curvaceous contour, skirts were supported by a hybrid of the bustle and crinoline or hooped petticoat sometimes called a crinolette. The cage structure was attached around the waist and extended down to the ground, the crinolette itself was quickly superseded by the true bustle, which was sufficient for supporting the drapery and train at the back of the skirt. In keeping with the emphasis, hair was pulled back at the sides and worn in a high knot or cluster of ringlets. Bonnets were smaller to allow for the elaborately piled hairstyles and resembled hats except for their ribbons tied under the chin, smallish hats, some with veils, were perched on top of the head, and brimmed straw hats were worn for outdoor wear in summer. The main kind of wrap that dominated in the 1870s were capes, some examples are the pelisse and the paletot coat. Walking dress of 1870 has a tiered and ruffled skirt back,1870 fashion plate shows jacket-bodices with draped and trimmed skirts in back. Ruffles and pleated frills are characteristic trimmings of the 1870s, french morning dress of 1871 features a narrow red ribbon at the low neckline and a large matching bow with streamers at the back waist
37.
1880s in Western fashion
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Fashion in the 1880s in Western and Western-influenced countries is characterized by the return of the bustle. The long, lean line of the 1870s was replaced by a full, fashionable waists were low and tiny below a full, low bust supported by a corset. The Rational Dress Society was founded in 1881 in reaction to the extremes of fashionable corsetry, as in the previous decade, emphasis remained on the back of the skirt, with fullness gradually rising from behind the knees to just below the waist. The fullness over the bottom was balanced by a fuller, lower chest and these gowns typically did not have a long train in the back, which was different from the gowns worn in the 1870s, and were extremely tight. They were known as the due to the tightness of them. Winter gowns were made in darker hues whereas summer ones were made in lighter colors, velvet was also a very popular fabric used during this period. Skirts were looped, draped, or tied up in various ways, the polonaise was a revival style based on a fashion of the 1780s, with a fitted, cutaway overdress caught up and draped over an underskirt. Long, jacket-like fitted bodices called basques were also popular for clothing during the day, evening gowns were sleeveless and low-necked, and were worn with long over the elbow or shoulder length gloves of fine kidskin or suede. Choker necklaces and jewelled collars were fashionable under the influence of Alexandra, Princess of Wales, bodices were very tight fitted as a result of darts and princess seams. In the early 19th century dropped waists were common, creating a long torso. Most ended in a point just below the waist, collars that were very high and banded were very popular. These types of collars were called officers collars, the bustle returned to fashion and reached its greatest proportions c. 1886–1888, extending almost straight out from the back waist to support a profusion of drapery, frills, swags, the fashionable corset created a low, full bust with little separation of the breasts. A usual type of undergarment was called combinations, a camisole with attached knee- or calf-length drawers, worn under the corset, bustle, woolen combinations were recommended for health, especially when engaging in fashionable sports. Riding habits had become a uniform of matching jacket and skirt worn with a shirt or chemisette, with a top hat. They were worn without bustles, but the cut of the jacket followed the silhouette of the day, in contrast, hunting costumes were far more fashionably styled, with draped ankle-length skirts worn with boots or gaiters. Tailored costumes consisting of a jacket and skirt were worn for travel or walking, these were worn with the bustle. Travelers wore long coats like dusters to protect their clothes from dirt, rain, artistic or Aesthetic dress remained an undercurrent in Bohemian circles throughout the 1880s
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