1.
Wikipedia
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Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia that aims to allow anyone to edit articles. Wikipedia is the largest and most popular reference work on the Internet and is ranked among the ten most popular websites. Wikipedia is owned by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation, Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger. Sanger coined its name, a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia, There was only the English language version initially, but it quickly developed similar versions in other languages, which differ in content and in editing practices. With 5,377,348 articles, the English Wikipedia is the largest of the more than 290 Wikipedia encyclopedias, in 2005, Nature published a peer review comparing 42 science articles from Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia, and found that Wikipedias level of accuracy approached Encyclopædia Britannicas. Other collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before Wikipedia, but none were so successful, Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9,2000, under the ownership of Bomis and its main figures were Jimmy Wales, the CEO of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, while Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. On January 10,2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, as a single English-language edition at www. wikipedia. com, Wikipedias policy of neutral point-of-view was codified in its first months. Otherwise, there were few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. Originally, Bomis intended to make Wikipedia a business for profit, Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. By August 8,2001, Wikipedia had over 8,000 articles, on September 25,2001, Wikipedia had over 13,000 articles. By the end of 2001, it had grown to approximately 20,000 articles and 18 language editions and it had reached 26 language editions by late 2002,46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the final days of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the servers were taken down permanently in 2003. Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in Wikipedia and these moves encouraged Wales to announce that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and to change Wikipedias domain from wikipedia. com to wikipedia. org. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006, a team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the projects increasing exclusivity and resistance to change. Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called low-hanging fruit—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been created, the Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend
2.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
3.
Hypertext
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Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress sequence or by touching the screen. Apart from text, the hypertext is also sometimes used to describe tables, images. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, as implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet. The English prefix hyper- comes from the Greek prefix ὑπερ- and means over or beyond and it signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. The term hypertext is often used where the term hypermedia might seem appropriate, instead they use the strange term interactive multimedia, this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. Hypertext documents can either be static or dynamic, static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus, links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the months of 1990. In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published The Garden of Forking Paths, in 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called As We May Think, about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, in 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content. He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System in 1967 at Brown University, in December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as The Mother of All Demos. The first hypermedia application is considered to be the Aspen Movie Map. The Movie Map allowed users to choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape. In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental hyperediting functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features, guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J. Brown at UKC in 1982. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J, in 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document, in August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention
4.
Google
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Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, Google was founded in 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University, in California. Together, they own about 14 percent of its shares, and they incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4,1998. An initial public offering took place on August 19,2004, in August 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. Google, Alphabets leading subsidiary, will continue to be the company for Alphabets Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructure, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products, acquisitions, and partnerships beyond Googles core search engine. The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system, the Google Chrome web browser, and Chrome OS, the new hardware chief, Rick Osterloh, stated, a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience. Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier, alexa, a company that monitors commercial web traffic, lists Google. com as the most visited website in the world. Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites, including YouTube, Googles mission statement, from the outset, was to organize the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful, and its unofficial slogan was Dont be evil. In October 2015, the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase Do the right thing, Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. They called this new technology PageRank, it determined a websites relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages, Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Originally, Google ran under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains google. stanford. edu, the domain name for Google was registered on September 15,1997, and the company was incorporated on September 4,1998. It was based in the garage of a friend in Menlo Park, craig Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. The first funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was incorporated. At least three other investors invested in 1998, Amazon. com founder Jeff Bezos, Stanford University computer science professor David Cheriton. Author Ken Auletta claims that each invested $250,000, early in 1999, Brin and Page decided they wanted to sell Google to Excite. They went to Excite CEO George Bell and offered to sell it to him for $1 million, vinod Khosla, one of Excites venture capitalists, talked the duo down to $750,000, but Bell still rejected it. Googles initial public offering took place five years later, on August 19,2004, at that time Larry Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024
5.
Modular design
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Modular design, or modularity in design, is a design approach that subdivides a system into smaller parts called modules or skids, that can be independently created and then used in different systems. Besides reduction in cost, and flexibility in design, modularity offers other benefits such as augmentation, examples of modular systems are cars, computers, process systems, solar panels and wind turbines, elevators and modular buildings. Earlier examples include looms, railroad signaling systems, telephone exchanges, pipe organs, computers use modularity to overcome changing customer demands and to make the manufacturing process more adaptive to change. Modular design is an attempt to combine the advantages of standardization with those of customization, a downside to modularity is that low quality modular systems are not optimized for performance. This is usually due to the cost of putting up interfaces between modules, aspects of modular design can be seen in cars or other vehicles to the extent of there being certain parts to the car that can be added or removed without altering the rest of the car. Modular design can be seen in certain buildings, modular buildings generally consist of universal parts that are manufactured in a factory and then shipped to a build site where they are assembled into a variety of arrangements. Modular buildings can be added to or reduced in size by adding or removing certain components and this can be done without altering larger portions of the building. Modular buildings can also undergo changes in functionality using the process of adding or removing components. For example, a building can be built using modular parts such as walls, frames, doors, ceilings. The interior can then be partitioned with walls and furnished with desks, computers. The new building can then be refurnished with whatever items are needed to carry out its desired functions, many misconceptions are held regarding modular buildings. In reality modular construction is a method of construction for quick turnaround. Industries that would benefit from this include healthcare, commercial, retail, military, in 1963 Motorola introduced the first rectangular color picture tube, and in 1967 introduced the modular Quasar brand. In 1964 it opened its first research and development branch outside of the United States, in 1974 Motorola sold its television business to the Japan-based Matsushita, the parent company of Panasonic. Modular design in hardware is the same as in other things. The idea is to build computers with easily replaceable parts that use standardized interfaces and this technique allows a user to upgrade certain aspects of the computer easily without having to buy another computer altogether. This idea is also being implemented in Project Ara, which provides a platform for manufactures to create modules for a smartphone which can then be customised by the end user, a computer is one of the best examples of modular design. Typical modules include power units, processors, mainboards, graphics cards, hard drives
6.
Geotagging
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This data usually consists of latitude and longitude coordinates, though they can also include altitude, bearing, distance, accuracy data, and place names, and perhaps a time stamp. Geotagging can help find a wide variety of location-specific information from a device. For instance, someone can find images taken near a location by entering latitude and longitude coordinates into a suitable image search engine. Geotagging-enabled information services can also potentially be used to find location-based news, websites, geotagging can tell users the location of the content of a given picture or other media or the point of view, and conversely on some media platforms show media relevant to a given location. The related term geocoding refers to the process of taking non-coordinate based geographical identifiers, such as a street address, such techniques can be used together with geotagging to provide alternative search techniques. Geotagging has become a feature on several social media platforms, such as Facebook. Facebook users can geotag photos that can be added to the page of the location they are tagging, users may also use a feature that allows them to find nearby Facebook friends, by generating a list of people according to the location tracker in their mobile devices. Instagram uses a map feature allows users to geotag photos. The map layout pin points specific photos that the user has taken on a world map, there are two main options for geotagging photos, capturing GPS information at the time the photo is taken or attaching the photograph to a map after the picture is taken. In order to capture GPS data at the time the photograph is captured, most smart phones already use a GPS chip along with built-in cameras to allow users to automatically geotag photos. Others may have the GPS chip and camera but do not have internal software needed to embed the GPS information within the picture, a few digital cameras also have built-on or built-in GPS that allow for automatic geotagging. Devices use GPS, A-GPS or both, A-GPS can be faster getting an initial fix if within range of a cell phone tower, and may work better inside buildings. Traditional GPS does not need cell phone towers and uses standard GPS signals outside of urban areas, traditional GPS tends to use more battery power. Almost any digital camera can be coupled with a stand-alone GPS and post processed with photo mapping software and these data are not visible in the picture itself but are read and written by special programs and most digital cameras and modern scanners. Latitude and longitude are stored in units of degrees with decimals and this geotag information can be read by many programs, such as the cross-platform open source ExifTool. One approach is used with the orthophotos where we store coordinates of four corners, the four corners are stored using GeoTIFF or World file standards. Audio/video files can be geotagged via, metadata, audio encoding, overlay, metadata records the geospatial data in the encoded video file to be decoded for later analysis. One of the standards used with unmanned aerial vehicle is MISB Standard 0601 which allows geocoding of corner points, audio encoding involves a process of converting gps data into audio data such as modem squawk
7.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
8.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
9.
Ted Nelson
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Theodor Holm Ted Nelson is an American pioneer of information technology, philosopher, and sociologist. He coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia in 1963 and published them in 1965, Nelson coined the terms transclusion, virtuality, and intertwingularity. Nelson is the son of Emmy Award-winning director Ralph Nelson and the Academy Award-winning actress Celeste Holm and his parents marriage was brief and he was mostly raised by his grandparents, first in Chicago and later in Greenwich Village. Nelson earned a BA from Swarthmore College in 1959, while there, he made an experimental humorous student film titled The Epiphany of Slocum Furlow, in which the titular hero discovers the meaning of life. His contemporary at the college, musician and composer Peter Schickele scored the film, in 1960 Nelson began graduate work at Harvard University in philosophy, earning a masters degree in sociology in 1963. Much later in life, in 2002, he obtained a Doctorate in Media and this came to be known as Project Xanadu. Nelson founded Project Xanadu in 1960, with the goal of creating a network with a simple user interface. The effort is documented in his 1974 book Computer Lib / Dream Machines, much of his adult life has been devoted to working on Xanadu and advocating for it. The Xanadu project itself failed to flourish, for a variety of reasons which are disputed, on his own website, Nelson expressed his disgust with the criticisms, referring to Wolf as Gory Jackal, and threatened to sue him. He also outlined his objections in a letter to Wired, in a network with two-way links, each node knows what other nodes are linked to it. Its a small change in how online information should be stored that couldnt have vaster implications for culture. Nelson co-founded itty bitty machine company, or ibm, which was a computer retail store operating from 1977 to 1980 in Evanston. The itty bitty machine company was one of the few stores to sell the original Apple I computer. In 1978 he had a significant impact upon IBMs thinking when he outlined his vision of the potential of personal computing to the team three years later launched the IBM PC. As of 2011, Nelson was working on a new structure, ZigZag, which is described on the Xanadu project website. He also developed XanaduSpace, a system for the exploration of connected parallel documents, in January 1988 BYTE computer journal published an article about Nelsons ideas, titled Managing Immense Storage. This stimulated discussions within the industry, and encouraged people to experiment with Hypertext features. In 1998, at the Seventh WWW Conference in Brisbane, Australia, in 2001 he was knighted by France as Officier des Arts et Lettres
10.
Sketchpad
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Sketchpad was a revolutionary computer program written by Ivan Sutherland in 1963 in the course of his PhD thesis, for which he received the Turing Award in 1988, and the Kyoto Prize in 2012. It pioneered the way for human–computer interaction, Sketchpad is considered to be the ancestor of modern computer-aided design programs as well as a major breakthrough in the development of computer graphics in general. For example, the user interface was derived from the Sketchpad as well as modern object oriented programming. Ivan Sutherland demonstrated with it that computer graphics could be used for artistic and technical purposes in addition to showing a novel method of human-computer interaction. Sutherland was inspired by the Memex from As We May Think by Vannevar Bush, Sketchpad inspired Douglas Engelbart to design and develop oN-Line System at the Augmentation Research Center at the Stanford Research Institute during the 1960s. Sketchpad was the first program ever to utilize a complete user interface, using an x-y point plotter display. The clever way the program organized its geometric data pioneered the use of objects and instances in computing, the main idea was to have master drawings which one could instantiate into many duplicates. If the user changed the drawing, all the instances would change as well. Another major invention in Sketchpad was that it let the user easily constrain geometric properties in the drawing—for instance, as a trade magazine said, clearly Sutherland broke new ground in 3D computer modeling and visual simulation, the basis for computer graphics and CAD/CAM. Very few programs can be called precedents for his achievements, Sketchpad ran on the Lincoln TX-2 computer at MIT, which had 64k of 36-bit words. In 1963 most computers ran jobs in batch job mode only, a considerable amount of work was required to make the TX-2 operate in interactive mode with a large CRT screen. When Sutherland had finished with it, it had to be reconverted to run in batch mode again, the Sketchpad program was part and parcel of Sutherlands Ph. D. thesis at MIT and peripherally related to the Computer-Aided Design project at that time. Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, comparison of CAD Software Coons, Steven, Computer Sketchpad, in Fitch, John, Science Reporter, explains the principles of Sketchpad. Kay, Alan, Pt 1, Doing with Images Makes Symbols, Archive, müller-Prove, Matthias, Graphical User Interface of Sketchpad, DE, MProve. Sutherland, Ivan Edward, Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, New York, Garland Publishers, ———, Sketchpad, A man-machine graphical communication system, UK, CAM. ———, Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, AFIPS conference proceedings, PL, ACI. ———, Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System, Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology via Defense Technical Information Center,296, Archived from the original on April 8,2013, retrieved 2007-11-03 CS1 maint, Unfit url
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