1.
Translation
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Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature, there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation, on the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated, because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for services and has facilitated language localization. Translation studies systematically study the theory and practice of translation, the English word translation derives from the Latin word translatio, which comes from trans, across + ferre, to carry or to bring. Thus translatio is a carrying across or a bringing across, in this case, the Germanic languages and some Slavic languages have calqued their words for the concept of translation on translatio. The Romance languages and the remaining Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of translation from an alternative Latin word, traductio, the Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις, has supplied English with metaphrase — as contrasted with paraphrase. Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to formal equivalence, nevertheless, metaphrase and paraphrase may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity, the ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase and paraphrase. Literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed, Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of imitation, i. e. of adapted translation, When a painter copies from the life. He has no privilege to alter features and lineaments, despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. The grammatical differences between languages and free-word-order languages have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax characteristics of a source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a language, translators have borrowed those terms. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, an etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel, the Polish aktualny, the Swedish aktuell, the translators role as a bridge for carrying across values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translators role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, the main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero
2.
Subtitle (captioning)
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The encoded method can either be pre-rendered with the video or separate as either a graphic or text to be rendered and overlaid by the receiver. Teletext subtitle language follows the audio, except in multi-lingual countries where the broadcaster may provide subtitles in additional languages on other teletext pages. EIA-608 captions are similar, except that North American Spanish stations may provide captioning in Spanish on CC3, DVD and Blu-ray only differ in using run-length encoded graphics instead of text, as well as some HD DVB broadcasts. Sometimes, mainly at festivals, subtitles may be shown on a separate display below the screen. Television subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing is referred to as closed captioning in some countries. The word subtitle is the prefix followed by title. In some cases, such as opera, the dialog is displayed above the stage in what are referred to as surtitles. Today, professional subtitlers usually work with specialized software and hardware where the video is digitally stored on a hard disk. Besides creating the subtitles, the subtitler usually also tells the computer software the exact positions where each subtitle should appear and disappear, for cinema film, this task is traditionally done by separate technicians. The end result is a file containing the actual subtitles as well as position markers indicating where each subtitle should appear and disappear. These markers are based on timecode if it is a work for electronic media. For multimedia-style Webcasting, check, SMIL Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language, same-language captions, i. e. without translation, were primarily intended as an aid for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Internationally, there are several studies which demonstrate that same-language captioning can have a major impact on literacy. This method of subtitling is used by television broadcasters in China. Same Language Subtitling is the use of Synchronized Captioning of Musical Lyrics as a Repeated Reading activity, the basic reading activity involves students viewing a short subtitled presentation projected onscreen, while completing a response worksheet. Closed captioning is the American term for closed subtitles specifically intended for people who are deaf and these are a transcription rather than a translation, and usually contain descriptions of important non-dialog audio as well such as or and lyrics. From the expression closed captions the word caption has in recent years come to mean a subtitle intended for the hard of hearing, be it open or closed. In British English subtitles usually refers to subtitles for the hard of hearing, however, programs such as news bulletins, current affairs programs, sport, some talk shows and political and special events utilize real time or online captioning
3.
A
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A is the first letter and the first vowel in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives, the upper-case version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lower-case version can be written in two forms, the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ, the latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type. The earliest certain ancestor of A is aleph, the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, in turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. The Phoenician alphabet letter had a form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the Hebrew or Arabic aleph, the Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter A, first was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other permanent mediums. There was also a style used for everyday or utilitarian writing. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles, the known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. At the end of the Roman Empire, several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms, 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version, the Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers, the Roman form is used in most printed material, it consists of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule form, in Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical, in some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Italic type is used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest. There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a, the double ⟨aa⟩ sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark
4.
Letter (alphabet)
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A letter is a grapheme in an alphabetic system of writing, such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants. Letters also appear in abjads and abugidas, letters broadly denote phonemes in the spoken form of the language, although there is rarely a consistent exact correspondence between letters and phonemes. Written signs in writing systems are best called syllabograms or logograms. Letter, borrowed from Old French lettre, entered Middle English around AD1200, letter derives from Latin littera, which may have derived, via Etruscan, from the Greek διφθέρα. The Middle English plural lettres could refer to an epistle or written document, use of the singular letter to refer to a written document emerged in the 14th century. As symbols that denote segmental speech, letters are associated with phonetics, in a purely phonemic alphabet, a single phoneme is denoted by a single letter, but in history and practice letters often denote more than one phoneme. A pair of letters designating a single phoneme is called a digraph, examples of digraphs in English include ch, sh and th. A phoneme can also be represented by three letters, called a trigraph, an example is the combination sch in German. A letter may also be associated more than one phoneme. As an example of positional effects, the Spanish letter c is pronounced before a, o, or u, letters also have specific names associated with them. These names may differ with language, dialect and history, Z, for example, is usually called zed in all English-speaking countries except the U. S. where it is named zee. Letters, as elements of alphabets, have prescribed orders and this may generally be known as alphabetical order though collation is the science devoted to the complex task of ordering and sorting of letters and words in different languages. In Spanish, for instance, ñ is a letter being sorted after n. In English, n and ñ are sorted alike, letters may also have numerical value. This is true of Roman numerals and the letters of other writing systems, in English, Arabic numerals are typically used instead of letters. Letters may be used as words, the words a and I are the most common English letter-words. Sometimes O is used for Oh in poetic situations, in extremely informal cases of writing individual letters may replace words, e. g. u may be used instead of you in English, when the letter name is pronounced as a homophone of the word. Nearly all alphabets in the world today either descend directly from development or were inspired by its design
5.
Bible translations
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The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. As of September 2016 the full Bible has been translated into 636 languages, thus at least some portion of the Bible has been translated into 3,223 languages. The Latin Vulgate was dominant in Western Christianity through the Middle Ages, since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages. English Bible translations also have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium, the Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions in Biblical Aramaic. From the 6th century to the 10th century, Jewish scholars, today known as Masoretes, a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts. The Masoretes also added points to the text, since the original text only contained consonant letters. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other ancient fragments, the New Testament was written in Koine Greek. Attempts to reconstruct the text are called critical editions. Karl Lachmann based his edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier. However, it has not been proven that these manuscripts are in fact more reliable than the Textus Receptus. The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the versions that do survive, the three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type, the Byzantine text-type, and the Western text-type. Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts, most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternative spelling, alternative word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article, and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was missing, examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts. Early manuscripts of the letters of Paul and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever, the punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text. Some of the first translations of the Jewish Torah began during the first exile in Babylonia, with most people speaking only Aramaic and not understanding Hebrew, the Targums were created to allow the common person to understand the Torah as it was read in ancient synagogues. The Septuagint, the very first translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, later became the text of the Old Testament in the Christian church
6.
Quran translations
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Translations of the Quran are interpretations of the scripture of Islam in languages other than Arabic. Quran was originally written in the Arabic language and has translated into most major African, Asian and European languages. Translation of the Quran has always been a problematic and difficult issue in Islamic theology, according to modern Islamic theology, the Quran is a revelation very specifically in Arabic, and so it should only be recited in Quranic Arabic. Translations into other languages are necessarily the work of humans and so, according to Muslims, since these translations necessarily subtly change the meaning, they are often called interpretations or translation of the meanings. For instance, Pickthall called his translation The Meaning of the Glorious Koran rather than simply The Koran, the task of translation is not an easy one, some native Arab-speakers will confirm that some Quranic passages are difficult to understand even in the original Arabic. A part of this is the difficulty of any translation, in Arabic, as in other languages. There is always an element of human judgement involved in understanding and translating a text and this factor is made more complex by the fact that the usage of words has changed a great deal between classical and modern Arabic. As a result, even Quranic verses which seem perfectly clear to native speakers accustomed to modern vocabulary, the original meaning of a Quranic passage will also be dependent on the historical circumstances of the prophet Muhammads life and early community in which it originated. Investigating that context usually requires a knowledge of hadith and sirah. This introduces an element of uncertainty which cannot be eliminated by any linguistic rules of translation. The first translation of the Quran was performed by Salman the Persian, according to Islamic tradition contained in the hadith, Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius received letters from Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. However, during Muhammads lifetime, no passage from the Quran was ever translated into these languages nor any other, the second known translation was into Greek and was used by Nicetas Byzantius, a scholar from Constantinople, in his Refutation of Quran written between 855 and 870. However, we know nothing about who and for what purpose had made this translation and it is however very probable that it was a complete translation. The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian language, the Samanid king, Mansur I, ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian, in the 12th century, Abu Hafs Omar al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have published several times. In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known, robertus Ketenensis produced the first Latin translation of the Quran in 1143. His version was entitled Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, the translation was made at the behest of Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, and currently exists in the Bibliothèque de lArsenal in Paris
7.
Dubbing (filmmaking)
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The process usually takes place on a dub stage. After sound editors edit and prepare all necessary tracks, the mixer or mixers proceed to balance all of the elements. In the past, dubbing was practiced primarily in musicals when the actor had a singing voice. Today, dubbing enables the screening of material to a mass audience in countries where viewers do not speak the same language as the performers in the original production. Films, videos, and sometimes video games are dubbed into the local language of a foreign market. In foreign distribution, dubbing is common in theatrically released films, television films, television series, cartoons, the insertion of voice actor performances for animation, such as computer-generated imagery or animated cartoons, is often referred to as ADR although it generally does not replace existing dialogue. In conventional film production, a sound mixer records dialogue during filming. During post-production, a sound editor, or ADR supervisor, reviews all of the dialogue in the film. ADR is recorded during an ADR session, which place in a specialized sound studio. The actor, usually the original actor from the set, views the scene with the original sound, over the course of multiple takes, the actor performs the lines while watching the scene, the most suitable take becomes the final version. The ADR process does not always take place in a post-production studio, the process may be recorded on location, with mobile equipment. Sometimes, a different actor than the actor on set is used during ADR. One famous example is the Star Wars character Darth Vader portrayed by David Prowse, in post-production and it provides a more precise guide for the actors, directors, and technicians, and can be used to complement the traditional ADR method. The rythmo band is projected in the studio and scrolls in perfect synchronization with the picture, Studio time is used more efficiently, since with the aid of scrolling text, picture, and audio cues, actors can read more lines per hour than with ADR alone. With ADR, actors can average 10–12 lines per hour, while rythmo band can facilitate the reading of 35-50 lines per hour, However, the preparation of a rythmo band is a time-consuming process involving a series of specialists organized in a production line. VideoDubber, a startup company from Israel, developed an automated dubbing SaaS platform that enables automated dubbing of video content to over 40 languages using digitized voices. It was the first to dub a full TV channel using this technology for a Spanish cable provider in July 2015, Media Movers, Inc. a dubbing company, has developed a piece of proprietary software that can automatically sync ADR/dubbed tracks with pre-defined algorithms. TM Systems received Emmy awards in 2002 and 2007 for their dubbing and subtitling software, Dubbing is often used to localize a foreign movie
8.
Video relay service
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A similar video interpreting service called video remote interpreting is conducted through a different organization often called a Video Interpreting Service Provider. VRS services have become well developed nationally in Sweden since 1997, Germany and the Nordic countries are among the other leaders in Europe, while the United States is another world leader in the provisioning of VRS services. Various universities and other organizations, including British Telecoms Martlesham facility, have conducted extensive research on signing via videotelephony. Those factors largely disappeared with the introduction of more efficient video codecs, favourable reviews quickly led to its popular usage at educational facilities for the deaf, and from there to the greater deaf community. Using such video equipment in the present day, the deaf, hard-of-hearing, the United States and several other countries compensate companies to provide video relay service. Telecommunication equipment can be used to talk to others via a language interpreter. Video equipment is used to do on-site sign language translation via video remote interpreting. Some wireless operators have even started free sign language gateways, sign language interpretation services via VRS or by VRI are useful in the present-day where one of the parties is deaf, hard-of-hearing or speech-impaired. Multilingual sign language interpreters, who can translate as well across principal languages, are also available. Much like telephone interpreting, video interpreting can be used for situations in which no on-site interpreters are available, however, video interpreting cannot be used for situations in which all parties are speaking via telephone alone. VRS and VRI interpretation requires all parties to have the necessary equipment, some advanced equipment enables interpreters to control the video camera remotely, in order to zoom in and out or to point the camera toward the party that is signing. The following sortable table is a listing of worldwide VRS providers. Note 1, in the United States in 2010 the U. S. FCC made a 10-54a ruling invalidating several VRS providers from sponsored service. According to deaf-community organizations Canada is lagging far behind its neighbour, the Video Relay Service Trial Project, managed by Telus with Sorenson as the provider, ended on January 15,2012. The trial project, which lasted for 18 months, was accessible for approximately 300 participants in BC and Alberta, when it launches, the service will facilitate conversations between people who are Deaf, hard of hearing and speech impaired and other Canadians, and vice versa. Video relay service is a service that will enable Canadians to conduct telephone calls using ASL or LSQ. Additional services, such as mail and call display, will be billed at rates similar to those charged for corresponding voice services. Funding to support video relay service in Canada will be drawn from the National Contribution Fund and this fund was created in 2001 to subsidize local telephone service in areas where the cost of providing this service is higher
9.
D
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D is the fourth letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The Semitic letter Dāleth may have developed from the logogram for a fish or a door, there are many different Egyptian hieroglyphs that might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter represented /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous, the equivalent Greek letter is Delta, Δ. The minuscule form of d consists of a loop and a vertical stroke. It developed by gradual variations on the majuscule form, in handwriting, it was common to start the arc to the left of the vertical stroke, resulting in a serif at the top of the arc. This serif was extended while the rest of the letter was reduced, resulting in an angled stroke, the angled stroke slowly developed into a vertical stroke. In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, and in the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, in the Vietnamese alphabet, it represents the sound /z/ in northern dialects or /j/ in southern dialects. In Fijian it represents a prenasalized stop /nd/, in some languages where voiceless unaspirated stops contrast with voiceless aspirated stops, ⟨d⟩ represents an unaspirated /t/, while ⟨t⟩ represents an aspirated /tʰ/. Examples of such languages include Icelandic, Scottish Gaelic, Navajo, the Roman numeral Ⅾ represents the number 500. D is the grade below C but above E in the grading system. The dictionary definition of D at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of d at Wiktionary
10.
Armenian alphabet
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The Armenian alphabet is an alphabetical writing system used to write Armenian. It was developed around 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, the Armenian word for alphabet is այբուբեն aybuben, named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet, ⟨Ա⟩ Armenian, այբ ayb and ⟨Բ⟩ Armenian, բեն ben. Listen to the pronunciation of the letters in Eastern Armenian or in Western Armenian, notes, ^ Only used in classical orthography, word-initially and in some compound words. ^ Except in ով /ov/ who and ովքեր /ovkʰer/ those, ^ Iranian Armenians pronounce this letter as, like in Classical Armenian. ^ In classical orthography, ու and և are considered a digraph, in reformed orthography, they are separate letters of the alphabet. ^ In reformed orthography, the letter ւ appears only as a component of ու, in classical orthography, the letter usually represents /v/, except in the digraph իւ /ju/. The spelling reform in Soviet Armenia replaced իւ with the trigraph յու, ^ Except in the present tense of to be, եմ /em/ I am, ես /es/ you are, ենք /enkh/ we are, եք /ekh/ you are, են /en/ they are. ^ The letter ը is generally used only at the start or end of a word, ancient Armenian manuscripts used many ligatures. Some of the commonly used ligatures are, ﬓ, ﬔ, ﬕ, ﬖ, ﬗ, և, Armenian print typefaces also include many ligatures. In the new orthography, the character և is no longer a typographical ligature, Armenian punctuation is often placed above and slightly to the right of the vowel whose tone is modified, in order to reflect intonation. The computer-induced use of English-style single or double quotes is strongly discouraged in Armenian as they look too much like other – unrelated – Armenian punctuations, the storaket is used as a comma, and placed as in English. The mijaket is used like a colon, mainly to separate two closely related clauses, or when a long list of items follows. The verjaket is used as the full stop, and placed at the end of the sentence. The yerkaratsman nshan is used as an exclamation mark, the shesht is used as an emphasis mark, and usually placed over the last vowel of the interjection word to indicate stress. The hartsakan nshan is used as a mark and placed after the last vowel of the question word. The apatarts is used as an apostrophe, only in Western Armenian, to indicate elision of a vowel. The yentamna is used as the ordinary Armenian hyphen, the pativ was used as an Armenian abbreviation mark, and was placed on top of an abbreviated word to indicate that it was abbreviated. ISO9985 transliterates the Armenian alphabet for modern Armenian as follows, In the linguistic literature on Classical Armenian, hübschmann-Meillet have The Armenian alphabet was introduced by Mesrop Mashtots and Isaac of Armenia in 405 CE
11.
Internationalization and localization
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In computing, internationalization and localization are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional differences and technical requirements of a target market. Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can potentially be adapted to various languages, localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by adding locale-specific components and translating text. Localization uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization, the terms are frequently abbreviated to the numeronyms i18n and L10n for localization, due to the length of the words. Some companies, like IBM and Sun Microsystems, use the term globalization, g11n, Microsoft defines Internationalization as a combination of World-Readiness and localization. World-Readiness is a task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures. Hewlett-Packard and HP-UX created the system called NLS to produce localizable software, translation is typically the most time-consuming component of language localization. These differences may need to be taken account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated, the Common Locale Data Repository by Unicode provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, OS X and Debian, and by major internet companies or projects such as Google. Examples of such include, Different scripts in different writing systems use different characters - a different set of letters, syllograms, logograms. Modern system use the Unicode standard to represent many different languages with a character encoding. Writing direction is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, complex text layout, for languages where characters change shape depending on context. Capitalization exists in some scripts and not in others, other grammar rules might also vary, e. g. genitive. Keyboard shortcuts can only use of buttons actually on the keyboard layout which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language, other areas often follow one of these. Specific third-party services, such as maps, weather reports, or payment service providers, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers. Time zones vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a time zone. For internationalization, UTC is often used internally and then converted into a time zone for display purposes
