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Drug nomenclature
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Drug nomenclature is the systematic naming of drugs, especially pharmaceutical drugs. Generic names for drugs are nowadays constructed out of affixes and stems that classify the drugs into different categories, a marketed drug might also have a company code or compound code. The chemical names are the names, based on the molecular structure of the drug. There are various systems of nomenclature and thus various chemical names for any one substance. The most important is the IUPAC name, chemical names are typically very long and too complex to be commonly used in referring to a drug. Sometimes, a company that is developing a drug might give the drug a company code, for example, CDP870 is UCB’s company code for Cimzia. Many of these codes, although not all, have prefixes that correspond to the company name, during development, the company will apply for regulatory approval of the drug by the relevant national regulatory agency, and it will apply for a generic name for that country. It will also apply for an International Nonproprietary Name through the World Health Organization, nowadays the national nonproprietary names are usually the same as the INN. The generic names usually indicate via their stems what drug class the drug belongs to, for example, one can tell that aciclovir is an antiviral drug because its name ends in the -vir suffix. Otherwise the 2 names are both given, joined by hyphens or slashes. For example, suspensions combining trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole are called either trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or co-trimoxazole, similarly, co-codamol is codeine-acetaminophen, and co-triamterzide is triamterene-hydrochlorothiazide. The USP ceased maintaining PENs, but the similar co-prefixed BANs are still current, for drugs that make it all the way through development, testing, and regulatory acceptance, the pharmaceutical company then gives the drug a trade name. The term trade name is a term in the pharmaceutical industry for a brand name or trademark name. For example, Lipitor is Pfizers trade name for atorvastatin, a cholesterol-lowering medication, Drug names are often subject to legal regulation, including approval for new drugs and on packaging to establish clear rules about adulterants and fraudulent or misleading labelling. A national formulary is often designated to define drug names for regulatory purposes, unbiased mentions of a drug place the nonproprietary name first and follow it with the trade name in parentheses, if relevant. This pattern is important for the literature, where conflict of interest is disclosed or avoided. The authors reporting on a study are not endorsing any particular brand of drug and they will often state which brand was used, for methodologic validity, but they do so in a way that makes clear the absence of endorsement. For example, the 2015 American Society of Hematology publication policies say, Non-proprietary names should be used and he first letter of the name of a proprietary drug should be capitalized
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Corticosteroid
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Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones. Some common naturally occurring steroid hormones are cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone and aldosterone, the main corticosteroids produced by the adrenal cortex are cortisol and aldosterone. Glucocorticoids such as cortisol affect carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, and have anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory effects are mediated by blocking the action of inflammatory mediators and inducing anti-inflammatory mediators. Immunosuppressive effects are mediated by suppressing delayed hypersensitivity reactions by direct action on T-lymphocytes, anti-proliferative effects are mediated by inhibition of DNA synthesis and epidermal cell turnover. Vasoconstrictive effects are mediated by inhibiting the action of inflammatory mediators such as histidine, synthetic pharmaceutical drugs with corticosteroid-like effects are used in a variety of conditions, ranging from brain tumors to skin diseases. Dexamethasone and its derivatives are almost pure glucocorticoids, while prednisone, hydrocortisone is typically used for replacement therapy, e. g. for adrenal insufficiency and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Corticosteroids are also used supportively to prevent nausea, often in combination with 5-HT3 antagonists, typical undesired effects of glucocorticoids present quite uniformly as drug-induced Cushings syndrome. Typical mineralocorticoid side-effects are hypertension, hypokalemia, hypernatremia without causing peripheral edema, metabolic alkalosis, there may also be impaired wound healing or ulcer formation because of the immunosuppressive effects. Clinical and experimental evidence indicates that corticosteroids can cause permanent eye damage by inducing central serous retinopathy, a variety of steroid medications, from anti-allergy nasal sprays to topical skin creams, to eye drops, to prednisone have been implicated in the development of CSR. Corticosteroids have been used in treating people with traumatic brain injury. A systematic review identified 20 randomised controlled trials and included 12,303 participants, the authors recommended people with traumatic head injury should not be routinely treated with corticosteroids. There is some basis for genetic variation in response to inhaled corticosteroids. Two genes of interest are CHRH1 and TBX21, both genes display some degree of polymorphic variation in humans, which may explain how some patients respond better to inhaled corticosteroid therapy than others. Use of corticosteroids has numerous side-effects, some of which may be severe, Neuropsychiatric, steroid psychosis, therapeutic doses may cause a feeling of artificial well-being. The neuropsychiatric effects are mediated by sensitization of the body to the actions of adrenaline. Therapeutically, the bulk of corticosteroid dose is given in the morning to mimic the bodys diurnal rhythm, if given at night, an extensive review is provided by Flores and Gumina. Cardiovascular, Corticosteroids can cause sodium retention through an action on the kidney. This can result in retention and hypertension
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Glucocorticoid
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Glucocorticoids are a class of corticosteroids, which are a class of steroid hormones. Glucocorticoids are corticosteroids that bind to the receptor, that is present in almost every vertebrate animal cell. The name glucocorticoid is composed from its role in regulation of metabolism, synthesis in the adrenal cortex. A less common synonym is glucocorticosteroid, gCs are part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system which reduces certain aspects of immune function, such as reduction of inflammation. They are therefore used in medicine to treat diseases caused by an immune system, such as allergies, asthma, autoimmune diseases. GCs have many effects, including potentially harmful side effects. They also interfere with some of the mechanisms in cancer cells. This includes, inhibitory effects on lymphocyte proliferation as in the treatment of lymphomas and leukemias, gCs affect cells by binding to the glucocorticoid receptor. Glucocorticoids are distinguished from mineralocorticoids and sex steroids by their specific receptors, target cells, in technical terms, corticosteroid refers to both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, but is often used as a synonym for glucocorticoid. Glucocorticoids are chiefly produced in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex, cortisol is the most important human glucocorticoid. It is essential for life, and it regulates or supports a variety of important cardiovascular, metabolic, immunologic, glucocorticoid effects may be broadly classified into two major categories, immunological and metabolic. In addition, glucocorticoids play important roles in development and body fluid homeostasis. As discussed in detail below, glucocorticoids function through interaction with the glucocorticoid receptor. Down-regulate the expression of proinflammatory proteins, glucocorticoids are also shown to play a role in the development and homeostasis of T lymphocytes. This has been shown in mice with either increased or decreased sensitivity of T cell lineage to glucocorticoids. The name glucocorticoid derives from early observations that these hormones were involved in glucose metabolism, in the fasted state, cortisol stimulates several processes that collectively serve to increase and maintain normal concentrations of glucose in blood. Enhancing the expression of enzymes involved in gluconeogenesis is probably the best-known metabolic function of glucocorticoids, mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues, These serve as substrates for gluconeogenesis. Excessive glucocorticoid levels resulting from administration as a drug or hyperadrenocorticism have effects on many systems, some examples include inhibition of bone formation, suppression of calcium absorption, delayed wound healing, muscle weakness, and increased risk of infection
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PubChem
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PubChem is a database of chemical molecules and their activities against biological assays. The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information, a component of the National Library of Medicine, PubChem can be accessed for free through a web user interface. Millions of compound structures and descriptive datasets can be downloaded via FTP. PubChem contains substance descriptions and small molecules with fewer than 1000 atoms and 1000 bonds, more than 80 database vendors contribute to the growing PubChem database. PubChem consists of three dynamically growing primary databases, as of 28 January 2016, Compounds,82.6 million entries, contains pure and characterized chemical compounds. Substances,198 million entries, contains also mixtures, extracts, complexes, bioAssay, bioactivity results from 1.1 million high-throughput screening programs with several million values. PubChem contains its own online molecule editor with SMILES/SMARTS and InChI support that allows the import and export of all common chemical file formats to search for structures and fragments. In the text search form the database fields can be searched by adding the name in square brackets to the search term. A numeric range is represented by two separated by a colon. The search terms and field names are case-insensitive, parentheses and the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT can be used. AND is assumed if no operator is used, example,0,5000,50,10 -5,5 PubChem was released in 2004. The American Chemical Society has raised concerns about the publicly supported PubChem database and they have a strong interest in the issue since the Chemical Abstracts Service generates a large percentage of the societys revenue. To advocate their position against the PubChem database, ACS has actively lobbied the US Congress, soon after PubChems creation, the American Chemical Society lobbied U. S. Congress to restrict the operation of PubChem, which they asserted competes with their Chemical Abstracts Service
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ChemSpider
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ChemSpider is a database of chemicals. ChemSpider is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the database contains information on more than 50 million molecules from over 500 data sources including, Each chemical is given a unique identifier, which forms part of a corresponding URL. This is an approach to develop an online chemistry database. The search can be used to widen or restrict already found results, structure searching on mobile devices can be done using free apps for iOS and for the Android. The ChemSpider database has been used in combination with text mining as the basis of document markup. The result is a system between chemistry documents and information look-up via ChemSpider into over 150 data sources. ChemSpider was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in May,2009, prior to the acquisition by RSC, ChemSpider was controlled by a private corporation, ChemZoo Inc. The system was first launched in March 2007 in a release form. ChemSpider has expanded the generic support of a database to include support of the Wikipedia chemical structure collection via their WiChempedia implementation. A number of services are available online. SyntheticPages is an interactive database of synthetic chemistry procedures operated by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Users submit synthetic procedures which they have conducted themselves for publication on the site and these procedures may be original works, but they are more often based on literature reactions. Citations to the published procedure are made where appropriate. They are checked by an editor before posting. The pages do not undergo formal peer-review like a journal article. The comments are moderated by scientific editors. The intention is to collect practical experience of how to conduct useful chemical synthesis in the lab, while experimental methods published in an ordinary academic journal are listed formally and concisely, the procedures in ChemSpider SyntheticPages are given with more practical detail. Comments by submitters are included as well, other publications with comparable amounts of detail include Organic Syntheses and Inorganic Syntheses
6.
Chemical formula
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These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH
