Dual polyhedron
In geometry, any polyhedron is associated with a second dual figure, where the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other. Such dual figures remain combinatorial or abstract polyhedra, but not all are geometric polyhedra. Starting with any given polyhedron, the dual of its dual is the original polyhedron. Duality preserves the symmetries of a polyhedron. Therefore, for many classes of polyhedra defined by their symmetries, the duals belong to a symmetric class. Thus, the regular polyhedra – the Platonic solids and Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra – form dual pairs, where the regular tetrahedron is self-dual; the dual of an isogonal polyhedron, having equivalent vertices, is one, isohedral, having equivalent faces. The dual of an isotoxal polyhedron is isotoxal. Duality is related to reciprocity or polarity, a geometric transformation that, when applied to a convex polyhedron, realizes the dual polyhedron as another convex polyhedron.
There are many kinds of duality. The kinds most relevant to elementary polyhedra are polar reciprocity and topological or abstract duality; the duality of polyhedra is defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a concentric sphere. Here, each vertex is associated with a face plane so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius. In coordinates, for reciprocation about the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2, the vertex is associated with the plane x 0 x + y 0 y + z 0 z = r 2; the vertices of the dual are the poles reciprocal to the face planes of the original, the faces of the dual lie in the polars reciprocal to the vertices of the original. Any two adjacent vertices define an edge, these will reciprocate to two adjacent faces which intersect to define an edge of the dual; this dual pair of edges are always orthogonal to each other. If r 0 is the radius of the sphere, r 1 and r 2 the distances from its centre to the pole and its polar, then: r 1.
R 2 = r 0 2 For the more symmetrical polyhedra having an obvious centroid, it is common to make the polyhedron and sphere concentric, as in the Dorman Luke construction described below. However, it is possible to reciprocate a polyhedron about any sphere, the resulting form of the dual will depend on the size and position of the sphere; the choice of center for the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If multiple symmetry axes are present, they will intersect at a single point, this is taken to be the centroid. Failing that, a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere is used. If a polyhedron in Euclidean space has an element passing through the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will go to infinity. Since Euclidean space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, may be formed by adding the required'plane at infinity'; some theorists prefer to say that there is no dual. Meanwhile, Wenninger found a way to represent these infinite duals, in a manner suitable for making models.
The concept of duality here is related to the duality in projective geometry, where lines and edges are interchanged. Projective polarity works well enough for convex polyhedra, but for non-convex figures such as star polyhedra, when we seek to rigorously define this form of polyhedral duality in terms of projective polarity, various problems appear. Because of the definitional issues for geometric duality of non-convex polyhedra, Grünbaum argues that any proper definition of a non-convex polyhedron should include a notion of a dual polyhedron. Any convex polyhedron can be distorted into a canonical form, in which a unit midsphere exists tangent to every edge, such that the average position of the points of tangency is the center of the sphere; this form is unique up to congruences. If we reciprocate such a canonical polyhedron about its midsphere, the dual polyhedron will share the same edge-tangency points and so must be canonical, it is the canonical dual, the two together form a canonical dual pair.
When a pair of polyhedra cannot be obtained by reciprocation from each other, they may be called duals of each other as long as the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, the edges of one correspond to the edges of the other, in an incidence-preserving way. Such pairs of polyhedra are abstractly dual; the vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron form a graph, embedded on a topological sphere, the surface of the polyhedron. The same graph can be projected to form
Polyhedron
In geometry, a polyhedron is a solid in three dimensions with flat polygonal faces, straight edges and sharp corners or vertices. The word polyhedron comes from as poly - + - hedron. A convex polyhedron is the convex hull of finitely many points on the same plane. Cubes and pyramids are examples of convex polyhedra. A polyhedron is a 3-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. Convex polyhedra are well-defined, with several equivalent standard definitions. However, the formal mathematical definition of polyhedra that are not required to be convex has been problematic. Many definitions of "polyhedron" have been given within particular contexts, some more rigorous than others, there is not universal agreement over which of these to choose; some of these definitions exclude shapes that have been counted as polyhedra or include shapes that are not considered as valid polyhedra. As Branko Grünbaum observed, "The Original Sin in the theory of polyhedra goes back to Euclid, through Kepler, Poinsot and many others... at each stage... the writers failed to define what are the polyhedra".
There is general agreement that a polyhedron is a solid or surface that can be described by its vertices, edges and sometimes by its three-dimensional interior volume. One can distinguish among these different definitions according to whether they describe the polyhedron as a solid, whether they describe it as a surface, or whether they describe it more abstractly based on its incidence geometry. A common and somewhat naive definition of a polyhedron is that it is a solid whose boundary can be covered by finitely many planes or that it is a solid formed as the union of finitely many convex polyhedra. Natural refinements of this definition require the solid to be bounded, to have a connected interior, also to have a connected boundary; the faces of such a polyhedron can be defined as the connected components of the parts of the boundary within each of the planes that cover it, the edges and vertices as the line segments and points where the faces meet. However, the polyhedra defined in this way do not include the self-crossing star polyhedra, their faces may not form simple polygons, some edges may belong to more than two faces.
Definitions based on the idea of a bounding surface rather than a solid are common. For instance, O'Rourke defines a polyhedron as a union of convex polygons, arranged in space so that the intersection of any two polygons is a shared vertex or edge or the empty set and so that their union is a manifold. If a planar part of such a surface is not itself a convex polygon, O'Rourke requires it to be subdivided into smaller convex polygons, with flat dihedral angles between them. Somewhat more Grünbaum defines an acoptic polyhedron to be a collection of simple polygons that form an embedded manifold, with each vertex incident to at least three edges and each two faces intersecting only in shared vertices and edges of each. Cromwell gives a similar definition but without the restriction of three edges per vertex. Again, this type of definition does not encompass the self-crossing polyhedra. Similar notions form the basis of topological definitions of polyhedra, as subdivisions of a topological manifold into topological disks whose pairwise intersections are required to be points, topological arcs, or the empty set.
However, there exist topological polyhedra. One modern approach is based on the theory of abstract polyhedra; these can be defined as ordered sets whose elements are the vertices and faces of a polyhedron. A vertex or edge element is less than an edge or face element when the vertex or edge is part of the edge or face. Additionally, one may include a special bottom element of this partial order and a top element representing the whole polyhedron. If the sections of the partial order between elements three levels apart have the same structure as the abstract representation of a polygon these ordered sets carry the same information as a topological polyhedron. However, these requirements are relaxed, to instead require only that sections between elements two levels apart have the same structure as the abstract representation of a line segment. Geometric polyhedra, defined in other ways, can be described abstractly in this way, but it is possible to use abstract polyhedra as the basis of a definition of geometric polyhedra.
A realization of an abstract polyhedron is taken to be a mapping from the vertices of the abstract polyhedron to geometric points, such that the points of each face are coplanar. A geometric polyhedron can be defined as a realization of an abstract polyhedron. Realizations that forgo the requirement of planarity, that impose additional requirements of symmetry, or that map the vertices to higher dimensional spaces have been considered. Unlike the solid-based and surface-based definitions, this works well for star polyhedra. However, without additional restrictions, this definition allows degenerate or unfaithful polyhedra (for instance, by mapp
Bitruncation
In geometry, a bitruncation is an operation on regular polytopes. It represents a truncation beyond rectification; the original edges are lost and the original faces remain as smaller copies of themselves. Bitruncated regular polytopes can be represented by an extended Schläfli symbol notation t1 2t. For regular polyhedra, a bitruncated form is the truncated dual. For example, a bitruncated cube is a truncated octahedron. For a regular 4-polytope, a bitruncated form is a dual-symmetric operator. A bitruncated 4-polytope is the same as the bitruncated dual, will have double the symmetry if the original 4-polytope is self-dual. A regular polytope will have its cells bitruncated into truncated cells, the vertices are replaced by truncated cells. An interesting result of this operation is that self-dual 4-polytope remain cell-transitive after bitruncation. There are 5 such forms corresponding to the five truncated regular polyhedra: t. Two are honeycombs on the 3-sphere, one a honeycomb in Euclidean 3-space, two are honeycombs in hyperbolic 3-space.
Uniform polyhedron uniform 4-polytope Rectification Truncation Coxeter, H. S. M. Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8 Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson: The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1966 John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, The Symmetries of Things 2008, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 Weisstein, Eric W. "Truncation". MathWorld
Cantellation (geometry)
In geometry, a cantellation is an operation in any dimension that bevels a regular polytope at its edges and vertices, creating a new facet in place of each edge and vertex. The operation applies to regular tilings and honeycombs; this is rectifying its rectification. This operation is called expansion by Alicia Boole Stott, as imagined by taking the faces of the regular form moving them away from the center and filling in new faces in the gaps for each opened vertex and edge, it is represented by r or rr. For polyhedra, a cantellation operation offers a direct sequence from a regular polyhedron and its dual. Example cantellation sequence between a cube and octahedron For higher-dimensional polytopes, a cantellation offers a direct sequence from a regular polytope and its birectified form. A cuboctahedron would be a cantellated tetrahedron, as another example. Uniform polyhedron Uniform 4-polytope Coxeter, H. S. M. Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8 Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N.
W. Johnson: The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1966 Weisstein, Eric W. "Expansion". MathWorld
Elongated bipyramid
In geometry, the elongated bipyramids are an infinite set of polyhedra, constructed by elongating an n-gonal bipyramid. There are three elongated bipyramids that are Johnson solids made from regular triangles and squares. Higher forms can be constructed with isosceles triangles. Gyroelongated bipyramid Gyroelongated pyramid Elongated pyramid Diminished trapezohedron Norman W. Johnson, "Convex Solids with Regular Faces", Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 18, 1966, pages 169–200. Contains the original enumeration of the 92 solids and the conjecture that there are no others. Victor A. Zalgaller. Convex Polyhedra with Regular Faces. Consultants Bureau. No ISBN; the first proof that there are only 92 Johnson solids
Triangular tiling
In geometry, the triangular tiling or triangular tessellation is one of the three regular tilings of the Euclidean plane. Because the internal angle of the equilateral triangle is 60 degrees, six triangles at a point occupy a full 360 degrees; the triangular tiling has Schläfli symbol of. Conway calls it a deltille, named from the triangular shape of the Greek letter delta; the triangular tiling can be called a kishextille by a kis operation that adds a center point and triangles to replace the faces of a hextille. It is one of three regular tilings of the plane; the other two are the hexagonal tiling. There are 9 distinct uniform colorings of a triangular tiling. Three of them can be derived from others by repeating colors: 111212 and 111112 from 121213 by combining 1 and 3, while 111213 is reduced from 121314. There is one class of Archimedean colorings, 111112, not 1-uniform, containing alternate rows of triangles where every third is colored; the example shown is 2-uniform, but there are infinitely many such Archimedean colorings that can be created by arbitrary horizontal shifts of the rows.
The vertex arrangement of the triangular tiling is called an A2 lattice. It is the 2-dimensional case of a simplectic honeycomb; the A*2 lattice can be constructed by the union of all three A2 lattices, equivalent to the A2 lattice. + + = dual of = The vertices of the triangular tiling are the centers of the densest possible circle packing. Every circle is in contact with 6 other circles in the packing; the packing density is π⁄√12 or 90.69%. The voronoi cell of a triangular tiling is a hexagon, so the voronoi tessellation, the hexagonal tiling, has a direct correspondence to the circle packings. Triangular tilings can be made with the equivalent topology as the regular tiling. With identical faces and vertex-transitivity, there are 5 variations. Symmetry given assumes all faces are the same color; the planar tilings are related to polyhedra. Putting fewer triangles on a vertex leaves a gap and allows it to be folded into a pyramid; these can be expanded to Platonic solids: five and three triangles on a vertex define an icosahedron and tetrahedron respectively.
This tiling is topologically related as a part of sequence of regular polyhedra with Schläfli symbols, continuing into the hyperbolic plane. It is topologically related as a part of sequence of Catalan solids with face configuration Vn.6.6, continuing into the hyperbolic plane. Like the uniform polyhedra there are eight uniform tilings that can be based from the regular hexagonal tiling. Drawing the tiles colored as red on the original faces, yellow at the original vertices, blue along the original edges, there are 8 forms, 7 which are topologically distinct. There are 4 regular complex apeirogons. Regular complex apeirogons have edges, where edges can contain 2 or more vertices. Regular apeirogons pr are constrained by: 1/p + 2/q + 1/r = 1. Edges have p vertices, vertex figures are r-gonal; the first is made of 2-edges, next two are triangular edges, the last has overlapping hexagonal edges. There are three Laves tilings made of single type of triangles: Triangular tiling honeycomb Simplectic honeycomb Tilings of regular polygons List of uniform tilings Isogrid Coxeter, H.
S. M. Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8 p. 296, Table II: Regular honeycombs Grünbaum, Branko. C.. Tilings and Patterns. New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-1193-1. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list Williams, Robert; the Geometrical Foundation of Natural Structure: A Source Book of Design. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-23729-X. P35 John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strass, The Symmetries of Things 2008, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 Weisstein, Eric W. "Triangular Grid". MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W. "Regular tessellation". MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W. "Uniform tessellation". MathWorld. Klitzing, Richard. "2D Euclidean tilings x3o6o - trat - O2"
Hexagonal tiling
In geometry, the hexagonal tiling or hexagonal tessellation is a regular tiling of the Euclidean plane, in which three hexagons meet at each vertex. It has Schläfli symbol of or t. English mathematician John Conway calls it a hextille; the internal angle of the hexagon is 120 degrees so three hexagons at a point make a full 360 degrees. It is one of three regular tilings of the plane; the other two are the square tiling. The hexagonal tiling is the densest way to arrange circles in two dimensions; the Honeycomb conjecture states that the hexagonal tiling is the best way to divide a surface into regions of equal area with the least total perimeter. The optimal three-dimensional structure for making honeycomb was investigated by Lord Kelvin, who believed that the Kelvin structure is optimal. However, the less regular Weaire–Phelan structure is better; this structure exists in the form of graphite, where each sheet of graphene resembles chicken wire, with strong covalent carbon bonds. Tubular graphene sheets have been synthesised.
They have many potential applications, due to electrical properties. Silicene is similar. Chicken wire consists of a hexagonal lattice of wires; the hexagonal tiling appears in many crystals. In three dimensions, the face-centered cubic and hexagonal close packing are common crystal structures, they are the densest known sphere packings in three dimensions, are believed to be optimal. Structurally, they comprise parallel layers of hexagonal tilings, similar to the structure of graphite, they differ in the way that the layers are staggered from each other, with the face-centered cubic being the more regular of the two. Pure copper, amongst other materials, forms a face-centered cubic lattice. There are three distinct uniform colorings of a hexagonal tiling, all generated from reflective symmetry of Wythoff constructions; the represent the periodic repeat of one colored tile, counting hexagonal distances as h first, k second. The same counting is used in the Goldberg polyhedra, with a notation h,k, can be applied to hyperbolic tilings for p>6.
The 3-color tiling is a tessellation generated by the order-3 permutohedrons. A chamferred hexagonal tiling replacing edges with new hexagons and transforms into another hexagonal tiling. In the limit, the original faces disappear, the new hexagons degenerate into rhombi, it becomes a rhombic tiling; the hexagons can be dissected into sets of 6 triangles. This process leads to two 2-uniform tilings, the triangular tiling: The hexagonal tiling can be considered an elongated rhombic tiling, where each vertex of the rhombic tiling is stretched into a new edge; this is similar to the relation of the rhombic dodecahedron and the rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron tessellations in 3 dimensions. It is possible to subdivide the prototiles of certain hexagonal tilings by two, four or nine equal pentagons: This tiling is topologically related as a part of sequence of regular tilings with hexagonal faces, starting with the hexagonal tiling, with Schläfli symbol, Coxeter diagram, progressing to infinity; this tiling is topologically related to regular polyhedra with vertex figure n3, as a part of sequence that continues into the hyperbolic plane.
It is related to the uniform truncated polyhedra with vertex figure n.6.6. This tiling is a part of a sequence of truncated rhombic polyhedra and tilings with Coxeter group symmetry; the cube can be seen as a rhombic hexahedron. The truncated forms have regular n-gons at the truncated vertices, nonregular hexagonal faces. Like the uniform polyhedra there are eight uniform tilings that can be based from the regular hexagonal tiling. Drawing the tiles colored as red on the original faces, yellow at the original vertices, blue along the original edges, there are 8 forms, 7 which are topologically distinct. There are 3 types of monohedral convex hexagonal tilings, they are all isohedral. Each has parametric variations within a fixed symmetry. Type 2 contains glide reflections, is 2-isohedral keeping chiral pairs distinct. Hexagonal tilings can be made with the identical topology as the regular tiling. With isohedral faces, there are 13 variations. Symmetry given assumes all faces are the same color. Colors here represent the lattice positions.
Single-color lattices are parallelogon hexagons. Other isohedrally-tiled topological hexagonal tilings are seen as quadrilaterals and pentagons that are not edge-to-edge, but interpreted as colinear adjacent edges: The 2-uniform and 3-uniform tessellations have a rotational degree of freedom which distorts 2/3 of the hexagons, including a colinear case that can be seen as a non-edge-to-edge tiling of hexagons and larger triangles, it can be distorted into a chiral 4-colored tri-directional weaved pattern, distorting some hexagons into parallelograms. The weaved pattern with 2 colored faces have rotational 632 symmetry. A chevron pattern has pmg symmetry, lowered to p1 with 3 or 4 colored tiles; the hexagonal tiling can be used as a circle packing, placing equal diameter circles at the center of every point. Every circle is in contact with 3 other circles in the packing; the gap inside each hexagon allows for one circle, creating the densest packing from the triangular tiling, with each circle contact with the maximum of 6 circles.
There are 2 regular complex apeirogons, sharing the vertices of the
has a uniform truncation, the truncated icosidodecahedron, represented as tr{5,3} or , 
. In the Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, the effect of a truncation is to ring all the nodes adjacent to the ringed node.
