1.
Trusted Computing Group
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The Trusted Computing Group is a group formed by AMD, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Intel and Microsoft to implement Trusted Computing concepts across personal computers. The Trusted Computing Group was announced in 2003 as the successor to the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance which was formed in 1999. Many other companies have joined the Trusted Computing Group, including Wave Systems Corp, Digital Management. Cisco, Lenovo, Infineon, Juniper Networks and Fujitsu, in November 1999, the TCPA held its Founding Conference and announced that over 70 leading hardware and software companies had joined the alliance since its inception in the previous month. In December, the TCPA released version 1. 1a of its Trusted Computing Platform Specifications, in 2003, the TCPA was succeeded by the Trusted Computing Group, with an increased emphasis on trust in mobile devices, such as cell phones and PDAs. TCG-compliant functionality has since been integrated directly into certain mass-market chipsets, in 2009, TCG released a set of specifications that describe the protocol to communicate with self encrypting disk drives. The TCG Storage Work Group Storage Core Architecture Specification describes in detail how to implement and utilize trust, the vendor of a TPM-enabled system has complete control over what software does and does not run on the owners system. In some cases the vendor may choose to grant permission to the owner to configure hardware they have legally purchased, the TPM can be used in conjunction with the boot loader to ensure only vendor-approved operating systems are running. This could restrict alternative operating systems from running, including free or open source operating systems, the TPM1.1 specification envisioned a standard PC platform equipped with a TPM chip. In this scenario, the TPM chip can serve as a hardware key storage, additionally, it can keep track of so-called measurements of the platform and be able to produce signed statements about the running software chain. Therefore, numerous other TPM-related projects are in progress, the purpose of which is to make it possible to launch, the TPM specification 1.2 has been enhanced to accommodate this mode of operation. Additionally, hardware changes are required in the CPU and chipset, Intels approach is called Trusted Execution Technology. Many of Intels Core 2 Duo CPUs are advertised to support these extensions, however, chipset support is required for the extensions to be operational. Currently, Intels chipset Q35 Express supports TXT, in addition to chipset support, the mainboard must also feature a TPM1.2 chip. Intel currently advertises DQ35MP and DQ35JO as being compliant with the technology, the first application of the technology will be a set of manageability enhancements under the brand name vPro. AMDs platform is called Secure Execution Mode, in 2002-2003, Microsoft announced an initiative called Next-Generation Secure Computing Base. This was basically a vision of how a TPM1.2 chip, CPU, chipset and software could provide an environment, Intels TXT and AMDs SEM can be seen as realizations of the hardware side of the NGSCB vision. Instead, Vista ships with a few technologies that can make use of a subset of the functions of the TPM chip, such as BitLocker Drive Encryption, and it has received criticism from the GNU/Linux and FreeBSD communities, as well as the software development community in general
2.
Computer hardware
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Computer hardware is the collection of physical components that constitute a computer system. By contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware, hardware is directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, the template for all modern computers is the Von Neumann architecture, detailed in a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. The meaning of the term has evolved to mean a stored-program computer in which an instruction fetch and this is referred to as the Von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance of the system. For the third year, U. S. business-to-business channel sales increased. The impressive growth was the fastest sales increase since the end of the recession, sales growth accelerated in the second half of the year peaking in fourth quarter with a 6.9 percent increase over the fourth quarter of 2012. There are a number of different types of system in use today. The personal computer, also known as the PC, is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility, laptops are generally very similar, although they may use lower-power or reduced size components, thus lower performance. The computer case is a plastic or metal enclosure that houses most of the components, a case can be either big or small, but the form factor of motherboard for which it is designed matters more. A power supply unit converts alternating current electric power to low-voltage DC power for the components of the computer. Laptops are capable of running from a battery, normally for a period of hours. The motherboard is the component of a computer. It is usually cooled by a heatsink and fan, or water-cooling system, most newer CPUs include an on-die Graphics Processing Unit. The clock speed of CPUs governs how fast it executes instructions, many modern computers have the option to overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output and thus a need for improved cooling. The chipset, which includes the bridge, mediates communication between the CPU and the other components of the system, including main memory. Random-Access Memory, which stores the code and data that are being accessed by the CPU. For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes up memory, RAM usually comes on DIMMs in the sizes 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much larger. Read-Only Memory, which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution, the BIOS includes boot firmware and power management firmware
3.
Software
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Computer software, or simply software, is that part of a computer system that consists of data or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs, computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be used on its own. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor—typically a central processing unit, a machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also cause something to appear on a display of the computer system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to jump to a different instruction, the majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two, an outline for what would have been the first piece of software was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th century, for the planned Analytical Engine. However, neither the Analytical Engine nor any software for it were ever created, the first theory about software—prior to creation of computers as we know them today—was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. This eventually led to the creation of the academic fields of computer science and software engineering. Computer science is more theoretical, whereas software engineering focuses on practical concerns. However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it—programs stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers—did not yet exist, the first electronic computing devices were instead rewired in order to reprogram them. On virtually all platforms, software can be grouped into a few broad categories. There are many different types of software, because the range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so large—see list of software. System software includes, Operating systems, which are collections of software that manage resources and provides common services for other software that runs on top of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system bundled with additional software so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system. Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a computer, utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance and care of their computers
4.
Free software
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The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
5.
Richard Stallman
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Richard Matthew Stallman, often known by his initials, rms, is an American software freedom activist and programmer. He campaigns for software to be distributed in a such that its users receive the freedoms to use, study, distribute. Software that ensures these freedoms is termed free software, Stallman launched the GNU Project, founded the Free Software Foundation, developed the GNU Compiler Collection and GNU Emacs, and wrote the GNU General Public License. Stallman launched the GNU Project in September 1983 to create a Unix-like computer operating system composed entirely of free software, with this, he also launched the free software movement. In October 1985 he founded the Free Software Foundation, in 1989 he co-founded the League for Programming Freedom. This has included software license agreements, non-disclosure agreements, activation keys, dongles, copy restriction, proprietary formats, as of 2016, he has received fifteen honorary doctorates and professorships. Stallman was born to Alice Lippman, a teacher, and Daniel Stallman. He was interested in computers at an age, when Stallman was a pre-teen at a summer camp. From 1967 to 1969, Stallman attended a Columbia University Saturday program for school students. Stallman was also a laboratory assistant in the biology department at Rockefeller University. Although he was interested in mathematics and physics, his professor at Rockefeller thought he showed promise as a biologist. His first experience with computers was at the IBM New York Scientific Center when he was in high school. He was hired for the summer in 1970, following his year of high school. He completed the task after a couple of weeks and spent the rest of the writing a text editor in APL. As a first-year student at Harvard University in fall 1970, Stallman was known for his performance in Math 55. He was happy, For the first time in my life, Stallman graduated from Harvard magna cum laude earning a bachelors degree in Physics in 1974. Stallman considered staying on at Harvard, but instead he decided to enroll as a student at MIT. He pursued a doctorate in physics for one year, but left that program to focus on his programming at the MIT AI Laboratory
6.
International Data Corporation
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International Data Corporation, an American market research, analysis and advisory firm, specializes in information technology, telecommunications, and consumer technology, Software Development. A wholly owned subsidiary of the International Data Group, IDC has its headquarters in Framingham, Massachusetts, United States. The corporation has approximately 70 offices grouped into Latin America, Middle East and Africa, Central and Eastern Europe, Europe, Asia/Pacific and it employs over 1,100 analysts, who provide consultancy in relation to technology opportunities and trends for over 110 countries. IDC was founded by Patrick Joseph McGovern in Massachusetts, in 1964, at the outset, the company produced a computer installation data base, and published a newsletter, EDP Industry and Market Report. Companies such as RCA, Univac, Xerox, and Burroughs paid IDC for use of the data base, during this time, Mcgovern continued to work as a writer for Computers and Automation magazine, the first computer magazine, published by Edmund C. McGovern frequently described his having sold his old car for $5,000, to fund the startup of IDC, at the time, $5,000 was the purchase price of a new Cadillac. Contrary to a report in 1999, that the company had grossed $600,000 by its third year. With a modest net profit of $2,961, subsequently, failing to wrest control of Computers and Automation magazine from his friend and mentor, Ed Berkeley, he left Berkeley and founded PC World. IDC has had major slips in forecasts, in 2011, IDC predicted Windows Phone to overtake iPhone in market share, but in reality Windows Phone is almost dead. Official website International Data Group official website
7.
Computer virus
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A computer virus is a type of malicious software program that, when executed, replicates by reproducing itself or infecting other computer programs by modifying them. Infecting computer programs can include as well, data files, or the sector of the hard drive. When this replication succeeds, the areas are then said to be infected with a computer virus. The term virus is also commonly, but erroneously, used to refer to types of malware. The majority of active malware threats are actually trojan horse programs or computer worms rather than computer viruses, the term computer virus, coined by Fred Cohen in 1985, is a misnomer. Virus writers use social engineering deceptions and exploit detailed knowledge of security vulnerabilities to gain access to their hosts computers and computing resources. Computer viruses currently cause billions of dollars worth of damage each year, due to causing system failure, wasting computer resources, corrupting data, increasing maintenance costs. The work of von Neumann was later published as the Theory of self-reproducing automata, in his essay von Neumann described how a computer program could be designed to reproduce itself. Von Neumanns design for a computer program is considered the worlds first computer virus. In 1972, Veith Risak, directly building on von Neumanns work on self-replication, the article describes a fully functional virus written in assembler programming language for a SIEMENS 4004/35 computer system. In 1980 Jürgen Kraus wrote his diplom thesis Selbstreproduktion bei Programmen at the University of Dortmund, in his work Kraus postulated that computer programs can behave in a way similar to biological viruses. The Creeper virus was first detected on ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet, Creeper was an experimental self-replicating program written by Bob Thomas at BBN Technologies in 1971. Creeper used the ARPANET to infect DEC PDP-10 computers running the TENEX operating system, Creeper gained access via the ARPANET and copied itself to the remote system where the message, Im the creeper, catch me if you can. The Reaper program was created to delete Creeper, in fiction, the 1973 Michael Crichton sci-fi movie Westworld made an early mention of the concept of a computer virus, being a central plot theme that causes androids to run amok. Alan Oppenheimers character summarizes the problem by stating that. theres a pattern here which suggests an analogy to an infectious disease process. To which the replies are stated, Perhaps there are similarities to disease and. In 1982, a program called Elk Cloner was the first personal computer virus to appear in the wild—that is, outside the single computer or lab where it was created. Written in 1981 by Richard Skrenta while in the grade at Mount Lebanon High School near Pittsburgh, it attached itself to the Apple DOS3.3 operating system
8.
Malware
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Before the term malware was coined by Yisrael Radai in 1990, malicious software was referred to as computer viruses. The first category of malware propagation concerns parasitic software fragments that attach themselves to some existing executable content, the fragment may be machine code that infects some existing application, utility, or system program, or even the code used to boot a computer system. Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer user and it can take the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software. Malware is often disguised as, or embedded in, non-malicious files, as of 2011 the majority of active malware threats were worms or trojans rather than viruses. In law, malware is sometimes known as a computer contaminant, Software such as anti-virus and firewalls are used to protect against activity identified as malicious, and to recover from attacks. Many early infectious programs, including the first Internet Worm, were written as experiments or pranks, today, malware is used by both black hat hackers and governments, to steal personal, financial, or business information. Malware is sometimes used broadly against government or corporate websites to gather guarded information, however, malware is often used against individuals to gain information such as personal identification numbers or details, bank or credit card numbers, and passwords. Left unguarded, personal and networked computers can be at considerable risk against these threats, since the rise of widespread broadband Internet access, malicious software has more frequently been designed for profit. Since 2003, the majority of viruses and worms have been designed to take control of users computers for illicit purposes. Infected zombie computers are used to email spam, to host contraband data such as child pornography. Programs designed to monitor users web browsing, display unsolicited advertisements, spyware programs do not spread like viruses, instead they are generally installed by exploiting security holes. They can also be hidden and packaged together with unrelated user-installed software, ransomware affects an infected computer in some way, and demands payment to reverse the damage. For example, programs such as CryptoLocker encrypt files securely, some malware is used to generate money by click fraud, making it appear that the computer user has clicked an advertising link on a site, generating a payment from the advertiser. It was estimated in 2012 that about 60 to 70% of all active malware used some kind of click fraud, Malware is usually used for criminal purposes, but can be used for sabotage, often without direct benefit to the perpetrators. One example of sabotage was Stuxnet, used to very specific industrial equipment. Such attacks were made on Sony Pictures Entertainment and Saudi Aramco, preliminary results from Symantec published in 2008 suggested that the release rate of malicious code and other unwanted programs may be exceeding that of legitimate software applications. According to F-Secure, As much malware produced in 2007 as in the previous 20 years altogether, malwares most common pathway from criminals to users is through the Internet, primarily by e-mail and the World Wide Web. With the amount of malware currently being distributed, some percentage of computers are currently assumed to be infected, for businesses, especially those that sell mainly over the Internet, this means they need to find a way to operate despite security concerns
9.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
10.
Server (computing)
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In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality for other programs or devices, called clients. This architecture is called the model, and a single overall computation is distributed across multiple processes or devices. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called services, such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients, a single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the device or may connect over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, designating a computer as server-class hardware implies that it is specialized for running servers on it. The use of the server in computing comes from queueing theory, where it dates to the mid 20th century, being notably used in Kendall. In earlier papers, such as the Erlang, more terms such as operators are used. In computing, server dates at least to RFC5, one of the earliest documents describing ARPANET, the use of serving also dates to early documents, such as RFC4, contrasting serving-host with using-host. The Jargon File defines server in the sense of a process performing service for requests, usually remote, with the 1981 version reading. A kind of DAEMON which performs a service for the requester, strictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process. Through metonymy, it refers to a used to running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host, in addition to server, the words serve and service are frequently used, though servicer and servant are not. The word service may refer to either the form of functionality. Alternatively, it may refer to a program that turns a computer into a server. Originally used as servers serve users, in the sense of obey, today one says that servers serve data. For instance, web servers serve web pages to users or service their requests, the server is part of the client–server model, in this model, a server serves data for clients. The nature of communication between a client and server is request and response and this is in contrast with peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on-demand reciprocation. In principle, any computerized process that can be used or called by another process is a server, thus any general purpose computer connected to a network can host servers
11.
Computer security
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A vulnerability is a system susceptibility or flaw. Many vulnerabilities are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures database, an exploitable vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or exploit exists. They may exist for a number of reasons, including by original design or from poor configuration, denial of service attacks are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to copy data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be able to be by-passed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks, eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between hosts on a network. For instance, programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight have been used by the FBI, spoofing, in general, is a fraudulent or malicious practice in which communication is sent from an unknown source disguised as a source known to the receiver. Spoofing is most prevalent in communication mechanisms lack a high level of security. Tampering describes a malicious modification of products, so-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. So for example a computer user may be able to fool the system into giving them access to restricted data. Phishing is the attempt to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing or instant messaging, and it often directs users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. Preying on a victims trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering and this is done using multiple transparent or opaque layers. The attacker is basically hijacking the clicks meant for the top level page and routing them to some other irrelevant page, a similar technique can be used to hijack keystrokes. Social engineering aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. by, for example, impersonating a bank, a common scam involves fake CEO emails sent to accounting and finance departments. In early 2016, the FBI reported that the scam has cost US businesses more than $2bn in about two years, Computer security is critical in almost any industry which uses computers. However, computers can be protected through well built software and hardware, by having strong internal interactions of properties, software complexity can prevent software crash and security failure. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data, computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks
12.
Digital rights management
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Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permanently inaccessible if the DRM scheme changes or if the service is discontinued, the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Free Software Foundation consider the use of DRM systems to be an anti-competitive practice. Worldwide, many laws have been created which criminalize the circumvention of DRM, communication about such circumvention, such laws are part of the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and the European Unions Copyright Directive. The term DRM is also referred to as copy protection, technical protection measures, copy prevention, or copy control. The advent of digital media and analog-to-digital conversion technologies has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-owning individuals and these concerns are particularly prevalent within the music and movie industries, because these sectors are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. This, combined with the Internet and popular file-sharing tools, has made unauthorized distribution of copies of copyrighted digital media much easier, DRM technologies enable content publishers to enforce their own access policies on content, such as restrictions on copying or viewing. These technologies have been criticized for restricting individuals from copying or using the content legally, DRM is in common use by the entertainment industry. However, Apple dropped DRM from all iTunes music files around 2009, for instance, tractor companies try to prevent the DIY repairing by the owning farmers under usage of DRM-laws as DMCA. Digital Rights Management Techniques include, Restrictive Licensing Agreements, The access to materials, copyright. Some restrictive licenses are imposed on consumers as a condition of entering a website or when downloading software, encryption, Scrambling of expressive material and embedding of a tag, This technology is designed to control access and reproduction of information. This includes backup copies for personal use, computer games sometimes use DRM technologies to limit the number of systems the game can be installed on by requiring authentication with an online server. Most games with this restriction allow three or five installs, although some allow an installation to be recovered when the game is uninstalled. In mid-2008, the publication of Mass Effect marked the start of a wave of titles primarily making use of SecuROM for DRM, the use of the DRM scheme in 2008s Spore backfired and there were protests, resulting in a considerable number of users seeking an unlicensed version instead. This backlash against the limit was a significant factor in Spore becoming the most pirated game in 2008. Additionally, other games that use intrusive DRM such as BioShock, Crysis Warhead. Although Ubisoft has not commented on the results of the experiment, Ubisoft formally announced a return to online authentication on 9 February 2010, through its Uplay online gaming platform, starting with Silent Hunter 5, The Settlers 7, and Assassins Creed II. Silent Hunter 5 was first reported to have been compromised within 24 hours of release, the Uplay system works by having the installed game on the local PCs incomplete and then continuously downloading parts of the game-code from Ubisofts servers as the game progresses
13.
Intel
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Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California that was founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. It is the worlds largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue, and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple, Lenovo, HP, and Dell. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18,1968, by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, the companys name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information made the name appropriate. Intel was a developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips. Although Intel created the worlds first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, during the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, and Threading Building Blocks. Client Computing Group – 55% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in desktop, data Center Group – 29% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms. Internet of Things Group – 5% of 2016 revenues – offers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings, non-Volatile Memory Solutions Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – manufactures NAND flash memory products primarily used in solid-state drives. Intel Security Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – produces software, particularly security, programmable Solutions Group – 3% of 2016 revenues – manufactures programmable semiconductors. In 2016, Dell accounted for 15% of Intels total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 13% of total revenues, in the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since, other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include Advanced Micro Devices, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, however, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA Technologies produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers, however, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales. Since over 95% of the worlds smartphones currently use processors designed by ARM Holdings, ARM is also planning to make inroads into the PC and server market. Intel has been involved in disputes regarding violation of antitrust laws. Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a chemist, and Robert Noyce, arthur Rock helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board
14.
AMD
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While initially it manufactured its own processors, the company became fabless after GlobalFoundries was spun off in 2009. AMDs main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, AMD is the second-largest supplier and only significant rival to Intel in the market for x86-based microprocessors. Since acquiring ATI in 2006, AMD and its competitor Nvidia have dominated the discrete Graphics Processing Unit market, Advanced Micro Devices was formally incorporated on May 1,1969, by Jerry Sanders, along with seven of his colleagues from Fairchild Semiconductor. In September 1969, AMD moved from its location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale. To immediately secure a base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild. AMD first focused on producing logic chips, in November 1969, the company manufactured its first product, the Am9300, a 4-bit MSI shift register, which began selling in 1970. Also in 1970, AMD produced its first proprietary product, the Am2501 logic counter and its best-selling product in 1971 was the Am2505, the fastest multiplier available. In 1971, AMD entered the RAM chip market, beginning with the Am3101 and that year AMD also greatly increased the sales volume of its linear integrated circuits, and by year end the companys total annual sales reached $4.6 million. AMD went public in September 1972, the company was a second source for Intel MOS/LSI circuits by 1973, with products such as Am14/1506 and Am14/1507, dual 100-bit dynamic shift registers. By 1975, AMD was producing 212 products – of which 49 were proprietary, including the Am9102, Intel had created the first microprocessor, its 4-bit 4004, in 1971. By 1975, AMD entered the market with the Am9080, a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080. In 1977, AMD entered into a joint venture with Siemens, Siemens purchased 20% of AMDs stock, giving AMD an infusion of cash to increase its product lines. When the two companies vision for Advanced Micro Computers diverged, AMD bought out Siemens stake in the U. S. division in 1979, AMD closed its Advanced Micro Computers subsidiary in late 1981, after switching focus to manufacturing second-source Intel x86 microprocessors. Total sales in fiscal year 1978 topped $100 million, and in 1979, in 1980, AMD began supplying semiconductor products for telecommunications, an industry undergoing rapid expansion and innovation. Intel had introduced the first x86 microprocessors in 1978, in 1981, IBM created its PC, and wanted Intels x86 processors, but only under the condition that Intel also provide a second-source manufacturer for its patented x86 microprocessors. Intel and AMD entered into a 10-year technology exchange agreement, first signed in October 1981, the technical information and licenses needed to make and sell a part would be exchanged for a royalty to the developing company. The 1982 agreement also extended the 1976 AMD–Intel cross-licensing agreement through 1995, the agreement included the right to invoke arbitration of disagreements, and after five years the right of either party to end the agreement with one years notice. It also continued its successful concentration on proprietary bipolar chips, in 1983, it introduced INT. STD.1000, the highest manufacturing quality standard in the industry
15.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
16.
Dell
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Dell Inc. is a multinational computer technology company based in Round Rock, Texas, United States, that develops, sells, repairs, and supports computers and related products and services. The company is a subsidiary of Dell Technologies, which was formed by the 2016 merger of Dell Inc. eponymously named after its founder, Michael Dell, the company is one of the largest technological corporations in the world, employing more than 103,300 people worldwide. Dell sells personal computers, servers, data storage devices, network switches, software, computer peripherals, HDTVs, cameras, printers, MP3 players, and electronics built by other manufacturers. Dell was a pure hardware vendor for much of its existence, Dell was listed at number 51 in the Fortune 500 list, until 2014. After going private in 2013, the confidential nature of its financial information prevents the company from being ranked by Fortune. In 2015, it was the third largest PC vendor in the world after Lenovo, Dell is currently the #1 shipper of PC monitors in the world. Dell is the sixth largest company in Texas by total revenue and it is the second largest non-oil company in Texas – behind AT&T – and the largest company in the Greater Austin area. It was a traded company, as well as a component of the NASDAQ-100 and S&P500. On September 7,2016, Dell Inc. acquired EMC Corporation to form Dell Technologies, Michael Dell founded PCs Limited while a student of the University of Texas at Austin. The dorm-room headquartered company sold IBM PC-compatible computers built from stock components, Dell dropped out of school to focus full-time on his fledgling business, after getting $1,000 in expansion-capital from his family. In 1985, the company produced the first computer of its own design, the Turbo PC, Dell appeared in PCs Limited advertisements in national magazines, asking readers to give us a chance to show you what can do. Selling directly to consumers custom-assembled computers according to a selection of options, in 1986, Michael Dell brought in Lee Walker, a 51-year-old venture capitalist, as president and chief operating officer, to serve as mentor and to implement Dells ideas for growing the company. Walker was also instrumental in recruiting members to the board of directors when the company went public in 1988, the company dropped the PC’s Limited name in 1987 to become Dell Computer Corporation and began expanding globally. In June 1988, Dells market capitalization grew by $30 million to $80 million from its June 22 initial public offering of 3.5 million shares at $8.50 a share. In 1992, Fortune magazine included Dell Computer Corporation in its list of the worlds 500 largest companies, making Michael Dell the youngest CEO of a Fortune 500 company ever. In 1993, to complement its own direct sales channel, Dell planned to sell PCs at big-box retail outlets such as Wal-Mart, bain consultant Kevin Rollins persuaded Michael Dell to pull out of these deals, believing they would be money losers in the long run. Margins at retail were thin at best and Dell left the channel in 1994. Rollins would soon join Dell full-time and eventually become the company President, Dell found an opportunity among PC-savvy individuals who liked the convenience of buying direct, customizing their PC to their means, and having it delivered in days
17.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
18.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
19.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
20.
Trusted Platform Module
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Trusted Platform Module is an international standard for a secure cryptoprocessor, which is a dedicated microcontroller designed to secure hardware by integrating cryptographic keys into devices. TPMs technical specification was written by an industry consortium called Trusted Computing Group. International Organization for Standardization and International Electrotechnical Commission standardized the specification as ISO/IEC11889 in 2009, TCG continues to revise the TPM specification. Trusted Platform Module Library Specification Revision 01.16 was released in October 2014 as the latest TPM2.0 release, Trusted Platform Module offers facilities for the secure generation of cryptographic keys, and limitation of their use, in addition to a random number generator. It also includes such as remote attestation and sealed storage, as follows. The program hashing the configuration data determines the extent of the summary of the software and this allows a third party to verify that the software has not been changed. Binding – encrypts data using TPM bind key, a unique RSA key descended from a storage key, sealing – encrypts data in a similar manner to binding, but in addition specifies a state in which TPM must be, in order for the data to be decrypted. Software can use a Trusted Platform Module to authenticate hardware devices, since each TPM chip has a unique and secret RSA key burned in as it is produced, it is capable of performing platform authentication. Generally, pushing the security down to the level in conjunction with software provides more protection than a software-only solution. This problem is eliminated if key used in TPM are not accessible on a bus or to external programs, the TPM is anticipated to be used for device identification, authentication, encryption, measurement, and device integrity. An example of use is Intels Trusted Execution Technology, Intels TXT is used to create a chain of trust, and to remotely attest that a computer has a specified hardware setup and is using specified software. The primary scope of a TPM is to assure the integrity of a platform, together with UEFI, TPM forms a root of trust, TPM contains several PCRs that allow a secure storage and reporting of security relevant metrics. These metrics can be used to detect changes to previous configurations, good examples can be found in Linux Unified Key Setup, and in Microsofts BitLocker Drive Encryption and PrivateCore vCage memory encryption. Therefore, the BIOS and the system have the primary responsibility to utilize TPM in order to assure platform integrity. Access to keys, data or systems is often protected and requires authentication by presenting a password, if the authentication mechanism is implemented in software only, the access typically is prone to dictionary attacks. With this hardware based dictionary attack prevention, the user can opt for shorter or weaker passwords which are more memorable, without this level of protection, only passwords with high complexity would provide sufficient protection. Starting in 2006, many new laptop computers have been sold with a built-in Trusted Platform Module chip. In the future, this concept could be co-located on an existing motherboard chip in computers, or any device where the TPM facilities could be employed
21.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
22.
RSA (cryptosystem)
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RSA is one of the first practical public-key cryptosystems and is widely used for secure data transmission. In such a cryptosystem, the key is public and differs from the decryption key which is kept secret. In RSA, this asymmetry is based on the difficulty of factoring the product of two large prime numbers, the factoring problem. RSA is made of the letters of the surnames of Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman. Clifford Cocks, an English mathematician working for the UK intelligence agency GCHQ, had developed an equivalent system in 1973, a user of RSA creates and then publishes a public key based on two large prime numbers, along with an auxiliary value. The prime numbers must be kept secret, breaking RSA encryption is known as the RSA problem, whether it is as hard as the factoring problem remains an open question. RSA is a relatively slow algorithm, and because of this it is commonly used to directly encrypt user data. More often, RSA passes encrypted shared keys for symmetric key cryptography which in turn can perform bulk encryption-decryption operations at higher speed. The idea of an asymmetric public-private key cryptosystem is attributed to Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman and they also introduced digital signatures and attempted to apply number theory, their formulation used a shared secret key created from exponentiation of some number, modulo a prime numbers. However, they open the problem of realizing a one-way function. Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman at MIT made several attempts over the course of a year to create a function that is hard to invert. Rivest and Shamir, as scientists, proposed many potential functions while Adleman. They tried many approaches including knapsack-based and permutation polynomials, for a time they thought it was impossible for what they wanted to achieve due to contradictory requirements. In April 1977, they spent Passover at the house of a student, Rivest, unable to sleep, lay on the couch with a math textbook and started thinking about their one-way function. He spent the rest of the night formalizing his idea and had much of the paper ready by daybreak, the algorithm is now known as RSA – the initials of their surnames in same order as their paper. Clifford Cocks, an English mathematician working for the UK intelligence agency GCHQ, however, given the relatively expensive computers needed to implement it at the time, it was mostly considered a curiosity and, as far as is publicly known, was never deployed. His discovery, however, was not revealed until 1997 due to its secret classification, Kid-RSA is a simplified public-key cipher published in 1997, designed for educational purposes. Some people feel that learning Kid-RSA gives insight into RSA and other public-key ciphers, Patent 4,405,829 for a Cryptographic communications system and method that used the algorithm, on September 20,1983
23.
Windows Vista
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Windows Vista is an operating system by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs and media center PCs. Development was completed on 8 November 2006, and over the three months, it was released in stages to computer hardware and software manufacturers, business customers. On 30 January 2007, it was released worldwide and was available for purchase. It was succeeded by Windows 7, which was released to manufacturing on 22 July 2009, Vista aimed to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network, using peer-to-peer technology to simplify sharing files and media between computers and devices. Windows Vista included version 3.0 of the. NET Framework, Microsofts primary stated objective with Windows Vista was to improve the state of security in the Windows operating system. One common criticism of Windows XP and its predecessors was their commonly exploited security vulnerabilities and overall susceptibility to malware, viruses, Microsoft stated that it prioritized improving the security of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 above finishing Windows Vista, thus delaying its completion. While these new features and security improvements have garnered positive reviews, Vista has also been the target of much criticism, as a result of these and other issues, Windows Vista had seen initial adoption and satisfaction rates lower than Windows XP. In May 2010, Windows Vistas market share had a range from 15% to 26%. On 22 October 2010, Microsoft ceased sales of copies of Windows Vista. As of March 2017, Vistas market share was 0. 72%, Microsoft stopped providing mainstream support for Windows Vista on 10 April 2012. Extended support will end on 11 April 2017, Microsoft began work on Windows Vista, known at the time by its codename Longhorn, in May 2001, five months before the release of Windows XP. It was originally expected to ship sometime late in 2003 as a step between Windows XP and Blackcomb, which was planned to be the companys next major operating system release. Gradually, Longhorn assimilated many of the important new features and technologies slated for Blackcomb, in some builds of Longhorn, their license agreement said For the Microsoft product codenamed Whistler. Many of Microsofts developers were also re-tasked to build updates to Windows XP, faced with ongoing delays and concerns about feature creep, Microsoft announced on 27 August 2004, that it had revised its plans. Longhorn became known as Vista in 2005, the early development stages of Longhorn were generally characterized by incremental improvements and updates to Windows XP. After several months of relatively little news or activity from Microsoft with Longhorn, Microsoft released Build 4008 and it was also privately handed out to a select group of software developers. An optional new taskbar was introduced that was thinner than the previous build, the most notable visual and functional difference, however, came with Windows Explorer. The incorporation of the Plex theme made blue the dominant color of the entire application, the Windows XP-style task pane was almost completely replaced with a large horizontal pane that appeared under the toolbars
24.
Windows 7
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Windows 7 is a personal computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It is a part of the Windows NT family of operating systems, Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22,2009, and became generally available on October 22,2009, less than three years after the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows 7s server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time, Windows 7 continued improvements on Windows Aero with the addition of a redesigned taskbar that allows applications to be pinned to it, and new window management features. Other new features were added to the system, including libraries, the new file sharing system HomeGroup. A new Action Center interface was added to provide an overview of system security and maintenance information. Windows 7 also shipped with updated versions of several applications, including Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media Player. Windows 7 was a success for Microsoft, even prior to its official release. Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP, major features were planned for Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querying data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to enable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release, codenamed Longhorn, was announced for 2003, by the middle of 2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. Development of Longhorn was also restarted, and thus delayed, in August 2004, a number of features were cut from Longhorn. Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in early 2006, as such, adoption of Vista in comparison to XP remained somewhat low. In July 2007, six months following the release of Vista, it was reported that the next version of Windows would then be codenamed Windows 7. Bill Gates, in an interview with Newsweek, suggested that Windows 7 would be more user-centric, Gates later said that Windows 7 would also focus on performance improvements. Senior Vice President Bill Veghte stated that Windows Vista users migrating to Windows 7 would not find the kind of device compatibility issues they encountered migrating from Windows XP, an estimated 1,000 developers worked on Windows 7. These were broadly divided into core operating system and Windows client experience, in October 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would also be the official name of the operating system. The first external release to select Microsoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1, at PDC2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its reworked taskbar. On December 27,2008, the Windows 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. According to a performance test by ZDNet, Windows 7 Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key areas, including boot and shutdown time and working with files, such as loading documents
25.
Windows 8
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Windows 8 is a personal computer operating system developed by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. Development of Windows 8 started before the release of its predecessor, Windows 7 and it was announced at CES2011, and followed by the release of three pre-release versions from September 2011 to May 2012. The operating system was released to manufacturing on August 1,2012, Windows 8 added support for USB3.0, Advanced Format hard drives, near field communications, and cloud computing. Windows 8 was released to a critical reception. Despite these shortcomings,60 million Windows 8 licenses were sold through January 2013, on October 17,2013, Microsoft released Windows 8.1. It addressed some aspects of Windows 8 that were criticized by reviewers and early adopters, Windows 8 was ultimately succeeded by Windows 10 in July 2015. Support for Windows 8 RTM ended on January 12,2016, per Microsoft lifecycle policies regarding service packs, Windows 8.1 must be installed to maintain support, Windows 8 development started before Windows 7 had shipped in 2009. Three milestone releases of Windows 8 leaked to the general public, milestone 1, Build 7850, was leaked on April 12,2011. It was the first build where the text of a window was written centered instead of aligned to the left and it was also probably the first appearance of the Metro-style font, and its wallpaper had the text shhh. Lets not leak our hard work, however, its detailed build number reveals that the build was created on September 22,2010. The leaked copy was Enterprise edition, the OS still reads as Windows 7. Milestone 2, Build 7955, was leaked on April 25,2011, the traditional Blue Screen of Death was replaced by a new black screen, although this was later scrapped. This build introduced a new ribbon in Windows Explorer, Build 7959, with minor changes but the first 64-bit version, was leaked on May 1,2011. The Windows 7 logo was replaced with text displaying Microsoft Confidential. On June 17,2011, build 7989 64-bit edition was leaked and it introduced a new boot screen featuring the same fish as the default Windows 7 Beta wallpaper, which was later scrapped, and the circling dots as featured in the final. It also had the text Welcome below them, although this was also scrapped, on June 1,2011, Microsoft unveiled Windows 8s new user interface, as well as additional features at both Computex Taipei and the D9, All Things Digital conference in California. The Building Windows 8 blog launched on August 15,2011, featuring details surrounding Windows 8s features, Microsoft unveiled more Windows 8 features and improvements on the first day of the Build conference on September 13,2011. Microsoft released the first public build of Windows 8, Windows Developer Preview at the event
26.
Windows RT
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Windows RT is a mobile operating system developed by Microsoft. It is an edition of Windows 8. x built for the 32-bit ARM architecture, unlike Windows 8, Windows RT is only available as preloaded software on devices specifically designed for the operating system by original equipment manufacturers. Windows RT was released to mixed reviews from various outlets and critics and these developments left Microsofts future support of the platform in doubt. As of February 2015, with the end of production for both Surface 2 and Lumia 2520, Microsoft and its subsidiaries no longer manufacture any Windows RT devices, there is no upgrade path to Windows 10 for devices running Windows RT. Windows 10 Mobile, based on Windows Phone, was unveiled for use on future tablets, at the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show, it was officially announced that the next version of Windows would provide support for system-on-chip implementations based on the ARM architecture. The prototypes featured working versions of Internet Explorer 9, PowerPoint and Word, initial development on WoA took place by porting code from Windows 7, Windows Mobile smartphones were used to test early builds of WoA because of lack of readily available ARM-based tablets. Later testing was performed using an array of rack-mounted ARM-based systems. Changes to the Windows codebase were made to optimize the OS for the hardware of ARM devices. WoA devices would use UEFI firmware, and have a software-based Trusted Platform Module to support device encryption, ACPI is also used to detect and control plug and play devices and provide power management outside the SoC. To enable wider hardware support, peripherals such as human interface devices, storage and other components that use USB and I²C connections use class drivers, Windows Update serves as the mechanism for updating all system drivers, software, and firmware. Microsoft showcased other aspects of the new operating system, to be known as Windows 8, among these changes was the introduction of Windows Runtime. Consequentially, this lack of backwards compatibility would also prevent existing malware from running on the operating system, on April 16,2012, Microsoft announced that Windows on ARM would be officially branded as Windows RT. Microsoft did not explicitly indicate what the RT in the operating systems name referred to, Steven Sinofsky stated that Microsoft would ensure the differences between Windows RT and 8 were adequately addressed in advertising. The first Windows RT devices were released alongside Windows 8 on October 26,2012. Windows 8.1, an upgrade for Windows 8 and RT, was released in Windows Store on October 17,2013, containing a number of improvements to the systems interface. For Windows RT devices, the update also adds Outlook to the included Office RT suite, on October 21,2013, Microsoft released recovery media and instructions which could be used to repair the device, and restored access to Windows 8.1 the next day. While Windows RT functions similarly to Windows 8, there are some notable differences. So you could give it to your kid and hes not going to load it up with a bunch of toolbars accidentally out of Internet Explorer and then come to you later and say and it just isnt capable of doing that by design
27.
BitLocker
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BitLocker is a full disk encryption feature included with Windows Vista and later. It is designed to protect data by providing encryption for entire volumes, by default it uses the AES encryption algorithm in cipher block chaining or XTS mode with a 128-bit or 256-bit key. CBC is not used over the disk, it is applied to each individual sector. BitLocker was briefly called Secure Startup prior to Windows Vista being released to manufacturing, starting with Windows Vista with Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008, volumes other than the operating system volume could be encrypted using the graphical tool. Still, some aspects of the BitLocker had to be managed through a command-line tool called manage-bde. wsf, the latest version of BitLocker, first included in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2, adds the ability to encrypt removable drives. On Windows XP or Windows Vista, read-only access to these drives can be achieved through a program called BitLocker To Go Reader, if FAT16, in addition, a new command-line tool called manage-bde replaced the old manage-bde. wsf. In addition, BitLocker can now be managed through Windows PowerShell, finally, Windows 8 introduced Windows To Go in its Enterprise edition, which BitLocker can protect. Windows Mobile 6.5, Windows RT and core edition of Windows 8.1 include device encryption, logging in with a Microsoft account with administrative privileges automatically begins the encryption process. The recovery key is stored to either the Microsoft account or Active Directory, the key used for disk encryption is sealed by the TPM chip and will only be released to the OS loader code if the early boot files appear to be unmodified. The pre-OS components of BitLocker achieve this by implementing a Static Root of Trust Measurement—a methodology specified by the Trusted Computing Group and this mode is vulnerable to a cold boot attack, as it allows a powered-down machine to be booted by an attacker. User authentication mode, This mode requires that the user provide some authentication to the environment in the form of a pre-boot PIN or password. USB Key Mode, The user must insert a USB device that contains a key into the computer to be able to boot the protected OS. Note that this requires that the BIOS on the protected machine supports the reading of USB devices in the pre-OS environment. The key may also be provided by a CCID for reading a cryptographic smartcard, when enabled, TPM and BitLocker can ensure the integrity of the trusted boot path, in order to prevent most offline physical attacks and boot sector malware. BitLocker requires the latter to remain unencrypted—on Windows Vista this volume must be assigned a drive letter, unlike previous versions of Windows, Vistas diskpart command-line tool includes the ability to shrink the size of an NTFS volume so that this volume may be created from already allocated space. The volume is encrypted as a background task, something that may take a considerable amount of time with a large disk as every logical sector is read, encrypted. The keys are only protected after the volume has been encrypted. BitLocker uses a device driver to encrypt and decrypt all file operations
28.
Electronic Frontier Foundation
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The Electronic Frontier Foundation is an international non-profit digital rights group based in San Francisco, California. In April 1990, Barlow had been visited by a U. S. Federal Bureau of Investigation agent in relation to the theft, Barlow described the visit as complicated by fairly complete unfamiliarity with computer technology. I realized right away that before I could demonstrate my innocence, Barlow felt that his experience was symptomatic of a great paroxysm of governmental confusion during which everyones liberties would become at risk. Barlow posted an account of experience to The WELL online community and was contacted by Mitch Kapor. The pair agreed that there was a need to defend civil liberties on the Internet and this generated a large amount of publicity which led to offers of financial support from John Gilmore and Steve Wozniak. This generated further reaction and support for the ideas of Barlow, in late June, Barlow held a series of dinners in San Francisco with major figures in the computer industry to develop a coherent response to these perceived threats. Barlow considered that, The actions of the FBI and Secret Service were symptoms of a social crisis. America was entering the Information Age with neither laws nor metaphors for the appropriate protection, Barlow felt that to confront this a formal organization would be needed, he hired Cathy Cook as press coordinator, and began to set up what would become the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The Electronic Frontier Foundation was formally founded on July 10,1990, by Kapor and Barlow, who soon after elected Gilmore, Wozniak. Initial funding was provided by Kapor, Wozniak, and an anonymous benefactor, in 1990, Mike Godwin joined the organization as its first staff counsel. Then in 1991, Esther Dyson and Jerry Berman joined the EFF board of directors. C, the creation of the organization was motivated by the massive search and seizure on Steve Jackson Games executed by the United States Secret Service early in 1990. Similar but officially unconnected law-enforcement raids were being conducted across the United States at about time as part of a state–federal task force called Operation Sundevil. However, the Steve Jackson Games case, which became EFFs first high-profile case, was the rallying point around which EFF began promoting computer-. In 1993, their offices moved to 1001 G Street in Washington, more recently, the organization has been involved in defending Edward Felten, Jon Lech Johansen and Dmitry Sklyarov. The organization was located at Mitch Kapors Kapor Enterprises offices in Cambridge. By the fall of 1993, the main EFF offices were consolidated into an office, in Washington. During this time, some of EFFs attention focused on influencing national policy, in 1994, Berman parted ways with EFF and formed the Center for Democracy and Technology, while Drew Taubman briefly took the reins as executive director. There, it took up residence at John Gilmores Toad Hall
29.
Free Software Foundation
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The FSF was incorporated in Massachusetts, USA, where it is also based. From its founding until the mid-1990s, FSFs funds were used to employ software developers to write free software for the GNU Project. Since the mid-1990s, the FSFs employees and volunteers have worked on legal and structural issues for the free software movement. Consistent with its goals, the FSF aims to use free software on its own computers. The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 as a non-profit corporation supporting free software development and it continued existing GNU projects such as the sale of manuals and tapes, and employed developers of the free software system. Since then, it has continued these activities, as well as advocating for the free software movement, the FSF is also the steward of several free software licenses, meaning it publishes them and has the ability to make revisions as needed. The FSF holds the copyrights on many pieces of the GNU system, as holder of these copyrights, it has the authority to enforce the copyleft requirements of the GNU General Public License when copyright infringement occurs on that software. From 1991 until 2001, GPL enforcement was done informally, usually by Stallman himself, often with assistance from FSFs lawyer, typically, GPL violations during this time were cleared up by short email exchanges between Stallman and the violator. In the interest of promoting copyleft assertiveness by software companies to the level that the FSF was already doing, in 2004 Harald Welte launched gpl-violations. org. In late 2001, Bradley M. Kuhn, with the assistance of Moglen, David Turner, from 2002-2004, high-profile GPL enforcement cases, such as those against Linksys and OpenTV, became frequent. GPL enforcement and educational campaigns on GPL compliance was a focus of the FSFs efforts during this period. In March 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM alleging that IBMs contributions to free software, including FSFs GNU. While FSF was never a party to the lawsuit, FSF was subpoenaed on November 5,2003, during 2003 and 2004, FSF put substantial advocacy effort into responding to the lawsuit and quelling its negative impact on the adoption and promotion of free software. From 2003 to 2005, FSF held legal seminars to explain the GPL, usually taught by Bradley M. Kuhn and Daniel Ravicher, these seminars offered CLE credit and were the first effort to give formal legal education on the GPL. In 2007, the FSF published the version of the GNU General Public License after significant outside input. In December 2008, FSF filed a lawsuit against Cisco for using GPL-licensed components shipped with Linksys products, Cisco was notified of the licensing issue in 2003 but Cisco repeatedly disregarded its obligations under the GPL. The GNU project The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software, the organization developed the GNU operating system as an example of this. GNU licenses The GNU General Public License is a widely used license for software projects
30.
Copy protection
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Various methods have been devised to prevent reproduction so that companies will gain benefit from each person who obtains an authorized copy of their product. Unauthorized copying and distribution accounted for $2, making copy protection effective while protecting consumer rights is still an ongoing problem with media publication. Copy prevention and copy control may be more neutral terms, the term is also often related to, and confused with, the concept of digital rights management. Digital rights management is a general term because it includes all sorts of management of works. Copy protection may include measures that are not digital, a more appropriate term may be technological protection measures, which is often defined as the use of technological tools in order to restrict the use or access to a work. Copy protection is most commonly found on videotapes, DVDs, computer software discs, video discs and cartridges, audio CDs. Many media formats are easy to copy using a machine, allowing consumers to distribute copies to their friends, a practice known as casual copying. Opponents of copy protection argue that people who obtain free copies only use what they can get for free, and would not purchase their own copy if they were unable to obtain a free copy. Some even argue that free copies increase profit, people who receive a copy of a music CD may then go and buy more of that bands music. Some publishers have avoided copy-protecting their products, on the theory that the resulting inconvenience to their users outweighs any benefit of frustrating casual copying, from the perspective of the end user, copy protection is always a cost. DRM and license managers sometimes fail, are inconvenient to use, the term copy protection refers to the technology used to attempt to frustrate copying, and not to the legal remedies available to publishers or authors whose copyrights are violated. Software usage models range from node locking to floating licenses, grid computing, the term license management refers to broad platforms which enable the specification, enforcement and tracking of software licenses. To safeguard copy protection and license management technologies themselves against tampering and hacking, floating licenses are also being referred to as Indirect Licenses, and are licenses that at the time they are issued, there is no actually user who will use them. That has some influence over some of their characteristics. Direct Licenses are issued after a user requires it. As an example, an activated Microsoft product, contains a Direct License which is locked to the PC where the product is installed. The basic technical fact is all types of media require a player — a CD player, DVD player. The player has to be able to read the media in order to display it to a human
31.
Anti-competitive practices
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Anti-competitive practices are business, government or religious practices that prevent or reduce competition in a market. These can include, Dumping, where a company sells a product in a market at a loss. Though the company money for each sale, the company hopes to force other competitors out of the market. Exclusive dealing, where a retailer or wholesaler is obliged by contract to purchase from the contracted supplier. Price fixing, where companies collude to set prices, effectively dismantling the free market, limit pricing, where the price is set by a monopolist at a level intended to discourage entry into a market. Tying, where products that arent naturally related must be purchased together, resale price maintenance, where resellers are not allowed to set prices independently. Religious / minority group doctrine, where businesses must apply tribute to a significant part of the community in order to engage in trade with that community, digital rights management which prevents owners from selling used media, as would normally be allowed by the first sale doctrine. It is usually difficult to practice anti-competitive practices unless the parties involved have significant market power or government backing, monopolies and oligopolies are often accused of, and sometimes found guilty of, anti-competitive practices. For this reason, company mergers are often examined closely by government regulators to avoid reducing competition in an industry, some people believe that the realities of the marketplace are sometimes more complex than this or similar theories of competition would suggest. For example, oligopolistic firms may achieve economies of scale that would elude smaller firms, again, very large firms, whether quasi-monopolies or oligopolies, may achieve levels of sophistication e. g. in business process and/or planning that smaller firms would not easily attain. There are undoubtedly industries in which the levels of investment are so high that only extremely large firms that may be quasi-monopolies in some areas of their businesses can survive. Many governments regard these market niches as natural monopolies, and believe that the inability to full competition is balanced by government regulation. However, the companies in these niches tend to believe that they should avoid regulation, in some cases, anti-competitive behavior can be difficult to distinguish from competition. For instance, a distinction must be made between product bundling, which is a market strategy, and product tying, which violates anti-trust law. Some advocates of laissez-faire capitalism reject the term, seeing all anti-competitive behavior as forms of competition that benefit consumers
32.
Ross J. Anderson
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Ross John Anderson, FRS, FREng is a researcher, writer, and industry consultant in security engineering. He is Professor of Security Engineering at the Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge where he is part of the Security Group, Anderson was educated at the High School of Glasgow. In 1978, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics and natural science from Trinity College, Cambridge and he received his PhD in 1995, and became a lecturer in the same year. Andersons research interests are in security, cryptology, dependability and technology policy and he has also discovered weaknesses in the FISH cipher and designed the stream cipher Pike. In 1998, Anderson founded the Foundation for Information Policy Research, Anderson is also a founder of the UK-Crypto mailing list and the economics of security research domain. He is well-known among Cambridge academics as a defender of academic freedoms, intellectual property. He is engaged in the ″Campaign for Cambridge Freedoms″ and has been a member of Cambridge University Council since 2002. In January 2004, the student newspaper Varsity declared Anderson to be Cambridge Universitys most powerful person, in 2002, he became an outspoken critic of trusted computing proposals, in particular Microsofts Palladium operating system vision. Andersons TCPA FAQ has been characterised by IBM TC researcher David R. Safford as full of technical errors, for years Anderson has been arguing that by their nature large databases will never be free of abuse by breaches of security. He has said if a large system is designed for ease of access it becomes insecure. This is sometimes known as Andersons Rule, Anderson is the author of Security Engineering, published by Wiley in 2001. He was the founder and editor of Computer and Communications Security Reviews, Anderson, “Were I a legislator, I would simply abolish MI5. Anderson notes the way this kind of systemic data collection has been made possible was through the business models of private industry. The value of information-driven web companies such as Facebook and Google is built around their ability to gather vast tracts of data and it was something the intelligence agencies would have struggled with alone. Anderson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2009 and his nomination reads, Anderson was also elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 2009
33.
OpenOffice.org
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OpenOffice. org, commonly known as OpenOffice, is a discontinued open-source office suite. It was a version of the earlier StarOffice, which Sun Microsystems acquired in 1999. OpenOffice included a word processor, a spreadsheet, an application, a drawing application, a formula editor. Its default file format was the OpenDocument Format, an ISO/IEC standard and it could also read a wide variety of other file formats, with particular attention to those from Microsoft Office. Sun open-sourced the OpenOffice in July 2000 as a competitor to Microsoft Office, in 2011 Oracle Corporation, the then-owner of Sun, announced that it would no longer offer a commercial version of the suite and soon after donated the project to the Apache Foundation. Apache renamed the software Apache OpenOffice, other active successor projects include LibreOffice and NeoOffice. OpenOffice. org was primarily developed for Linux, Microsoft Windows and Solaris and it was distributed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3, early versions were also available under the Sun Industry Standards Source License. OpenOffice. org originated as StarOffice, an office suite developed by German company StarDivision from 1985 on. In August 1999, StarDivision was acquired by Sun Microsystems for US$59.5 million, the new project was known as OpenOffice. org, and the code was released as open source on 13 October 2000. The first public release was Milestone Build 638c, released in October 2001. OpenOffice. org became the office suite on Linux and spawned many derivative versions. It quickly became noteworthy competition to Microsoft Office, achieving 14% penetration in the enterprise market by 2004. It was made OpenOffice. orgs native format from version 2 on, many governments and other organisations adopted OpenDocument, particularly given there was a free implementation of it readily available. Development of OpenOffice. org was sponsored primarily by Sun Microsystems, developers who wished to contribute code were required to sign a Contributor Agreement granting joint ownership of any contributions to Sun, in support of the StarOffice business model. This was controversial for many years, an alternative Public Documentation Licence was also offered for documentation not intended for inclusion or integration into the project code base. After acquiring Sun in January 2010, Oracle Corporation continued developing OpenOffice. org and StarOffice, oracles lack of activity on or visible commitment to OpenOffice. org had also been noted by industry observers. TDF released the fork LibreOffice in January 2011, which most Linux distributions soon moved to, in April 2011, Oracle stopped development of OpenOffice. org and fired the remaining StarDivision development team. In June 2011, Oracle contributed the trademarks to the Apache Software Foundation and it also contributed Oracle-owned code to Apache for relicensing under the Apache License, at the suggestion of IBM, as IBM did not want the code put under a copyleft license
34.
Emulator
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In computing, an emulator is hardware or software that enables one computer system to behave like another computer system. An emulator typically enables the host system to run software or use peripheral devices designed for the guest system, emulation refers to the ability of a computer program in an electronic device to emulate another program or device. Many printers, for example, are designed to emulate Hewlett-Packard LaserJet printers because so much software is written for HP printers. If a non-HP printer emulates an HP printer, any software written for a real HP printer will also run in the non-HP printer emulation and produce equivalent printing. Since at least the 1990s until today, some video game enthusiasts use emulators to play 1980s arcade games using the original 1980s programming code, a hardware emulator is an emulator which takes the form of a hardware device. In a theoretical sense, the Church-Turing thesis implies that any operating environment can be emulated within any other environment. However, in practice, it can be difficult, particularly when the exact behavior of the system to be emulated is not documented and has to be deduced through reverse engineering. Emulation is a strategy in digital preservation to combat obsolescence, emulation addresses the original hardware and software environment of the digital object, and recreates it on a current machine. The emulator allows the user to have access to any kind of application or operating system on a current platform and he further states that this should not only apply to out of date systems, but also be upwardly mobile to future unknown systems. Potentially better graphics quality than original hardware, potentially additional features original hardware didnt have. Emulators maintain the look, feel, and behavior of the digital object. Despite the original cost of developing an emulator, it may prove to be the more cost efficient solution over time, many emulators have already been developed and released under GNU General Public License through the open source environment, allowing for wide scale collaboration. Emulators allow software exclusive to one system to be used on another, for example, a PlayStation 2 exclusive video game could be played on a PC using an emulator. This is especially useful when the system is difficult to obtain. Copyright laws are not yet in effect to address saving the documentation and these protections make it more difficult to design emulators, since they must be accurate enough to avoid triggering the protections, whose effects may not be obvious. Emulators require better hardware than the system has. Because of its use of digital formats, new media art relies heavily on emulation as a preservation strategy. The paradox is that the emulation and the emulator have to be made to work on future computers, emulation techniques are commonly used during the design and development of new systems
35.
Internet Explorer
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Internet Explorer is a discontinued series of graphical web browsers developed by Microsoft and included as part of the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, starting in 1995. It was first released as part of the add-on package Plus. for Windows 95 that year, later versions were available as free downloads, or in service packs, and included in the original equipment manufacturer service releases of Windows 95 and later versions of Windows. Internet Explorer was one of the most widely used web browsers and this came after Microsoft used bundling to win the first browser war against Netscape, which was the dominant browser in the 1990s. Estimates for Internet Explorers overall market share range from 5. 45% to 27. 38% or by StatCounters numbers ranked 3rd, just after Firefox, as of August 2016. Microsoft spent over US$100 million per year on Internet Explorer in the late 1990s, on March 17,2015, Microsoft announced that Microsoft Edge would replace Internet Explorer as the default browser on its Windows 10 devices. This effectively makes Internet Explorer 11 the last release, Internet Explorer will, however, remain on some versions of Windows 10 primarily for enterprise purposes. Starting January 12,2016, only Internet Explorer 11 is supported with more security than older versions, support varies based on the operating systems technical capabilities and its support lifecycle. The Internet Explorer project was started in the summer of 1994 by Thomas Reardon, Mosaic, which was an early commercial web browser with formal ties to the pioneering National Center for Supercomputing Applications Mosaic browser. In late 1994, Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic for a fee plus a percentage of Microsofts non-Windows revenues for the software. Although bearing a similar to NCSA Mosaic, Spyglass Mosaic had used the NCSA Mosaic source code sparingly. Microsoft was sued by Synet Inc. in 1996, over the trademark infringement, the first version of Internet Explorer, Microsoft Internet Explorer made its debut on August 16,1995. It was a version of Spyglass Mosaic, which Microsoft licensed from Spyglass Inc. like many other companies initiating browser development. It was installed as part of the Internet Jumpstart Kit in Microsoft Plus. for Windows 95, the Internet Explorer team began with about six people in early development. Internet Explorer 1.5 was released months later for Windows NT. By including it free of charge on their system, they did not have to pay royalties to Spyglass Inc, resulting in a lawsuit. Windows Internet Explorer 9 was released on March 14,2011, development for Internet Explorer 9 began shortly after the release of Internet Explorer 8. At MIX10, Microsoft showed and publicly released the first Platform Preview for Internet Explorer 9, ultimately, eight platform previews were released. The first public beta was released at an event in San Francisco
