1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Henry T. Mayo
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Henry Thomas Mayo was an admiral of the United States Navy. Mayo was born in Burlington, Vermont,8 December 1856, upon graduation from the United States Naval Academy in 1876 he experienced a variety of naval duties including coastal survey. During the Spanish–American War he served in the gunboat Bennington off the west coast of North America, about 1909 he was in command of the cruiser USS Albany as she cruised in Central American waters protecting United States citizens and interests as part of the Special Service Squadron. Appointed rear admiral in 1913, he commanded the squadron involved in the Tampico incident of 9 April 1914. His demands for vindication of national honor further accentuated the tense relations with Mexico, promoted to vice admiral in June 1915, as the new Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet, he received the rank of admiral 19 June 1916. For his organization and support of World War I U. S. Naval Forces both in American and European waters, he was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal and various foreign decorations and he evidenced foresight in urging the postwar development of fleet aviation. Admiral Mayo retired 28 February 1921, and, for four years and he retained his commission as an admiral by a 1930 Act of Congress. He died at Portsmouth, New Hampshire,23 February 1937, Distinguished Service Medal Navy Expeditionary Medal Spanish Campaign Medal Victory Medal In 1940, the destroyer USS Mayo was named in his honor. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
3.
P2 transport
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The P2 transport was a United States Maritime Commission design for a passenger ship which could be readily converted into a troop transport. Three variants of the design were built, the P2-SE2-R1, P2-S2-R2, ten P2-SE2-R1 ships were ordered by the Maritime Commission in World War II. The ships were laid down by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation in Alameda, the intended use of these ships after the War was for trans-Pacific service. As ordered, the ships were all named after U. S. Navy admirals, only eight ships were completed as troop transports for the U. S. Navy, with the last two ships canceled on 16 December 1944. Despite being canceled, the last two ships were completed after the war to the P2-SE2-R3 design as civilian ships, in 1946 the ships were all decommissioned by the Navy, and transferred back to the Maritime Commission, and from there to the United States Army. The Army operated them with crews as part of the Army Transport Service. In 1950 the ships were transferred back the Navy, but not recommissioned, instead they were assigned to the Military Sea Transportation Service and still manned by a civil service crew, and keeping the name the Army had given them. Eleven P2-S2-R2 ships were ordered by the Maritime Commission in World War II, the ships were laid down by Federal Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of Kearny, New Jersey. The intended use of ships after the War was for South American service. As ordered, the ships were all named after United States Army generals, unlike the Admirals, the Generals did not have a relatively uniform life after World War II. Three were transferred to the Army as the Admirals had been, of one was disposed of by the Army. As noted above, the last two Admirals were canceled in 1944 while under construction and they were completed to the P2-SE2-R3 design and operated by American President Lines as the SS President Cleveland and the SS President Wilson. The President Wilson was later renamed SS Oriental Empress when sold to C. Y, United States Maritime Commission P-Type Passenger Ships The Ships List, American President Lines
4.
Turbo-electric transmission
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Turbo-electric drives are used in some rail locomotives and ships. An advantage of turbo-electric transmission is that it allows the adaptation of high-speed turning turbines to the slowly turning propellers or wheels without the need of a heavy and complex gearbox. It also has the advantage of being able to provide electricity for the ship or trains other electrical systems, such as lighting, computers, radar, the Paddle Wheel to Electric Drive. — detailed article with drawing and charts on turbo-electric drive for ships and the advantages
5.
Propeller
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A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal
6.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
7.
Operation Magic Carpet
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Hundreds of Liberty ships, Victory ships, and troop transports began repatriating soldiers from Europe in June 1945. Beginning in October 1945, over 370 navy ships were used for duties in the Pacific. Warships, such as carriers, battleships, hospital ships. The European phase of Operation Magic Carpet concluded in February 1946 while the Pacific phase continued until September 1946, as early as mid-1943, the United States Army had recognized that, once victory was won, bringing the troops home would be a priority. More than 16 million Americans were in uniform, and more than eight million of them were scattered across all theaters of war worldwide, Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall established committees to address the logistical problem. Eventually organization of the operation was given to the War Shipping Administration, eligibility for repatriation was determined by the Advanced Service Rating Score. The Navy was excluded from the initial European sealift, as the Pacific War was far from over, the WSA ordered the immediate conversion of 300 Liberty and Victory cargo ships into transports. Adequate port and docking facilities were also serious considerations along with the necessary to take the veterans to demobilization camps after they reached Americas shores. The first homeward-bound ships left Europe in late June 1945, and by November, in mid-October 1945 the United States Navy donated the newly commissioned carrier USS Lake Champlain – fitted with bunks for 3,300 troops – to the operation. She was joined in November by the battleship USS Washington, the European lift now included more than 400 vessels. Some would carry as few as 300 while the large liners often squeezed 15,000 aboard, the WSA and the army also converted 29 troopships into special carriers for war brides, for the almost half a million European women who had married American servicemen. The Magic Carpet fleet also included 48 hospital ships, these more than half a million wounded. Nor was this a one-way stream, returned to Europe were more than 450,000 German prisoners of war, in addition to 53,000 Italian ex-POWs. Between May and September 1945,1,417,850 were repatriated, between October 1945 to April 1946, another 3,323,395 were repatriated. By the end of February, the ETO phase of Magic Carpet was essentially completed, with the surrender of Japan, the navy also began bringing home sailors and marines. Stopping at Okinawa, they embarked thousands more Tenth United States Army troops, the navy fleet of 369 ships included 222 assault transports,6 battleships,18 cruisers,57 aircraft carriers and 12 hospital ships. By October 1945, Magic Carpet was operating worldwide with the Army, Navy, december 1945 became the peak month with almost 700,000 returning home from the Pacific. With the final arrival of 29 troop transports carrying more than 200,000 soldiers and sailors from the China-Burma-India theater in April 1946, the last of the troops to return from the Pacific war zone arrived home in September 1946
8.
Alameda, California
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Alameda is a city in Alameda County, California, United States. It is located on Alameda Island and Bay Farm Island, and is adjacent to and south of Oakland and east of San Francisco across the San Francisco Bay. Bay Farm Island, a portion of which is known as Harbor Bay Isle, is not actually an island. The citys estimated 2016 population was 79,277, Alameda is a charter city, rather than a general law city, allowing the city to provide for any form of government. Alameda became a city and adopted a council–manager government in 1916. The island Alameda occupies what was originally a peninsula connected to Oakland, much of it was low-lying and marshy, but on higher ground than the peninsula and adjacent parts of what is now downtown Oakland were home to one of the largest coastal oak forests in the world. The area was therefore called Encinal, Spanish for forest of evergreen oak, Alameda is Spanish for grove of poplar trees or tree-lined avenue, and was chosen in 1853 by popular vote. The inhabitants at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the late 18th century were a band of the Ohlone tribe. The peninsula became part of the vast Rancho San Antonio granted in 1820 to Luis Peralta by the Spanish king who claimed California, the grant was later confirmed by the new Republic of Mexico upon its independence from Spain. Over time, the became known as Bolsa de Encinal or Encinal de San Antonio. The city was founded on June 6,1853, and the town contained three small settlements. Eventually, the Central Pacifics ferry pier became the Alameda Mole, the first post office opened in 1854. The first school, Schmermerhorn School, was opened in 1855, the San Francisco and Alameda Railroad opened the Encinal station in 1864. The Encinal area was known as Fasskings Station in honor of Frederick Louis Fassking. Encinals own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, the West End area was originally called Bowmans Point in honor of Charles G. Bowman, an early settler. The Alameda Terminal was the site of the arrival of the first train via the First Transcontinental Railroad into the San Francisco Bay Area on September 6,1869, the transcontinental terminus was switched to the Oakland Mole two months later, on November 8,1869. The borders of Alameda were made coextensive with the island in 1872, mark Twain described Alameda as being The Garden of California. In 1917, an attraction called Neptune Beach was built in the now known as Crab Cove
9.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
10.
Le Havre
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Le Havre is an urban French commune and city in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northwestern France. It is situated on the bank of the estuary of the river Seine on the Channel southwest of the Pays de Caux. Modern Le Havre remains deeply influenced by its employment and maritime traditions and its port is the second largest in France, after that of Marseille, for total traffic, and the largest French container port. The name Le Havre means the harbour or the port and its inhabitants are known as Havrais or Havraises. Administratively the commune is located in the Normandy region and, with Dieppe, is one of the two sub-prefectures of the Seine-Maritime department, Le Havre is the capital of the canton and since 1974 has been the see of the diocese of Le Havre. Le Havre is the most populous commune of Upper Normandy, although the population of the greater Le Havre conurbation is smaller than that of Rouen. It is also the second largest subprefecture in France, the city and port were founded by the King Francis I of France in 1517. Economic development in the Early modern period was hampered by wars, conflicts with the English, epidemics. It was from the end of the 18th century that Le Havre started growing, after the 1944 bombings the firm of Auguste Perret began to rebuild the city in concrete. Changes in years 1990–2000 were numerous, the right won the municipal elections and committed the city to the path of reconversion, seeking to develop the service sector and new industries. The Port 2000 project increased the capacity to compete with ports of northern Europe, transformed the southern districts of the city. In 2005 UNESCO inscribed the city of Le Havre as a World Heritage Site. The André Malraux Modern Art Museum is the second of France for the number of impressionist paintings, the city has been awarded two flowers by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. Le Havre is a major French city located some 50 kilometres west of Rouen on the shore of the English Channel, numerous roads link to Le Havre with the main access roads being the A29 autoroute from Amiens and the A13 autoroute from Paris linking to the A131 autoroute. Administratively, Le Havre is a commune in the Haute-Normandie region in the west of the department of Seine-Maritime, the urban area of Le Havre corresponds roughly to the territory of the Agglomeration community of Le Havre which includes 17 communes and 250,000 people. It occupies the tip of the natural region of Pays de Caux where it is the largest city. Le Havre is sandwiched between the coast of the Channel from south-west to north-west and the estuary of the Seine to the south, Le Havre belongs to the MLG community Paris Basin which was formed in the Mesozoic period. The Paris Basin consists of sedimentary rocks, the commune of Le Havre consists of two areas separated by a natural cliff edge, one part in the lower part of the town to the south including the harbour, the city centre and the suburbs
11.
Marseille
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Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
12.
Okinawa Prefecture
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The larger are mostly high islands and the smaller ones are mostly coral islands. The largest of the islands is Okinawa, the climate of the islands ranges from humid subtropical climate in the north to tropical rainforest climate in the south. Precipitation is very high, and is affected by the rainy season, the islands beyond the Tokara Strait are characterized by their coral reefs. The Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, and Yaeyama Islands have a native population collectively called the Ryukyuan people, the varied Ryukyuan languages are traditionally spoken on these islands, and the major islands have their own distinct languages. In modern times, the Japanese language is the language of the islands. The northern islands are called the Satsunan Islands, while the southern part of the chain are called the Ryukyu Islands in Japanese. Following are the grouping and names used by the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department of the Japan Coast Guard, the islands are listed from north to south where possible. Nansei Islands Satsunan Islands Ōsumi Islands with, Tanegashima, Yaku, Kuchinoerabu, Mageshima in the North-Eastern Group and they agreed on February 15,2010, to use Amami-guntō for the Amami Islands, prior to that, Amami-shotō had also been used. The English and Japanese uses of the term Ryukyu differ, in English, the term Ryukyu may apply to the entire chain of islands, while in Japanese Ryukyu usually refers only to the islands that were previously part of the Ryūkyū Kingdom after 1624. Nansei-shotō is the name for the whole island chain in Japanese. Japan has used the name on nautical charts since 1907, based on the Japanese charts, the international chart series uses Nansei Shoto. Nansei literally means southwest, the direction of the chain from mainland Japan. Some humanities scholars prefer the uncommon term Ryūkyū-ko for the island chain. In geology, however, the Ryukyu Arc includes subsurface structures such as the Okinawa Trough, the name of Ryūkyū is strongly associated with the Ryūkyū Kingdom, a kingdom that originated from the Okinawa Islands and subjected the Sakishima and Amami Islands. The name is considered outdated in Japanese although some entities of Okinawa still bear the name. In Japanese, the Ryukyu Islands cover only the Okinawa, Miyako, the northern half of the island chain is referred to as the Satsunan Islands in Japanese, as opposed to Northern Ryukyu Islands in English. Humanities scholars generally agree that the Amami, Okinawa, Miyako, there is, however, no good name for the group. The native population do not have their own name, since they do not recognize themselves as a group this size, Ryukyu is the principal candidate because it roughly corresponds to the maximum extent of the Ryūkyū Kingdom
13.
Military Sealift Command
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The Military Sealift Command is a United States Navy organization that controls the replenishment and military transport ships of the Navy. The United States Military Sealift Command has the responsibility for providing sealift and it first came into existence on 9 July 1949 when the Military Sea Transportation Service became solely responsible for the Department of Defenses ocean transport needs. The MSTS was renamed the Military Sealift Command in 1970, Military Sealift Command ships are made up of a core fleet of ships owned by the United States Navy and others under long-term-charter augmented by short-term or voyage-chartered ships. Some ships may have Navy or Marine Corps personnel on board to carry out communication and special mission functions, ships on charter or equivalent, retain commercial colors and bear the standard merchant prefix MV, SS, or GTS, without hull numbers. Five programs comprise Military Sealift Command, Combat Logistics Force, Special Mission, Prepositioning, Service Support, the Combat Logistics Force’s role is to directly replenish ships that are underway at sea, enabling them to deploy for long periods of time without having to come to port. The Special Mission program operates vessels for military and federal government tasks, such as submarine support and missile flight data collection. The Prepositioning program sustains the US militarys forward presence strategy by deploying supply ships in key areas prior to actual need, also, MSC realigned two of its four mission-driven programs and adding a fifth program. The Prepositioning and Sealift programs are unchanged by the 2012 reorganization, as of June 2013, Military Sealift Command operated around 110 ships, and employed 9,800 people. The Combat Logistics Force is the part of the MSC most associated with supporting the Navy. In 1972, a study concluded that it would be cheaper for civilians to man USN support vessels such as tankers, the CLF is the American equivalent of the British Royal Fleet Auxiliary. These MSC ships are painted gray and can be easily identified by the blue. The Combat Logistics Force was formerly called the Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force, some of its ships were transferred to the new Service Support program. Special mission ships work for several different US Navy customers, including the Naval Sea Systems Command and these ships like those of the NFAF are painted haze gray with blue and gold stack bands. Some of its ships were transferred to the new Service Support program, as a key element of sea basing, afloat prepositioning provides the military equipment and supplies for a contingency forward deployed in key ocean areas before need. The MSC Prepositioning Program supports the US Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps, Prepositioning ships remain at sea, ready to deploy on short-notice the vital equipment, fuel and supplies to initially support military forces in the event of a contingency. The Prepositioning Program consists of 34 at-sea ships plus 2 aviation support ships kept in reduced operating status and these ships wear civilian livery, and are only designated USNS if government-owned, those chartered from civilian owners are either SS or MV. It consists of four government-operated ships formerly in the Special Mission program, Sealift is divided into three separate project offices, Tanker Project Office, Dry Cargo Project Office and the Surge Project Office. As a result of a 2012 organization, MSCs 12 worldwide MSC ship support units will now report to the MSC operational area commands in their areas of responsibility
14.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
15.
Bremerhaven
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Bremerhaven is a city at the seaport of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, a state of the Federal Republic of Germany. It forms an enclave in the state of Lower Saxony and is located at the mouth of the River Weser on its eastern bank, opposite the town of Nordenham. Though a relatively new city, it has a history as a trade port and today is one of the most important German ports. The town was founded in 1827, but settlements, such as Lehe, were in the vicinity as early as the 12th century, and Geestendorf and these tiny villages were built on small islands in the swampy estuary. In 1381, the city of Bremen established de facto rule over the lower Weser stream, including Lehe, early in 1653, Swedish Bremen-Verdens troops captured Bremerlehe by force. The Emperor Ferdinand III ordered his vassal Christina of Sweden, then Duchess regnant of Bremen-Verden, however, Swedish Bremen-Verden soon enacted the First Bremian War and in the following peace treaty Bremen had to cede Bremerlehe and its surroundings to Swedish Bremen-Verden. The latter developed plans to found a town on the site. Finally, in 1827, the city of Bremen under Burgomaster Johann Smidt bought the territories at the mouth of the Weser from the Kingdom of Hanover. Bremen sought this territory to retain its share of Germanys overseas trade, Bremerhaven was founded to be a haven for Bremens merchant marine, becoming the second harbour for Bremen, despite being 50 km downstream. Due to trade with, and emigration to North America, the port, in 1848, Bremerhaven became the home port of the German Confederations Navy under Karl Rudolf Brommy. The Kingdom of Hanover founded a town next to Bremerhaven. Both towns grew and established the three pillars of trade, shipbuilding and fishing. Following inter-state negotiations at different times, Bremerhavens boundary was several times extended at the expense of Hanoveran territory, Bremerhaven was one of the important harbours of emigration in Europe. All of Wesermünde, including those parts, which did not previously belong to Bremerhaven, was a postwar enclave run by the United States within the British zone of northern Germany, most of the US military units and their personnel were assigned to the citys Carl Schurz Kaserne. One of the longest US units based on the Kaserne was a US military radio and TV station, an “Amerikanischer Soldatensender, ” AFN Bremerhaven, in 1993, the Kaserne was vacated by the US military and returned to the German government. In 1947 the city part of the federal state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen and was consequently renamed from Wesermünde to Bremerhaven. Today, Bremerhaven is therefore part of the city-state of Bremen, being to all intents and this is complicated somewhat by the fact that the city of Bremen has owned the overseas port within Bremerhaven since 1927. To further complicate matters, a treaty between the two cities makes Bremerhaven responsible for the administration of those parts owned directly by Bremen
16.
West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
17.
Maritime Administration
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The United States Maritime Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Transportation. Its programs promote the use of transportation and its seamless integration with other segments of the transportation system. The Maritime Administration works in areas involving ships and shipping, shipbuilding, port operations, vessel operations, national security, environment. On June 4, Deputy Maritime Administrator Paul “Chip” Jaenichen was named Acting Maritime Administrator and he will serve in this role until the appointment and confirmation of a new Maritime Administrator. On August 6,1981, MARAD came under control of the Department of Transportation thereby bringing all transportation programs under one cabinet-level department, MARAD administers financial programs to develop, promote, and operate the U. S. Maritime Service and the U. S. S. Documented vessels to foreign registries, maintains equipment, shipyard facilities, the Maritime Subsidy Board negotiates contracts for ship construction and grants operating-differential subsidies to shipping companies. The Maritime Security Program authorizes MARAD to enter contracts with U. S. -flag commercial ship owners to provide service during times of war or national emergencies. As of 2007, ten companies have signed contracts providing the MSP with a reserve of sixty cargo vessels, United States Maritime Service, a training organization for the U. S
18.
Hudson River
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The Hudson River is a 315-mile river that flows from north to south primarily through eastern New York in the United States. The river originates in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York, flows through the Hudson Valley, the river serves as a political boundary between the states of New Jersey and New York, and further north between New York counties. The lower half of the river is a tidal estuary occupying the Hudson Fjord, tidal waters influence the Hudsons flow from as far north as Troy. The river is named after Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East India Company, who explored it in 1609, and after whom Canadas Hudson Bay is also named. The Dutch called the river the North River – with the Delaware River called the South River –, during the eighteenth century, the river valley and its inhabitants were the subject and inspiration of Washington Irving, the first internationally acclaimed American author. In the nineteenth century, the area inspired the Hudson River School of landscape painting, the Hudson was also the eastern outlet for the Erie Canal, which, when completed in 1825, became an important transportation artery for the early-19th-century United States. The source of the Hudson River is Lake Tear of the Clouds in the Adirondack Park at an altitude of 4,322 feet, the river is not cartographically called the Hudson River until miles downstream. From that point on, the stream is known as the Hudson River. Popular culture and convention, however, more often cite the photogenic Lake Tear of the Clouds as the source, South of the confluence of Indian Pass Brook and Calamity Brook, the Hudson River flows south into Sanford Lake. South of the outlet of the lake, the Opalescent River flows into the Hudson, the Hudson then flows south, taking in Beaver Brook and the outlet of Lake Harris. After its confluence with the Indian River, the Hudson forms the boundary between Essex and Hamilton counties, in the hamlet of North River, the Hudson flows entirely in Warren County and takes in the Schroon River. Further south, the forms the boundary between Warren and Saratoga Counties. The river then takes in the Sacandaga River from the Great Sacandaga Lake, shortly thereafter, the river leaves the Adirondack Park, flows under Interstate 87, and through Glens Falls, just south of Lake George although receiving no streamflow from the lake. It next goes through Hudson Falls, at this point the river forms the boundary between Washington and Saratoga Counties. At this point the river has an altitude of 200 feet, further south the Hudson takes in water from the Batten Kill River and Fish Creek near Schuylerville. The river then forms the boundary between Saratoga and Rensselaer counties, the river then enters the heart of the Capital District. It takes in water from the Hoosic River, which extends into Massachusetts, shortly thereafter the river has its confluence with the Mohawk River, the largest tributary of the Hudson River, in Waterford. Shortly thereafter, the river reaches the Federal Dam in Troy, at an elevation of 2 feet, the bottom of the dam marks the beginning of the tidal influence in the Hudson as well as the beginning of the lower Hudson River
19.
Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
20.
1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)
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The 1st Cavalry Regiment is a United States Army unit to have its antecedents in the early 19th century in the formation of the United States Regiment of Dragoons. To this day, the special designation is First Regiment of Dragoons. The United States Regiment of Dragoons was organized by an Act of Congress approved on 2 March 1833 and it became the First Regiment of Dragoons when the Second Dragoons was raised in 1836. Its Headquarters were initially established at Jefferson Barracks, near St. Louis, in the spring of 1855, two new regiments of cavalry, the First and Second Cavalry, were authorized. One of these was named The First Cavalry Regiment, under the command of Lt. Col. Edwin Vose Sumner, Sumner was previously with the First Dragoons. In June 1834, the regiment filled its complement of officers, many of whom later became noted Civil War generals, Colonel, Henry Dodge Lieutenant Colonel, Stephen W. Kearny Major, Richard B. Captains, Clifton Wharton, E. V. Sumner, Eustace Trenor, David Hunter, Lemuel Ford, Nathan Boone, browne, Jesse Bean, Matthew Duncan and David Perkins. First Lieutenants, Philip St. George Cooke, S. W. Moore, A. Van Buren, J. F. Izard, Jefferson Davis, L. P. Lupton, Thomas Swords, T. B. Wheelock, J. W. Hamilton, B. D. Moore, and C. F. M. Noland. Second Lieutenants, James Allen, Theophilus H. Holmes, J. H. K. Burgwin, J. S. Van Derveer, J. W. Shaumburg, Enoch Steen, James Clyman, J. L. Watson, and B. A. Terrett. Brevet Second Lieutenants, William Eustis, G. W. McClure, northrop, G. P. Kingsbury, J. M. Bowman, Asbury Ury, A. G. Edwards and T. J. McKean. First Lieutenant Jefferson Davis was the first adjutant, but resigned the staff position 4 February 1834 and this assignment was revoked in May 1918. 1921 – 1st Cavalry Regiment was assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division on 20 August,1933 – The regiment was reorganized and redesignated as 1st Cavalry Regiment on 16 January. 1940 – The regiment was redesignated as 1st Armored Regiment,1944 – On 20 July, 1st Armored Regiment was reorganized. 2d Battalion was deactivated and the remainder was reorganized and redesignated as 1st Tank Battalion,1948 – On 20 December, 1st Constabulary Squadron was reconverted and redesignated as 1st Medium Tank Battalion, reassigned to the 1st Armored Division, and deactivated. 1951 – On 27 February, 2nd Battalion, 1st Armored Regiment was reconstituted, and redesignated as 100th Tank Battalion. On 7 March, 1st Medium Tank Battalion was reactivated as part of 1st Armored Division at Fort Hood, Texas. In October 1833, the five companies first organized were sent under Colonel Dodge to winter in the vicinity of Fort Gibson, Arkansas Territory, where they remained until June 1834
21.
Da Nang
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Danang is the third largest city in Vietnam in terms of urban population and one of the major port cities, in addition to Ho Chi Minh City and Hai Phong. Situated on the coast of the Eastern Sea, at the end of the Han River. It is governed as one of the five direct-controlled municipalities of the SRV and is thus under direct administration of the central government. It is located within 100 km of several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Imperial City of Hue, the Old Town of Hoi An, the city was previously known as Cửa Hàn during early Đại Việt settlement, and as Tourane during French colonial rule. Before 1997, the city was part of Quang Nam-Da Nang Province, on 1 January 1997, Da Nang was separated from Quảng Nam Province to become one of four independent municipalities in Vietnam. Da Nang is listed as a first class city, and has a higher ratio than any of Vietnams other provinces or centrally governed cities. Most of the names by which Da Nang has been known make reference to its position at the Hàn River estuary, the citys present name is generally agreed to be a Vietnamese adaptation of the Cham word da nak, which is translated as opening of a large river. Other Chamic sources, with definitions, have been proposed. Another name given to Da Nang was Cửa Hàn, the name used by the French, Tourane, is said to derive from this name, by way of a rough transliteration. Notably, this appears on maps of the area drafted by Alexandre de Rhodes in 1650. The name Kean was another name used during the 17th century to refer to the land situated at the foot of the Hải Vân Pass. Other names referring to Da Nang include, Vũng Thùng, a name which survives in folklore. Trà Úc, Trà Áo, Trà Sơn and Đồng Long Loan, in Sino-Vietnamese script, used until 1945, Đà Nẵng is written as 沱灢. Thái Phiên, a name used briefly after the 1945 August Revolution, commemorating Thái Phiên, the citys origins date back to the ancient kingdom of Champa, established in 192 AD. At its peak, the Chams sphere of influence stretched from Huế to Vũng Tàu, the city of Indrapura, at the site of the modern village of Dong Duong in Quảng Nam Province, was the capital of Champa from about 875 to about 1000 AD. In the latter half of the 10th century, the kings of Indrapura came into conflict with the Đại Việt, in 982, three ambassadors sent to Champa by King Lê Hoàn of the Đại Việt were detained in Indrapura. Lê Hoàn decided to go on the offensive, sacking Indrapura, as a result of these setbacks, the Cham eventually abandoned Indrapura around 1000 AD. The Đại Việt campaign against Champa continued into the late 11th century, soon afterwards, Vietnamese peasants began moving into the untilled former Cham lands, turning them into rice fields and moving relentlessly southward, delta by delta, along the narrow coastal plain
22.
Landing Ship, Tank
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This provided amphibious assaults to almost any beach. The bow of the LST had a door that would open with a ramp for unloading the vehicles. The LST had a flat keel that allowed the ship to be beached. The twin propellers and rudders had protection from grounding, the LSTs served across the globe during World War II including, Pacific War and European theatre. The first tank landing ships were built to British requirements by converting existing ships, then the British, over 1,000 LSTs were laid down in the United States during World War II for use by the Allies. Eighty more were built in the United Kingdom and Canada, as an interim measure, three 4, 000- to 4, 800-GRT tankers, built to pass over the restrictive bars of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, were selected for conversion because of their shallow draft. Bow doors and ramps were added to ships, which became the first tank landing ships, LST, HMS Misoa, Tasajera. They later proved their worth during the invasion of Algeria in 1942, the first purpose-built LST design was HMS Boxer. It was a design from ideas penned by Prime Minister Winston Churchill. In order that it could carry 13 Churchill infantry tanks,27 other vehicles and nearly 200 men at a speed of 18 knots, as a result, each of the three ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors. The three ships were converted to Fighter Direction Ships for the invasion of Normandy, the U. S. were to build seven LST but in light of the problems with the design and progress with the LCT Mark II the plans were canceled. Construction of the LCTs took until 1943 and the first US LCT was launched before them, at their first meeting at the Atlantic conference in Argentia, Newfoundland, in August 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill confirmed the Admiraltys views. During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels, as with the standing agreement, these ships would be built by the US so British shipyards could concentrate on building vessels for the Royal Navy. The specifications called for vessels capable of crossing the Atlantic, calling a vessel 300 ft long a craft was considered a misnomer and the type was re-christened Landing Ship, Tank, or LST. The LST design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, one of the elements provided for sufficient buoyancy in the ships sidewalls so that they would float the ship even when the tank deck was flooded. The LST gave up the speed of HMS Boxer, at only 10 knots, within a few days, John C. Niedermair of the Bureau of Ships sketched out an awkward looking ship that proved to be the design for the more than 1,000 LST that were built during World War II. An anchor and mechanical winch system also aided in the ability to pull itself off the beach
23.
23rd Infantry Division (United States)
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The 23rd Infantry Division, more commonly known as the Americal Division, of the United States Army was activated 27 May 1942 on the island of New Caledonia. In the immediate emergency following Pearl Harbor, the United States had hurriedly sent three regiments to defend New Caledonia against a feared Japanese attack. This division was the division formed outside of United States territory during World War II. This was unusual, as most U. S. divisions are known by a number, after World War II the Americal Division was officially re-designated as the 23rd Infantry Division. However, it was referred to as such, even on official orders. During the Vietnam War the division had a mixed record, the division was inactivated following its withdrawal from Vietnam in November 1971. Assigned to this duty were companies L and M and attached units from Headquarters Company, Service Company, the total strength being in the vicinity of 480 men was under the command of Brigadier General Rose. That a brigadier general should be placed in command of two rifle companies indicated the degree of importance, and hazard, that G. H. G. The men were assembled and told that Force A and 50 Australians held the most advanced outpost of the Allied Forces in the Pacific, no retreat is possible, no reinforcements can be relied on. The French objected to the arrangement and, increasingly worried about Japanese invasion, with pressing needs to build up defenses in Hawaii and Australia, Army planners decided to put together a force rather than commit an already organized division. The regiments available through the reorganization of divisions along with elements made available a force of about 15,000 men. This force, designated Task Force 6184 and often mentioned as Poppy Force, under Brigadier General Alexander M. Patch, Jr. had the elements of a division, the forces mission was to hold New Caledonia. It was an independent command, directly under the War Department in Washington, the convoy sailed from the New York Port of Embarkation on 23 January 1942 and reached Melbourne on 26 February. This large and critical convoy was covered by a striking group, transshipment of troops and equipment was completed in Melbourne and the seven transports departed on 7 March for New Caledonia as convoy ZK-7, arriving six days later. General Patch, preceding the force by air, had arrived on 5 March with news for the French that American forces were underway, under the command of General Patch, the Americal Division was the first US Army unit to be sent to Guadalcanal. Largely because of constraints, the Americal arrived piecemeal and was fed into combat alongside the battle-hardened and exhausted US 1st Marine Division. Its soldiers were quick to assimilate from the Marines on Guadalcanal lessons on battle tactics against Japanese forces, Americal casualties were consequently less than what might be expected. The 164th Infantry Regiment landed on Guadalcanal on 13 October 1942, ahead of its brother regiments, the Regiment was the first U. S. Army unit to engage in offensive action during World War II as part of the Battle of Guadalcanal
24.
National Defense Reserve Fleet
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The NDRF is managed by the U. S. Department of Transportations Maritime Administration. It is a different entity from the United States Navy reserve fleets, NDRF vessels are at the fleet sites at James River, Virginia–the James River Reserve Fleet, Beaumont, Texas–the Beaumont Reserve Fleet, and Suisun Bay, California, and at designated outported berths. Former anchorage sites included Stony Point, New York - the Hudson River Reserve Fleet, Wilmington, North Carolina, Mobile, Alabama, Astoria, Oregon, and Olympia, Washington. Through the 2010s, the oldest, most decrepit hulls at Suisun Bay will be stripped of materials, then broken up in Texas. Twenty of the most polluting mothball ships are slated for recycling by 2012, at its peak in 1950, the NDRF had 2,277 ships in lay-up. In July 2007, it held 230 ships, primarily dry cargo ships with some tankers, military auxiliaries, by the end of August,2015, it held 100. The NDRF was established under Section 11 of the Merchant Ship Sales Act of 1946 to serve as a reserve of ships for national defense, NDRF vessels were used in seven wars and crises. During the Korean War,540 vessels were out to move military forces. During a worldwide tonnage shortfall in 1951–53, more than 600 ships were reactivated to carry coal to Northern Europe, from 1955 through 1964, another 600 ships were used to store grain for the Department of Agriculture. Another 223 cargo ships and 29 tankers were activated during a tonnage shortfall after the Suez Canal was closed in 1956, during the Berlin crisis of 1961,18 vessels were activated and remained in service until 1970. Another 172 vessels were activated for the Vietnam War and these are crewed with a reduced crew but kept available for activation within four, five, ten or twenty days. An additional 28 ships are held under United States Maritime Administration custody for other Government agencies on a cost-reimbursable basis. Vessels with military utility or logistic value are held in status and are in a preservation program that is designed to keep them in the same condition as when they enter the fleet. The internal spaces are dehumidified to slow the corrosion of metal, DC power is distributed through anodes to the exterior underwater portions of the hull, creating an electric field that suppresses corrosion and preserves the surface of the hull. External painting and other work is generally deferred since it does not affect the ability to activate and operate the vessel. MARAD is authorized as the government’s disposal agent through the NDRF program for merchant type vessels equal to or greater than 1,500 gross tons. A state agency can file an application to request title to a vessel as-is where-is from the NDRF for the purpose of creating an artificial reef, of the 132 non-retention vessels in the NDRF, there are 117 that are being prepared for disposal. The NDRF program can give and lend historic artifacts to maritime-heritage organizations, battleships, cruisers, and aircraft carriers which have been stricken or those awaiting final disposition may be transferred to MARAD locations for berthing
25.
James River
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The James River is a river in the U. S. state of Virginia. It is 348 miles long, extending to 444 miles if one includes the Jackson River, the James River drains a catchment comprising 10,432 square miles. The watershed includes about 4% open water and an area with a population of 2.5 million people and it is the 12th longest river in the United States that remains entirely within a single state. Tidal waters extend west to Richmond, the capital of Virginia, larger tributaries draining to the tidal portion include the Appomattox River, Chickahominy River, Warwick River, Pagan River, and the Nansemond River. At its mouth near Newport News Point, the Elizabeth River, many boats pass through this river to import and export Virginia products. The navigable portion of the river was the highway of the Colony of Virginia during its first 15 years, facilitating supply ships delivering supplies. However, for the first five years, despite many hopes of gold and riches, in 1612, businessman John Rolfe successfully cultivated a non-native strain of tobacco which proved popular in England. Soon, the became the primary means of exporting the large hogsheads of this cash crop from an ever-growing number of plantations with wharfs along its banks. This development made the efforts of the Virginia Company of London successful financially, spurring even more development, investments. The upper reaches of the river above the head of navigation at the line were explored by fur trading parties sent by Abraham Wood during the late 17th century. Although ocean-going ships were unable to navigate beyond present-day Richmond, portage of products, produce from the Piedmont and Great Valley regions traveled down the river to seaports at Richmond and Manchester through such port towns as Lynchburg, Scottsville, Columbia and Buchanan. The James River was considered as a route for transport of produce from the Ohio Valley, the James River and Kanawha Canal was built for this purpose, to provide a navigable portion of the Kanawha River, a tributary of the Ohio River. For the most mountainous section between the two points, the James River and Kanawha Turnpike was built to provide a link via wagons. However, before the canal could be completed, in the mid-19th century, railroads emerged as a more practical technology. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway was completed between Richmond and the Ohio River at the new city of Huntington, West Virginia by 1873, dooming the canals economic prospects. In the 1880s, the Richmond and Alleghany Railroad was laid along the portion of the canals towpath. In modern times, this line is used primarily in transporting West Virginia coal to export coal piers at Newport News. The James River contains numerous parks and other recreational attractions, canoeing, fishing, kayaking, hiking, and swimming are some of the activities that people enjoy along the river during the summer
26.
Brownsville, Texas
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Brownsville is the county seat of Cameron County, Texas. It is the sixteenth most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population at the 2010 census of 175,023 and an estimated population in 2014 of 183,046. It is located at the southernmost tip of Texas, on the bank of the Rio Grande, directly north and across the border from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. The 2014 U. S. Census Bureau estimate placed the Brownsville-Harlingen metropolitan area population at 420,392, in addition, the international Matamoros–Brownsville Metropolitan Area was estimated to have a population of 1,136,995. Brownsville has one of the highest poverty rates in the nation, the Brownsville urban area is one of the fastest growing in the United States. The citys population increased after it experienced a boom in the steel industry during the first decade of the 1900s. In recent times, the Port of Brownsville has become an economic hub for South Texas, where shipments arrive from other parts of the United States, from Mexico. In April 1846, construction of a fort on the Mexican border by was begun by American forces due to increased instability in the region on the eve of the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. Before the completion of the construction, the Mexican Army began the Siege of Fort Texas, during the first active campaign in the Mexican–American War, the first battle of the war occurred on May 8, when General Zachary Taylor received word of the siege of the fort. Taylors forces rushed to help, but Mexican troops intercepted them, resulting in the Battle of Palo Alto, approximately 5 miles north of present-day Brownsville. The next morning the Mexican forces had retreated, and Taylors troops caught up with them, resulting in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, which took place within the present city limits. When Taylor finally arrived at the besieged Fort Texas, it was found that two soldiers had died, one of them the commander, Major Jacob Brown. In his honor, General Taylor renamed the fort Fort Brown, an old cannon at the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College marks the spot where Major Brown received his fatal wound. The city of Brownsville was originally established late in 1848 by Charles Stillman, the state originally incorporated the city on January 24,1850. This was repealed on April 1,1852, due to a dispute between Stillman and the former owners. The state reincorporated the city on February 7,1853, which remains in effect, the issue of ownership was not decided until 1879, when the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Stillman. On July 13,1859, the First Cortina War started, juan Nepomuceno Cortina became one of the most important historical figures of the area, and continued to exert a decisive influence in the local events until his arrest in 1875. The First Cortina War ended on December 27,1859, in May 1861, the brief Second Cortina War took place
27.
World War II Victory Medal (United States)
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The World War II Victory Medal was first issued as a service ribbon referred to as the “Victory Ribbon. ”By 1946, a full medal had been established which was referred to as the World War II Victory Medal. The corresponding medal from the World War I is the World War I Victory Medal, on 8 August 1946, the separate Merchant Marine World War II Victory Medal was established for members of the United States Merchant Marine who served during World War II. The medal is awarded for service between 7 December 1941 and 31 December 1946, both dates inclusive, the National Personnel Records Center has reported some cases of service members receiving the award for simply a few days of service. As the Second World War ended on 2 September 1945, there may be cases of members who had enlisted, entered officer candidate school. Military Academy, the U. S. Naval Academy or the U. S. Coast Guard Academy in 1946, the reason for this late date is that President Harry S. Truman did not declare an official end of hostilities until the last day of 1946. The bronze medal is 1 3⁄8 inches in width, the rainbow on each side of the ribbon is a miniature of the pattern used in the World War I Victory Medal. Although the World War I Victory Medal included clasps, the World War II Victory Medal did not and this was because campaign medals were frequently awarded instead. Awards and decorations of the United States military Merchant Marine World War II Victory Medal United States Statutes at Large, washington, DC, Office of the Federal Register. Washington, DC, Office of the Federal Register, navPers 15,790, Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual. Washington, DC, Department of the Navy, mIL-DTL-3943/237A, Detail Specification Sheet — Medal, World War II Victory. MIL-DTL-11589/149E, Detail Specification Sheet — Ribbon, World War II Victory Medal, fort Belvoir, Virginia, The Institute of Heraldry, U. S. Army. Archived from the original on September 9,2009
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Navy Occupation Service Medal
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The medal was also bestowed to personnel who performed duty in West Berlin between 1945 and 1990. No more than one Navy Occupation Service Medal may be awarded to an individual, the Army of Occupation Medal is the equivalent of the Navy Occupation Service Medal. No person could receive both the Army and Navy occupation medals, the medal was designed by A. A. Weinman. It depicts Neptune riding a Hippocampus with the words Occupation Service, the reverse has the words United States Navy and is the same as that of the Dominican Campaign Medal. The medal is authorized two service clasps, Europe and Asia, the clasps are rectangular with a rope border. If eligible, both clasps may be worn on the medal, the Berlin Airlift Device is also authorized to those Naval personnel who have served 90 days or more with an accredited unit in support of the Berlin Airlift between 1948 and 1949. The following geographical duty areas, and time frames of eligibility, the Asia clasp was authorized for any service performed on shore or on ships in the following geographical duty areas and time frames of eligibility. Service after June 27,1950 which is eligible towards the criteria for the Korean Service Medal may not be considered for the Occupation Service Medal. Army of Occupation Medal Awards and decorations of the United States military Navy History & Heritage Command-Navy Occupation Service Medal SECNAVINST1650. 1H Chapter 8, § 3-831-5
29.
National Defense Service Medal
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The National Defense Service Medal is a service medal of the United States Armed Forces established by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953. It may also be issued to military members for any other period that the Secretary of Defense designates. Currently, the National Defense Service Medal is the oldest service medal in use by the United States Armed Forces, the oldest continuously issued combat medal is the Medal of Honor. For service in the Global War on Terrorism, Selected Reserve and National Guard members need only to have been in good standing to receive the NDSM, inactive Ready Reserve and Retired Reserve are not eligible to be awarded the NDSM unless called to active duty. S. The NDSM ranks eleventh out of twenty-nine in the order of precedence of service medals and this accounts for the medals omission from a large number of uncharacterized and entry level separation documents. Veterans who have this medal so omitted may apply to the service departments to have the NDSM added to records via a DD Form 215. A second award of the medal is not granted for reenlisting during the time period or transferring between branches of service. Korean Service Medal Vietnam Service Medal Southwest Asia Service Medal Global War on Terrorism Service Medal Media related to National Defense Service Medal at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Korean Service Medal
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The Korean Service Medal is a military award for service in the United States Armed Forces and was created in November 1950 by executive order of President Harry Truman. The United States Department of Defense declared thirteen official campaigns of the Korean War, some campaigns apply to all branches of the U. S. military, while others are branch specific. After 1954, the Korean Service Medal was no longer issued although the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was authorized for Korean service in the 1960s. As of 2004, a new medal known as the Korea Defense Service Medal was authorized for all post-Korean War service in the Republic of Korea, the KSM was designed by the Army Heraldic Section. The color scheme of the ribbon is derived from the Flag of the United Nations, the medal itself features a Korean gateway, most likely an iljumun, on the front, and a taegeuk on the reverse. The United Nations Service Medal for Korea was usually issued alongside the Korean Service Medal, beginning in 1999, the Republic of Korea War Service Medal was also awarded to United States service members who received the Korean Service Medal. The Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation is retroactively authorized to any United States Army veteran who served in Korea during the War
31.
Service star
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The service star may also be referred to as a campaign star or battle star depending on which award is authorized the star and the manner in which the device is used for the award. Service stars, Campaign stars, and Battle stars are worn with one point of the star pointing up on the ribbon of a medal. A silver star is worn instead of five bronze stars, a service star is sometimes mistaken for a Bronze Star or Silver Star. The service star is similar to the gold and silver 5⁄16 Inch Stars which may be authorized to be worn on specific individual decorations of certain services to denote additional decorations. Service stars are authorized for the following United States expeditionary medals, Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, Navy Expeditionary Medal, Service stars are also authorized for the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal effective February 9,2015 retroactive to September,11,2001. Each star represents a deployment in support of an approved GWOT operation, only one GWOT-EM is awarded for each operation. The five GWOT-EM approved operations by inclusive dates are, Enduring Freedom,11,2001 - TBD Iraqi Freedom, Mar.19,2003 - Aug.31, 2010Nomad Shadow, Nov.05,2007 - TBD New Dawn, Sep. 01,2010 - Dec.31,2011 Inherent Resolve, the bronze service star is also authorized for certain unit awards such as the Presidential Unit Citation to denote a second and subsequent award. The service ribbon itself indicates the first award, with a service star being added to indicate the second. If ever applicable, a service star is worn instead of five bronze stars. As a result, at least one star will be worn on the ribbon. However, though authorized for wear, no battle stars have been approved for wear, only a combatant commander can initiate a request for a battle star. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the approving authority, only one award of the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal and one award of the Global War on Terrorism Service Medal may be authorized for any individual. The specific manner of wear and symbolism of the stars varied from medal to medal, for example, an American Campaign Medal with a bronze service star indicated the service member had participated in an antisubmarine campaign. On other medals, bronze service stars were used on the service ribbon for those recipients of medals in possession of authorized campaign claps for those medals. Similarly, during the Vietnam War and afterwards, the Battle Effectiveness Award took the place of receiving battle stars for superior battle efficiency in place of combat operations. Awards and decorations of the United States military United States military award devices 5/16 inch star Oak leaf cluster United States award regulations for World War II
32.
Vietnam Service Medal
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The Vietnam Service Medal is a military award of the United States Armed Forces established on 8 July 1965 by order of President Lyndon B. Johnson. The medal is awarded to service during the Vietnam War by all members of the United States Armed Forces provided they meet the award requirements. The distinctive design has been attributed to both sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones, an employee of the Army Institute of Heraldry and Mercedes Lee who created the design. The Vietnam Service Medal was awarded to all members of the United States Armed Forces serving in Vietnam, be attached to or regularly serve for 1 or more days aboard a U. S. naval vessel directly supporting military operations. Actually participating as a crewmember in one or more flights into airspace above Vietnam. No person will be entitled to more than one award of the VSM, individuals qualified for the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for reason of service in Vietnam between 1 July 1958 and 3 July 1965 will remain qualified for that medal. Upon request any such individual may be awarded the VSM instead of the AFEM, in such instances, the AFEM will be deleted from the list of authorized medals in personnel records. No person will be entitled to awards for Vietnam service. Service members who earned the AFEM for Operation Frequent Wind between 29 and 30 April 1975, may elect to receive the VSM instead of the AFEM, no service member may be issued both medals for service in Vietnam. The VSM may be awarded posthumously, one 3⁄16 inch bronze service star is authorized for each campaign under the following conditions,1. Assigned or attached to and present for duty with a unit during the period in which it participated in combat, under orders in a combat zone and in addition meets any of the following requirements, a. Furnished a certificate by a Commanding General of a corps, higher unit, served at a normal post of duty. Aboard a vessel other than in a status and furnished a certificate by the home port commander of the vessel that he or she served in the combat zone. Was an evadee or escapee in the zone or recovered from a POW status in the combat zone during the time limitations of the campaign. POWs will not be accorded credit for the spent in confinement or while otherwise in restraint under enemy control. Though the Mayaguez incident is referred to as the last battle of the Vietnam War. Instead of the VSM, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal is authorized for members who participated in that battle. A congressional bill was introduced in 2016 to award veterans of the Mayaguez battle the VSM, South Vietnam also issued its own service medal for the Vietnam War, known as the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
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United Nations Korea Medal
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The United Nations Service Medal for Korea is an international military decoration which was established by the United Nations on December 12,1950 as the United Nations Service Medal. The decoration was the first international award ever created by the United Nations, the military forces of the Netherlands are awarded the medal for service to January 1,1955, while the armed forces of Thailand and Sweden grant the award to July 27,1955. The ultimate award authority of the United Nations Service Medal is United Nations Commander-in-Chief of military forces in Korea, for instance, in the United States Armed Forces, any service member awarded the Korean Service Medal is automatically granted the United Nations Service Medal. On November 22,1961, the United Nations officially changed the name of the United Nations Service Medal to the United Nations Service Medal Korea. This was as a prelude to the creation of a number of subsequent United Nations medals which are awarded for various operations around the world. The UN Korea Medal is a medal of bronze alloy. The obverse depicts the ‘World-in-a Wreath emblem of the United Nations, the reverse has the inscription, FOR SERVICE IN DEFENCE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS. The inscription may be in any one of the languages, Amharic, Dutch, English, French, Greek, Italian, Korean, Spanish. The medal hangs from an attachment on a straight bar suspension. Each medal is worn with a bar bearing the inscription KOREA in the same language as the reverse inscription. The medals ribbon made up of 17 equal stripes of United Nations Blue and white,9 blue and 8 white, awards and decorations of the Armed Forces of the Philippines United Nations Medal Korean War Service Medal, South Korea Korea Medal, British and Commonwealth Forces. Korean Service Medal, United States NZDF Medals site British regulations for award of medal - from NZDF site
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Vietnam Campaign Medal
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In May 1966, other allied foreign military personnel became eligible for the award. The medal was awarded for two different periods of service in Vietnam, the first period for the award was from 8 March 1949 to 20 July 1954. The second period was from 1 January 1960 to the end of the Vietnam War, on 30 April 1975, Saigon was captured by the North Vietnamese army and South Vietnam surrendered. The Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal was created in 1949 and manufactured in France, the medal was awarded to French military personnel. During the Vietnam War, the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal with Device was manufactured in the United States, 149/SL/CT of 12 May 1964 and No 205/CT/LDQG/SL of 2 December 1965. The medal was established by the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces Order No, awarded in a single class, the medal was awarded under the authority of the Chief of the Joint General Staff, Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces. Public Law 88-257 permits U. S. military personnel to accept the medal for service performed in Vietnam from 1 March 1961 to 28 March 1973 and this stipulation most often applies to members who performed Vietnam War support from the 7th Fleet, Thailand and Guam, and Japan. The Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal was awarded to Australian military personnel for service in South Vietnam during the period 31 July 1962 to 28 March 1973, the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal was referred to as the New Zealand Vietnamese Campaign Medal. The medal was awarded to New Zealand Forces for service in Vietnam for six months between 1964 and 1973, the medal was approved for wear in 1966. The Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal is made of a gold colored metal in the shape of a 32 mm wide six-pointed white enameled star with six pointed gold rays between the arms of the star. On the reverse of the medal is a circle bearing the inscription Chiến Dịch above, the suspension ribbon and service ribbon of the medal is green with three vertical white stripes. Both sets of the devices if authorized, could be worn on the ribbons and these devices are not authorized for wear by American military personnel. The Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal is considered an award by the U. S. South Korea, Australian, and New Zealand governments, the equivalent award from the U. S. Armed Forces is known as the Vietnam Service Medal, orders, decorations, and medals of South Vietnam Service Medals and campaign credits of the United States Navy Vietnam Campaign Medal
35.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
36.
USS Admiral W. S. Benson (AP-120)
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She was named Admiral W. S. Benson on 20 October 1943 and launched on 22 November 1943, sponsored by Miss Dorothy Lucille Benson, granddaughter of the late Admiral William S. Benson. She was accepted from the Maritime Commission on 23 August 1944 and commissioned the same day, during the next two weeks, the transport carried out daily exercises and gunnery runs in the vicinity of Santa Catalina, San Nicholas, and San Clemente islands. Over the next two weeks, the ship operated locally with crews from USS Hinsdale, USS Lanier, USS St. Marys, on 23 November, Admiral W. S. Stopping briefly at Melbourne, Australia, en route, for provisions from 16 to 18 December, two British destroyers, HMS Roebuck and HMS Relentless, rendezvoused with the transport on 27 December, and assumed antisubmarine screening stations. Three days later, on 30 December 1944, Admiral W. S. Benson reached her destination and stood into Bombay Harbor. Given a yard overhaul upon her return, Admiral W. S. Benson completed embarkation of 4,792 troops and passengers at San Pedro on 26 February, she sailed for Bombay the following morning. Stopping again at Melbourne en route, from 14 to 16 March 1945, embarking 1,363 troops and passengers, Admiral W. S. Benson sailed for Melbourne on 2 April. Diverted to Brisbane, Australia, en route, Admiral W. S. Benson reached that port on 14 April, embarking an additional 1,358 passengers, the transport proceeded on to Nouméa, New Caledonia, on 16 April, and reached that port on the 18th. Embarking an additional 1,410 passengers there, she got underway for Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, on the afternoon of the 21st, there, the transport debarked 75 sailors and took on board an additional 174 for passage to the United States. Underway on the day,22 April, Admiral W. S. Benson brought her second round-trip voyage to a conclusion on 3 May 1945. Underway from Wilmington on 17 May, the sailed for Marseilles, France. Transiting the isthmian waterway between 23 and 25 May, the ship was rerouted to the French port of Le Havre. The following afternoon, she commenced embarking troops, a task which she completed early the following morning. Among the 5,026 passengers were repatriated allied military prisoners, standing out of Le Havre at 0800 on 5 June, Admiral W. S. Benson anchored off Staten Island on the evening of the 11th, and then stood up the North River early the following morning. Despite the early hour, the RAMPs on board Admiral W. S. Benson, received a hearty reception, after disembarking her passengers and undergoing repairs and alterations, Admiral W. S. Benson cleared New York on 6 July 1945 for Marseilles. Arriving at her destination on Bastille Day, the transport embarked 4,828 men slated for duty in the Pacific theater, before clearing that French port on 17 July. Transiting the Panama Canal on 2 July, Admiral W. S. Benson stopped briefly at Balboa before getting underway for the western Pacific on the following morning. Fueling at Ulithi, the sailed for the Philippines, accompanied by the destroyer USS Robinson
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USS Admiral W. L. Capps (AP-121)
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USS Admiral W. L. Capps, an Admiral W. S. Benson-class transport, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for Rear Admiral Washington L. Capps. Unusually, the first — USS Capps — served concurrently with the Admiral W. L. Capps. Via a transfer to the United States Army and then back to the Navy and her keel was laid down on 15 December 1942 at Alameda, California, by the Bethlehem-Alameda Shipyard Inc. Inc. under a Maritime Commission contract. She was launched on 20 February 1944 sponsored by Mrs. James Reed and delivered to the Navy and commissioned on 18 September 1944 with Captain N. S. Haugen, USCG, following shakedown training along the U. S. West Coast, the transport departed San Francisco, on 23 November, en route she visited Nouméa, New Caledonia, where she disembarked marines and took on board passengers headed for Guadalcanal. From that island, Admiral W. L. Capps carried another group of passengers to Espiritu Santo and she embarked almost 3500 troops at the latter port and set a course for home where she arrived on the day after Christmas. The ship put to sea again on 21 February 1945 bound for Hollandia, New Guinea, the ship arrived at Leyte on 20 March and departed that island on 8 April for the United States. After arriving at San Francisco, late that month, she moved north to Seattle, Washington, sailing on 7 May, the transport stopped at Pearl Harbor, Eniwetok, and Ulithi before reaching Okinawa on 2 July. Next she visited Saipan on 12 and 13 July, before getting underway on the latter day bound ultimately for the Panama Canal and the East Coast of the United States. Admiral W. L. Capps entered port at Norfolk, Virginia, on 4 August and, while undergoing voyage repairs and she stood out of Norfolk on 1 September, with members of the French Navy among her passengers. After dropping them off at Marseille, France, and embarking American troops, she headed back toward the United States, five days later, the ship once more set out for the Mediterranean Sea, this time to repatriate some 3765 former Italian prisoners of war. After stopping at Naples and Marseille, she returned to Newport News, Virginia, between that time and mid-December, the ship made two more round-trip voyages to France and back, one to Le Havre and the other to Marseille, returning American servicemen home. On 29 December, she put to sea to return to the Pacific, at Pearl Harbor, the transport embarked troops and continued her voyage west on 16 January 1946. She disembarked one group of passengers at Yokosuka, took on almost 4700 more, in March, the ship made a round-trip voyage from the U. S. West Coast to Okinawa, returning to San Francisco with over 4800 troops, in April, she moved from the west coast to New York City which she reached on 24 April. On 8 May 1946, Admiral W. L. Capps was decommissioned and returned to the Maritime Commission and her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in June 1946. The Maritime Commission transferred the ship to the United States Army which named her USAT General Hugh J. Gaffey and she served the Army Transport Service until 1 March 1950 when the Navy re-acquired her. Retaining her Army name, the transport was not re-commissioned, but instead was assigned to the Military Sea Transportation Service, USNS General Hugh J. Gaffey spent almost two decades carrying men and material to American installations throughout the Far East and the Pacific Ocean
38.
USS Admiral R. E. Coontz (AP-122)
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Following shakedown training out of San Pedro, CA, the transport embarked troops at San Francisco and sailed for the western Pacific on 3 January 1945. After pausing briefly at Pearl Harbor she reached Ulithi, in the Western Carolines, on 23 January, Admiral R. E. Coontz made one additional voyage from San Francisco to Ulithi. On her return she touched at San Francisco and San Diego, transited the Panama Canal and she embarked troops for transfer to the Pacific theater, cleared Marseilles on 21 July, and reached Pearl Harbor on 12 August. Underway soon again, she paused at Eniwetok, Saipan, leaving the Western Carolines on 12 September, Admiral R. E. Coontz sailed for Okinawa, whence she sailed on 27 September for the west coast of the United States. Making port at Bremerton, Washington, the transport embarked troops before getting underway for Japan on 24 October. After disembarking troops at Nagasaki on 6 November and at Nagoya two days later, Admiral R. E. Coontz then made two voyages between Yokohama and Seattle. She then proceeded to Okinawa to embark passengers for the voyage to the United States. Sailing for Hawaii, the transport embarked troops at Pearl Harbor. She entered the Todd Shipyard, Brooklyn, NY, on 17 March 1946 and was decommissioned there on the 25th, in the Army Transport Service, General Alexander M. Patch carried troops and cargo between Europe and the United States from 1946 to 1950. From 1950 to 1965 the ship conducted 123 round-trip voyages between Bremerhaven and New York, with an additional 16 voyages to the Mediterranean, among her passengers was Mrs. Alexander M. Patch, the widow of the general for whom the ship had been named. Among her operations was the embarkation of over 1,500 refugees in the Suez Crisis in November 1956, the transport took them from Souda Bay, Crete—where they had been brought from Alexandria, Egypt, and Haifa, Israel, by American warships — to Naples. Late in 1961, in the international tensions spawned by the Soviet Unions closure of access to West Berlin, in August 1965, growing American involvement in the Vietnam War prompted the transfer of MSTS ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific. General Alexander M. Patch commenced her first Vietnam voyage at New York on 15 August, steaming via Charleston, SC, and Long Beach, CA, the transport reached Qui Nhon, South Vietnam, on 16 September. Returning via Cam Ranh Bay, Vung Tau, and Okinawa—to San Francisco on 2 October, clearing Vung Tau later that day, she returned to New York by way of Penang, Malaysia, Rota, Spain, and Bremerhaven. For the first six months of 1966, General Alexander M. Patch operated between New York and Bremerhaven, the Vietnam War once again compelled MSTS to switch some of its transports to the Pacific. General Alexander M. Patch and her sistership, USNS General William O. Darby, embarked of the Armys 196th Light Infantry Brigade at Boston and departed on 15 July. Transiting the Panama Canal, the two transports reached Vung Tau, South Vietnam, on 13 August, ending the longest point-to-point troop lift in the 17 years that MSTS had been in operation. Before the year was out, General Alexander M. Patch conducted two troop lifts of Republic of Korea troops from Pusan to South Vietnam and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
39.
USS Admiral E. W. Eberle (AP-123)
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The transport was operated by the Naval Transportation Service and manned largely by Coast Guard personnel. On 6 March, she departed San Francisco with troops and supplies bound for New Guinea and she made stops at Finschhafen and Hollandia before dropping anchor at Manus Island on 25 March. While there, a Navy plane crashed into the side of the ship. It was a Sunday morning and the Navy aircraft with only the pilot on board was doing aerobatics for the troop, the aircraft left only to return with another person on board. Both occupants of the plane were killed, and casualties on board Admiral E. W. Eberle numbered one dead, on 26 March, the ship sailed in convoy for the Philippines. After loading troops at Leyte, Admiral E. W. Eberle proceeded to Manila, there, she embarked over 2,000 civilians for transportation to the United States. These passengers were mainly American citizens who had interned in the Philippines since Japanese forces captured the islands in the spring of 1942. Admiral E. W. Eberle returned to Leyte on 13 April to pick up Army personnel, then sailed, via Ulithi, for the west coast of the United States and reached San Pedro, CA, the ships next voyage took her across the Atlantic to Italy. Arriving at Naples on 4 June, she embarked Army personnel, the transport reached Trinidad on 18 June and soon reversed her course, bound for France. At Le Havre, Admiral E. W. Eberle embarked over 4,000 homeward-bound troops whom she put ashore upon her arrival at Norfolk on 6 July, Admiral E. W. Eberle stood out to sea again on 14 July for another voyage to France. She touched at Marseilles and took on board destined for the Philippines. Admiral E. W. Eberle steamed via the Panama Canal and Ulithi, arrived at Luzon on 29 August, debarked part of her passengers, the transport returned to the United States in September and put into Seattle, WA, for upkeep. Between October 1945 and March 1946, Admiral E. W. Eberle made three voyages to Japan and Korea, Admiral E. W. Eberle was decommissioned on 8 May 1946 and returned to the Maritime Commission for transfer to the army. Her name was struck from the Navy list in June 1946, the army acquired the transport that same month and subsequently renamed her General Simon B. The ship was again transferred to the navy on 1 March 1950. The transport steamed across the Pacific throughout the Korean War, transporting troops and equipment to Japan, General Simon B. Buckner continued operations in the Pacific until 15 February 1955, when she departed San Francisco, bound for New York City. Upon arrival two weeks later, she was assigned to the New York-Bremerhaven runs, in the next 10 years General Simon B. Buckner made over 130 Atlantic voyages from New York to Bremerhaven, Southampton, and the Mediterranean. Departing New York on 11 August 1965, she returned to the west coast, arriving at Long Beach on the 27th to assist in the movement of troops and equipment to southeast Asia
40.
USS Admiral C. F. Hughes (AP-124)
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Admiral C. F. Hughes was laid down on 29 November 1943 by the Bethlehem-Alameda Shipyard Inc. in Alameda, California, under contract with the United States Maritime Commission. She was launched on 27 August 1944 under the sponsorship of Mrs. Louise Nimitz, the wife of Captain Otto Nimitz, on 31 January 1945 she was delivered to the United States Navy and commissioned with Captain John Trebes, USCG, in command. Following brief sea trials, along the West Coast of the United States, Admiral C. F. Hughes embarked naval officers and she departed San Diego on 13 March and arrived in Pearl Harbor on 18 March. There, she took on another group of bound for the United States. The transport arrived in San Francisco on 28 March, disembarked her passengers, Admiral C. F. Hughes reached her destination the following day and began taking on more travelers. On the 14th, the transport left San Diego and set a westward course, the ship entered Pearl Harbor on the 19th, and some passengers left her while others came on board. Three days later, she put to sea on her way to the Mariana Islands, Admiral C. F. Hughes put in at Guam on 30 April, and all her passengers disembarked. After taking another group on board, including 221 Japanese prisoners of war, the transport made a two-day stop at Pearl Harbor from 10 to 12 May to disembark the prisoners and then continued her voyage back to the West Coast. She moored at San Francisco on 17 May, on 26 May 1945 the transport sailed for Europe to embarked troops from the European Theater of Operations for redeployment to the Pacific. The transport retraced her route through the Panama Canal and reached Manila on 20 July, Admiral C. F. Hughes embarked troops at Biak in the Schouten Islands, and Hollandia, New Guinea, before leaving the latter port on 4 August to return to the United States. She delivered the returning servicemen at San Francisco on 17 August, the ship put to sea on 31 August with replacements for western Pacific garrisons. Steaming via Ulithi, she arrived at Tacloban, Leyte on 17 September, Admiral C. F. Hughes visited Manila again before heading back to North America on the 24th. She paused at Victoria, British Columbia, Canada on 9 October to repatriate prisoners of war from various Commonwealth Nations. The transport made one more voyage to Yokohama before being decommissioned on 3 May 1946. The Army renamed the ship USAT General Edwin D. Patrick after Edwin D. Patrick, under the army, she served in the Army Transport Service from 30 August 1946 until 1 March 1950, when the navy reacquired her. Retaining her army name, she was assigned to the Military Sea Transportation Service and was manned by a service crew. Early in 1967, the transport was placed in a reserve status. On 30 September 1968, the ship was laid up at the Maritime Administrations National Defense Reserve Fleet facility at Suisun Bay, on 31 August 1969, title to the ship was transferred to the Maritime Administration and was, again, struck from the Naval Register 9 October 1969
41.
USS Admiral Hugh Rodman (AP-126)
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Assigned to the United States Pacific Fleet, the transport departed San Francisco, on 21 July 1945 for a shakedown cruise which took her to San Diego and Los Angeles. She returned to her port on 16 August – two days after hostilities with Japan ended — and embarked fresh troops to replace war-weary veterans in the Far East. She transited the Golden Gate on 21 August and proceeded via Ulithi to the Philippines, following stops at San Pedro Bay, Leyte, and Batangas and Manila, Luzon, she headed home and reached San Francisco, early in October. Then, following a second voyage to the Philippines, she again got underway from San Francisco, in December. This shuttle run ended at Los Angeles, on 3 January 1946, another voyage to Japan – this time to Yokohama – took her back to Seattle, Washington. Early in March, she sailed from port with occupation troops. From that island in the Ryukyu Islands, the ship sailed, via the Panama Canal and she reached New York on 14 May, was decommissioned on that day, and was transferred to the War Department later that month. The ship entered the Bethlehem New York yard at 56th Street on 3 June to receive the repairs and she was given the classification T-AP-126 at that time. Manned by a crew, General Maurice Rose operated out of New York in the Atlantic. Steaming primarily between New York and Bremerhaven, Germany, she completed more than 150 round-trip voyages while carrying military dependents and European refugees, in addition, the ship deployed to the Mediterranean 17 times to support U. S. 6th Fleet operations. On three occasions between 1 April and 5 October, General Maurice Rose was dispatched to the eastern Mediterranean to support units of the U. S. 6th Fleet responding to crises in Jordan. The General Maurice Rose was still transporting troops between New York and Bremerhaven, Germany in June of 1959, in 1965, however, Americas increased involvement in the war in Vietnam beckoned the transport toward a new theater of operations. After completing nine voyages to Bremerhaven, Germany, and back between 16 January and 4 August 1965, General Maurice Rose departed New York on 14 August for transport duty to Southeast Asia. She sailed via Long Beach, California, and Pearl Harbor to Qui Nhon, South Vietnam, after departing Vietnam on the 19th, she steamed via Okinawa and the U. S. West Coast and reached New York on 18 October, during the first eight months of 1966, she made eight round-trip runs to Europe and back. On 8 September, she again departed New York for troop lift duty to South Vietnam and she operated in the western Pacific supporting US forces in Southeast Asia through the end of 1966. She returned to New York late in January 1967 for an overhaul and was placed in reserve status. As such she was laid up at the Cavin Point Army Depot in New York harbor, General Maurice Rose was placed in ready reserve status and laid up in the Cavin Point Army Depot in New York harbor in 1967
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USS Admiral W. S. Sims (AP-127)
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USS Admiral W. S. Sims was a transport in the United States Navy. She was later renamed USNS General William O. Darby, later her name was struck and she was known simply by her hull number. In 1981, she was reclassified as IX-510, Admiral W. S. Anne Hitchcock Sims, widow of Admiral William Sims, delivered to the Navy on 27 September 1945 and commissioned the same day, Captain Edward C. She arrived at Manila on 6 November, and departed the Philippine port with 4,980 troops and passengers and she commenced her second round-trip voyage to the Philippines with her departure from San Francisco on 7 December. Arriving at Manila on the 22d, the sailed for home two days after Christmas. Re-routed on her voyage, Admiral W. S. Sims reached San Pedro with 4,973 passengers on board on 11 January 1946. She subsequently conducted one troop lift from Okinawa, sailing from San Pedro on 3 February 1946, Admiral W. S. Sims made one more voyage to the Far East as a Navy transport. After shifting down the west coast from Seattle to San Francisco, she sailed from the port on 27 March for Korean waters. The transport arrived at Jinsen, on 11 April 1946, and, after embarking 106 passengers at Jinsen sailed for Okinawa, arriving there on 15 April and embarking 910 additional passengers. Clearing Buckner Bay for the Philippines on 16 April, the ship disembarked 26 people at Manila, Admiral W. S. Sims reached San Francisco on 7 May. Decommissioned at San Francisco on 21 June 1946, she was transferred to the War Shipping Administration. Admiral W. S. Sims was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 3 July 1946 and he was killed in action on the Italian front on 30 April 1945, while serving as Assistant Commander of the 10th Mountain Division. Operating out of New York under the Military Sea Transportation Service, between 1950 and 1953, she made more than 20 round trip voyages to Bremerhaven, Germany, and back. In November 1951, the ship veered 100 miles off course to respond to an SOS from a German freighter in the Bay of Biscay. Thirteen of General William O. Darbys sailors volunteered to man a lifeboat, departing New York on 20 June 1953, General William O. Darby proceeded to Yokosuka, Japan, via the Panama Canal, arriving at the Japanese port on 17 July to embark Korean War veterans. Returning to Seattle on 29 July, the transport made five more voyages between the west coast of the United States and Japan in the next five months. After returning to San Francisco on 23 January 1954, she sailed for the east coast on the 25th to resume operations with MSTS, ranging from North Africa to Turkey in that tour, she eventually returned to New York on 6 August 1956. Between 1956 and 1965, the ship conducted some 135 runs to Bremerhaven and back, in February 1963, General William O. Darby brought back from Bremerhaven two paintings loaned temporarily to the United States from the French Louvre, Whistlers Mother and La Madeleine
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USNS Geiger (T-AP-197)
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USNS Geiger /USTS Bay State IV was a transport ship in the United States Navy. She was named after General Roy Geiger, who, from July 1945 to November 1946, commanded Marine Force, Pacific Fleet. Edward J. Hart, wife of Congressman Hart of New Jersey, renamed Geiger 2 January 1951 while under conversion for MSTS, acquired by the Navy 13 September 1952, acquired for transport service during the Korean War, Geiger operated under MSTS from 1952. Over the years she made runs in support of peace-keeping operations throughout the world. She crossed the Atlantic dozens of times, deploying troops to European bases and returning troops, operating out of New York, Geiger provided support for the 6th Fleet on station in the Middle East. In July 1958 she carried troops from European bases to Lebanon to thwart an attempted Communist coup against the government of President Chamoun. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, she made three runs between New York and Cuba to return military dependents to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base during December 1962 and January 1963. Between 6 October and 23 November 1964, she participated in the exercise, Operation Steel Pike I. She supported the movement of troops from the United States to the southwest coast of Spain. After returning to Charleston, South Carolina,23 November with 768 marines embarked, following two more runs to Bremerhaven, Geiger departed New York 16 August for the Pacific. Steaming via Pearl Harbor, she arrived Quin Nhon, South Vietnam,19 September to bolster the Navys transportation capabilities during the struggle to halt Communist aggression in Southeast Asia. Between 23 September and 1 October she sailed via Yokohama, Japan, to Pusan, South Korea and she returned to Qui Nhon 8 October, steamed to Cam Ranh Bay the 9th, then departed the next day for the United States, arriving San Francisco 27 October. Sailing for the Far East 5 November, she reached Qui Nhon the 23d, between 30 November and 13 December she rotated ROK troops from Vung Tau, South Vietnam, to Inchon and back. She departed Vietnam for the United States 13 December, and, steaming via Pearl Harbor, Geiger resumed transatlantic service to Bremerhaven 1 February, and during the next 6 months made six runs between the United States and Europe. Departing Bremerhaven 8 August, she steamed via the Panama Canal, during 1967 Geiger shuttled between San Francisco and Vietnam carrying U. S. troops to bolster Allied forces fighting in the Vietnam War. In 1979 she was reassigned to the Massachusetts Maritime Academy as the United States Training Ship Bay State IV, in December 1981 she had an engine room fire. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here. NavSource Online, Service Ship Photo Archive - T-AP-197 Geiger
United States
