1.
Brooklyn Navy Yard
–
It was bounded by Navy Street and Flushing and Kent Avenues, and at the height of its production of warships for the United States Navy, it covered over 200 acres. The tremendous efforts of its 70,000 workers during World War II earned the yard the nickname The Can-Do Shipyard, following the American Revolution, the waterfront site was used to build merchant vessels. Federal authorities purchased the old docks and 40 acres of land for $40,000 in 1801, many officers were housed in Admirals Row. Military chain of command was strictly observed, the nations first ironclad ship, Monitor, was fitted with its revolutionary iron cladding at the Continental Iron Works in nearby Greenpoint. By the American Civil War, the yard had expanded to employ about 6000 men, in 1890, the ill-fated Maine was launched from the yards ways. In 1937, the battleship North Carolina was laid down, in 1938, the yard employed about 10,000 men, of whom one-third were Works Progress Administration workers. The battleship Iowa was completed in 1942 followed by the Missouri, on 12 January 1953, test operations began on Antietam, which emerged in December 1952 from the yard as Americas first angled-deck aircraft carrier. At its peak, during World War II, the yard employed 70,000 people,24 hours a day, the Brooklyn Naval Hospital, constructed 1830–38 and rebuilt 1841–43, was decommissioned in the mid-1970s. It was one of the oldest naval hospitals in the United States, the 60, 000-square-foot complex was designed by Martin E. Thompson. The hospital had its beginning in 1825 when the Secretary of the Navy purchased 25 acres adjacent to the Brooklyn Naval Yard. The hospital was active from the Civil War through World War II with the Navy Surgeon General reporting in 1864 an average of 229 patients, the hospital also counted on its staff some of first female nurses and medical students in the United States Navy. On November 19,1964, based on the study, the closure of the yard was announced, along with the Armys Fort Jay on Governors Island and its Brooklyn Army Terminal. At the time, the yard employed 10,600 civilian employees and 100 military personnel with a payroll of about US$90 million. The closure was anticipated to save about 18.1 million dollars annually, the plan was never put in place. The Wagner Administration looked to the industry to build a car plant inside the yard. No U. S. car manufacturer was interested, and foreign car manufacturers claimed that with the conversion of the dollar, the Navy decommissioned the yard in 1966, after the completion of the Austin-class amphibious transport dock USS Duluth. The Johnson administration refused to sell the yard to the City of New York for 18 months, when the new Nixon administration came into power, they signed the papers to sell the yard to the city. Leases were signed inside the yard even before the sale to the city was signed, cLICKs lease with the newly formed Seatrain Shipbuilding was not very business friendly
2.
Forrestal-class aircraft carrier
–
The Forrestal-class aircraft carriers were four aircraft carriers designed and built for the United States Navy in the 1950s. It was the first class of supercarriers, combining high tonnage, deck-edge elevators, the first ship was commissioned in 1955, the last decommissioned in 1998. Compared to the Midway class, the Forrestals were 100 feet longer and nearly 20 feet wider abeam, when commissioned, the Forrestal-class ships had the roomiest hangar decks and largest flight decks of any carrier ever built. Because of their size they were built to a new. The Midway-class ships sat very low in the water and were poor sea boats through their careers, they were very wet forward. The deeper Forrestal hull allowed the ships more freeboard and better seakeeping, the Forrestal-class carriers, like the Midway class that preceded it, were designed with armored flight decks. Forrestal-class ships were the first examples of supercarriers and thus not quite a perfected design, the subsequent Kitty Hawk class moved the portside elevator to the aft end of the angle and reversed the position of the island and the second starboard elevator, vastly improving aircraft handling. The sponson-mounted guns suffered from poor range and complicated firing arcs and they were removed after only a few years and were later replaced by missiles and much later by close-in weapon systems. The aft guns in Forrestal lasted until the fire in 1967, then were removed, the redesign to an angled deck allowed a very large island, much larger than on previous carriers, giving unprecedented flexibility and control in air operations. All four ships have been struck from the Naval Vessel Register, although one, ex-Ranger, had at one time been on donation hold as a potential museum ship, as of January 2016 it and two others have been dismantled, with the fourths scrapping said to be imminent. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
3.
Aircraft carrier
–
An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
4.
Westinghouse Electric Company
–
Westinghouse Electric Company LLC is a US based nuclear power company formed in 1998 from the nuclear power division of the original Westinghouse Electric Corporation. It offers nuclear products and services to utilities internationally, including fuel, service and maintenance, instrumentation, control. As of 2014 Westinghouse builds and operates approximately one-half of the operating nuclear plants. Westinghouses world headquarters are located in the Pittsburgh suburb of Cranberry Township, Toshiba Group is the majority owner of Westinghouse. The projects responsible for loss are mostly the construction of four AP1000 reactors at Vogtle in Georgia. Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on March 29,2017. That same year, in 1999 CBS Corporation sold its nuclear business to British Nuclear Fuels Limited. And a year later CBS Corporation was merged into Viacom, thus putting an end to the original Westinghouse, in July 2005 BNFL confirmed it planned to sell Westinghouse, then estimated to be worth $2 billion. This attracted interest from companies, including Toshiba, General Electric. When the Financial Times reported on January 23,2006 that Toshiba had won the bid, on February 6,2006 Toshiba confirmed it was buying Westinghouse Electric Company for $5. 4bn and announced it would sell a minority stake to investors. Finally, the record of UK governments building nuclear plants had been a commercial disaster, on 13 August 2007 Toshiba sold 10% to Kazatomprom, the national uranium company for the Republic of Kazakhstan, for US$540 million, leaving Toshiba with 67%. Kazatomproms ownership is entirely passive, with no voting or veto rights or presence on the board of directors, in September,2011, Toshiba was reported to be in talks to acquire the Shaw stake and both companies confirmed the story soon thereafter. Toshiba said it was open to, and considering, having other partners invest in the business, the purchase closed in January 2013, and brought Toshibas share in the company to 87%. In 2015 concerns were expressed that the value of assets and goodwill in Westinghouse were overstated. S, in February 2017 Toshiba revealed unaudited details of a 390 billion yen loss, mainly in its US nuclear business which was written down by 712 billion yen. On 14 February 2017 Toshiba delayed filing financial results, and Toshiba chairman Shigenori Shiga, formerly chairman of Westinghouse, Toshiba is considering selling the Westinghouse nuclear business. On March 29,2017 Toshibas Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, citing a loss for Toshiba that could exceed $9 billion. The Wall Street Journal reported that four nuclear reactors being built in the south-eastern U. S. would be left to an unknown fate. The U. S. government had given $8.3 billion of loan guarantees on the financing of the four nuclear reactors being built in the U. S, construction began in July 2007, the move lasted from June 2009 to December 2010. As part of this move, Westinghouse piloted the first commuter shuttle running a loop between Monroeville and Cranberry Township
5.
Babcock & Wilcox
–
Babcock & Wilcox Enterprises is an American power generation company headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. The company was founded in 1867 in Providence, Rhode Island by partners Stephen Wilcox and George Babcock as Babcock, Wilcox & Company to manufacture, built nuclear-powered surface ship, NS Savannah. B&Ws boilers supply more than 300,000 megawatts of installed capacity in over 90 countries around the world, a reactor from B&W was destroyed by a nuclear meltdown in the Three Mile Island accident. During World War II, over half of the US Navy fleet was powered by Babcock & Wilcox boilers, the company has its headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. B&W also has joint major joint venture companies in Beijing and the Indian city of Pune, on June 30,2015, Babcock & Wilcox completed a spinoff from BWX Technologies, its former parent which is now headquartered in Lynchburg, Virginia. The two companies began trading separately on July 1, B&W employs approximately 5,700 people, in addition to several thousand joint venture employees. B&W PGG and its subsidiaries have facilities in Ohio, Wisconsin, Arona, Italy, Beijing, China, Esbjerg, Denmark, Babcock & Wilcox MEGTEC LLC B&W SPIG Diamond Power International, Inc. The boilers more safely generated higher pressure steam and was more efficient than existing designs, in 1891, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd is established as a separate United Kingdom company, to be responsible for all sales outside the US and Cuba. In 1902 the New York Citys first subway is powered by B&W boilers, during 1907 and 1909 Theodore Roosevelts Great White Fleet were powered by B&W Boilers. In 1929 B&W installs the worlds first commercial size recovery boiler using the magnesium bisulfite process in Quebec, between 1941 and 1945 B&W designed and delivered 4,100 marine boilers for combat and merchant ships, including 95 percent of the US fleet in Tokyo Bay at Japanese surrender. In 1942, the developed the cyclone furnace. Between 1943 and 1945 B&W provided components, materials and process development for Manhattan Project, between 1949 and 1952 B&W provided the 8 boilers for the SS United States, the fastest ocean liner ever constructed. Between 1953 and 1955 B&W designed and fabricated components for USS Nautilus, in 1961 B&W designed and supplied reactors for world’s first commercial nuclear ship NS Savannah. In 1962 B&W designed and furnished reactor systems for B&Ws first commercial reactor, Indian Point, in 1975 B&W designed and built components for liquid metal fast breeder reactors. In 1975 the long term agreements with the British Babcock & Wilcox Ltd were ended. Subsequently, the British company was renamed Babcock International Group plc, in 1978 B&W designed and built the nuclear reactor that was involved in the Three Mile Island accident. In 1999 B&W was awarded the contract to develop fuel cells, on February 22,2000, B&W filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in part as a result of thousands of claims for personal injury due to prolonged exposure to asbestos and asbestos fibers. Claims included asbestosis, lung cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, as a condition of emerging from bankruptcy, B&W created a trust fund to compensate victims, but for amounts far less than settlements paid in individual personal injury lawsuits
6.
AN/SPS-48
–
Existing sets are being modernized under the ROAR program to AN/SPS-48G standard for better reliability and usability. A three-dimensional radar is mounted on a base that allows for 360 degrees of rotation, the target can be located at a given azimuth. The range of the target is also identified due to the time it takes the beam to go out, what makes this radar system different is its ability to detect the height of the target above the surface of the water. With these three pieces of data the radars central processor has the ability to place the target in an X, Y, Z,3 dimensional space. For the SPS-48 in particular, the antenna is rotated to scan azimuth. The 4,500 lb antenna is capable of rotating at 7.5 or 15 rpm, according to ITT Exelis, the system has a range exceeding 200 nmi and can track targets up to 69 degrees in elevation. SPS-48 radars stack multiple beams in a train of pulses at different frequencies, the beams scan different elevation areas, allowing the stack to cover up to 69 degrees of elevation. The first specification for what became AN/SPS-48 was written in 1956, the AN/SPS-48 replaced AN/SPS-39 on the Belknap, Coontz and Leahy classes between 1967 and 1975 under the Guided Missile Frigate Anti-Air Warfare Modernization Program. The AN/SPS-48E included a digital receiver and signal processor that could detect and track very small targets. It was included in the New Threat Upgrade of the 1980s and it only affects the layout of the below-deck units. The plan is to back-fit the existing AN/SPS-48E population from 2011 through 2020 and they will support fleet 3D air search requirements through 2050 and beyond for the ship classes that have SPS-48G. The number of Lowest Replaceable Units is reduced by 87%, the new commercial off-the-shelf radar processors computing capabilities will be sustained through a planned tech-refresh program. With the air targets exact 3D location it is available for interception/removal via either the weapon system or through linked weapons platforms located elsewhere. It is the predecessor of the AEGIS system currently in use on Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, the AEGIS AN/SPY-1B/D radars are electronically scanned phased arrays, while the SPS-48E is frequency scanned in elevation, and mounted on a rotating joint that spins the radar in azimuth. AN/SPS-48A - AN/SPS-48B - Unknown, possible non-existent or prototype for -48C AN/SPS-48C - -48A with Automatic detection, aN/SPS-48D - Prototype version of -48E, tested on USS Mahan. Originally developed as part of the New Threat Upgrade Program to support the SM-2 Launch On Search capability, AN/SPS-48E LBR Land based radar version. AN/SPS-48G - some new-build, others upgraded AN/SPS-48E under the Radar Obsolescence,29 radars are being modernized at a cost of $169.3 million under contract N00024-09-C-5395. Replacing below-decks units with modern electronics based on open architecture will reduce training demands, list of radars Diffraction grating Selex RAN-40L Radar of similar function used in some aircraft carriers
7.
AN/SPS-49
–
The AN/SPS-49 is a United States Navy two-dimensional, long range air search radar built by Raytheon that can provide contact bearing and range. It is a primary air-search radar for ships in the U. S. It also serves in a complementary role aboard Aegis cruisers with the AN/SPY-1, first tested in 1965 aboard USS Gyatt and introduced in 1975, the AN/SPS-49 operates in the 851–942 MHz, or L-, band and has a range of 256 nautical miles. The orange-peel parabolic shape of the antenna creates a narrow 3. 3°-beam to reduce the probability of detection or jamming and it can rotate at 6 rpm in long range mode or 12 rpm in short-range mode. Default is at 12 rpm for the AN/SPS-49A1, to more frequent scans against incoming missiles. The SPS-49A1 can detect out to its range at either 6 or 12 rpm. The antenna is stabilised to compensate for pitch and roll. The output stage of the transmitter in all variants uses a two-cavity klystron amplifier, as of 2014, there are eleven configurations of the AN/SPS-49. Added radial speed determination on each target, each scan, improved clutter rejection List of radars Electronics Technician Volume 4-Radar Systems - via Tpub
8.
AN/SPS-67
–
The AN/SPS-67 is a short-range, two-dimensional, surface-search/navigation radar system that provides highly accurate surface and limited low-flyer detection and tracking capabilities. The AN/SPS-67 is a replacement for the AN/SPS-10 radar, using a more reliable antenna and incorporating standard electronic module technology for simpler repair. The AN/SPS-67 provides excellent performance in rain and sea clutter, and is useful in harbor navigation, since the AN/SPS-67 is capable of detecting buoys, the AN/SPS-671 radar is a two-dimensional pulsed radar set primarily designed for surface operations with a secondary capability of anti-ship-missile and low flier detection. The radar set operates in the 5450 to 5825 MHz range, the transmitter/receiver is capable of operation in several pulse width settings, a long, medium, or short pulse mode to enhance radar performance for specific operational or tactical situations. Pulse repetition frequencies of 750,1200, and 2400 pulses/second are used for the long, medium, AN/SPS-67 - Replacement for AN/SPS-10 utilizing -10 antenna. AN/SPS672 - Improved linear-array antenna and increased bearing accuracy over original, aN/SPS673 - Used on Arleigh Burke-class destroyers and includes digital automatic target detection, track while scan and moving target indicator. Electronics Technician GlobalSecurity. org - AN/SPS-67 Electronics Technician Vol 4 - AN/SPS-67 NAVAIR warfighters encyclopedia - AN/SPS-67
9.
Mark 36 SRBOC
–
The SRBOC can also be fitted with the TORCH infrared flare decoy system. A typical ships load is 20 to 35 rounds per launcher, as of 2010, the Mk.36 SRBOC is used by 19 navies around the world. It is similar to the NATO Sea Gnat system, federation of American Scientists page SRBOC Factsheet
10.
5"/54 caliber Mark 42 gun
–
The Mark 42 5/54 caliber gun is a naval gun mount used by the United States Navy and other countries. It consisted of the Mark 18 gun and Mark 42 gun mount, because of this reason, the gun was created concurrently with the 3/70 Mark 26 gun for different usages. The 5/54 Mk 42 is an automatic, dual-purpose gun mount and it is usually controlled remotely from the Mk 68 Gun Fire Control System, or locally from the mount at the One Man Control station. The self-loading gun mount weighs about 60.4 long tons including two drums under the mount holding 40 rounds of semi-fixed case type ammunition, the gun fires 31.75 kg projectiles at a velocity of 2,650 ft/s. Maximum rate of fire is 40 rounds per minute, magazine capacity is 599 rounds per mount. The Mark 45 lightweight gun mount began replacing the Mk 42 mount in 1971 for easier maintenance and improved reliability in new naval construction for the United States Navy
11.
RIM-7 Sea Sparrow
–
RIM-7 Sea Sparrow is a US ship-borne short-range anti-aircraft and anti-missile weapon system, primarily intended for defense against anti-ship missiles. In this incarnation it was a simple system, guided by a manually aimed radar illuminator. After its introduction, the system underwent significant development into a system similar to other US Navy missiles like the RIM-2 Terrier. Improvements made to the Sparrow for the role led to similar improvements in the Sea Sparrow through the 1970s and 80s. After that point the role passed to the AIM-120 AMRAAM. It now resembles the AIM-7 only in form, it is larger, faster and includes a new seeker. Fifty years after its development, the Sea Sparrow remains an important part of an air defense system. High-speed jet aircraft flying at low altitudes presented a threat to naval forces in the late 1950s. This gave the aircraft an enormous advantage over earlier weapons such as bombers or torpedo bombers. Further improving the capabilities of aircraft against ships were a variety of precision-guided weapons and these systems allowed the aircraft to launch their attacks from outside the range of shipboard anti-aircraft weapons, in relative safety. Only the presence of defensive fighters operating at long ranges from the ships could provide cover against these attacks, US Navy doctrine stressed long-range air cover to counter both high-speed aircraft and missiles, and development of newer short range defenses had been largely ignored. While the Navy was developing expensive long-range fighters like the Douglas F6D Missileer, most ships were left with older weapons, the introduction of sea-skimming missiles dramatically increased the threat against these ships. Unlike the earlier generation of missiles, sea-skimmers approached at low level, like an attack aircraft. The missiles were relatively small and much harder to hit than an attacking aircraft, while the older defenses might be considered a credible threat to a large aircraft at low altitude or a missile approaching at higher altitudes, against a sea-skimming missile they were useless. The US Army faced a similar problem defending against attacks by high-speed jet-powered attack aircraft, in this case the local horizon was generally even more limited, blocked by trees and hills, and engagement times could be measured in seconds. Missiles, on the hand, could progressively tune their approach while they were flying toward the target. These same basic engagement parameters - high-speed and the associated fleeting sighting times - applied to sea-skimming aircraft, the Navy intended to adapt the Mauler to shipboard use by removing its search radar and wiring it into the existing ship-borne radar systems instead. The 9-box launcher and illuminator radar would be retained in a compact mount
12.
Phalanx CIWS
–
The Phalanx CIWS is a close-in weapon system for defense against anti-ship missiles. It was designed and manufactured by the General Dynamics Corporation, Pomona Division, a land based variant, known as C-RAM, has recently been deployed in a short range missile defense role, to counter incoming rockets and artillery fire. Because of their distinctive barrel-shaped radome and their nature of operation. The Phalanx Close-In Weapons System was developed as the last line of automated weapons defense against anti-ship missiles and attacking aircraft, including high-g, subsequently, the Phalanx Operational Suitability Model successfully completed its Operational Test and Evaluation on board the destroyer USS Bigelow in 1977. The model exceeded operational maintenance, reliability, and availability specifications, another evaluation successfully followed, and the weapon system was approved for production in 1978. Phalanx production started with orders for 23 USN and 14 foreign military systems, the first ship fully fitted out was the aircraft carrier USS Coral Sea in 1980. The Navy began placing CIWS systems on non-combatant vessels in 1984 and this proven system was combined with a purpose-made mounting, capable of fast elevation and traverse speeds, to track incoming targets. Due to this nature, Phalanx is ideal for support ships. The entire unit has a mass between 12,400 to 13,500 lb, due to the continuing evolution of both threats and computer technology, the Phalanx system has, like most military systems, been developed through a number of different configurations. The basic style is the Block 0, equipped with first-generation, solid-state electronics, the Block 1 upgrade offered various improvements in radar, ammunition, computing power, rate of fire, and an increase in maximum engagement elevation to +70 degrees. These improvements were intended to increase the systems capability against emerging Russian supersonic anti-ship missiles, Block 1A introduced a new computer system to counter more maneuverable targets. The Block 1B PSuM adds a forward-looking infrared sensor to make the weapon effective against surface targets and this addition was developed to provide ship defense against small vessel threats and other floaters in littoral waters and to improve the weapons performance against slower low-flying aircraft. The FLIRs capability is also of use against low-observability missiles and can be linked with the RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile system to increase RAM engagement range, the Block 1B also allows for an operator to visually identify and target threats. As the system manager, the U. S. Navy is in the process of upgrading all their Phalanx systems to the Block 1B configuration. All U. S Navy Phalanx systems are scheduled for upgrade to Block 1B by the end of FY2015, another system upgrade is the Phalanx 1B Baseline 2 radar to improve detection performance, increase reliability, and reduce maintenance. S. Navy Phalanx system-equipped vessels by FY2019, the Block 1B is also used by other navies, such as Canada, Portugal, Japan, Egypt, Bahrain, and the UK. In May 2009, the US Navy awarded a million contract to Raytheon Missile Systems to perform upgrades. The CIWS is designed to be the last line of defense against anti-ship missiles, due to its design criteria, its effective range is very short relative to the range of modern ASMs, from 1 to 5 nautical miles
13.
Grumman F-14 Tomcat
–
The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is an American supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, variable-sweep wing fighter aircraft. The Tomcat was developed for the United States Navys Naval Fighter Experimental program after the collapse of the F-111B project, the F-14 was the first of the American teen-series fighters, which were designed incorporating air combat experience against MiG fighters during the Vietnam War. The F-14 first flew in December 1970 and made its first deployment in 1974 with the U. S. Navy aboard USS Enterprise, replacing the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. The F-14 served as the U. S. Navys primary maritime air superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor, the Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night pod system were added in the 1990s and the Tomcat began performing precision ground-attack missions. In the 1980s F-14s were used as land-based interceptors by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force during the Iran–Iraq War, where they saw combat against Iraqi warplanes. Iranian F-14s reportedly shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft during the war, while only 12 to 16 Tomcats were lost, the Tomcat was retired from the U. S. Navys active fleet on 22 September 2006, having been supplanted by the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. The F-14 remains in service with the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, the U. S. Navy needed a Fleet Air Defense aircraft with a more powerful radar and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II carried to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles. The Navy was directed to participate in the Tactical Fighter Experimental program with the U. S. Air Force by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. The Navy strenuously opposed the TFX as it feared compromises necessary for the Air Forces need for an attack aircraft would adversely impact the aircrafts performance as a fighter. Weight and performance issues plagued the U. S. Navy F-111B variant for TFX, the F-111 manufacturer General Dynamics partnered with Grumman on the Navy F-111B. With the F-111B program in distress, Grumman began studying improvements, in 1966, the Navy awarded Grumman a contract to begin studying advanced fighter designs. Grumman narrowed down these designs to its 303 design, the Navy studied the need for VFAX, an additional fighter that was agiler than the F-4 Phantom for air-combat and ground-attack roles. Grumman continued work on its 303 design and offered it to the Navy in 1967, the company continued to refine the design into 1968. In July 1968, the Naval Air Systems Command issued a request for proposals for the Naval Fighter Experimental program, VFX called for a tandem two-seat, twin-engined air-to-air fighter with a maximum speed of Mach 2.2. It would also have a built-in M61 Vulcan cannon and a close air support role. The VFXs air-to-air missiles would be either six AIM-54 Phoenix or a combination of six AIM-7 Sparrow, bids were received from General Dynamics, Grumman, Ling-Temco-Vought, McDonnell Douglas and North American Rockwell, four bids incorporated variable-geometry wings. McDonnell Douglas and Grumman were selected as finalists in December 1968, Grumman was selected for the contract award in January 1969. Upon winning the contract for the F-14, Grumman greatly expanded its Calverton, Long Island, much of the testing, including the first of many compressor stalls and multiple ejections, took place over Long Island Sound
14.
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
–
The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet is a twin-engine supersonic, all-weather carrier-capable multirole combat jet, designed as both a fighter and attack aircraft. Designed by McDonnell Douglas and Northrop, the F/A-18 was derived from the latters YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also used by the air forces of other nations and, since 1986, by the U. S. Navys Flight Demonstration Squadron. The F/A-18 has a top speed of Mach 1.8 and it can carry a wide variety of bombs and missiles, including air-to-air and air-to-ground, supplemented by the 20-mm M61 Vulcan cannon. It is powered by two General Electric F404 turbofan engines, which give the aircraft a high thrust-to-weight ratio, the F/A-18 has excellent aerodynamic characteristics, primarily attributed to its leading edge extensions. The fighters primary missions are fighter escort, fleet air defense, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses, air interdiction, close air support, the Hornet first saw combat action during the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in the 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War. The F/A-18 Hornet provided the design for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, its larger. In August 1973, Congress mandated that the Navy pursue a lower-cost alternative to the F-14, grumman proposed a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell Douglas proposed a naval variant of the F-15, but both were nearly as expensive as the F-14. That summer, Secretary of Defense Schlesinger ordered the Navy to evaluate the competitors in the Air Forces Lightweight Fighter program, the Air Force competition specified a day fighter with no strike capability. On 2 May 1975, the Navy announced its selection of the YF-17, since the LWF did not share the design requirements of the VFAX, the Navy asked McDonnell Douglas and Northrop to develop a new aircraft from the design and principles of the YF-17. On 1 March 1977, Secretary of the Navy W. Graham Claytor announced that the F-18 would be named Hornet. Northrop had partnered with McDonnell Douglas as a contractor on NACF to capitalize on the latters experience in building carrier aircraft. On the F-18, the two agreed to evenly split component manufacturing, with McDonnell Douglas conducting final assembly. McDonnell Douglas would build the wings, stabilators, and forward fuselage, while Northrop would build the center and aft fuselage and vertical stabilizers. McDonnell Douglas was the contractor for the naval versions. The F-18, initially known as McDonnell Douglas Model 267, was modified from the YF-17. For carrier operations, the airframe, undercarriage, and tailhook were strengthened, folding wings and catapult attachments were added, and the landing gear widened. To meet Navy range and reserves requirements, McDonnell increased fuel capacity by 4,460 pounds, by enlarging the dorsal spine, a snag was added to the wings leading edge and stabilators to prevent an Aeroelastic flutter discovered in the F-15 stabilator
15.
Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler
–
The Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler is a twin-engine, four-seat, mid-wing electronic warfare aircraft derived from the A-6 Intruder airframe. The EA-6A was the electronic warfare version of the A-6 used by the United States Marine Corps. Development on the more advanced EA-6B began in 1966, an EA-6B aircrew consists of one pilot and three Electronic Countermeasures Officers, though it is not uncommon for only two ECMOs to be used on missions. It is capable of carrying and firing missiles, such as the AGM-88 HARM missile. The Prowler has been in service with the U. S and it has carried out numerous missions for jamming enemy radar systems, and in gathering radio intelligence on those and other enemy air defense systems. Following its last deployment in late 2014, the EA-6B was withdrawn from U. S. Navy service in June 2015, the USMC plans to operate the Prowler until 2019. The EA-6A Electric Intruder was developed for the U. S. Marine Corps during the 1960s to replace its EF-10B Skyknights, the EA-6A was a direct conversion of the standard A-6 Intruder airframe, with two seats, equipped with electronic warfare equipment. The EA-6A was used by three Marine Corps squadrons during the Vietnam War, a total of 27 EA-6As were produced, with 15 of these being newly manufactured ones. Most of these EA-6As were retired from service in the 1970s with the last few being used by the Navy with two electronic attack aggressor squadrons, with all examples finally retired in the 1990s. The EA-6A was essentially an interim warplane until the more-advanced EA-6B could be designed, the substantially redesigned and more advanced EA-6B was developed beginning in 1966 as a replacement for EKA-3B Skywarriors for the U. S. Navy. The forward fuselage was lengthened to create an area for a larger four-seat cockpit. Grumman was awarded a $12.7 million contract to develop an EA-6B prototype on 14 November 1966, the Prowler first flew on 25 May 1968, and it entered service on aircraft carriers in July 1971. Three prototype EA-6Bs were converted from A-6As, and five EA-6Bs were developmental airplanes, a total of 170 EA-6B production aircraft were manufactured from 1966 through 1991. The EA-6B Prowler is powered by two Pratt & Whitney J52 turbojet engines, and it is capable of high subsonic speeds, due to its extensive electronic warfare operations, and the aircrafts age, the EA-6B is a high-maintenance aircraft, and has undergone many frequent equipment upgrades. In addition, the EA-6B is capable of gathering electronic signals intelligence, the EA-6B Prowler has been continually upgraded over the years. The first such upgrade was named expanded capability beginning in 1973, then came improved capability in 1976 and ICAP II in 1980. The ICAP II upgrade provided the EA-6B with the capability of firing Shrike missiles, the Advanced Capability EA-6B Prowler was a development program initiated to improve the flying qualities of the EA-6B and to upgrade the avionics and electronic warfare systems. The ADVCAP development program was initiated in the late 1980s and was broken into three phases, Full-Scale Development, Vehicle Enhancement Program and the Avionics Improvement Program
16.
Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye
–
The Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye is an American all-weather, carrier-capable tactical airborne early warning aircraft. The fourth major version of the Hawkeye is the E-2D, which first flew in 2007, the E-2 was the first aircraft designed specifically for its role, as opposed to a modification of an existing airframe, such as the Boeing E-3 Sentry. Variants of the Hawkeye have been in production since 1960. The E-2 also received the nickname Super Fudd because it replaced the E-1 Tracer Willy Fudd, in recent decades, the E-2 has been commonly referred to as the Hummer because of the distinctive sounds of its turboprop engines, quite unlike that of turbojet and turbofan jet engines. In addition to U. S. Navy service, smaller numbers of E-2s have been sold to the forces of Egypt, France, Israel, Japan, Mexico, Singapore. Continual improvements in airborne radars through 1956 led to the construction of AEW airplanes by several different countries, the functions of command and control and sea & air surveillance were also added. The first carrier-based aircraft to perform missions for the U. S. Its design, initially designated W2F-1, but later redesignated the E-2A Hawkeye, was the first carrier plane that had been designed from its wheels up as an AEW and command and control airplane. These ‘smaller’ carriers were built during World War II and later modified to allow them to operate jet aircraft, consequently, various height, weight and length restrictions had to be factored into the E-2A design, resulting in some handling characteristics which were less than ideal. The E-2A actually never operated from the modified Essex class carriers, the first prototype, acting as an aerodynamic testbed only, flew on 21 October 1960. The first fully equipped aircraft followed it on 19 April 1961, by 1965 the major development problems delaying the E-2A Hawkeye got so bad that the aircraft was actually cancelled after 59 aircraft had already been built. Particular difficulties were being experienced due to cooling in the closely packed avionics compartment. Early computer and complex avionics systems generated considerable heat, without proper ventilation this would lead to system failures and these failures continued long after the aircraft entered service and at one point reliability was so bad the entire fleet of aircraft was grounded. The airframe was also prone to corrosion, a problem in a carrier based aircraft. The unreliable rotary drum computer was replaced by a Litton L-304 digital computer, in total,49 of the 59 E-2As were upgraded to E-2B standard. These aircraft replaced the E-1B Tracers in the various US Navy AEW squadrons, although the upgraded E-2B was a vast improvement on the unreliable E-2A, it was an interim measure. The US Navy knew the design had much greater capability and had yet to achieve the performance, in April 1968 a reliability improvement program was instigated. In addition, now that the capabilities of the aircraft were starting to be realized, improvements in the new and upgraded aircraft were concentrated in the radar and computer performance
17.
Lockheed S-3 Viking
–
The Lockheed S-3 Viking is a four-seat, twin-engine turbofan-powered jet aircraft that was used by the U. S. Navy to identify and track enemy submarines. In the late 1990s, the S-3Bs mission focus shifted to surface warfare, the Viking also provided electronic warfare and surface surveillance capabilities to the carrier battle group. A carrier-based, subsonic, all-weather, multi-mission aircraft with range, it carried automated weapon systems. Because of the Vikings engines’ low-pitched sound, it was nicknamed the Hoover after the vacuum cleaner brand. In the mid-1960s, the U. S. Navy developed the VSX requirement for a replacement for the piston-engined Grumman S-2 Tracker as an aircraft to fly off the Navys aircraft carriers. In August 1968, a team led by Lockheed and a Convair/Grumman team were asked to develop their proposals to meet this requirement. Sperry Univac Federal Systems was assigned the task of developing the aircrafts onboard computers which integrated input from sensors, on 4 August 1969, Lockheeds design was selected as the winner of the contest, and eight prototypes, designated YS-3A were ordered. The first prototype flew on 21 January 1972 and the S-3 entered service in 1974, during the production run from 1974 to 1978, a total of 186 S-3As were built. The majority of the surviving S-3As were later upgraded to the S-3B variant, the S-3 is a conventional monoplane with a high-mounted cantilever wing, swept at an angle of 15°. Entry is by an entry door / ladder which folds out of the side of the fuselage, when the aircrafts anti-submarine warfare role ended in the late 1990s, the enlisted SENSOs were removed from the crew. In the tanking crew configuration, the S-3B typically flew only a crew of two. The wing is fitted with leading edge and Fowler flaps, spoilers are fitted to both the upper and the lower surfaces of the wings. All control surfaces are actuated by dual hydraulically boosted irreversible systems, in the event of dual hydraulic failures, an Emergency Flight Control System permits manual control with greatly increased stick forces and reduced control authority. Unlike many tactical jets which required ground service equipment, the S-3 was equipped with a power unit. The aircrafts original APU could provide only minimal electric power and pressurized air for both cooling and for the engines pneumatic starters. A newer, more powerful APU could provide electrical service to the aircraft. The APU itself was started from a hydraulic accumulator by pulling a handle in the cockpit. The APU accumulator was fed from the hydraulic system
18.
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk
–
The Sikorsky SH-60/MH-60 Seahawk is a twin turboshaft engine, multi-mission United States Navy helicopter based on the United States Army UH-60 Black Hawk and a member of the Sikorsky S-70 family. The most significant airframe modification is a tail to reduce its footprint aboard ships. The U. S. Navy uses the H-60 airframe under the model designations SH-60B, SH-60F, HH-60H, MH-60R, all Navy H-60s carry a rescue hoist for SAR/CSAR missions. During the 1970s, the U. S. Navy began looking for a new helicopter to replace the Kaman SH-2 Seasprite. The SH-2 Seasprite was used by the Navy as its platform for the Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System Mark I avionics suite for maritime warfare and a secondary search and rescue capability. Advances in sensor and avionic technology lead to the LAMPS Mk II suite, in the mid-1970s, the Army evaluated the Sikorsky YUH-60 and Boeing-Vertol YUH-61 for its Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System competition. The Navy based its requirements on the Armys UTTAS specification to decrease costs from commonality, Sikorsky and Boeing-Vertol submitted proposals for Navy versions of their Army UTTAS helicopters in April 1977 for review. The Navy also looked at helicopters being produced by Bell, Kaman, Westland and MBB, in early 1978 the Navy selected Sikorskys S-70B design, which was designated SH-60B Seahawk. The SH-60B maintained 83% commonality with the UH-60A, other changes included larger fuel cells, an electric blade folding system, folding horizontal stabilators for storage, and adding a 25-tube pneumatic sonobuoy launcher on left side. Five YSH-60B Seahawk LAMPS III prototypes were ordered, the first YSH-60B flight occurred on 12 December 1979. The first production SH-60B made its first flight on 11 February 1983, the SH-60B entered operational service in 1984 with first operational deployment in 1985. The SH-60B is deployed primarily aboard frigates, destroyers, and cruisers, the primary missions of the SH-60B are surface warfare and anti-submarine warfare. It carries a complex system of including a towed Magnetic Anomaly Detector. Other sensors include the APS-124 search radar, ALQ-142 ESM system, munitions carried include the Mk 46, Mk 50, or Mk 54 torpedo, AGM-114 Hellfire missile, and a single cabin-door-mounted M60D/M2407.62 mm machine gun or GAU-16.50 in machine gun. A standard crew for a SH-60B is one pilot, one ATO/Co-Pilot, operating squadrons are designated Helicopter Anti-Submarine Squadron, Light. The SH-60J is a version of the SH-60B for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, the SH-60K is a modified version of the SH-60J. The SH-60J and SH-60K are built under license by Mitsubishi in Japan, after the SH-60B entered service, the Navy began development of the SH-60F to replace the SH-3 Sea King. Development of this variant began with the award of a contract to Sikorsky in March 1985, an early-model SH-60B was modified to serve as a SH-60F prototype
19.
United States Navy
–
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
20.
Supercarrier
–
Supercarrier is an unofficial descriptive term for the largest type of aircraft carrier, typically those displacing over 70,000 short tons. Supercarriers are the largest warships ever built, larger than the largest battleships laid down by any country, outside the US, there are more light carriers closer to 30,000 tons, such as Italys Cavour. A few countries operate medium-sized fleet carriers of around 40,000 tons, such as the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle and the Indian Navy aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya. The first ship to be described by The New York Times as a supercarrier was HMS Ark Royal in 1938, with a length of 685 feet, in 1943 the superlative was transferred to the 45, 000-ton Midway-class carriers as a step-up from the 27, 000-ton Essex class. The Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano, launched in 1944, was the first aircraft carrier with a displacement of over 65,000 metric tons. The post-war standard for supercarriers was set by the proposed USS United States, Forrestal displaced 60,000 tons standard and 78,000 tons in deep load and is considered the first operational supercarrier in the present-day sense, as used by the US press. The similar-sized United States would have been in earlier, had it been completed. These ships are referred to as supercarriers by British legislators and the news media, the two Queen Elizabeth-class carriers will provide the Royal Navy with capabilities much closer to United States Navy carriers than the Invincible-class vessels retired in 2014. He is very keen for us to get these because he sees us slotting in with his carrier groups and he really wants us to have these, but he wants us to have the same sort of clout as one of their carriers. Future plans for supercarriers in the United States involve the construction of the U. S. Navys next generation of carriers, the Gerald R. Ford class, however, supercarrier advocates consider them to be more cost-effective than a larger number of smaller carriers. An American carrier strike group costs $25 million per week for routine operations, the mobile offshore base is an extension of the supercarrier concept, a modular floating military base as large as 10 aircraft carriers. If realized, it could be moved throughout the worlds oceans. The concept was studied in the 1990s by the U. S. government but was abandoned in 2001 as cost prohibitive
21.
USS Enterprise (CV-6)
–
USS Enterprise, was the seventh U. S. Navy vessel to bear the name. Colloquially called the Big E, she was the aircraft carrier of the United States Navy. A Yorktown-class carrier, she was launched in 1936 and was one of only three American carriers commissioned before World War II to survive the war and she participated in more major actions of the war against Japan than any other United States ship. Enterprise earned 20 battle stars, the most for any U. S. warship in World War II, on three occasions during the Pacific War, the Japanese announced that she had been sunk in battle, resulting in her being named The Grey Ghost. Enterprise sailed south on a cruise which took her to Rio de Janeiro. After her return, she operated along the east coast and in the Caribbean until April 1939, Enterprise was one of fourteen ships to receive the early RCA CXAM-1 Radar. Enterprise left Pearl Harbor on 28 November 1941, Enterprise was completing one such mission, returning to Hawaii after delivering Marine Fighter Squadron 211 to Wake Island on 7 December 1941, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Enterprise was at sea on the morning of 7 December 1941 and received a message from Pearl Harbor. That evening, Enterprise, screened by six of her Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters, put into Pearl Harbor for fuel, the aircraft were fired on by anti-aircraft defenses, and one pilot radioed in, reporting that his aircraft was an American aircraft. She sailed early the morning to patrol against possible additional attacks in the Hawaiian Islands. Although the group encountered no ships, Enterprise aircraft sank Japanese submarine I-70 at 23°45′N 155°35′W on 10 December 1941. During the last two weeks of December 1941, Enterprise and her group steamed west of Hawaii to cover the islands while two carrier groups made a belated attempt to relieve Wake Island. After a brief layover at Pearl Harbor, the Enterprise group sailed on 11 January, on 16 January 1942, one of her TBD Devastators of Torpedo Squadron 6, piloted by Chief Harold F. Dixon, got lost on patrol, ran out of fuel, and ditched. Dixon was awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism, exceptional determination, resourcefulness, skilled seamanship, excellent judgment and highest quality of leadership. On 1 February, Enterprises Task Force 8 raided Kwajalein, Wotje, Enterprise received only minor damage in the Japanese counterattack, as her group retired to Pearl Harbor. The next month, the Enterprise group swept the central Pacific, attacking enemy installations on Wake, while fighters from Enterprise flew combat air patrol, the B-25s launched on 18 April, and flew undetected the remaining 600 miles to the target. The task force, its known to the enemy after a sighting by small vessels, reversed course. Five days later, Enterprise sortied toward the South Pacific to reinforce U. S. carriers operating in the Coral Sea, however, the Battle of the Coral Sea was over before Enterprise arrived
22.
USS United States (CVA-58)
–
USS United States was to be the lead ship of a new design of aircraft carrier. On 29 July 1948, President Harry Truman approved construction of five supercarriers, the keel of the first of the five planned postwar carriers was laid down on 18 April 1949 at Newport News Drydock and Shipbuilding. The program was canceled, United States was not completed, nevertheless, USS United States is the ancestor of all U. S. supercarriers. The chief proponent for the new carrier was Admiral Marc Mitscher. He wanted a carrier that would be able to handle the most effective weapons of the day, early design discussions centered around developing a carrier that would be able to support combat missions using the new jet aircraft. These were faster, larger and significantly heavier than the aircraft the Essex and it was thought that the aircraft carried would have to have longer range to allow the carrier to operate farther away from the target. The deck would have to be able to handle the weight of the jet aircraft landing on the deck. Furthermore, the experience gained against the Kamikazes at the end of the war drove home the need for the ship to have a flight deck. Too many pilots had been lost from kamikaze attack while they were sitting below the flight deck in the pilot ready room. The implication then is that the strength deck would have to be the flight deck rather than the hangar deck. That would mean the ship would have a tendency to roll in rough weather. Based on the size of the aircraft that the new ship was to carry and this was done to create more space for large winged aircraft. The flush-deck design carried with it two major areas of concern, the first was concern over how smoke from the power plants would be diverted away from the flight deck. This had been an issue with the US Navys first aircraft carrier, USS Langley. The second was the placement of warning radar equipment to allow the ship to detect incoming attacks. One solution was for a ship to be close by which would carry the commander of the task force. The command ship would radio information and orders from its command center over to the carrier. A second was for the ship to aircraft that could fly the early warning radar
23.
Douglas A-3 Skywarrior
–
The Douglas A-3 Skywarrior was designed as a strategic bomber for the United States Navy and was among the longest serving carrier-based aircraft in history. It entered service in the mid-1950s and was retired in 1991, throughout its service, it was the heaviest operational aircraft to operate from aircraft carriers, earning its nickname, The Whale. Its primary function for much of its service life was as an electronic warfare platform, tactical air reconnaissance platform. The Skywarrior is one of only two U. S. Navy attack aircraft intended as a bomber to enter full-scale service. S. Navys strategic nuclear deterrence mission to the Fleet Ballistic Missile submarine force, a modified derivative, the B-66 Destroyer, served in the U. S. Air Force until the early 1970s as a tactical bomber, electronic warfare aircraft, and reconnaissance platform. Early in World War II, the U. S. Navy began to explore the concept of an aircraft operating from aircraft carriers. In January 1948, the Chief of Naval Operations issued a requirement to develop a long-range, the aircraft was planned to operate from the proposed United States-class supercarriers, much larger than existing carriers, and the specification set a target loaded weight of 100,000 lb. The contract that the U. S. Navy awarded to the Douglas Aircraft Company on 29 September 1949 led to the development, the prototype XA3D-1 first flew on 28 October 1952. Considerable development problems, largely with the engines, delayed the introduction of the Skywarrior until spring 1956. Because of its size, and less-than-slender profile, it was nicknamed The Whale. The Skywarrior had a 36° degree swept wing and two Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet engines, early prototypes had used the intended Westinghouse J40, a powerplant that proved to be disastrous and subsequently canceled. The turbojets could be supplemented by a provision for twelve 4,500 lbf thrust JATO bottles, the aircraft had a largely conventional semi-monocoque fuselage, with the engines in underwing nacelles. Flight controls were hydraulic, and for storage below deck, the A-3s wings folded outboard of the engines, lying almost flat, capacious internal fuel tanks provided long range. The early A-3 variants had a crew of three, pilot, bombardier/navigator and crewman/navigator, an unusual cockpit configuration was incorporated with the three crew sitting under a framed canopy. In the raised compartment, the pilot and bombardier/navigator sat in an arrangement with the pilots station on the port side having full flight controls. The third crewman station had the sextant for navigation and the defensive electronic counter measures equipment. Efforts to reduce weight had led to the deletion of ejection seats during the process for the Skywarrior. A similar arrangement with a tunnel had been used on the F3D Skyknight
24.
Avgas
–
Avgas, also known as aviation spirit in the UK, is an aviation fuel used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines to propel aircraft. Avgas is distinguished from mogas, which is the everyday gasoline used in motor vehicles, turbine and diesel engines are designed to use kerosene-based jet fuel. The main petroleum component used in blending avgas is alkylate, which is essentially a mixture of various isooctanes, all grades of avgas that meet CAN 2-3, 25-M82 have a density of 6.01 lb/U. S. Gal at 15 °C, or 0.721 kg/l, density increases to 6.41 lb/US gallon, or 0.769 kg/l, at -40 °C, and decreases by about 0. 1% per 1 °C increase in temperature. Avgas has an coefficient of 18.355 pounds CO2 per U. S. gallon or about 3.05 units of weight CO2 produced per unit weight of fuel used. Avgas has a lower and more uniform vapor pressure than automotive gasoline so it remains in the state despite the reduced atmospheric pressure at high altitude. The high octane ratings are achieved by the addition of tetraethyllead, avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum lead concentrations. As of 2013, numerous certificated reciprocating-engine aircraft require high-octane fuels, teledyne-Continental Motors states, Current aircraft engines feature valve gear components which are designed for compatibility with the leaded ASTM D910 fuels. In such fuels, the acts as a lubricant, coating the contact areas between the valve, guide, and seat. The use of unleaded auto fuels with engines designed for leaded fuels can result in excessive exhaust valve seat wear due to the lack of lead, the result can be remarkable, with cylinder performance deteriorating to unacceptable levels in under 10 hours. Lycoming has also provided a list of engines and fuels that are compatible with them, a number of their engines are not compatible with unleaded fuel according to their chart. Jet fuel is similar to kerosene and is used in turbine engines, confusion can be caused by the terms Avtur and AvJet being used for jet fuel. In Europe, environmental and cost considerations have led to increasing numbers of aircraft being fitted with fuel-efficient diesel engines run on jet fuel. Civilian aircraft use Jet-A, Jet-A1, or in cold climates Jet-B. There are other systems for military turbine and diesel fuel. The annual US usage of avgas was 186 million US gallons in 2008, from 1983 through 2008, US usage of avgas declined consistently by approximately 7.5 million US gallons each year. As of 2008, the consumers of avgas are in North America, Australia, Brazil. Care must be taken by small airplane pilots to select airports with avgas on flight planning, for example, US and Japanese recreational pilots ship and depot avgas before flying into Siberia
25.
Midway-class aircraft carrier
–
The Midway-class aircraft carrier was one of the longest-serving aircraft carrier designs in history. First commissioned in late 1945, the ship of the class, USS Midway, was not decommissioned until 1992. The USS Franklin D. Roosevelt was decommissioned in 1977, the USS Coral Sea was decommissioned in 1990. The CVB-41 class vessels were conceived in 1940 as a design study to determine the effect of including an armored flight deck on a carrier the size of the Essex class. The resulting calculations showed that the effect would be a reduction of air group size—the resulting ship would have an air group of 64, Navy carrier design were incorporated in the CVB Class, then still under development. HMS ILLUSTRIOUS in an action off Malta on 1 January 1941 was hit by several bombs, the concept went to finding a larger carrier that could support both deck armor and a sufficiently large air group. They would be the last USN carriers to be so designed, the resulting carriers were very large, with the ability to accommodate more planes than any other carrier in the U. S. fleet. In their original configuration, the Midway-class ships had an airwing of almost 130 aircraft and it was soon realized that the coordination of so many planes was beyond the effective command and control ability of one ship. However, their size did allow these ships to easily accommodate the rapid growth in aircraft size. While the resulting ships featured excellent protection and unprecedented airwing size, internally, the ships were very cramped and crowded. Freeboard was unusually low for such large carriers, in seas, they shipped large amounts of water. In addition, in contrast with the earlier Lexington, Yorktown and Essex-classes, although they were intended to augment the US Pacific fleet during World War II, the lead ship of the class, Midway, was not commissioned until 10 September 1945. None of the went on war cruises during the Korean War. They were mainly deployed to the Atlantic and Mediterranean, all three of the Midway class made combat deployments in the Vietnam War. Coral Sea deployed to the Gulf of Tonkin six times, Midway deployed on three occasions, and Franklin D. Roosevelt made one combat deployment before returning to the Mediterranean. In the late 1960s, Midway underwent a modernization and reconstruction program. By the 1970s, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Coral Sea were showing their age, all three retained the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II in their air wings, being too small to operate the new Grumman F-14 Tomcat fleet defense fighter or the S-3 Viking anti-submarine jet. In 1977, Franklin D. Roosevelt was decommissioned, on her final deployment, Roosevelt embarked AV-8 Harrier jump jets to test the concept of including VSTOL aircraft in a carrier air wing
26.
Flight deck
–
The flight deck of an aircraft carrier is the surface from which its aircraft take off and land, essentially a miniature airfield at sea. On smaller naval ships which do not have aviation as a primary mission, the official U. S. Navy term for these vessels is air-capable ships. The first flight decks were inclined wooden ramps built over the forecastle of warships, eugene Ely made the first fixed-wing aircraft take-off from a warship from USS Birmingham on 14 November 1910. Ely told a reporter, It was easy enough, I think the trick could be successfully turned nine times out of ten. On 9 May 1912, Commander Charles Samson became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway when he flew his Short S.27 off of HMS Hibernia, which was steaming at 10.5 kn. Because the take-off speed of aircraft was so low, it was possible for an aircraft to make a very short take off when the launching ship was steaming into the wind. The landing arrangements on Furious were highly unsatisfactory, in order to land, aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure. Furious was therefore returned to dockyard hands to have a 300 ft deck added aft for landing, the central superstructure remained, however, and turbulence caused by it badly affected the landing deck. Because of her flight deck, Argus had no fixed conning tower. Rather, exhaust gases were trunked down the side of the ship, the lack of a command position and funnel was unsatisfactory, and Argus was used to experiment with various ideas to remedy the solution. A photograph in 1917 shows her with a canvas mock-up of an island superstructure. This became the aircraft carrier arrangement and was used in the next British carriers, Hermes. Being large and fast they were suited to this role. Because the military effectiveness of aircraft carriers was then unknown, early ships were equipped with cruiser-calibre guns to aid in their defense if surprised by enemy warships. In ships of this configuration, the deck was the strength deck and an integral part of the hull. Such ships were still being built into the late 1940s, classic examples being the U. S. Navys Essex, however, in 1936, the Royal Navy began construction of the Illustrious class. In these ships, the deck was the strength deck, an integral part of the hull. The flight deck as the deck was adopted for later construction
27.
Aircraft catapult
–
An aircraft catapult is a device used to launch aircraft from ships, most commonly used on aircraft carriers, as a form of assisted take off. Different means have been used to propel the catapult, such as weight and derrick, gunpowder, flywheel, air pressure, hydraulic, and steam power. The U. S. Navy is developing the use of Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch Systems with the construction of the Gerald R. Ford class aircraft carrier, aviation pioneer and Smithsonian Secretary Samuel Langley used a spring-operated catapult to launch his successful flying models and his failed aerodrome of 1903. Likewise the Wright Brothers beginning in 1904 used a weight and derrick styled catapult to assist their early aircraft with a takeoff in a limited distance, on 31 July 1912, Theodore Gordon Ellyson became the first person to be launched from a U. S. Navy catapult system. The Navy had been perfecting a compressed-air catapult system and mounted it on the Santee Dock in Annapolis, the first attempt nearly killed Lt. Ellyson when the plane left the ramp with its nose pointing upward and it caught a crosswind, pushing the plane into the water. Ellyson was able to escape from the wreckage unhurt, on 12 November 1912, Lt. Ellyson made history as the Navys first successful catapult launch, from a stationary coal barge. On 5 November 1915, LCDR Henry C, mustin made the first catapult launch from a ship underway. The US Navy experimented with other sources and models, including catapults that utilized gunpowder. On 14 December 1924, a Martin MO-1 observation plane flown by Lt. L. C, hayden was launched from USS Langley using a catapult powered by gunpowder. Following this launch, this method was used aboard both cruisers and battleships, up to and during World War II, most catapults were hydraulic. They were mostly used for experimental purposes, and their use was discontinued during the latter half of the war. Many naval vessels apart from aircraft carriers carried float planes, seaplanes or amphibians for reconnaissance and they were catapult-launched and landed on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. There were submarine aircraft carriers, and some Japanese submarines used them for offensive operations also, the first launch off a Royal Navy battlecruiser was from HMAS Australia on 8 March 1918. The aircraft carried were the Fairey Seafox or Supermarine Walrus, some like HMS Nelson did not use a catapult, and the aircraft was lowered onto the sea for takeoff. Some had their aircraft and catapult removed during WWII e. g. HMS Duke of York and these were used for convoy escort duties to drive off enemy reconnaissance bombers. CAM ships carried a Hawker Sea Hurricane, dubbed a Hurricat or Catafighter, ground-launched V-1s were typically propelled up an inclined launch ramp by an apparatus known as a Dampferzeuger. Following World War II, the Royal Navy was developing a new system for their fleet of carriers. Mitchell, RNV, recommended a system as an effective
28.
Keel laying
–
Laying the keel or laying down is the formal recognition of the start of a ships construction. It is often marked with a ceremony attended by dignitaries from the shipbuilding company, keel laying is one of the four specially-celebrated events in the life of a ship, the others are launching, commissioning, and decommissioning. In earlier times, the event recognized as the keel laying was the placement of the central timber making up the backbone of a vessel. As steel ships replaced wooden ones, the central timber gave way to a steel beam. Modern ships are now built in a series of pre-fabricated. The event recognized as the keel laying is the first joining of modular components and it is now often called keel authentication, and is the ceremonial beginning of the ships life, although modules may have been started months before that stage of construction. Keel-related traditions from the times of wooden ships are said to bring luck to the ship during construction and to the captain, the first milestone in the history of a ship is the generally simple ceremony that marks the laying of the keel. Invitations to the ceremony are issued by officials, and the ceremony is conducted by them. The builder may be the commander of a shipyard or the president of a private company. The ships prospective name, without the USS, is mentioned in the invitation, if known, otherwise her type and number are given, e. g. DD2217
29.
Thomas S. Gates Jr.
–
Thomas Sovereign Gates Jr. was United States Secretary of Defense from 1959 to 1961 under President Eisenhower. He was promoted from deputy secretary of defense, during his tenure, he established a task force to set nuclear target priorities. He also authorized U-2 reconnaissance flights, including the flight of Francis Gary Powers, Gates graduated from Chestnut Hill Academy, an all-male private preparatory school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1924. He was then accepted into the University of Pennsylvania, where his father was serving on the board of trustees. A member of Zeta Psi fraternity, and the Phi Beta Kappa Society, Gates married the former Millicent Anne Brengle on September 29,1928. They had one son and three daughters, after graduating, he joined his fathers Philadelphia-based investment banking firm, Drexel and Company. In the early to mid-1930s he worked as a salesman at Drexel. Gates became a partner at Drexel and Company in 1940. During World War II he served in the Navy, rose to the rank of lieutenant commander and he was released from active duty in October 1945. President Eisenhower appointed Gates Under Secretary of the Navy in October 1953 and Secretary on 1 April 1957 and it was a foregone conclusion when Gates became Defense Secretary Neil McElroys deputy on 8 June 1959 that he would succeed him. He entered office with a background of active military experience. As a top-level DoD official since 1953, Gates was familiar with the 1953 and 1958 Defense Department reorganizations, Gates cultivated a good working relationship with the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Soon Gates and the JCS met on a basis, not just in instances when the Chiefs disagreed. Congressional and other sources applauded Gates for taking the initiative in improving both the JCS organization and the relations with it. Another important Gates initiative was the creation in August 1960 of the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff, previously, inadequate coordination of targeting plans between the Strategic Air Command and the Navy led to redundancy and disputed priorities. These differences became especially significant with the advent of the Navys sea-based Polaris ballistic missiles, acting on a proposal by SAC Commander in Chief General Thomas S. Power that SAC control strategic weapons targeting, Gates set up the JSTPS. When Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh A. Burke objected to the new arrangement, Gates encouraged him to argue his case with President Eisenhower, thereafter Burke supported the JSTPS and assigned to it highly qualified naval officers. Gates devoted more time than his predecessors Charles E. Wilson and Neil H. McElroy to the development of defense policy
30.
United States Secretary of the Navy
–
The Secretary of the Navy is a statutory office and the head of the Department of the Navy, a military department within the Department of Defense of the United States of America. The Department of the Navy consists of two Uniformed Services, the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. In effect, all authority within the Navy and Marine Corps, specifically enumerated responsibilities of the SECNAV in beforementioned section are, recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, training, mobilizing, and demobilizing. The Secretary also oversees the construction, outfitting, and repair of ships, equipment. The Secretary of the Navy is a member of the Defense Acquisition Board, chaired by the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, the CNO and the Commandant act as the principal executive agents of the SECNAV within their respective services to implement the orders of the Secretary. The United States Navy Regulations is the principal regulatory document of the Department of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commandant of the Marine Corps have their own separate staffs, the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and Headquarters Marine Corps
31.
Grumman C-1 Trader
–
The Grumman C-1 Trader is a carrier onboard delivery variant of the Grumman S-2 Tracker. It was replaced by a version of the Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye. The C-1 Trader grew out of a need by the United States Navy for a new anti-submarine airplane, in response to this Grumman began development on a prototype twin-engine, high-wing aircraft which it designated the G-89. In 1952 the Navy designated this aircraft the XS2F-1 and flew it for the first time on December 4 that year, during the rest of the 1950s three major variants emerged, the C-1 Trader being one of them. The C-1 was outfitted to carry nine passengers or 3,500 pounds of cargo, over its production life 87 C-1 Traders were built, of which four were converted into EC-1A Tracer electronic countermeasures aircraft. The last C-1 was retired from USN service in 1988, it was the second-to-last radial-engine aircraft in U. S military service, as of 2010, approximately ten were still airworthy in civil hands, operating as warbirds. In 1956 the U. S. Marine Corps Test Unit Number 1 tested the concept of using the TF-1 variant as a vehicle for inserting reconnaissance teams behind enemy lines, “On 9 July 1956 MCTU Recon Marines became the first to parachute from a TF-1. Less than three weeks later, four recon parachutists launched from the USS Bennington, which was 70 miles at sea, and jumped on a desert drop zone near El Centro California, some 100 miles inland. For the first time in Marine Corps and Naval Aviation history, in 2011 contract was signed with Marsh Aviation to convert four ex-US Navy C-1A Trader airframes into KC-2 Turbo Traders. The first KC-2 prototype flight is expected for November 2017 and the delivery of the first operational aircraft is scheduled for December 2018, TF-1 Carrier Onboard Delivery version of the S-2 Tracker with enlarged fuselage for nine passengers, redesignated C-1A in 1962,87 built. TF-1Q Electronic Countermeasures conversion of the TF-1, redesignated EC-1A in 1962, tF-1W Airborne Early Warning project that was developed in the WF-2 Tracer. KC-2 Turbo Trader Marsh Aviation modernization project for Air-to-Air Refueling, requested for the Brazilian Navy, United States United States Navy Brazil Brazilian Naval Aviation Airworthy BuNo 136752 - privately owned in Phoenix, Arizona. BuNo 136766 - privately owned in Carson City, Nevada, BuNo 136773 - privately owned in Wilmington, Delaware. BuNo 136778 - privately owned in Eufaula, Alabama, BuNo 136781 - based at Pacific Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa, California. BuNo 146044 - privately owned in Topeka, Kansas, BuNo 146048 - privately owned in Saint Cloud, Minnesota. BuNo 146049 - privately owned in St. Louis, Missouri, BuNo 146052 - based at Lone Star Flight Museum in Galveston, Texas. On display BuNo 136754 - National Museum of Naval Aviation, NAS Pensacola, Pensacola, BuNo 136790 - Grissom Air Museum, Grissom ARB, Kokomo, Indiana. BuNo 136792 - Quonset Air Museum, North Kingston, Rhode Island and this aircraft was modified with the Grumman E-1 Tracer-type radome assembly and twin tails and served as the aerodynamic prototype for the E-1
32.
Carrier onboard delivery
–
Carrier onboard delivery is the use of aircraft to ferry personnel, mail, supplies, and high-priority cargo, such as replacement parts, from shore bases to an aircraft carrier at sea. Several types of aircraft, including helicopters, have used by navies in the COD role. The Grumman C-2 Greyhound has been the United States Navys primary COD aircraft since the mid-1960s, replacement of TBM-3Rs began in the late 1950s. Grumman built a variant of its twin-piston-engined Grumman S-2 Tracker anti-submarine warfare bomber as the C-1A Trader. The Navy in 1963 briefly experimented with the C-130 Hercules for COD, in the late 1960s Grumman began production of a cargo variant of its twin-turboprop E-2 Hawkeye Airborne Early Warning aircraft known as the C-2A Greyhound. Five Lockheed US-3A Viking aircraft were used from the early 1980s to the mid-1990s. The C-2 has remained the U. S. Navys primary COD vehicle since that time. Several U. S. Navy Fleet Logistics Support Squadrons provided COD services aboard carriers since the World War II, including VR-5, VR-21, VR-22, VR-23, VR-24, VRC-30, VRC-40, and VRC-50. On 6 October 2012, a MV-22 tilt-rotor aircraft from squadron VMM-165 landed and refueled on board the USS Nimitz and this operation was part of an evaluation of the feasibility of the MV-22 as a potential replacement for the current C-2 cargo transport aircraft. Further cargo handling trials took place in 2013 on Harry S. Truman, dubbed the C-3, the aircraft would have a wider fuselage, but would retain the original wings, tail assembly, engines and crew compartment. With an unrefueled range of 2,400 nautical miles carrying a 10, 000-pound load, Cramer said the C-3 would have twice the range of a new C-2, and triple the range of a V-22 Osprey. Unlike other competitors, the C-3 could meet the requirement to transport replacement Pratt & Whitney jet engines for the F-35. The requirement for 35 aircraft would be met from the 91 S-3s currently in storage, on 2015, the Navy published a memorandum of understanding for using 4 to 12 HV-22s as COD. On 3 February 2016, the future COD version was designated as the CMV-22B
33.
Naval Station Norfolk
–
Naval Station Norfolk, is a United States Navy base in Norfolk, Virginia. It supports naval forces in the United States Fleet Forces Command, those operating in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, the installation occupies about 4 miles of waterfront space and 11 miles of pier and wharf space of the Hampton Roads peninsula known as Sewells Point. Over 150,000 passengers and 264,000 tons of mail and cargo depart annually on Air Mobility Command aircraft, the area where the base is located was the site of the original 1907 Jamestown Exposition. In April 1917, not long after the United States entered World War I, a bill was passed for the purchase of the land, and money was set aside in the amount of $1.6 million for the development of the base. The Fifth Naval Headquarters was established along with the Naval Operating Base, by 1918, there were 34,000 enlisted men at the base. However, by the end, the base was reduced in personnel. New facilities were built including new runways for aircraft, part of NAS Norfolk and it also had ramps built to be used by seaplanes to be operated by the navy during the war. About 400 acres was acquired and by 1943, the air station had become an airfield for operations. Due to the expansion, it contributed to ending the war due to the training it provided to air units. On 1 January 1953, the name of the base was changed to Naval Station Norfolk after being known as the NOB. In 1968, the Naval Air Station was given a role in John F. Kennedys vision of putting a man on the moon. The air station became Recovery Control Center Atlantic, which provided command, control, due to the end of the Cold War. A drawdown began in the 1990s, and the navy began reducing shore installations to help with operating cost. Due to this, the navy merged the separate Naval Station and Naval Air Station into an installation to be called Naval Station Norfolk. Following the attack on the USS Cole and September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, the base had some major upgrades to its security gates costing more than $12.5 million. On 26 January 2017, NS Norfolk celebrated its centennial at the Pennsylvania House, Naval Station Norfolk is homeport for the USS Cole, which was the victim of an Al-Qaeda terrorist attack in October 2000 while it was harbored and being refueled in the port of Aden, Yemen. 17 American sailors were killed, and 39 were injured in the attack, the USS Cole remains in active service and remains homeported at Norfolk. On March 24,2014, a shooting at NS Norfolk resulted in the death of a sailor, the shooting occurred around 11,20 p. m. EST aboard the USS Mahan
34.
Virginia
–
Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
35.
Caribbean
–
The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
36.
USS Saratoga (CV-60)
–
USS Saratoga, was the second of four Forrestal-class supercarriers built for the United States Navy in the 1950s. Saratoga was the sixth U. S. Navy ship, commissioned in 1956, she spent most of her career in the Mediterranean, but also participated during the Vietnam War, receiving one battle star for her service. One of her last operational duties was to participate in Operation Desert Storm, Saratoga was decommissioned in 1994, and had been stored at Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island. Multiple unsuccessful attempts were made to preserve her as a museum ship, the Navy is paying ESCO Marine of Brownsville, Texas, one cent to take the ship for dismantling and recycling. On 15 September 2014, ex-Saratoga arrived in Brownsville, Texas and she was ordered as a Large Aircraft Carrier, hull classification symbol CVB-60, and her contract was awarded to the New York Naval Shipyard of Brooklyn, New York on 23 July 1952. She is the second of the four Forrestal-class carriers and she was reclassified as an Attack Aircraft Carrier on 1 October 1952. Her keel was laid down on 16 December 1952 and she was launched on 8 October 1955 sponsored by Mrs. Charles S. Thomas, and commissioned on 14 April 1956 with CAPT Robert Joseph Stroh in command. She was the first carrier in the US Navy to use high-pressure 1,200 psi boilers, for the next several months, Saratoga conducted various engineering, flight, steering, structural, and gunnery tests. On 18 August, she sailed for Guantanamo Bay and her shakedown cruise, on 19 December, she reentered the New York Naval Shipyard and remained there until 28 February 1957. Upon completion of work, she got underway on a refresher training cruise to the Caribbean before entering her home port, Naval Station Mayport in Mayport. On 6 June 1957, President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower, for two days, she and eighteen other ships demonstrated air operations, antisubmarine warfare, guided missile operations, and the Navys latest bombing and strafing techniques. Also in 1957, Saratoga conducted Regulus guided missile tests, the carrier departed Mayport on 3 September 1957 for her maiden transatlantic voyage. Saratoga sailed into the Norwegian Sea and participated in Operation Strikeback and she returned briefly to Mayport before entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for repairs. On 1 February 1958, Saratoga departed Mayport for the Mediterranean, from this date through 31 December 1967 she was to spend a part of each year in the Mediterranean on a total of eight cruises. The remainder of the time, she operated off the coast of Florida or was in port undergoing restricted availability. On the night of 24–25 May 1960, Saratoga collided with the German freighter Bernd Leonhardt off North Carolina, the freighters bridge and superstructure were damaged by the carriers flight-deck. The results of an investigation were never published, but repairs to the freighter, while deployed with the Sixth Fleet on 23 January 1961, a serious fire broke out in Saratogas number two machinery space which took seven lives. The fire, believed caused by a fuel oil line, was brought under control by the crew, and the ship proceeded to Athens, Greece
37.
USS Intrepid (CV-11)
–
USS Intrepid, also known as The Fighting I, is one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers built during World War II for the United States Navy. She is the fourth US Navy ship to bear the name, commissioned in August 1943, Intrepid participated in several campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations, most notably the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s as an attack carrier, in her second career, she served mainly in the Atlantic, but also participated in the Vietnam War. Her notable achievements include being the ship for a Mercury. Decommissioned in 1974, in 1982 Intrepid became the foundation of the Intrepid Sea, Intrepid was launched on 26 April 1943 by Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Newport News, Virginia, the fifth Essex-class aircraft carrier to be launched and she was sponsored by the wife of Vice Admiral John H. Hoover. On 16 August 1943, she was commissioned with Captain Thomas L. Sprague in command before heading to the Caribbean for shakedown and training. Intrepids motto upon setting sail was In Mare In Coelo, which means On the sea, in the sky, In the sea in Heaven, or On the sea and in the air. Intrepid has a service record, seeing active service in the Pacific Theater including the Marshall Islands, Truk, Leyte Gulf. At wars end, she was in Enewetak and soon supported occupation forces providing air support, on 3 December 1943, Intrepid sailed from Naval Station Norfolk for San Francisco, then to Hawaii. She arrived at Pearl Harbor and prepared for the invasion of the Marshall Islands, on 16 January Intrepid left Pearl Harbor with carriers Cabot and Essex. Starting on 29 January Intrepid, as part of Task Group 58.2, by 31 January this groups carrier aircraft had destroyed or put out of commission all 83 Japanese aircraft stationed on Roi-Namur. The first landings were made on adjacent islets and that morning, Intrepids aircraft strafed Ennuebing Island until 10 minutes before the first Marines reached the beaches. On 2 February Intrepid headed for Truk, the Japanese naval base in the center of Micronesia, on 16 February the Intrepid, as part of Task Force 58, began airstrikes against Truk atoll as part of Operation Hailstone. The Japanese lost several warships and merchant vessels, alongside several hundred aircraft, the carrier raid demonstrated Truks vulnerability and thereby greatly curtailed its usefulness to the Japanese as a base. On the night of 17–18 February, the Intrepid was struck by a torpedo from a Japanese aircraft, the torpedo struck Intrepids starboard quarter,15 ft below her waterline, flooding several compartments, distorting her rudder and killing 11 crewmen. By running her engines at full power and stopping her starboard engines or running them at ⅓ ahead. Her crew moved all the aircraft on deck forward to increase her headsail to further aid in control, two days later, on 19 February, strong winds overpowered the improvised steering and left her with her bow pointed toward Tokyo
38.
Mediterranean Sea
–
The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
39.
United States Sixth Fleet
–
The Sixth Fleet is the United States Navys operational fleet and staff of United States Naval Forces Europe. The Sixth Fleet is headquartered at Naval Support Activity Naples, Italy, the commander of the Sixth Fleet is Vice Admiral Christopher W. Grady. The Sixth Fleet was established in February 1950 by redesignation of the former Sixth Task Fleet, since that time, it has been continually engaged in world affairs around the Mediterranean, and, on occasion, further afield. It was involved in numerous NATO maritime exercises, the U. S, most recently it launched airstrikes on Libya again during the Libyan Civil War of 2011. The earliest unit was the Mediterranean Squadron, on 1 February 1946, U. S. Naval Forces, Northwest African Waters, was redesignated U. S. Naval Forces, Mediterranean. The force was responsible to U. S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean in London, in 1946, President Truman dispatched the battleship Missouri to the Eastern Mediterranean, ostensibly to return the body of Münir Ertegün, former Turkish Ambassador to Washington, back to Istanbul. However, perhaps a much stronger motive was to demonstrate U. S. power in view of Soviet threats to Turkey, the cruiser Dayton relieved the tender Shenandoah as flagship and began operating with the fleet. In June 1946 Fargo, flying the flag of Vice Admiral Bernhard Bieri, Commander, USS Randolph, escorted by USS Fargo and USS Perry, visited Greece in December 1946. The title of Naval Forces Mediterranean was changed to Commander Sixth Task Fleet and then, in 1950, Commander, Sixth Fleets NATO guise was the principal player in Exercise Longstep during November 1952. In 1957, an exercise, Operation Deep Water, took place within the Allied Forces Southern Europe area of responsibility. It was conducted by Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe, commanded by Vice Admiral Charles R. Brown, USN, STRIKEFORSOUTH was effectively the NATO designation for the U. S. Sixth Fleet supported American land forces during Operation Blue Bat in Lebanon in 1958, during the Cold War, the Sixth Fleet had several confrontations with the Soviet Navys 5th Operational Squadron, notably during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. During the Yom Kippur War Elmo Zumwalt describes part of the Sixth Fleet buildup as follows, On 25 October JCS directed TG20.1, John F. Kennedy and escorts, ComSixthFleet as TG60.3 and proceed to join TG60 south of Crete. Additionally, Franklin D. Roosevelt and escorts and TF61/62 were directed to join TG60.1 south of Crete, TG100.1 were ordered to proceed to the Mediterranean and chop to ComSixthFleet. Captain J. Huntly Boyd, the Navys Supervisor of Salvage, was sent to the Canal Zone as Commander and he supervised the actual salvage clearing operation which was carried out by the Murphy Pacific Marine Salvage Company of New York. A total of ten ships blocked the canal,200 civilian specialists worked from May to December 1974 to complete the operation, the canal reopened on 5 June 1975, with the Sixth Fleet flagship Little Rock in attendance. In 1999, changes to CINCUSNAVEURs area of responsibility were announced, the United States Atlantic Command areas that had included the waters off Europe and the west coast of Africa were to be transferred to European Command. European Command already had responsibility for all U. S. land and air military planning in Europe, the change gave EUCOM, and NAVEUR, the responsibility for maritime planning in the same general area of operations
40.
John F. Kennedy
–
Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
41.
Berlin
–
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
42.
Caribbean Sea
–
The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, the islands of the West Indies. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km2, the seas deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at 7,686 m below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays, the Gulf of Gonâve, Gulf of Venezuela, Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, Gulf of Paria, the Caribbean Sea has the worlds second biggest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs 1,000 km along the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, the name Caribbean derives from the Caribs, one of the regions dominant Native American groups at the time of European contact during the late 15th century. During the first century of development, Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed, from the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region identified the South Sea as opposed to the North Sea. The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492, at that time the Western Hemisphere in general was unknown to Europeans. Following the discovery of the islands by Columbus, the area was colonised by several Western cultures. As of 2015 the area is home to 22 island territories, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows, On the North. In the Windward Channel – a line joining Caleta Point and Pearl Point in Haïti, in the Mona Passage – a line joining Cape Engano and the extreme of Agujereada in Puerto Rico. From Galera Point through Trinidad to Galeota Point and thence to Baja Point in Venezuela, note that, although Barbados is an island on the same continental shelf, it is considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea largely situated on the Caribbean Plate, the Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to the north east of Trinidad, the larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc. The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era. It is assumed the proto-caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period, in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Seas formation began in the Triassic, powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico which formed siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool, the emergence of deep basins in the Caribbean occurred during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of these marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean
43.
Cuban Missile Crisis
–
The confrontation is often considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war. An agreement was reached during a meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962 and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer. The 1962 midterm elections were under way in the United States and these missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missile facilities. The United States established a blockade to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba, after a long period of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between U. S. President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Secretly, the United States also agreed that it would dismantle all U. S. -built Jupiter MRBMs, when all offensive missiles and Ilyushin Il-28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on November 20,1962. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, as a result, the Moscow–Washington hotline was established. A series of sharply reduced U. S. –Soviet tensions during the following years. The United States had been embarrassed publicly by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, afterward, former President Eisenhower told Kennedy that the failure of the Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets to do something that they would otherwise not do. U. S. covert operations against Cuba continued in 1961 with the similarly unsuccessful Operation Mongoose, in addition, Khrushchevs impression of Kennedys weakness was confirmed by the Presidents response during the Berlin Crisis of 1961, particularly to the building of the Berlin Wall. He also told his son Sergei that on Cuba, Kennedy would make a fuss, make more of a fuss, CIA agents or pathfinders from the Special Activities Division were to be infiltrated into Cuba to carry out sabotage and organization, including radio broadcasts. When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was a missile gap with the Soviets leading. In fact, the U. S. led the Soviets by a margin that would only increase. In 1961, the Soviets had only four intercontinental ballistic missiles, by October 1962, they may have had a few dozen, with some intelligence estimates as high as 75. The U. S. on the hand, had 170 ICBMs and was quickly building more. It also had eight George Washington– and Ethan Allen–class ballistic missile submarines with the capability to launch 16 Polaris missiles each, the Soviet Union did have medium-range ballistic missiles in quantity, about 700 of them, however, these were very unreliable and inaccurate. The U. S. had an advantage in total number of nuclear warheads at the time. The U. S. also led in missile defensive capabilities, naval and air power, Khrushchev faced a strategic situation where the U. S. was perceived to have a splendid first strike capability that put the Soviet Union at a huge disadvantage
44.
Cuba
–
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
45.
Puerto Rico
–
Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
46.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
47.
Norfolk Naval Shipyard
–
The Norfolk Naval Shipyard, often called the Norfolk Navy Yard and abbreviated as NNSY, is a U. S. Navy facility in Portsmouth, Virginia, for building, remodeling, and repairing the Navys ships. It is the oldest and largest industrial facility that belongs to the U. S. Navy as well as the most multifaceted, located on the Elizabeth River, the yard is just a short distance upriver from its mouth at Hampton Roads. It was established as Gosport Shipyard in 1767, destroyed during the American Revolutionary War, it was rebuilt and became home to the first operational drydock in the United States in the 1820s. Changing hands during the American Civil War, it served the Confederate States Navy until it was destroyed in 1862. The shipyard was again rebuilt, and has continued operation through the present day, the Gosport Shipyard was founded on November 1,1767 by Andrew Sprowle on the western shore of the Elizabeth River in Norfolk County in the Virginia Colony. This shipyard became a naval and merchant facility for the British Crown. In 1775, at the beginning of the American Revolution, Sprowle stayed loyal to the Crown and fled Virginia, in 1779, while the newly formed Commonwealth of Virginia was operating the shipyard, it was burned by British troops. In 1794, United States Congress passed An Act to Provide a Naval Armament, in 1799 the keel of USS Chesapeake, one of the first six frigates authorized by Congress, was laid, making her the first ship built in Gosport for the U. S. Navy. The federal government purchased the shipyard from Virginia in 1801 for $12,000 and this tract of land measured 16 acres and now makes up the northeastern corner of the current shipyard. In 1827, construction began on the first of what would be the first two dry docks in the United States. The first one was completed three weeks ahead of projects in both Boston, Massachusetts and South America, making it the first functional dry dock in the Americas. Dry Dock One, as it is referred to today, is operational and is listed as historical landmark in Portsmouth. Officers Quarters A, B, and C were built about 1837, additional land on the eastern side of the Elizabeth River was purchased in 1845. Enslaved Labor, slave labor was utilized in the Norfolk Navy Yard from its foundation until the Civil War. Some idea of the scale can be found in this exert from a letter of Commodore Lewis Warrington dated 12 October 1831 to the Navy Board of Commissioners. Warringtons letter to the BNC, was in response to various worker petitions. usgwarchives. net/va/portsmouth/shipyard/nnysharp. html#enslaved> In 1861, fearing that the Confederacy would take control of the facility, the shipyard commander Charles Stewart McCauley ordered the burning of the shipyard. The Confederate forces did in fact take over the shipyard, the capture of the shipyard allowed a tremendous amount of war material to fall into Confederate hands. 1,195 heavy guns were taken for the defense of the Confederacy, and employed in areas from Hampton Roads all the way to Fort Donelson Tennessee, Port Hudson
_at_sea_during_the_later_1980s_or_early_1990s_(NH_97715).jpg)
United States_under_construction_in_July_1955.jpg)
_awaiting_disposal_at_the_New_York_Naval_Shipyard_on_22_June_1958.jpg)
_during_shakedown_cruise_1959.jpg)
,_USS_Saratoga_(CVA-60),_and_USS_Intrepid_(CVA-11)_underway_in_1961,_with_crewmen_paraded_on_deck_in_a_spellout_commemorating_the_50th_birthday_of_U.S._naval_aviation_(NH_97716).jpg)
_c1963.jpg)
_1965.jpg)
_and_HMS_Ark_Royal_(R09)_1971.jpg)
_refueling_Independence_(CV-62)_and_Luce_(DDG-38)_c1981.jpg)
_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_on_8_December_1983.jpg)
_and_USS_Independence_(CV-62)_docked_at_Pearl_Harbor_on_23_August_1991_(6478213).jpg)
_and_USS_Kitty_Hawk_(CV-63)_at_Pearl_Harbor_crop.jpg)
_is_towed_to_the_breaker%27s_yard_on_11_March_2017.JPG)
