1.
Barcode
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A barcode is an optical, machine-readable, representation of data, the data usually describes something about the object that carries the barcode. Originally barcodes systematically represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel lines, later two-dimensional codes were developed, using rectangles, dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns in two dimensions, usually called barcodes although they do not use bars as such. Barcodes originally were scanned by special optical scanners called barcode readers, later applications software became available for devices that could read images, such as smartphones with cameras. An early use of one type of barcode in a context was sponsored by the Association of American Railroads in the late 1960s. Two plates were used per car, one on side, with the arrangement of the colored stripes encoding information such as ownership, type of equipment. The plates were read by a scanner, located for instance, at the entrance to a classification yard. The project was abandoned after ten years because the system proved unreliable after long-term use. Barcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate supermarket checkout systems and their use has spread to many other tasks that are generically referred to as automatic identification and data capture. The very first scanning of the now ubiquitous Universal Product Code barcode was on a pack of Wrigley Company chewing gum in June 1974, silver told his friend Norman Joseph Woodland about the request, and they started working on a variety of systems. Their first working system used ultraviolet ink, but the ink faded too easily and was expensive, convinced that the system was workable with further development, Woodland left Drexel, moved into his fathers apartment in Florida, and continued working on the system. His next inspiration came from Morse code, and he formed his first barcode from sand on the beach, I just extended the dots and dashes downwards and made narrow lines and wide lines out of them. To read them, he adapted technology from optical soundtracks in movies and he later decided that the system would work better if it were printed as a circle instead of a line, allowing it to be scanned in any direction. The patent was issued on 7 October 1952 as US Patent 2,612,994, in 1951, Woodland moved to IBM and continually tried to interest IBM in developing the system. IBM offered to buy the patent, but its offer was not high enough, philco purchased their patent in 1962 and then sold it to RCA sometime later. During his time as an undergraduate, David Collins worked at the Pennsylvania Railroad, immediately after receiving his masters degree from MIT in 1959, he started work at GTE Sylvania and began addressing the problem. He developed a system called KarTrak using blue and red reflective stripes attached to the side of the cars, encoding a six-digit company identifier, light reflected off the stripes was fed into one of two photomultipliers, filtered for blue or red. The Boston and Maine Railroad tested the KarTrak system on their cars in 1961. The tests continued until 1967, when the Association of American Railroads selected it as a standard, Automatic Car Identification, the installations began on 10 October 1967
2.
International Article Number
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EAN barcodes are used worldwide for lookup at retail point of sale, but can also be used as numbers for other purposes such as wholesale ordering or accounting. The most commonly used EAN standard is the thirteen-digit EAN-13, a superset of the original 12-digit Universal Product Code standard developed in 1970 by George J. Laurer, an EAN-13 number includes a 3-digit GS1 prefix. A prefix with a first digit of 0 indicates a 12-digit UPC-A code follows, a prefix with the first two digits of 45 or 49 indicates a Japanese Article Number follows. The less commonly used 8-digit EAN-8 barcode was introduced for use on small packages, 2-digit EAN-2 and 5-digit EAN-5 are supplemental barcodes, placed on the right-hand side of EAN-13 or UPC. These are generally used for periodicals like magazines or books, to indicate the current years issue number, note that EAN-13 codes beginning with 0 are actually 12-digit UPC codes with prepended 0 digit. In the last few years, more products sold by retailers outside United States and Canada have been using EAN-13 codes beginning with 0, the 020-029 GS1 Prefixes are worth a special mention. GS1 defines this as being available for internal use. Some retailers use this for proprietary products, although many retailers obtain their own code for their own brands. Other retailers use at least part of this prefix for products which are packaged in store, for example, in these cases, the barcode may encode a price, quantity or weight along with a product identifier - in a retailer defined way. The product identifier may be one assigned by the Produce Electronic Identification Board or may be retailer assigned, retailers who have historically used UPC barcodes tend to use GS1 prefixes starting with 02 for store-packaged products. This is informally known as Bookland, the prefix 979 with first digit 0 is used for International Standard Music Number and the prefix 977 indicates International Standard Serial Number. The manufacturer code is a code assigned to each manufacturer by the numbering authority indicated by the GS1 Prefix. All products produced by a company will use the same manufacturer code. EAN-13 uses what is called variable-length manufacturer codes, thus if a potential manufacturer knows that it is only going to produce a few products, EAN-13 may issue it a longer manufacturer code, leaving less space for the product code. This results in efficient use of the available manufacturer and product codes. The product code is assigned by the manufacturer, the product code immediately follows manufacturer code. The total length of manufacturer code plus product code should be 9 or 10 digits depending on the length of country code, the check digit is an additional digit, used to verify that a barcode has been scanned correctly. It is computed modulo 10, where the weights in the checksum calculation alternate 3 and 1, in particular, since the weights are relatively prime to 10, the EAN-13 system will detect all single digit errors
3.
Point of sale
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The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use any of a variety of aids available, such as weighing scales, barcode scanners, and cash registers. To make a payment, payment terminals, touch screens, the point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. Additionally, current POS terminal software may include features to cater for different functionality, such as inventory management, CRM, financials. Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems and one of the most obvious, selling prices are linked to the product code of an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely needs to scan this code to process a sale. If there is a change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as the point of purchase when they are discussing it from the retailers perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as considering a marketing strategy. Nevertheless, it is the term POS system rather than retail management system that is in vogue among both end-users and vendors, early electronic cash registers were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. This system was the first commercial use of technology, peer-to-peer communications, local area network simultaneous backup. By mid-1974, it was installed in Pathmark stores in New Jersey, one of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, for McDonalds Restaurants. It used the Intel 8008, an early microprocessor. By pressing the button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress, when the customer was ready to pay, the button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonalds and very convenient for the servers, up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it into Manager Mode. In addition to the memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store, in 1986, Gene Mosher introduced the first graphical point of sale software featuring a touchscreen interface under the ViewTouch trademark on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming, the ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex,1986, in Las Vegas Nevada to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth
4.
GS1
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GS1 is an international non-profit organization. Until 2004 it was known as European Article Numbering-Uniform Code Council and it has headquarters in Brussels and Princeton, New Jersey. GS1 standard barcoding is increasingly used in health systems around the world, a GS1 UK healthcare advisory board has been established. Not only equipment and supplies but also staff and patients are barcoded, the South Australia Department of Health decided to implement a GS1 procurement in 2007 linked to a tender for a master data management solution, which was implemented in 2016. EAN International was the office for the more than 100 Member Organizations around the world. In 2005 the organization changed its name to GS1, the Uniform Code Council was the Numbering Organization in the USA to administer and manage the EAN. UCC System. In 2005, the UCC changed its name to GS1 US, Global Trade Item Number Global EAN Party Information Register Electronic Data Interchange http, //www. gs1. org GS1 US entry on Guidestar. org
5.
Punched card
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A punched card or punch card is a piece of stiff paper that can be used to contain digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. The information might be data for data processing applications or, in earlier examples, the terms IBM card, or Hollerith card specifically refer to punched cards used in semiautomatic data processing. Many early digital computers used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch machines, while punched cards are now obsolete as a recording medium, as of 2012, some voting machines still use punched cards to record votes. Basile Bouchon developed the control of a loom by punched holes in paper tape in 1725, in 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard demonstrated a mechanism to automate loom operation. A number of punched cards were linked into a chain of any length, each card held the instructions for shedding and selecting the shuttle for a single pass. It is considered an important step in the history of computing hardware, semen Korsakov was reputedly the first to use the punched cards in informatics for information store and search. Korsakov announced his new method and machines in September 1832, rather than seeking patents, charles Babbage proposed the use of Number Cards, pierced with certain holes and stand opposite levers connected with a set of figure wheels. Advanced they push in those levers opposite to which there are no holes on the card, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine. Prior uses of machine readable media, such as those above, had been for control, after some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards. Developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 US census, other companies entering the punched card business included the Powers Accounting Machine Company, Remington Rand, and Groupe Bull. Both IBM and Remington Rand tied punched card purchases to machine leases, in 1932, the US government took both to court on this issue. IBM viewed its business as providing a service and that the cards were part of the machine, IBM fought all the way to the Supreme Court and lost in 1936, the court ruling that IBM could only set card specifications. According to the IBM Archives, By 1937, IBM had 32 presses at work in Endicott, N. Y. printing, cutting and stacking five to 10 million punched cards every day. Punched cards were used as legal documents, such as U. S. Government checks. Punched card technology developed into a tool for business data-processing. By 1950 punched cards had become ubiquitous in industry and government, do not fold, spindle or mutilate, a generalized version of the warning that appeared on some punched cards, became a motto for the post-World War II era. In 1955 IBM signed a consent decree requiring, amongst other things, tom Watson Jr. s decision to sign this decree, where IBM saw the punched card provisions as the most significant point, completed the transfer of power to him from Thomas Watson, Sr. The UNITYPER introduced magnetic tape for data entry in the 1950s, during the 1960s, the punched card was gradually replaced as the primary means for data storage by magnetic tape, as better, more capable computers became available
6.
Norman Joseph Woodland
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Norman Joseph Woodland, also known as N. Joseph Woodland and N. J. Woodland was an American inventor, best known as one of the inventors of the barcode, for which he received a patent in October 1952. Later, employed by IBM, he developed the format became the ubiquitous Universal Product Code of product labeling. Woodland was born in Atlantic City, New Jersey on September 6,1921 to Jewish parents, after graduating from Atlantic City High School, Woodland did military service in World War II as a technical assistant with the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Woodland went on to earn his Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering from Drexel University in 1947, from 1948-1949, he worked as a lecturer in mechanical engineering at Drexel. The dean turned down the request, but Silver was interested enough to mention the problem to Woodland, after working on some preliminary ideas, Woodland was persuaded that they could create a viable product. Woodland took some stock market earnings, quit his teaching job, while at the beach, Woodland again considered the problem, recalling, from his Boy Scout training, how Morse code dots and dashes are used to send information electronically. He drew dots and dashes in the similar to the shapes used in Morse code. S. Patent 2,612,994 Classifying Apparatus and Method on October 7,1952, RCA went on to attempt to develop commercial applications through the 1960s until the patent expired in 1969. After RCA interested the National Association of Food Chains in 1969 in the idea, the first item scanned was a packet of chewing gum in an Ohio supermarket in 1974. Woodland died from the effects of Alzheimers disease on December 9,2012, in Edgewater, in 1973, IBM presented Woodland with their Outstanding Contribution Award. In 1992, he was awarded the National Medal of Technology from President George H. W. Bush for his contribution to barcode technology, in 1998 Woodland received an honorary degree from his alma mater, Drexel University. In 2011, Woodland was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame
7.
Drexel University
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Drexel University is a private research university with three campuses in Philadelphia. It was founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, a noted financier, founded as Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, it was renamed Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, before assuming the name Drexel University in 1970. As of 2015, more than 26,000 students are enrolled in over 70 undergraduate programs and more than 100 masters, doctoral, Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry, by Philadelphia financier and philanthropist Anthony J. Drexel. The original mission of the institution was to provide opportunities in the practical arts. The institution became known as the Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, the central aspect of Drexel Universitys focus on career preparation, in the form of its cooperative education program, was introduced in 1919. The program became integral to the unique educational experience. Participating students alternate periods of classroom-based study with periods of full-time, practical work experience related to their academic major, Papadakis oversaw Drexels largest expansion in its history, with a 471 percent increase in its endowment and a 102 percent increase in student enrollment. His leadership also guided the university toward improved performance in collegiate rankings, a selective approach to admissions. It was during this period of expansion that Drexel acquired and assumed management of the former MCP Hahnemann University, in 2006, the university established the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, and in 2011 the School of Law achieved full accreditation by the American Bar Association. Dr. Constantine Papadakis died of pneumonia in April 2009 while still employed as the universitys president and his successor, John Anderson Fry, was formerly the president of Franklin & Marshall College and served as the Executive Vice President of the University of Pennsylvania. Under Frys leadership, Drexel has continued its expansion, including the July 2011 acquisition of The Academy of Natural Sciences, the College of Arts and Sciences was formed in 1990 when Drexel merged the two existing College of Sciences and College of Humanities together. The College of Media Arts and design fosters the study, exploration and management of the arts, media, design, the performing and visual. The college offers sixteen undergraduate programs, and 6 graduate programs, in art and design fields that range from graphic design and dance to fashion design. The Bennett S. LeBow College of Business history dates to the founding in 1891 of the Drexel Institute, that later became Drexel University, the LeBow College of Business has been ranked as the 38th best private business school in the nation. Its online MBA program is ranked 14th in the world by the Financial Times, the part-time MBA program ranks 1st in academic quality in the 2015 edition of Business Insiders rankings. Undergraduate and graduate programs are ranked 19th in the country by the Princeton Review. Economics programs at the LeBow College of Business are housed within the School of Economics, in addition to the undergraduate program in economics, the school is home to a recently launched M. S. in Economics program as well as a PhD program in economics. Faculty members in the School of Economics have been published in the American Economic Review, Rand Journal of Economics, the school has been ranked among the best in the world for its extensive research into matters of international trade
8.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
9.
Automatic equipment identification
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Automatic equipment identification is an electronic recognition system in use with the North American railroad industry. Consisting of passive tags mounted on each side of rolling stock and active trackside readers, in the late 1960s, railroads in North America began searching for a system that would allow them to automatically identify rail cars and other rolling stock. Through the efforts of the Association of American Railroads, a number of companies developed automatic car identification systems, the AAR selected four systems for extensive field tests. General Electric developed an RFID system, ABEX a microwave system, Wabco a black and white barcode system, the RFID system used a tag mounted under the rail car and an interrogator installed between the rails. The other three systems had labels that were mounted on each side of the car and a trackside scanner. After the initial tests, the ABEX, Wabco. The KarTrak system was declared the winner and selected by the AAR as the standard, the KarTrak system was abandoned by the late 1970s. Because of this failure, the industry did not seriously search for another system to identify rail cars until the mid-1980s. Burlington Northern was the first railroad in North America to renew the search for an identification system. BN had been following the efforts of various maritime shipping companies, such as American President Lines. Based on the companies success with RF-based identification systems, Burlington Northern began a testing program in 1986. Burlington Northern initially asked nine vendors to present their identification systems, from this group of nine, Burlington Northern selected two systems for full scale testing. The two vendors selected were General Railway Signal and Union Switch & Signal, the US&S system is manufactured by Amtech Corporation of Dallas, Texas. In January,1988, Burlington Northern equipped 1,500 taconite rail cars in northern Minnesota each with a GRS, each vendor also installed three wayside reader sites. All tags were mounted on the sides of the rail cars, in August,1988, the Burlington Northern Railroad presented a report on the results of their testing at the AAR Communication and Signal Annual Meeting. They stated that the accuracy of both systems over a period was in excess of 99. 99%. A committee was formed by the AAR, charged with the development of an AEI standard, in August,1989, the AAR informed various identification system vendors that Amtechs identification technology had been selected as the AEI standard. By the fall of 1989, the AARs AEI Committee had selected a technology, the only major question still unresolved was whether to place tags on the sides of the rail cars or underneath, each approach having advantages and disadvantages in cost and maintainability
10.
KarTrak
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KarTrak, sometimes KarTrak ACI is a colored bar code system designed to automatically identify rail cars and other rolling stock. KarTrak was made a requirement in North America, but technical problems led to abandonment of the system in the late 1970s, in the late 1960s, railroads in North America began searching for a system that would allow them to automatically identify rail cars and other rolling stock. Through the efforts of the Association of American Railroads, a number of companies developed Automatic equipment identification systems, the AAR selected four systems for extensive field tests. General Electric developed an RFID system, ABEX a microwave system, Wabco a black and white barcode system, all those systems, except the RFID system, had labels that were mounted on each side of the rail car and a trackside scanner. After the initial tests, the ABEX, Wabco. The KarTrak system was declared the winner and selected by the AAR as the standard, starting in 1967 all railcar owners were required by the AAR to install ACI labels on their cars. This requirement led to implementation of the ACI system in the early 1970s. By 1975 90% of all railcars were labeled, the read rate was about 80%, which means that after seven years of service 10% of the labels had failed for reasons such as physical damage and dirt accumulation. The dirt accumulation was most evident on flatcars that had low-mounted labels, the AAR had recognized from their field tests that periodic inspection and label maintenance would be requirements to maintain a high level of label readability. Regulations were instituted for label inspection and repair whenever a railcar was in the repair shop, unfortunately the maintenance program never gained sufficient compliance. Without maintenance the read rate failed to improve, and the KarTrak system was abandoned by 1977, because of this failure, the railroad industry did not seriously search for another system to identify rail cars until the mid-1980s. KarTrak ACI tags consisted of a plate with 13 horizontal labels, in addition to the labels for numbers 0-9, three special labels existed, start and stop labels to mark the beginning and end of the code, and 10 as a check label. The labels each are 5 3/4 wide and 1 high, and have a 3/8 vertical gap between them, labels could be affixed directly to the car side, but usually were applied to a dark plate which was then riveted to each side of the car. The labels are to be read from top to bottom, Line 13 - check digit, lines 6 to 11 - car number. Lines 2 to 5 - equipment owner code, the first digit of the equipment owner marks the type of equipment,0 for railroad-owned,1 for privately owned or 6 for non-revenue equipment. The car number is padded with zeroes if necessary, for locomotives, line 6 is the type of unit and line seven the suffix number. The parity check digit is calculated as follows, Each number digit is multiplied by two to the power of. Thus the first digit is multiplied by 1, the second by 2, the third by 4, the sum of all these numbers modulo 11 is the check digit
11.
Railroad car
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A railroad car or railcar, railway wagon or railway carriage, also called a train car or train wagon, is a vehicle used for the carrying of cargo or passengers on a rail transport system. Such cars, when coupled together and hauled by one or more locomotives, alternatively, some passenger cars are self-propelled in which case they may be either single railcars or make up multiple units. The term car is used by itself in American English when a rail context is implicit. Indian English sometimes uses bogie in the manner, though the term has other meanings in other variants of English. In American English, railcar is a term for a railway vehicle, in other countries railcar refers specifically to a self-propelled, powered. Tables may be provided between seats facing one another, alternatively, seats facing in the same direction may have access to a fold-down ledge on the back of the seat in front. If the aisle is located between seats, seat rows may face the direction, or be grouped, with twin rows facing each other. In some vehicles intended for services, seats are positioned with their backs to the side walls. This gives a wide accessway and allows room for standing passengers at peak times, if the aisle is at the side, the car is usually divided into small compartments. These usually contain six seats, although sometimes in second class they contain eight, modern cars usually have either air-conditioning or windows that can be opened, or sometimes both. Various types of onboard train toilet facilities may also be provided, other types of passenger car exist, especially for long journeys, such as the dining car, parlor car, disco car, and in rare cases theater and movie theater car. In some cases another type of car is converted to one of these for an event. Observation cars were built for the rear of many trains to allow the passengers to view the scenery. Sleeping cars outfitted with small bedrooms allow passengers to sleep through their night-time trips, long-distance trains often require baggage cars for the passengers luggage. In European practice it used to be common for day coaches to be formed of compartments seating 6 or 8 passengers, in the UK, Corridor coaches fell into disfavor in the 1960s and 1970s partially because open coaches are considered more secure by women traveling alone. Another distinction is between single- and double deck train cars, an example of a double decker is the Amtrak superliner. A trainset is a semi-permanently arranged formation of cars, rather than one created ad hoc out of cars are available. These are only broken up and reshuffled on shed, trains are then built of one or more of these sets coupled together as needed for the capacity of that train
12.
GS1 US
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GS1 US is the GS1 Member Organization in the United States of America. It was formerly the Uniform Code Council, Inc, GS1 US is responsible for managing the GS1 System in the USA. GS1 US assigns GS1 Company Prefixes to companies/organizations in the USA, the most common use of a GS1 US assigned GS1 Company Prefix is the creation of Universal Product Codes or UPCs, which contain a 12-digit Global Trade Item Number. GS1 US publishes the following Electronic Data Interchange guidelines based on the ANSI ASC X12 standard, Industrial/Commercial EDI, Uniform Communication Standard, GS1 US is also the code manager for the United Nations Standard Products and Services Code
13.
McKinsey & Company
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McKinsey & Company is a worldwide management consulting firm. It conducts qualitative and quantitative analysis in order to evaluate management decisions across the public, widely considered the most prestigious management consultancy, McKinseys clientele includes 80% of the worlds largest corporations, and an extensive list of governments and non-profit organizations. More current and former Fortune 500 C. E. O. s are alumni of McKinsey than of any other company, James P. Gorman, and many more. McKinsey publishes the McKinsey Quarterly, funds the McKinsey Global Institute research organization, publishes reports on management topics and its practices of confidentiality, influence on business practices, and corporate culture have experienced a polarizing reception. McKinsey was founded in 1926 by James O. McKinsey in order to apply accounting principles to management, McKinsey died in 1937, and the firm was restructured several times, with the modern-day McKinsey & Company emerging in 1939. Marvin Bower is credited with establishing McKinseys culture and practices in the 1930s based on the principles he experienced as a lawyer, the firm developed an up or out policy, where consultants who are not promoted are asked to leave. McKinsey was the first management consultancy to hire recent college graduates, in the 1980s and 1990s, the firm expanded internationally and established new practice areas. It had 88 staff in 1951 and 7,700 by the early 2000s, McKinseys consulting has helped to establish many of the norms in business and contributed to many of the major successes and failures in business in the modern era. McKinsey & Company was founded under the name James O. McKinsey & Company in 1926 by James McKinsey and he conceived the idea after witnessing inefficiencies in military suppliers while working for the U. S. Army Ordnance Department. The firm called itself an accounting and management firm and started out giving consulting on using accounting principles as a management tool, Mr. McKinseys first partners were Tom Kearney, hired in 1929, and Marvin Bower, hired in 1933. In its first few years, the firm grew quickly and began developing rapport among corporations, in 1935, Mr. McKinsey left the firm temporarily to serve as the Chairman and CEO of client Marshall Fields as it implemented the restructuring plan created by his firm. A Wellington project that accounted for 55 percent of McKinsey, Wellington & Companys billings was about to expire and Kearney, Bower wanted to expand nationally and hire young business school graduates, whereas Kearney wanted to stay in Chicago and hire experienced accountants. Additionally, in 1937 James O. McKinsey died after catching pneumonia and this led to the division of McKinsey, Wellington & Company in 1939. The accounting practice returned to Scovell, Wellington & Company, while the management engineering practice was split into McKinsey & Company, the New York office purchased exclusive rights to the McKinsey name in 1946. McKinsey & Company grew quickly in the 1940s and 50s, especially in Europe and it had 88 staff in 1951 and more than 200 by the 1960s, including 37 in London by 1966. In the same year, McKinsey had six offices in major US cities like San Francisco, Los Angeles and these foreign offices were primarily in Europe, such as in London, Paris, Amsterdam, as well as in Melbourne. By this time, one third of the companys revenues originated from its European offices, guy Crockett stepped down as managing director in 1950, and Marvin Bower was elected in his place. McKinseys profit-sharing, executive and planning committees were formed in 1951, the organizations client base expanded especially among governments, defense contractors, bluechip companies and military organizations in the post-World War II era
14.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
15.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
16.
DYMO Corporation
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Following is a list of the label sizes popular for their LabelWriter printer series, Dymo Industries, Inc. was founded in 1958 to produce handheld tools that use embossing tape. The company was acquired by Esselte in 1978 and battery-powered printers became a product after 1990. The corporation was sold to Newell Rubbermaid in 2005, DYMO DiscPainter DYMO Homepage DYMO Romanian Branch Homepage
17.
George J. Laurer
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George Joseph Laurer developed the Universal Product Code in 1973. As an engineer at IBM, he was asked to develop the pattern used for the Universal Product Code, a 36-year veteran of the International Business Machines Corporation who retired in June 1987, George Laurer is the holder of 25 patents. He is also the author of 20 published Technical Disclosure Bulletins, during his career, IBM recognized and rewarded him for many technical innovations. He received the prestigious “Raleigh, N. C, inventor of the Year” award in 1976. Before joining IBM, he received the B. S. in electrical engineering from the University of Maryland in 1951 and he came to the University after having served in World War II and attending a technical school to learn radio and TV repair. Upon completion of his first year at the school, his instructor convinced him that he should not continue that course of study. Today, Laurer lives in Wendell, North Carolina, the Universal Product Code has bit patterns at the beginning, middle, and end of the barcode called guard bars. Laurer is often asked about the resemblance of these guard bars to the coding of the numeral 6, some people see the three sets of guard bars as encoding the number 666, which some fundamentalist Christians see as a sign of evil. Laurer addresses this on his website, Answer- Yes, they do RESEMBLE the code for a six and it is simply a coincidence like the fact that my first, middle, and last name all have 6 letters. There is no connection with an international money code either, david Savir, George J. Laurer, The Characteristics and Decodability of the Universal Product Code. IBM Systems Journal 14, 16-34 George J. Laurers personal web site, innovation Hall of Fame Inductees, Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland in 1991. Alumni UMD Hall Of Fame Members in 2000
18.
Marsh Supermarkets
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Marsh Supermarkets is a retail food chain headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, with stores throughout Central Indiana and parts of western Ohio. Its parent company is Sun Capital Partners, headquartered in Boca Raton, founded in 1931 in Muncie, the company went public in 1953 and has since grown to 97 locations. Of the 97 locations,69 are marketed as Marsh Supermarkets, the companys founder, Ermal Marsh, was able to hold together his first store throughout the Great Depression and World War II. After the war ended, Ermal expanded his store into Marsh Foodliners, in 1952, Ermal had built the first warehouse distribution center for Marsh Supermarkets in Yorktown, Indiana. Within that same year, Marsh stores also introduced their own brand of ice cream. In 1953 when the company went public, Ermal had an operation of 16 Marsh Supermarkets, in August 1959 a horrific plane crash near the city of Logansport, Indiana, took the life of Ermal Marsh. Estel Marsh, Ermals brother, was given the title of president of the company. Under Estel Marsh, the name of the company was changed from Marsh Foodliners to Marsh Supermarkets in 1960, adapting to a rising trend, Marsh Supermarkets decided to open a new wave of convenience stores across Indiana. In 1966, the very first Village Pantry store and gas station was opened, in 1968 as Marsh Supermarkets continued to grow, Estel Marsh was promoted to Chairman of the Board. This promotion cleared the way for Don Marsh, the son of Ermal Marsh. As president, Don was able to be a front-runner in Marshs progression and adaptation to new technologies, one of Marshs most distinguishing features has been its innovation and early adoption of retail technology. On June 26,1974, a Marsh location in Troy, Ohio, the first item scanned was a ten piece pack of gum. The first print mention of this program was in the April 1994 issue of the Indianapolis Recorder, in conjunction with this program, Marsh became the first supermarket chain in the region to offer a co-branded Visa card the following year. Also, Marsh Fresh Express gave way to home delivery. Through Marsh Fresh Express, a customer can buy their groceries over the phone or internet, in 1991, major changes came to Marsh Supermarkets. The company headquarters moved to a new location along Interstate 69 in Fishers, Marsh also released a new plan to re-format the stores, known as the Supermarket of the Future campaign. This new format made Marsh Supermarket stores open 24 hours, seven days a week, also, a full-service pharmacy was implemented, along with a help-yourself style food court which contained food items ranging from salads to sushi, as well as a bagel shop and espresso bar. In store banks were installed, as well as Fieldings Playhouse for toddlers, a New York Style Pizzeria
19.
Troy, Ohio
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Troy is a city in and the county seat of Miami County, Ohio, United States. The population was 25,058 at the 2010 census, making it the largest city in the county, Troy is home to an annual Strawberry Festival the first weekend in June. A post office called Troy has been in operation since 1824, Troy was one of the cities impacted by severe flooding in the Great Flood of 1913. Troy is located at 40°2′30″N 84°12′31″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.94 square miles, of which 11.72 square miles is land and 0.22 square miles is water. Income tax,1. 75% City of Troy 1. 50% Troy City School District The D08 parcel code tax district is for a 1. 75% income tax to the City of Troy and a 1. 50% income tax to the Troy City School District. The 1. 50% School District Income Tax was passed in the 2006 General Election by a vote of 52. 28% FOR to 47. 72% AGAINST, all residents and part year residents over the age of 18 must file. All tax filers must declare estimated income tax and pay quarterly payments if tax is due, as of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $39,531, and the median income for a family was $46,889. Males had an income of $35,819 versus $25,536 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,892, about 6. 4% of families and 8. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 8% of those under age 18 and 6. 4% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 25,058 people,10,353 households, the population density was 2,138.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 11,166 housing units at a density of 952.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 90. 1% White,4. 2% African American,0. 2% Native American,2. 4% Asian,0. 6% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 8% of the population. 30. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.95. The median age in the city was 36.9 years. 25. 2% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24,28. 1% were from 25 to 44,25. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 7% male and 51. 3% female, the City of Troy is a Statutory form of Government, as described in Ohio Revised Code Sections 731 and 733. General statutory law is the form of government of municipalities if the electorate has not adopted, by vote, in addition to a Council, a Mayor, President of Council and three principal administrators are chosen by the electorate. The daily operations of the City are administered by the Mayor, the City of Troy has a Service and Safety Director who reports to and is appointed by the Mayor
20.
Wrigley Company
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It is wholly owned by Mars, Incorporated. It is currently the largest manufacturer and marketer of chewing gum in the world, in 1892, Wrigley Jr. began packaging chewing gum with each can of baking powder. The chewing gum eventually became more popular than the baking powder, in 2005, Wrigley purchased Life Savers and Altoids from Kraft Foods for US$1.5 billion. On January 23,2007, Wrigley signed an agreement to acquire an 80% initial interest in A. Korkunov for $300 million with the remaining 20% to be acquired over time. On April 28,2008, Mars announced that it would acquire Wrigley for approximately $23 billion, financing for the transaction was provided by Berkshire Hathaway, Goldman Sachs and JPMorgan, Berkshire Hathaway held a minority equity investment in Wrigley until October 2016. The company headquarted in the GIC in 2012 since, in 1891, 29-year-old William Wrigley Jr. came to Chicago from Philadelphia with $32 and the idea to start a business selling Wrigleys Scouring Soap. Wrigley offered premiums as an incentive to buy his soap, such as baking powder, later in his career, he switched to the baking powder business, in which he began offering two packages of chewing gum for each purchase of a can of baking powder. The popular premium, chewing gum, began to more promising. Wrigley also became the majority owner of the Chicago Cubs in 1921, after the death of William Wrigley Jr. his son Philip K. Wrigley assumed his fathers position as CEO of the Wrigley Company. Wrigley launched the Remember this Wrapper ad campaign to keep the Wrigley brands on the minds of the customers during times of wartime rationing, in 1961, Philip K. Wrigley handed control to his son, William Wrigley III. Wrigley led a global expansion through the establishment of Wrigley facilities in nine new countries. On June 26,1974, a Marsh Supermarket in Troy, the first product to be scanned using a Universal Product Code bar code was a 10-pack of Wrigleys Juicy Fruit gum. William Bill Wrigley IV, following the death of Wrigley III, led the sugar-free gum campaign across Europe, Australia, Spain, India, and China. In 2005, Kraft Foods sold the Life Savers and Altoids businesses to Wrigley in exchange for $1.5 billion as part of a reorganization plan, Wrigley led the establishment of the Wrigley Science Institute in 2006 to study the oral health benefits of gum chewing. The WSI investigates the effects of gum chewing on weight management, stress relief, concentration, on October 23,2006, William D. Perez succeeded Bill Wrigley as CEO. He was the first person outside the Wrigley family to head the company, in 2007, the company debuted 5 Gum in the US. The 5 Gum brand was marketed using cinematic TV commercials portraying What it feels like to chew 5 Gum, Perez led the efforts of improving slimmer packaging with flavor improvements across both Extra and Wrigley brands. Dushan Petrovich succeeded Perez almost immediately after Mars, Incorporateds 2008 purchase of Wrigley, in 2009, Wrigleys Global Innovation Center received the LEED Gold Certification through Wrigleys commitment to global sustainability
21.
Juicy Fruit
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Juicy Fruit is a flavor of chewing gum made by the Wrigley Company, a U. S. company that since 2008 has been a subsidiary of the privately held Mars, Incorporated. It was introduced in 1893, and in the 21st century the name is recognized by 99 percent of Americans. According to two books in the Imponderables series, peach is one crucial flavor among many others and it is likely that the chemical used for flavoring is isoamyl acetate, a carboxylic ester. Each stick of gum weighs 3 grams and contains 10 Calories, the average age of the typical Juicy Fruit consumer is under 20, with 3- to 11-year-olds making up the heart of the business, those 20 years old and over account for 40 percent of the purchases. Sean Payton, head coach of the New Orleans Saints of the NFL is well known for requesting a Juicy Fruit in the middle of games, Juicy Fruit have just released a Sweet Flavors Kiwi-Strawberry flavor. They have also released Juicy Fruit Desserts, there are 4 variations of Desserts, Orange Creme Pop, Strawberry Shortcake, Lemon Square and Apple Pie. Juicy Fruit also has released Juicy Secret and Juicy Riddle which are both sugar free, beginning in 2015, Juicy Fruit released two new flavors based on Starburst candy, Strawberry and Cherry. Juicy Fruit gum consists mostly of sugar contained in a gum base. When the brand first entered the market, it was packaged simply, with a wrapper and JUICY FRUIT in red. In 1914, Wrigley changed it to thin vertical white and green stripes with Wrigleys Juicy Fruit Chewing Gum centered in a stylized Maltese Cross emblem with a black background. Juicy Fruit was taken off of the civilian market temporarily during World War II because of ingredient shortages, the bright yellow background remained into the 21st century, with variations since 2002 turning the arrowhead-like chevrons into the corners of an elongated smile under the brand name. Juicy Fruit is still popular today. In 2003 in the United States, Wrigleys replaced some of the sugar in Juicy Fruit with two artificial sweeteners, aspartame and Ace K, in 2009, Wrigleys started selling a sugar-free version of Juicy Fruit. Grapefruit—Juicy Fruit is a written and performed by American popular music singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett. It was first released on his 1973 album A White Sport Coat, the single reached #23 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart in September 1973. Juicy Fruit is mentioned in the Regina Spektor song Wallet, from her album Far and it is referenced in the film One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest by Chief Bromden, Mmm, Juicy Fruit. It also features in the 1983 song Juicy Fruit by Mtume, Juicy Fruit, the official website for the brand. Juicy Fruit at the Wrigleys website
22.
NCR Corporation
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They also provide IT maintenance support services. NCR had been based in Dayton, Ohio, starting in 1884, NCR was founded in 1884 and acquired by AT&T in 1991. A restructuring of AT&T in 1996 led to NCRs re-establishment January 1,1997 as a separate company, NCR is the only AT&T spin-off company that has retained its original name—all the others have either been purchased or renamed following subsequent mergers. The company began as the National Manufacturing Company of Dayton, Ohio, was established to manufacture, in 1884, the company and patents were bought by John Henry Patterson and his brother Frank Jefferson Patterson, and the firm was renamed the National Cash Register Company. Patterson formed NCR into one of the first modern American companies by introducing new, aggressive sales methods and he established the first sales training school in 1893 and introduced a comprehensive social welfare program for his factory workers. Other significant figures in the history of the company were Charles F. Kettering, Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Deeds and Kettering went on to found Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company which later became Delco Products Division of General Motors, Watson eventually worked his way up to general sales manager. At an uninspiring sales meeting, Watson interrupted, saying The trouble with one of us is that we dont think enough. We dont get paid for working with our feet — we get paid for working with our heads, Watson then wrote THINK on the easel. Signs with this motto were erected in factory buildings, sales offices, THINK later became a widely known symbol of IBM. Kettering designed the first cash register powered by a motor in 1906. Within a few years he developed the Class 1000 register which was in production for 40 years, telephone Credit Authorization system for verifying credit in department stores. When John H. Patterson and his brother took over the company, cash registers were expensive, there was little demand for the expensive device, but Patterson believed the product would sell once shopkeepers understood it would drastically decrease theft by salesclerks. He created a team known as the American Selling Force which worked on commissions and followed a standard sales script. The philosophy was to sell a business rather than just a piece of machinery. Sales demonstrations were set up in hotels depicting a store interior complete with real merchandise, the sale prospect was described as the P. P. or Probable Purchaser. Once initial objections were swept aside and the P. P. admitted to internal theft losses, the deal was sealed with a 25 cent cigar. NCR expanded quickly and became multi-national in 1888, between 1893 and 1906 it acquired a number of smaller cash register companies
23.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
24.
National Museum of American History
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Among the items on display is the original Star-Spangled Banner. The museum is part of the Smithsonian Institution and located on the National Mall at 14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington, the museum opened in 1964 as the Museum of History and Technology. It was one of the last structures designed by the architectural firm McKim Mead & White. In May 2012, John Gray was announced as the new director, the museum underwent an $85 million renovation from September 5,2006 to November 21,2008, during which time it was closed. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill provided the architecture and interior design services for the renovation, major changes made during the renovation include, A new, five-story sky-lit atrium, which is surrounded by displays of artifacts that showcase the breadth of the museums collection. A new, grand staircase that links the museums first and second floors, a new welcome center, and the addition of six landmark objects to orient visitors. New galleries, such as the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Hall of Invention, an environmentally controlled chamber to protect the original Star-Spangled Banner. In 2012, the museum began a $37 million renovation of the west wing to add new spaces, public plazas. The renovation will also include panoramic windows overlooking the National Mall on all three floors and new features to the exhibits. The first floor of the west wing reopened on July 1,2015 with the second and third floors of the west wing reopening in 2016 and 2017, each wing of the museums three exhibition floors is anchored by a landmark object to highlight the theme of that wing. These include the John Bull locomotive, the Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter, landmarks from pre-existing exhibits include the 1865 Vassar Telescope, a George Washington Statue, a Red Cross ambulance, and a car from Disneylands Dumbo Flying Elephant ride. Artifact walls,275 feet of glass-fronted cases, line the first, the lower level of the museum displays Taking America to Lunch, which celebrates the history of American lunch boxes. The museums food court, the Stars and Stripes Café, the first floors East Wing has exhibits that feature transportation and technology, they include America on the Move and Lighting a Revolution. The John Bull locomotive is the signature artifact, the exhibits in the West Wing address science and innovation. They include Science in American Life featuring Robots on the Road, spark. Lab is a hands-on exhibit of the Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. The Vassar Telescope is the signature artifact, a café and the main museum store are also located on the first floor. The first floor contains the Constitution Avenue lobby, as well as a space for a temporary exhibit. The exhibitions in 2 East, the east wing of the floor, consider American ideals
25.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
26.
Research Triangle Park
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The Research Triangle Park is one of the largest research parks in the world. It is named for the three hub cities of Durham, Raleigh, and Chapel Hill, or more properly for the three major universities in those three cities. The Research Triangle region of North Carolina received its name as an extension of the name of the park, approximately one fourth of the parks territory lies in Wake County, but the majority of its land is in Durham County. RTP is one of the most prominent high-tech research and development parks in the United States and it was created in 1959 by state and local governments, nearby universities, and local business interests. Karl Robbins bought the land where the park is now built, the park covers 7,000 acres situated in a pine forest with 22,500,000 square feet of built space. The park is traversed by Interstate 40, the Durham Freeway and it is managed by the Research Triangle Foundation, a private non-profit organization. The park hosts one of GlaxoSmithKlines largest R&D centers with approximately 5,000 employees, cisco Systems campus in RTP, with approximately 5,000 employees, is the second highest concentration of its employees outside of its Silicon Valley corporate headquarters. The park is an area, and state law prohibits municipalities from annexing areas within the park. The park has special zoning as a Research Applications District in the Wake County portion, as of October 2012, both zoning areas are in the process of being revised to allow higher density development. The zoning changes are coupled with legislative changes allowing for Urban Research Service Districts within the Park and these newly permitted URSDs could levy taxes at the same rate as a neighboring city. On October 1,2015, President and CEO of the Research Triangle Foundation, Bob Geolas, Park Center is to be over 300,000 square feet of public space at the heart of the Research Triangle Park. This public area will include retail outlets, food and beverage venues, Geolas states that “We want to make all of this as local as possible. I would like to have as few chains, no chains if we could, i’d love for it all to be local. Local coffee, local food, local produce, local products. ”The redevelopment plans also include exploring partnerships with regional transit groups, the hope of the Research Triangle Foundation is to broaden public transportation to and from the area. According to Geolas, “We are currently having discussions about bringing the Regional Transit Center over to Park Center so that we can connect all of our transit links. ”A public commuter rail is also in talks. The Research Triangle Park Foundation operates three buildings within RTP and these three buildings are The Frontier, The Lab, and The Archie K. Davis Conference Center. The Frontier is an innovative collaboration space that was first opened in January 2015, since its inception, over 20,000 visitors have come through The Frontiers doors. The Lab is a lab and office space that houses multiple Research
27.
Rochester, Minnesota
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Rochester is a city in the U. S. State of Minnesota and is the county seat of Olmsted County. Located on the Zumbro Rivers south fork, the city has a population of 106,769 according to the 2010 United States Census, the U. S. Census Bureau estimated that the 2015 population was 112,225. It is Minnesotas third-largest city and the largest city located outside of the Minneapolis-St. Paul-Bloomington Metropolitan Statistical Area, as of 2015, the Rochester metropolitan area has a population of 213,873. It is the home of Mayo Clinic and one of IBMs largest facilities, Rochester was founded in 1854, and platted in 1855. Rochester developed as a stop between Saint Paul, Minnesota, and Dubuque, Iowa. When the railroad arrived in the 1860s, it brought new residents, in 1863, Dr. William W. Mayo arrived as the examining surgeon for draftees in the Civil War. The community was named after Rochester, New York, on August 21,1883, the Great Tornado demolished much of Rochester, leaving 37 dead and about 200 injured. As there was no medical facility at the time, Mayo, donations of $60,000 were collected and the Sisters of St. Francis, assisted by Mayo, opened a new facility named St. Marys Hospital in 1889. The Mayo practice grew and is today among the largest and most well-respected medical facilities in the world, Rochester has also been hit by two F4 tornadoes since 1950 Rochester celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2004. Rochester lies alongside the South Fork of the Zumbro River, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 54.75 square miles, of which 54.59 square miles of it is land and 0.16 square miles is water. The city is located 85 miles southeast of Minneapolis-St. Paul, Rochester is in Olmsted County, one of only four counties in Minnesota without a natural lake. Artificial lakes exist in the area, including Silver Lake, a portion of the South Fork Zumbro River just below the convergence with Silver Creek near the city center. Silver Lake was once used as a pond when the coal-burning power plant was operated by Rochester Public Utilities. When operational, the RPU coal plants heated water output prevented the lake from generally freezing over during the winter months, Rochester has many parks, the largest being Silver Lake and Soldiers Field. A major flood in 1978 led the city to embark on an expensive project that involved altering many nearby rivers. Rochester features a continental climate, with hot summers and very cold winters. The city features four distinct seasons, Rochester sees on average 30 inches of rainfall and 48 inches of snowfall per year. Significant snow accumulation is common during the winter months, spring and fall are transitional seasons, with a general warming trend during the spring and a general cooling trend during the fall
28.
Alphabet
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An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets
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Over-the-counter drug
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In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they are ingredients that are safe and effective when used without a physicians care. OTC drugs are regulated by active pharmaceutical ingredients, not final products. By regulating APIs instead of specific drug formulations, governments allow manufacturers freedom to formulate ingredients, or combinations of ingredients, into proprietary mixtures. The term over-the-counter may be somewhat counterintuitive, since, in many countries, in contrast, prescription drugs are almost always passed over a counter from the pharmacist to the customer. Some drugs may be classified as over-the-counter, but may only be dispensed by a pharmacist after an assessment of the patients needs or the provision of patient education. In many countries, a number of OTC drugs are available in establishments without a pharmacy, such as stores, supermarkets. Regulations detailing the establishments where drugs may be sold, who is authorized to dispense them, as of 2011, around a third of older adults in the U. S. reportedly use OTC drugs. In Canada, there are four drug schedules, Schedule 1, Schedule 2, Do not require a prescription, but require an assessment by a pharmacist prior to sale. These drugs are kept in an area of the pharmacy where there is no public access, Schedule 3, Do not require a prescription, but must be kept in an area under the supervision of a pharmacist. These drugs are kept in an area of the outlet where self-selection is possible. Unscheduled, Do not require a prescription and may be sold in any retail outlet, all medications outside of Schedule 1 may be considered an OTC drug, as they do not require prescriptions for sale. While the National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities provides recommendations on the scheduling of drugs for sale in Canada, due to this, the exact drugs found in each schedule may vary from province to province. The drug can be on the shelves like any other product, examples are domperidone,400 mg ibuprofen up to 50 tablets and dextromethorphan. The drugs are usually on the shelves and the store sells items like toys, gadgets, perfumes. The drugs in this category have limited risk and addiction potential, examples are naproxen and diclofenac in small amounts, cinnarizine,400 mg ibuprofen up to 20 tablets and also 500 mg paracetamol up to 50 tablets. In the United States, the manufacture and sale of OTC substances is regulated by the Food, the FDA requires that all new drugs obtain a New Drug Application before entering interstate commerce, but the act exempts any drugs generally recognized as safe and effective from this requirement. Thus, in the United States an OTC drug product is allowed to be marketed either pursuant to an FDA monograph, the Federal Trade Commission regulates advertising of OTC products. This is in contrast to prescription drug advertising, which is regulated by the FDA, the FDA requires that OTC products are labeled with an approved Drug Facts label to educate consumers about their medications
30.
Loyalty card
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Loyalty programs are structured marketing strategies designed by merchants to encourage customers to continue to shop at or use the services of businesses associated with each program. These programs exist covering most types of business, each one having varying features, Loyalty cards relate to the loyalty business model. Cards typically have a barcode, magstripe or RFID chip that can be easily scanned, small keyring cards which serve as key fobs bring convenience in carrying and ease of access. By presenting such a card, purchasers typically earn the right either to a discount on the current purchase, hence the card is the visible means of implementing a type of what economists call a two-part tariff. Application forms for cards usually entail agreements by the store concerning customer privacy, the store uses aggregate data internally as part of its marketing research. Over time the data can reveal, for example, a given customers favorite brand of beer, or whether he or she is a vegetarian. One can regard loyalty programs as a form of centralized virtual currency, one with unidirectional cash flow, since reward points can be exchanged into a good or service, b2B loyalty programs reward businesses for their purchase of goods and services from suppliers. For information on historical loyalty programs, see Loyalty marketing history, in the U. S. several major supermarket and fish market chains, and the three major pharmacy chains, require the cards in order for customers to receive the advertised loyalty price. Many retailers allow accumulation of fuel discounts, some have tie-ins with airline frequent-flyer programs, and some agree to donate a percentage of sales to a designated charity. Most notably, Walmart does not have a loyalty card plan though anyone who purchases a gift card can generally get a 3 cent discount per gallon of gas at the stations located on Walmart premises. The practice is common among book and music retailers, from large chains to independent retailers, Best Buy and Sears offer loyalty programs that offer points redeemable for dollar-amount discounts after accumulating a set number of points along with other discounts from time to time. Independent hardware stores such as Ace Hardware and True Value added customer loyalty programs in order to more effectively against larger chains as well as gather customer data. Customers with an association with a particular brand feel benefits for being part of the program, aces program also offers customers a way at the time of purchase to get items at a price which would normally require completing a mail-in rebate. Almost all major chains have cards that allow guests to earn either points or airline miles. All major U. S. airlines also offer rewards credit cards, other travel related reward programs include SeaMiles, with points that can be redeemed for cruises. Some American retailers have not implemented club cards, including grocery stores Whole Foods, Publix, between 2007 and 2013, Albertsons, Shaws, Acme Markets, and Jewel-Osco eliminated their loyalty cards in favor of discounts for all shoppers. Max & Ermas has a loyalty program called Good Neighbor Rewards, customers are rewarded based on their number of visits by either 5%, 10%, or 15% and are periodically given additional rewards by way of free items added to their loyalty card electronically. Truck stop chain Pilot Travel Centers program Driver Payback Points rewards truck drivers for fueling up by giving them points that can be used for purchase inside the store
31.
Coupon
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In marketing, a coupon is a ticket or document that can be redeemed for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product. Customarily, coupons are issued by manufacturers of packaged goods or by retailers. They are often distributed through mail, coupon envelopes, magazines, newspapers, the Internet, directly from the retailer. In addition, coupons can also be targeted selectively to regional markets in which competition is great. In government, a coupon is a certificate used to administer a benefit or permission. The word is of French origin, pronounced, in Britain, the United States, and Canada it is pronounced /ˈkuːpɒn/ KOO-pon. A common alternate American pronunciation is /ˈkjuːpɑːn/ CUE-pahn, in 1886, The Coca-Cola Company was incorporated in Atlanta, Georgia, with Asa Candler as one of the partners. He transformed Coca-Cola from an insignificant tonic into a business by using advertising techniques. Candlers marketing included having the companys employees and sales representatives distribute complimentary coupons for Coca-Cola, coupons were mailed to potential customers and placed in magazines. The company gave soda fountains free syrup to cover the costs of the free drinks and it is estimated that between 1894 and 1913 one in nine Americans had received a free Coca-Cola, for a total of 8,500,000 free drinks. By 1895 Candler announced to shareholders that Coca-Cola was served in state in the United States. In Australia consumers first came in contact with couponing when a company called Shop A Docket promoted offers, a timeline for the history of coupons,1888 – Asa Candler used paper tickets for free glasses of Coke to help market his new soda 1909 – C. W.8 billion shopping with coupons 2009 – The U. S, coupons can be used to research the price sensitivity of different groups of buyers. In addition, it is assumed that buyers who take the effort to collect. Therefore, the price paid by price-insensitive buyers can be increased. Grocery coupons come in two types, store coupons and manufacturers coupons. Store coupons are coupon-based discounts offered for an item or group of items. The issuing store will accept its own store coupons, but some stores will also accept store coupons that are issued by competitors, coupons issued by the manufacturer of a product may be used at any coupon-accepting store that carries that product
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Parity (mathematics)
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Parity is a mathematical term that describes the property of an integers inclusion in one of two categories, even or odd. An integer is even if it is divisible by two and odd if it is not even. For example,6 is even there is no remainder when dividing it by 2. By contrast,3,5,7,21 leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 2, examples of even numbers include −4,0,8, and 1738. In particular, zero is an even number, some examples of odd numbers are −5,3,9, and 73. Parity does not apply to non-integer numbers and this classification applies only to integers, i. e. non-integers like 1/2,4.201, or infinity are neither even nor odd. The sets of even and odd numbers can be defined as following and that is, if the last digit is 1,3,5,7, or 9, then it is odd, otherwise it is even. The same idea will work using any even base, in particular, a number expressed in the binary numeral system is odd if its last digit is 1 and even if its last digit is 0. In an odd base, the number is according to the sum of its digits – it is even if. The following laws can be verified using the properties of divisibility and they are a special case of rules in modular arithmetic, and are commonly used to check if an equality is likely to be correct by testing the parity of each side. As with ordinary arithmetic, multiplication and addition are commutative and associative in modulo 2 arithmetic, however, subtraction in modulo 2 is identical to addition, so subtraction also possesses these properties, which is not true for normal integer arithmetic. The structure is in fact a field with just two elements, the division of two whole numbers does not necessarily result in a whole number. For example,1 divided by 4 equals 1/4, which is neither even nor odd, since the concepts even, but when the quotient is an integer, it will be even if and only if the dividend has more factors of two than the divisor. The ancient Greeks considered 1, the monad, to be neither odd nor fully even. It is this, that two relatively different things or ideas there stands always a third, in a sort of balance. Thus, there is here between odd and even numbers one number which is neither of the two, similarly, in form, the right angle stands between the acute and obtuse angles, and in language, the semi-vowels or aspirants between the mutes and vowels. A thoughtful teacher and a pupil taught to think for himself can scarcely help noticing this, integer coordinates of points in Euclidean spaces of two or more dimensions also have a parity, usually defined as the parity of the sum of the coordinates. For instance, the cubic lattice and its higher-dimensional generalizations
33.
Modulo operation
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In computing, the modulo operation finds the remainder after division of one number by another. Given two positive numbers, a and n, a n is the remainder of the Euclidean division of a by n. Although typically performed with a and n both being integers, many computing systems allow other types of numeric operands, the range of numbers for an integer modulo of n is 0 to n −1. See modular arithmetic for an older and related convention applied in number theory, when either a or n is negative, the naive definition breaks down and programming languages differ in how these values are defined. In mathematics, the result of the operation is the remainder of the Euclidean division. Computers and calculators have various ways of storing and representing numbers, usually, in number theory, the positive remainder is always chosen, but programming languages choose depending on the language and the signs of a or n. Standard Pascal and ALGOL68 give a positive remainder even for negative divisors, a modulo 0 is undefined in most systems, although some do define it as a. Despite its widespread use, truncated division is shown to be inferior to the other definitions, when the result of a modulo operation has the sign of the dividend, it can lead to surprising mistakes. For special cases, on some hardware, faster alternatives exist, optimizing compilers may recognize expressions of the form expression % constant where constant is a power of two and automatically implement them as expression &. This can allow writing clearer code without compromising performance and this optimization is not possible for languages in which the result of the modulo operation has the sign of the dividend, unless the dividend is of an unsigned integer type. This is because, if the dividend is negative, the modulo will be negative, some modulo operations can be factored or expanded similar to other mathematical operations. This may be useful in cryptography proofs, such as the Diffie–Hellman key exchange, identity, mod n = a mod n. nx mod n =0 for all positive integer values of x. If p is a number which is not a divisor of b, then abp−1 mod p = a mod p. B−1 mod n denotes the multiplicative inverse, which is defined if and only if b and n are relatively prime. Distributive, mod n = mod n. ab mod n = mod n, division, a/b mod n = mod n, when the right hand side is defined. Inverse multiplication, mod n = a mod n, modulo and modulo – many uses of the word modulo, all of which grew out of Carl F. Gausss introduction of modular arithmetic in 1801. Modular exponentiation ^ Perl usually uses arithmetic modulo operator that is machine-independent, for examples and exceptions, see the Perl documentation on multiplicative operators. ^ Mathematically, these two choices are but two of the number of choices available for the inequality satisfied by a remainder
34.
EAN-2
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The EAN-2 is a supplement to the EAN-13 and UPC-A barcodes. It is often used on magazines and periodicals to indicate an issue number, the encoding of EAN-2 characters is very similar to that of the other European Article Numbers. The only difference is that the digits are separated by 01, the EAN-2 always begins with 01011. Also, the R-Code is not used, the structure of the barcode is based on the value of the two digit to be encoded. The two digits treated as a single number is reduced modulo 4 and used to find the parity pattern to be used. The parity pattern repeats every 4 values, symbol Specification Manual - Appendix D
35.
EAN-5
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The EAN-5 is a supplement to the EAN-13 barcode used on books. It is used to give a suggestion for the price of the book, ISBN Encoding – Country and Currency Values Description The Encoding of EAN-5 characters is very similar to that of the other European Article Numbers. The only difference is that the digits are separated by 01, the EAN-5 always begins with 01011. Also, the R-Code is not used, the structure of the barcode is based on the checksum. In order to compute the checksum, multiply each of the digits by either 3 or 9, then add them and then do a mod 10. Note that the digit is not in the final 5 digits, and is not intended to validate the 5 digit data. NACS Codes Barcode Reference - Section 6.1.46.2 Barcode Writer - The basis for the barcode structure
