1.
Electoral district
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An electoral district is a territorial subdivision for electing members to a legislative body. Generally, only voters who reside within the district are permitted to vote in an election held there, from a single district, a single member or multiple members might be chosen. Members might be chosen by a first-past-the-post system or a representative system. Members might be chosen through an election under universal suffrage. The names for electoral districts vary across countries and, occasionally, the term constituency is commonly used to refer to an electoral district, it can also refer to the body of eligible voters within the represented area. Similarly, in Australia and New Zealand, electoral districts are called electorates, the term Chûnāô-Kshetra is used while referring to an electoral district in general irrespective of the legislature. When referring to a particular constituency, it is simply referred to as Kshetra along with the name of the legislature. Electoral districts for municipal or other bodies are called wards. In Canada, districts are colloquially called ridings, in French, circonscription or comté, local electoral districts are sometimes called wards, a term which also designates administrative subdivisions of a municipality. In local government in the Republic of Ireland voting districts are called electoral areas, district magnitude is the number of representatives elected from a given district to the same legislative body. A single-member district has one representative, while a district has more than one. Under proportional representation systems, district magnitude is an important determinant of the makeup of the elected body, the geographic distribution of minorities also affects their representation - an unpopular nationwide minority can still secure a seat if they are concentrated in a particular district. District magnitude can vary within the same system during an election. In the Republic of Ireland, for instance, national elections to Dáil Éireann are held using a combination of 3,4, main articles, Apportionment and Redistricting Apportionment is the process of allocating a number of representatives to different regions, such as states or provinces. Apportionment changes are accompanied by redistricting, the redrawing of electoral district boundaries to accommodate the new number of representatives. This redrawing is necessary under single-member district systems, as each new representative requires their own district, multi-member systems, however, vary depending on other rules. Apportionment is generally done on the basis of population, the United States Senate, by contrast, is apportioned without regard to population, every state gets exactly two senators. Malapportionment occurs when voters are under- or over-represented due to variation in district population, given the complexity of this process, software is increasingly used to simplify the task, while better supporting reproducible and more justifiable results
2.
Ancient universities of Scotland
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The ancient universities of Scotland are medieval and renaissance universities which continue to exist in the present day. The Universities Act 1966 uses the older universities to refer to St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen. The same act provided for the independence from St Andrews of Dundee, the first new university of the era was the University of Strathclyde which received its royal charter in 1964, although it traces its origins back to the Andersonian Institute founded in 1796. Despite being held as an ancient university, the University of Aberdeen was only created in 1860. The Act of Parliament uniting the two universities specified that the date of the foundation of the new united university would be taken to be that of the older Kings College, another, short lived, university existed in the Aberdeenshire town of Fraserburgh from 1595 to 1605. All of the ancient universities, with the exception of St Andrews, were both simultaneously universities and colleges, with titles being used. The University of St Andrews was, however, a collegiate university with a number of colleges. Queens College in Dundee became an independent university, the University of Dundee, the University of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Laurence of Lindores, archdeacon Richard Cornwall, bishop William Stephenson and others. Bishop Henry Wardlaw issued a charter in 1411 and attracted the most learned men in Scotland as professors, in 1413 Avignon Pope Benedict XIII issued six bulls confirming the charter and constituting the society a university. University College Dundee was absorbed into St Andrews University, subsequently metamorphosing into Queens College, the University of Dundee separated from the University of St Andrews in 1967. Today the University of St Andrews has just over 10,000 students, the independent IpsosMORI National Student Survey 2006 commissioned by HEFCE placed it third among the UK universities. St Andrews reported the highest student satisfaction overall in Scotland for 2007,2008,2009 and 2010, nearly nine in ten graduates obtain a First Class or an Upper Second Class Honours degree. The university was ranked 3rd in the UK by the Guardian University Guide 2017 and its founding came about as a result of King James IIs wish that Scotland have two Universities, to equal Oxford and Cambridge of England. Today Glasgow University now boasts almost 27,000 students with 40% coming from the West of Scotland and is a member of the Russell Group of leading British universities. Both the Universitys teaching quality and income from research contracts are assessed to be among the top 10 in the United Kingdom. The Times University ranking list places Glasgow among the best Scottish universities while the QS ranks it 2nd in Scotland, there are currently almost eight applications for every place, making it one of the most competitive universities in the UK to obtain entry into. No college is mentioned in the bill, only a university. Subsequently a single college, originally known as St. Mary of the Nativity, was established, soon the entity came to be called Kings College, after its royal founder James IV
3.
Unicameralism
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In government, unicameralism is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a parliament or unicameral legislature is a legislature which consists of one chamber or house. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multicameralism, many multicameral legislatures were created to give separate voices to different sectors of society. Multiple chambers allowed for guaranteed representation of different social classes, ethnic or regional interests, where these factors are unimportant, in unitary states with limited regional autonomy, unicameralism often prevails. Unicameral legislatures are also common in official Communist states such as the Peoples Republic of China, similarly, many formerly Communist states, such as Ukraine, Moldova and Serbia, have retained their unicameral legislatures, though others, such as Romania and Poland, adopted bicameral legislatures. Both the former Russian SFSR and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were bicameral, the two chambers were the Soviet of Nationalities and the Soviet of the Union. The Russian Federation retained bicameralism after the dissolution of the USSR, the principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is much simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it costs, even if the number of legislators stay the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain. There is also the risk that important sectors of society may not be adequately represented, approximately half of the worlds sovereign states are currently unicameral, including both the most populous and the least populous. Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures, and all of the Brazilian states. In the United Kingdom, the devolved Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales, Congress of Deputies of Second Spanish Republic was unicameral between 1931 and 1936. Dissolved at the end of Spanish Civil War, the actual Spanish Parliament is bicameral, Supreme Assembly of Uzbekistan was unicameral before being replaced in 2005 by the current, bicameral Supreme Assembly. National Assembly of Cameroon was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, chamber of Peoples Representative of Equatorial Guinea was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Equatorial Guinea. National Assembly of Kenya was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Kenya in 2013. National Assembly of Ivory Coast was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Ivory Coast in 2016. Nebraskas state legislature is also unique in the sense that it is the state legislature that is entirely nonpartisan. In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesota Legislature into a unicameral chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted, if those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015
4.
Parliament of Scotland
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The Parliament of Scotland, or Estates of Parliament, was the legislature of the Kingdom of Scotland. The parliament, like other such institutions, evolved during the Middle Ages from the council of bishops. It is first identifiable as a parliament in 1235, during the reign of Alexander II, by the early fourteenth century, the attendance of knights and freeholders had become important, and from 1326 commissioners from the burghs attended. Parliamentary business was carried out by sister institutions, such as General Councils or Convention of Estates. These could carry out much business also dealt with by parliament – taxation, legislation and policy-making –, the Parliament of Scotland met for more than four centuries, until it was prorogued sine die at the time of the Acts of Union in 1707. Thereafter the Parliament of Great Britain operated for both England and Scotland, thus creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain, when the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its former members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Later, the bishops themselves were removed from the Church of Scotland during the Glorious Revolution, the Second Estate was then split into two to retain the division into three. From the 16th century, the estate was reorganised by the selection of Shire Commissioners. During the 17th century, after the Union of the Crowns and these latter identifications remain highly controversial among parliamentary historians. Regardless, the used for the assembled members continued to be the Three Estates. A Shire Commissioner was the closest equivalent of the English office of Member of Parliament, because the parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons. The Scottish parliament evolved during the Middle Ages from the Kings Council and it is perhaps first identifiable as a parliament in 1235, described as a colloquium and already with a political and judicial role. In 1296 we have the first mention of burgh representatives taking part in decision making, by the early 14th century, the attendance of knights and freeholders had become important, and Robert the Bruce began regularly calling burgh commissioners to his Parliament. Consisting of The Three Estates – of clerics, lay Tenants-in-chief and burgh commissioners – sitting in a single chamber, parliamentary business was also carried out by sister institutions, before c.1500 by General Council and thereafter by the Convention of Estates. These could carry out much business also dealt with by Parliament – taxation, legislation and policy-making –, the Scottish parliament met in a number of different locations throughout its history. In addition to Edinburgh, meetings were held in Perth, Stirling, St Andrews, Dundee, Linlithgow, Dunfermline, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Inverness and Berwick-upon-Tweed. From the early 1450s until 1690, a deal of the legislative business of the Scottish Parliament was usually carried out by a parliamentary committee known as the Lords of the Articles. This was a chosen by the three estates to draft legislation which was then presented to the full assembly to be confirmed
5.
James VI and I
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James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
6.
English throne
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This list of kings and queens of the Kingdom of England begins with Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, one of the petty kingdoms to rule a portion of modern England. While Alfred was not the first king to lay claim to all of the English, his rule represents the first unbroken line of Kings to rule the whole of England. The last monarch of a kingdom of England was Queen Anne. For monarchs after Queen Anne, see List of British monarchs, arguments are made for a few different kings deemed to control enough of the ancient kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons to be deemed the first King of England. For example, Offa, king of Mercia, and Egbert, king of Wessex, are described as kings of England by popular writers. In the late eighth century Offa achieved a dominance over southern England that did not survive his death in 796, in 829 Egbert conquered Mercia, but he soon lost control of it. By the late ninth century Wessex was the dominant Anglo-Saxon kingdom and its king, Alfred the Great, was overlord of western Mercia and used the title King of the Angles and Saxons, but he never ruled eastern and northern England, which was then the Danelaw. Since that time, except for King Edward III, the eldest sons of all English monarchs have borne this title. After the death of Queen Elizabeth I without issue, in 1603, the crowns of England and Scotland were joined in personal union under King James VI of Scotland, however, this is not accepted by all historians. Also, it is unclear whether Ælfweard was declared king of the kingdom or of Wessex only, there is evidence that when Edward died, Ælfweard was declared king in Wessex. England came under the control of Sweyn Forkbeard, a Danish king, after an invasion in 1013, during which Æthelred abandoned the throne, following the death of Sweyn Forkbeard, Æthelred the Unready returned from exile and was again proclaimed king on 3 February 1014. His son succeeded him after being chosen king by the citizens of London, following the decisive Battle of Assandun on 18 October 1016, King Edmund signed a treaty with Cnut in which all of England except for Wessex would be controlled by Cnut. Upon Edmunds death on 30 November, Cnut ruled the kingdom as its sole king. After Harthacnut, there was a brief Saxon Restoration between 1042 and 1066, in 1066, several rival claimants to the English throne emerged. Harald and William both invaded separately in 1066, godwinson successfully repelled the invasion by Hardrada, but ultimately lost the throne of England in the Norman conquest of England. After the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror made permanent the recent removal of the capital from Winchester to London. William was crowned King William I of England on Christmas Day 1066, in Westminster Abbey, Henry I left no legitimate male heirs, his son William Adelin having died in the White Ship disaster. This ended the direct Norman line of kings in England, Henry named his eldest daughter, the dowager Empress Matilda as his heir
7.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
8.
Parliament of Great Britain
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The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This lasted nearly a century, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate British and Irish Parliaments into a single Parliament of the United Kingdom with effect from 1 January 1801. Following the Treaty of Union in 1706, Acts of Union ratifying the Treaty were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new parliament, referred to as the Parliament of Great Britain and it was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law and Scottish legislation remained separate, new legislation was thereafter to be enacted by the new parliament, after the Hanoverian King George I ascended the British throne in 1714 through the Act of Settlement of 1701, real power continued to shift away from the monarchy. George was a German ruler, spoke poor English, and remained interested in governing his dominions in continental Europe rather than in Britain. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the French Revolutionary Wars developed the British government became repressive against dissent and progress towards reform was stalled. During the first half of George IIIs reign, the still had considerable influence over Parliament. Most candidates for the House of Commons were identified as Whigs or Tories, reformers like William Beckford and Radicals beginning with John Wilkes called for reform of the system. In 1780 a draft programme of reform was drawn up by Charles James Fox and Thomas Brand Hollis and this included calls for the six points later adopted by the Chartists. Pitt had previously called for Parliament to begin to reform itself, proposals Pitt made in April 1785 to redistribute seats from the rotten boroughs to London and the counties were defeated in the House of Commons by 248 votes to 174
9.
Parliament of the United Kingdom
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It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
10.
Parliament of Ireland
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The Parliament of Ireland was a legislature that existed in Dublin from 1297 until 1800. It comprised two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the House of Lords consisted of members of the Irish peerage and the bishops, while the Commons was directly elected, albeit on a very restricted franchise. The main purpose of parliament was to approve taxes that were levied by. Those who would pay the bulk of taxation, the clergy, merchants and landowners, in 1541 the parliament voted to create the Kingdom of Ireland. However, this Irish Parliament was a meeting of Irish nobles and bishops, later, in the 15th century, Irish parliaments began to invite representatives of the people. Among its most famous meeting places were Dublin Castle, the Bluecoat School, Chichester House and, its permanent home. The Irish Parliament was formally founded in 1297 by the Justiciar, John Wogan, to represent the Irish, in 1292 a less formal assembly of unelected nobles and merchants had raised £10,000, known as the lay subsidy. This tax was a fifteenth of the net worth of the chattels of wealthier citizens, the poor, the Parliament arose from and for citizens of the Lordship of Ireland, based on Norman laws and English practices. Magna Carta was extended in 1217 in the Great Charter of Ireland, alongside this reduced control grew a Gaelic resurgence that was political as well as cultural. In turn this resulted in numbers of the Anglo-Irish Old English nobility joining the independent Gaelic nobles in asserting their feudal independence. Eventually the crowns power shrank to a fortified enclave around Dublin known as the Pale. The Parliament thereafter became essentially the forum for the Pale community until the 16th century, the role of the Parliament changed after 1541, when Henry VIII declared the Kingdom of Ireland and embarked on the Tudor conquest of Ireland. Initially in 1537, the Irish Parliament approved both the Act of Supremacy, acknowledging Henry VIII as head of the Church and the dissolution of the monasteries, the Plantation of Ulster allowed English and Scottish Protestant candidates in as representatives of the newly formed boroughs in planted areas. Initially this gave Protestants a majority of 132-100 in the House of Commons, in the House of Lords the Catholic majority continued until the 1689 Patriot Parliament, with the exception of the Commonwealth period. Following the death of Cromwell and the end of the Protectorate, then, during the reign of James II of England, who had converted to Roman Catholicism, Irish Catholics briefly recovered their pre-eminent position as the crown now favoured their community. When James was overthrown in England, he turned to his Catholic supporters in the Irish Parliament for support, nonetheless, the franchise was still available to wealthier Catholics. Until 1728, Catholics voted in House of Commons elections and held seats in the Lords, for no particular reason, beyond a general pressure for Catholics to conform, they were barred from voting in the election for the first parliament in the reign of George II. Privileges were also limited to supporters of the Church of Ireland
11.
Kingdom of Ireland
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The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence
12.
Irish Free State
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The Irish Free State was an independent state established in 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921. That treaty ended the three-year Irish War of Independence between the forces of the self-proclaimed Irish Republic, the Irish Republican Army, and British Crown forces, the Free State was established as a Dominion of the British Commonwealth of Nations. It comprised 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, Northern Ireland, which comprised the remaining six counties, exercised its right under the Treaty to opt out of the new state. W. T. Cosgrave, who had led both of these governments since August 1922, became the first President of the Executive Council, the legislature consisted of Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann, also known as the Senate. Members of the Dáil were required to take an Oath of Allegiance, the oath was a key issue for opponents of the Treaty, who refused to take the oath and therefore did not take their seats. Pro-Treaty members, who formed Cumann na nGaedheal in 1923, held a majority in the Dáil from 1922 to 1927. In the first months of the Free State, the Irish Civil War was waged between the newly established National Army and the anti-Treaty IRA, who refused to recognise the state. The Civil War ended in victory for the government forces, with the anti-Treaty forces dumping its arms in May 1923, the anti-Treaty political party, Sinn Féin, refused to take its seats in the Dáil, leaving the relatively small Labour Party as the only opposition party. In 1926, when Sinn Féin president Éamon de Valera failed to have this policy reversed, he resigned from Sinn Féin, Fianna Fáil entered the Dáil following the 1927 general election, and entered government after the Irish general election,1932, when it became the largest party. De Valera abolished the Oath of Allegiance and embarked on a war with Britain. In 1937 he drafted a new constitution, which was passed by a referendum in July of that year, the Free State came to an end with the coming into force of the new constitution on 29 December 1937. Under the new constitution the Irish state was named Ireland, meanwhile, opposition increased to Irelands participation in World War I in Europe and the Middle East. This came about when the Irish Parliamentary Party supported the Allied cause in World War I in response to the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill in 1914. Many people had begun to doubt whether the Bill, passed by Westminster in September 1914 but suspended for the duration of the war, Sinn Féin, the Irish Party and all other Nationalist elements joined forces in opposition to the idea during the Conscription Crisis of 1918. At the same time the Irish Parliamentary lost in support on account of the crisis, Irish republicans felt further emboldened by successful anti-monarchical revolutions in the Russian Empire, the German Empire, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Sinn Féin party, founded by Arthur Griffith in 1905, had espoused non-violent separatism, under Éamon de Valeras leadership from 1917, it campaigned aggressively and militantly for an Irish republic. On 21 January 1919, Sinn Féin MPs, refusing to sit at Westminster, assembled in Dublin and it affirmed the formation of an Irish Republic and passed a Declaration of Independence, the irish people is resolved. To promote the common weal, to re-establish justice, with equal rights and equal opportunity for every citizen
13.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
14.
University of Aberdeen
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The University of Aberdeen is a public research university in Aberdeen, Scotland. The university as it is today was formed in 1860 by a merger between Kings College and Marischal College, a university founded in 1593 as a Protestant alternative to the former. Today, Aberdeen is consistently ranked among the top 200 universities in the world and is one of two universities in the city, the other being the Robert Gordon University. The universitys iconic buildings act as symbols of wider Aberdeen, particularly Marischal College in the city centre, there are two campuses, the predominantly utilised Kings College campus dominates the section of the city known as Old Aberdeen, which is approximately two miles north of the city centre. Although the original site of the foundation, most academic buildings were constructed in the 20th century during a period of significant expansion. The universitys Foresterhill campus is next to Aberdeen Royal Infirmary and houses the School of Medicine, Aberdeen has approximately 13,500 students from undergraduate to doctoral level, including many international students. An abundant range of disciplines are taught at the university, with 650 undergraduate degree offered in the 2012-13 academic year. Five Nobel laureates have since associated with Aberdeen. The first principal was Hector Boece, graduate and professor of the University of Paris, despite this founding date, teaching did not start for another ten years, and the University of Aberdeen celebrated 500 years of teaching and learning in 2005. Following the Scottish Reformation in 1560, Kings College was purged of its Roman Catholic staff, George Keith, the fifth Earl Marischal was a moderniser within the college and supportive of the reforming ideas of Peter Ramus. In April 1593 he founded a university in the city. It is also possible the founding of another college in nearby Fraserburgh by Sir Alexander Fraser, Aberdeen was highly unusual at this time for having two universities in one city, as 20th-century University prospectuses observed, Aberdeen had the same number as existed in England at the time. In addition, a university was set up to the north of Aberdeen in Fraserburgh from 1595. Initially, Marischal College offered the Principal of Kings College a role in selecting its academics, Marischal College, in the commercial heart of the city, was quite different in nature and outlook. For example, it was integrated into the life of the city. The two rival colleges often clashed, sometimes in court, but also in brawls between students on the streets of Aberdeen, as the institutions put aside their differences, a process of attempted mergers began in the 17th century. During this time, both colleges made notable contributions to the Scottish Enlightenment. Both colleges supported the Jacobite rebellion and following the defeat of the 1715 rising were largely purged by the authorities of their academics and officials
15.
Dublin University (Irish Parliament constituency)
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University of Dublin is a university constituency in Ireland, which currently elects three senators to Seanad Éireann. Between 1613 and 1937 it elected MPs or TDs to a series of legislative bodies. When James I first convened the Parliament of Ireland, the University of Dublin was given two MPs, elected by the Provost, Fellows and Scholars of Trinity College. It was not represented among the 30 Irish MPs which were part of the Protectorate Parliament during the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, Party organisations were not persistent during this time period, and hav been added where appropriate. The Acts of Union 1800 merged the Parliament of Ireland with the Parliament of Great Britain, the 300 seats in the Irish House of Commons were reduced to 100 Irish members in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The union took effect on 1 January 1801, the University of Dublin had one seat in this Parliament. At this stage, there were 2,073 voters on the register, plural voting by those who held a vote in both geographical and the university was allowed and prevalent. A Topographical Directory of Ireland, published in 1837, describes the Parliamentary history of the university, the number of names restored under this provision was 3005, and at present the constituency amounts to 3135. The provost is the returning officer, there were 4,541 voters registered for the 1918 general election. Plural voting continued to be allowed, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 established a devolved home rule legislature, within the United Kingdom, for twenty-six Irish counties which were designated Southern Ireland. Dublin University was given four seats in the House of Commons of Southern Ireland, the seats were filled by Independent Unionist MPs who were returned unopposed. They were the only MPs who attended the abortive first meeting of the House, after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the four MPs met with the Pro-Treaty members of the Second Dáil to ratify the Treaty. The Parliament was formally dissolved as part of the arrangements under the Treaty, Sinn Féin contested the 1918 Westminster election on the basis that they would not take seats in the United Kingdom Parliament but would establish a revolutionary assembly in Dublin. The University was, in Irish republican theory, entitled to return two Teachtaí Dála in 1918 to serve in the Irish Republics First Dáil and this revolutionary body assembled on 21 January 1919. In republican theory every MP elected in Ireland, including the two Unionist MPs from Dublin University, was a member of the First Dáil, in practice only Sinn Féin members participated. That all deputies duly returned at these elections be regarded as members of Dáil Éireann and that the present Dáil dissolve automatically as soon as the new body has been summoned by the President and called to order. The Second Dáil first met on 16 August 1921, thereby dissolving the First Dáil, Sinn Féin used the polls for the Northern Ireland House of Commons and the House of Commons of Southern Ireland as an election for the Irish Republics Second Dáil. No actual voting was necessary in Southern Ireland as all the seats were filled by unopposed returns, except for this University all other constituencies elected Sinn Féin TDs
16.
Dublin University (UK Parliament constituency)
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University of Dublin is a university constituency in Ireland, which currently elects three senators to Seanad Éireann. Between 1613 and 1937 it elected MPs or TDs to a series of legislative bodies. When James I first convened the Parliament of Ireland, the University of Dublin was given two MPs, elected by the Provost, Fellows and Scholars of Trinity College. It was not represented among the 30 Irish MPs which were part of the Protectorate Parliament during the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, Party organisations were not persistent during this time period, and hav been added where appropriate. The Acts of Union 1800 merged the Parliament of Ireland with the Parliament of Great Britain, the 300 seats in the Irish House of Commons were reduced to 100 Irish members in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The union took effect on 1 January 1801, the University of Dublin had one seat in this Parliament. At this stage, there were 2,073 voters on the register, plural voting by those who held a vote in both geographical and the university was allowed and prevalent. A Topographical Directory of Ireland, published in 1837, describes the Parliamentary history of the university, the number of names restored under this provision was 3005, and at present the constituency amounts to 3135. The provost is the returning officer, there were 4,541 voters registered for the 1918 general election. Plural voting continued to be allowed, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 established a devolved home rule legislature, within the United Kingdom, for twenty-six Irish counties which were designated Southern Ireland. Dublin University was given four seats in the House of Commons of Southern Ireland, the seats were filled by Independent Unionist MPs who were returned unopposed. They were the only MPs who attended the abortive first meeting of the House, after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the four MPs met with the Pro-Treaty members of the Second Dáil to ratify the Treaty. The Parliament was formally dissolved as part of the arrangements under the Treaty, Sinn Féin contested the 1918 Westminster election on the basis that they would not take seats in the United Kingdom Parliament but would establish a revolutionary assembly in Dublin. The University was, in Irish republican theory, entitled to return two Teachtaí Dála in 1918 to serve in the Irish Republics First Dáil and this revolutionary body assembled on 21 January 1919. In republican theory every MP elected in Ireland, including the two Unionist MPs from Dublin University, was a member of the First Dáil, in practice only Sinn Féin members participated. That all deputies duly returned at these elections be regarded as members of Dáil Éireann and that the present Dáil dissolve automatically as soon as the new body has been summoned by the President and called to order. The Second Dáil first met on 16 August 1921, thereby dissolving the First Dáil, Sinn Féin used the polls for the Northern Ireland House of Commons and the House of Commons of Southern Ireland as an election for the Irish Republics Second Dáil. No actual voting was necessary in Southern Ireland as all the seats were filled by unopposed returns, except for this University all other constituencies elected Sinn Féin TDs
17.
London University (UK Parliament constituency)
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London University was a university constituency electing one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, from 1868 to 1950. This university constituency was created by the Reform Act 1867, the first election took place during the United Kingdom general election,1868. The constituency returned one Member of Parliament, using the first past the post electoral system, the constituency was not a physical area. Its electorate consisted of the graduates of the University of London, before 1918 only male graduates qualified. From 1918 all graduates qualified, including women over thirty, the constituency was almost abolished in 1918. However, during consideration of the legislation it was agreed that London University should continue to one member. The University of Wales was also given its own seat, the other universities, which were still to be combined, had their proposed representation reduced to two members. All the university constituencies were abolished in 1950, by the Representation of the People Act 1948 and this is a list of people who have represented this University in the Parliament of the United Kingdom between 1868 and 1950. Notes, -1 Lowe was elevated to the peerage as The 1st Viscount Sherbrooke,2 Lubbock was elevated to the peerage as The 1st Baron Avebury. 3 Russell-Wells died on 14 July 1924 – the seat was vacant at dissolution,4 Graham-Little, as an Independent MP, supported the National Governments in office from 1931 until the formation of the wartime coalition in 1940. He also supported Winston Churchills caretaker government in 1945 and his continuation in office if he had won the 1945 election. Graham-Little is therefore classified as a National Independent MP from 1931, general Elections, from 1918 when most constituencies polled on the same day, were on different polling days from territorial constituencies. The polls for university constituencies were open for five days, coalition Conservative is considered to be equivalent to Conservative, as is National Independent equivalent to Independent. W. S. Craig British Parliamentary Election Results 1832–1885, compiled and edited by F. W. S, craig British Parliamentary Election Results 1885–1918, compiled and edited by F. W. S. Craig British Parliamentary Election Results 1918–1949, compiled and edited by F. W. S
18.
University of Wales (UK Parliament constituency)
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University of Wales was a university constituency electing one member to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, from 1918 to 1950. It returned one Member of Parliament, elected under the first-past-the-post voting system and this university constituency was created by the Representation of the People Act 1918. It was abolished in 1950 by the Representation of the People Act 1948, the constituency was not a physical area. Its electorate consisted of the graduates of the University of Wales, unlike many other university constituencies, University of Wales never elected a Conservative MP, instead regularly electing Liberal MPs. The constituency returned one Member of Parliament, the elections in this constituency took place using the first past the post electoral system. In university seats, in period, the polls were open for five days. After the fall of the government in 1922, the former Coalition Liberals contested elections as the National Liberal Party. Seat vacant at the dissolution of Parliament, following the death of Lewis on 18 July 1923 General Election 1939/40, craig Whos Who of British Members of Parliament, Vol. III 1918-1945, edited by M. Stenton and S. Lees
19.
University of Dublin (constituency)
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University of Dublin is a university constituency in Ireland, which currently elects three senators to Seanad Éireann. Between 1613 and 1937 it elected MPs or TDs to a series of legislative bodies. When James I first convened the Parliament of Ireland, the University of Dublin was given two MPs, elected by the Provost, Fellows and Scholars of Trinity College. It was not represented among the 30 Irish MPs which were part of the Protectorate Parliament during the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, Party organisations were not persistent during this time period, and hav been added where appropriate. The Acts of Union 1800 merged the Parliament of Ireland with the Parliament of Great Britain, the 300 seats in the Irish House of Commons were reduced to 100 Irish members in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The union took effect on 1 January 1801, the University of Dublin had one seat in this Parliament. At this stage, there were 2,073 voters on the register, plural voting by those who held a vote in both geographical and the university was allowed and prevalent. A Topographical Directory of Ireland, published in 1837, describes the Parliamentary history of the university, the number of names restored under this provision was 3005, and at present the constituency amounts to 3135. The provost is the returning officer, there were 4,541 voters registered for the 1918 general election. Plural voting continued to be allowed, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 established a devolved home rule legislature, within the United Kingdom, for twenty-six Irish counties which were designated Southern Ireland. Dublin University was given four seats in the House of Commons of Southern Ireland, the seats were filled by Independent Unionist MPs who were returned unopposed. They were the only MPs who attended the abortive first meeting of the House, after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the four MPs met with the Pro-Treaty members of the Second Dáil to ratify the Treaty. The Parliament was formally dissolved as part of the arrangements under the Treaty, Sinn Féin contested the 1918 Westminster election on the basis that they would not take seats in the United Kingdom Parliament but would establish a revolutionary assembly in Dublin. The University was, in Irish republican theory, entitled to return two Teachtaí Dála in 1918 to serve in the Irish Republics First Dáil and this revolutionary body assembled on 21 January 1919. In republican theory every MP elected in Ireland, including the two Unionist MPs from Dublin University, was a member of the First Dáil, in practice only Sinn Féin members participated. That all deputies duly returned at these elections be regarded as members of Dáil Éireann and that the present Dáil dissolve automatically as soon as the new body has been summoned by the President and called to order. The Second Dáil first met on 16 August 1921, thereby dissolving the First Dáil, Sinn Féin used the polls for the Northern Ireland House of Commons and the House of Commons of Southern Ireland as an election for the Irish Republics Second Dáil. No actual voting was necessary in Southern Ireland as all the seats were filled by unopposed returns, except for this University all other constituencies elected Sinn Féin TDs
20.
National University of Ireland (constituency)
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National University of Ireland is a university constituency in Ireland, which currently elects three senators to Seanad Éireann. Its electorate is the graduates of the university, which has a number of constituent universities and it previously elected members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, to the House of Commons of Southern Ireland and to Dáil Éireann. In 1918 the electorate included all registered male graduates over 21, there were 3,819 voters registered for the 1918 general election. Most, if not all, of those electors would have been plural voters also entitled to vote in a territorial constituency, the 1918 general election took place on 14 December and the results were declared on 28 December, except for the university constituencies. NUI voted between 18–22 December and the result was declared on 23 December, Eoin MacNeill was elected standing for Sinn Féin and therefore did not take his seat in Westminster, instead serving as a member of the first Dáil Éireann. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 established a home rule legislature, within the United Kingdom. NUI was given four seats in the House of Commons of Southern Ireland, at the 1921 Southern Ireland House of Commons election, all 128 seats were elected unopposed. Of these,124 were Sinn Féin members, who formed the TDs of the Second Dáil and this included the four representatives of the NUI. The Parliament was dissolved as part of the arrangements under the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, in the 1918 general election, Sinn Féin contested the election on the basis that they would not take seats in the United Kingdom Parliament but would establish a revolutionary assembly in Dublin. The University was, in Irish republican theory, entitled to return one Teachta Dála in 1918 to serve in the Irish Republics First Dáil and this revolutionary body assembled on 21 January 1919. In republican theory every MP elected in Ireland was a member of the First Dáil, in practice only Sinn Féin members participated, including the Deputy for the University. The First Dáil, passed a motion at its last meeting on 10 May 1921 and that the parliamentary elections which are to take place during the present month be regarded as elections to Dáil Éireann. That all deputies duly returned at these elections be regarded as members of Dáil Éireann and that the present Dáil dissolve automatically as soon as the new body has been summoned by the President and called to order. The Second Dáil first met on 16 August 1921, thereby dissolving the First Dáil, Sinn Féin had decided to use the polls for the House of Commons of Northern Ireland and the House of Commons of Southern Ireland as an election for the Irish Republics Second Dáil. No actual voting was necessary in Southern Ireland as all the seats were filled by unopposed returns, except for University of Dublin all constituencies outside Northern Ireland elected Sinn Féin TDs. The National University of Ireland constituency elected four Sinn Féin members unopposed, the Third Dáil elected in 1922 was, in United Kingdom law, initially the constituent assembly for the Irish Free State and then the lower house. From this time the Dáil represented only twenty-six Irish counties and did not claim to represent the six counties of Northern Ireland, non-Sinn Féin Deputies began to stand for and participate in the Dáil. From the Electoral Act 1923 the Irish Free State defined its own Dáil constituencies, National University of Ireland was reduced to three seats
21.
Conservative Party (UK)
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The Conservative Party, officially the Conservative and Unionist Party, is a political party in the United Kingdom. It is currently the party, having won a majority of seats in the House of Commons at the 2015 general election. The partys leader, Theresa May, is serving as Prime Minister. It is the largest party in government with 8,702 councillors. The Conservative Party is one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, the other being its modern rival. The Conservative Partys platform involves support for market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defence, deregulation. In the 1920s, the Liberal vote greatly diminished and the Labour Party became the Conservatives main rivals, Conservative Prime Ministers led governments for 57 years of the twentieth century, including Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher. Thatchers tenure led to wide-ranging economic liberalisation, the Conservative Partys domination of British politics throughout the twentieth century has led to them being referred to as one of the most successful political parties in the Western world. The Conservatives are the joint-second largest British party in the European Parliament, with twenty MEPs, the party is a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe Europarty and the International Democrat Union. The party is the second-largest in the Scottish Parliament and the second-largest in the Welsh Assembly, the party is also organised in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. The Conservative Party traces its origins to a faction, rooted in the 18th century Whig Party and they were known as Independent Whigs, Friends of Mr Pitt, or Pittites. After Pitts death the term Tory came into use and this was an allusion to the Tories, a political grouping that had existed from 1678, but which had no organisational continuity with the Pittite party. From about 1812 on the name Tory was commonly used for the newer party, the term Conservative was suggested as a title for the party by a magazine article by J. Wilson Croker in the Quarterly Review in 1830. The name immediately caught on and was adopted under the aegis of Sir Robert Peel around 1834. Peel is acknowledged as the founder of the Conservative Party, which he created with the announcement of the Tamworth Manifesto, the term Conservative Party rather than Tory was the dominant usage by 1845. In 1912, the Liberal Unionists merged with the Conservative Party, in Ireland, the Irish Unionist Alliance had been formed in 1891 which merged anti-Home Rule Unionists into one political movement. Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster, and in essence formed the Irish wing of the party until 1922. The Conservatives served with the Liberals in an all-party coalition government during World War I, keohane finds that the Conservatives were bitterly divided before 1914, especially on the issue of Irish Unionism and the experience of three consecutive election losses
22.
Irish Unionist Alliance
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The party was led for much of its existence by Colonel Edward James Saunderson and later by William St John Brodrick, Earl of Midleton. In total, eighty-six members of the House of Lords affiliated themselves with the Irish Unionist Alliance, the party aligned itself closely with the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists to campaign to prevent the passage of a new Home Rule Bill. Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster, and its members were described as Conservatives or Conservative Unionists. Among its most prominent members were the Dublin barrister, Sir Edward Carson, and its electoral strength was largely concentrated in east Ulster and south Dublin. The IUA became wracked by internal disagreement during the twentieth century. Many unionists outside Ulster became resigned to the necessity of Home Rule, while unionists in Ulster established a separate organisation. In 1919 the IUA finally split apart with the founding of the break-away Unionist Anti-Partition League, the UUP continued to operate in Northern Ireland, and would go on to dominate domestic politics there for much of the twentieth century. The Irish Unionist Alliance was founded in 1891 by the members of the Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union, the ILPU had been established to prevent electoral competition between Liberals and Conservatives in the three southern provinces on a common platform of maintenance of the union. The IUA united this movement with unionists in the province of Ulster. As such, the new party sought to represent unionism on an all-Ireland basis, the partys founders hoped that this would coordinate the electoral and lobbying activities of unionist across Ireland. Prior to 1891, unionists had seen considerable electoral losses across southern Ireland at the hands of the pro-Home Rule Irish Parliamentary Party and it was deemed necessary for southern and northern supporters of the Union to more formally unite their efforts. At this stage, the majority of unionists in all parts of Ireland were opposed to the Irish Home Rule movement, the IUAs first leader was the Orangeman and former Conservative MP, Edward James Saunderson. In the House of Commons, the party aligned itself with the Conservatives. In 1893, the party achieved a success when it joined the Conservatives to defeat the Home Rule Bill. In the House of Lords, eighty-six peers affiliated themselves with the Irish Unionist Alliance and this high level of support reflected the strong unionist sentiment within Irelands landed class. Unionists in the Lords proved to be instrumental in defeating attempts by the Liberals to introduce Home Rule legislation, throughout the period, members of the IUA campaigned not only in Ireland, but also in Britain alongside the Conservative Party. This was especially the case in the two elections of 1910. In December 1910 the IUA sent 278 workers to British constituencies to assist the Conservative candidates and it was during that this time that a large number of Conservative MPs married into Irish Southern Unionist families
23.
Liberal Party (UK)
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The Liberal Party was a liberal political party which was one of the two major parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century. The party arose from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and Radicals favourable to the ideals of the American, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had formed four governments under William Gladstone. Despite splitting over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory, by the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives main rival. The party went into decline and by the 1950s won no more than six seats at general elections, apart from notable by-election victories, the partys fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, at the 1987 General Election, its vote fell below 23% and the Liberal and Social Democratic parties merged in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989 and it was formed by party members opposed to the merger who saw the Lib Dems diluting Liberal ideals. Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes, the Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II, and the early 19th century Radicals. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown, although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake. The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox and his disciple, after decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832. The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it brought about the Whigs demise. As early as 1839 Russell had adopted the name of Liberals, the leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England, avoidance of war and foreign alliances, for a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston, and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s, a leading Peelite was William Ewart Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 and this was brought about by Palmerstons death in 1865 and Russells retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government Gladstone won a victory at the 1868 election. The establishment of the party as a membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877. John Stuart Mill was a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868, for the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. William Ewart Gladstone served as prime minister four times, called the Grand Old Man later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class
24.
Henry Cecil Raikes
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Henry Cecil Raikes PC was a British Conservative Party politician. He was Chairman of Ways and Means between 1874 and 1880 and served as Postmaster General between 1886 and 1891 and he was educated at Shrewsbury School and Trinity College, Cambridge. Raikes was Member of Parliament for Chester between 1868 and 1880, for Preston in 1882 and for Cambridge University between 1882 and 1891 and he served as Chairman of the National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Associations from 1869 to 1874. In 1874 he was appointed Chairman of Ways and Means, a post he held until 1880 and he later returned to party political life when he served as Postmaster General under Lord Salisbury between 1886 and 1891. Raikes is one of the earliest British politicians to have had their voice recorded, george Edward Gouraud recorded him on behalf of Thomas Edison on the evening of 5 October 1888. Raikes married Charlotte Blanche, of Plas Teg, Mold, daughter of Charles Blayney Trevor-Roper and they had several children, including Cecil Dacre Staveley Raikes, a Vice-Admiral in the Royal Navy, and Henry St John Digby Raikes, father of the Conservative politician Sir Victor Raikes. The family lived at Llwynegrin Hall, Wales, Raikes died on 24 August 1891, aged 52. Charlotte Raikes survived her husband by over 30 years and died in September 1922
25.
Richard Claverhouse Jebb
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Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb OM MP FBA FRSE was a British classical scholar and politician. He was a Member of the Cambridge Apostles, the secret society. He was born in Dundee, Scotland and his father was Robert Jebb, a well-known Irish barrister, and his mother was Harriet Horsley. He was educated at St columbas College in Rathfarnham 1853-55 then Charterhouse School 1855-1858 and he then studied Classics at Trinity College, Cambridge. He won the Porson and Craven scholarships, was classic in 1862. From 1869 to 1875, he was public orator of Cambridge University, Professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875 to 1889 and he was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1902. In 1891 he was elected Member of Parliament for Cambridge University, Jebb was acknowledged to be one of the most brilliant classical scholars of his time, a humanist and an unsurpassed translator from and into the classical languages. A collected volume, Translations into Greek and Latin, appeared in 1873 and he received many honorary degrees from European and American universities, including when in May 1902 he was at Carnavon to receive the honorary degree D. Litt. From the University of Wales during the ceremony to install the Prince of Wales as Chancellor of that university, in 1905 he was made a member of the Order of Merit. He married Caroline Lane Reynolds, daughter of Reverend John Reynolds, on 18 August 1874, Caroline Lane Reynolds was born in 1840 in Evansburg, Pennsylvania. She was married in 1856 to US Army Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer and the couple lived at military outposts in South Carolina, Florida, after his death in 1868 she lived briefly in Cambridge, England, and was visiting Paris at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1874 she married Richard Claverhouse Jebb and joined social circles embracing George Eliot, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Charles Darwin, Mark Twain and his wife was a member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, with 11 other members. He died at his home, Springfield House in Cambridge, on 9 December 1905 and was buried at the St Giles Cemetery in Cambridge and his wife died and was cremated in America, but her ashes were interred in his Cambridge grave. His translation of the Rhetoric of Aristotle was published posthumously under the editorship of J. E. Sandys, the Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College holds a collection of his papers. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Jebb. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
26.
Samuel Butcher (classicist)
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Samuel Henry Butcher DCL LLD FRSE FBA was an Anglo-Irish classical scholar and politician. Samuel Henry Butcher was born in Dublin to Samuel Butcher, Bishop of Meath and he was educated at Marlborough College in Wiltshire and then received a place at Trinity College, Cambridge, attending between 1869 and 1873 where he was Senior Classics and Chancellors medalist. Elected fellow of Trinity in 1874, he left the college on his marriage, in 1876, from 1876 to 1882 he was a fellow of University College, Oxford, and tutored there From 1882 to 1903 he was Professor of Greek at Edinburgh University. He was one of the two Members of Parliament for Cambridge University, between 1906 and his death, representing the Unionist Party and he was President of the British Academy, 1909-1910. He died in London on 29 December 1910, but was returned to Scotland and interred at the Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh with his wife and his grave has a pale granite Celtic cross and is located near the northern path of the north section in the original cemetery. John Butcher, 1st Baron Danesfort was his younger brother and he married Rose Julia Trench in 1876. His many publications included, in collaboration with Andrew Lang, a translation of Homers Odyssey which appeared in 1879. Works related to Samuel Butcher at Wikisource Works by Samuel Butcher at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Samuel Butcher at Internet Archive Archival material relating to Samuel Butcher
27.
Alexander Beresford Hope
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Sir Alexander James Beresford Beresford Hope PC, known as Alexander Hope until 1854, was a British author and Conservative politician. Beresford Hope was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge and his father died in 1831 and his mother married as her second husband her first cousin General William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford. In 1854 he inherited his stepfathers estates, including Bedgebury Park, Kent, and Beresford Hall, Staffordshire and his brother was Henry Thomas Hope. He sat as Member of Parliament for Maidstone from 1841 to 1852 and he unsuccessfully contested Cambridge University in 1859 and Stoke-upon-Trent in 1862, but was successfully returned for the former constituency in 1865. From 1868 until his death he was one of two representatives for Cambridge University, from 1865 he sat as an independent Conservative. He vehemently opposed the Reform Act of 1867 proposed by Benjamin Disraeli, Disraeli retorted by alluding to Beresford Hopes Batavian graces. He never held office but was sworn of the Privy Council in 1880. Beresford Hopes most prominent public feature was his ardent support for the Church of England, according to George Wakeling, in Parliament his voice, in his slow, rather harsh, but very impressive way, would be raised on every Church question. He was especially steadfast in his opposition to the Deceased Wifes Sister Bill, while at Trinity College in 1839, he was, along with John Mason Neale and Benjamin Webb a founder of the Cambridge Camden Society. He re-established it in 1879 as the St Pauls Ecclesiological Society A very wealthy man, he purchased St Augustines Abbey in Canterbury in 1844, to rebuild it as a college for missionary clergy. He also supervised the commissioning and construction of the church of All Saints, Margaret Street, London and he co-founded the Saturday Review in 1855. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1880, in 1873 he was invited to lay the foundation stone of the new Christ Church in St Leonards-on-Sea, East Sussex. Beresford Hope was active in the funding Canon Nathaniel Woodards national network of Woodard Schools, Beresford Hope married Lady Mildred Arabella Charlotte Henrietta, daughter of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, and sister of Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, in 1842. They had three sons and seven daughters, Lady Mildred was a leading figure in London society for many years. Beresford Hope survived her by six years and died in October 1887, aged 67, at his home in Bedgebury Park, Goudhurst and he was buried at Christ Church, Kilndown, Kent. His daughter, Bridget, married Alban Gibbs, 2nd Baron Aldenham, essays English cathedrals in the XIX. Article on Alexander Beresford Hope at americancivilwar. org Lee, Sidney, ed. Hope, works by or about Alexander Beresford Hope at Internet Archive Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Alexander Beresford Hope
28.
Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet
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Sir George Gabriel Stokes, 1st Baronet, PRS, was a physicist and mathematician. Born in Ireland, Stokes spent all of his career at the University of Cambridge, in physics, Stokes made seminal contributions to fluid dynamics and to physical optics. In mathematics he formulated the first version of what is now known as Stokes theorem and he served as secretary, then president, of the Royal Society of London. George Stokes was the youngest son of the Reverend Gabriel Stokes, rector of Skreen, County Sligo, Ireland, where he was born and brought up in an evangelical Protestant family. In accordance with the statutes, he had to resign the fellowship when he married in 1857. He retained his place on the foundation until 1902, when on the day before his 83rd birthday and he did not hold this position for long, for he died at Cambridge on 1 February the following year, and was buried in the Mill Road cemetery. In 1849, Stokes was appointed to the Lucasian professorship of mathematics at Cambridge, on 1 June 1899, the jubilee of this appointment was celebrated there in a ceremony, which was attended by numerous delegates from European and American universities. Stokes, who was made a baronet in 1889, further served his university by representing it in parliament from 1887 to 1892 as one of the two members for the Cambridge University constituency. During a portion of this period he also was president of the Royal Society, since he was also Lucasian Professor at this time, Stokes was the first person to hold all three positions simultaneously, Newton held the same three, although not at the same time. Stokess original work began about 1840, and from that date onwards the great extent of his output was only less remarkable than the brilliance of its quality, the Royal Societys catalogue of scientific papers gives the titles of over a hundred memoirs by him published down to 1883. Some of these are brief notes, others are short controversial or corrective statements. His first published papers, which appeared in 1842 and 1843, were on the motion of incompressible fluids. His work on motion and viscosity led to his calculating the terminal velocity for a sphere falling in a viscous medium. This became known as Stokes law and he derived an expression for the frictional force exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers. His work is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a glass tube. A sphere of size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube, electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere, a series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation
29.
John Eldon Gorst
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Sir John Eldon Gorst PC QC FRS was a British lawyer and politician. He served as Solicitor General for England and Wales from 1885 to 1886, Gorst was born in Preston, Lancashire, the son of Edward Chaddock Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes on succeeding to the family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler from St Johns College, Cambridge, in 1857, after beginning to read for the bar in London, his fathers illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand. Sir George Grey made him inspector of schools, then resident magistrate, tamihanas influence secured his safety at the start of the conflict when chief Rewi Maniapoto of the Ngati Maniapoto tribe and his warriors attempted to kill Gorst. As Gorst was forewarned they made do by destroying the school, destroying a printing press. This incident and the ambush and killing of British troops walking along a beach near New Plymouth, in 1884 he hosted the Maori King when he and his party came to England to seek an audience with Queen Victoria over issues to do with land. At that time Gorst was a member of the liberal Aborigine Protection League, in 1908 he published a volume of recollections, under the title of New Zealand Revisited, Recollections of the Days of my Youth. Gorst then returned to England and was called to the Bar, Inner Temple, in 1865 and he stood unsuccessfully for Hastings as a Conservative in the 1865 general election, but the next year he entered parliament as member for Cambridge. He served as Chairman of the meeting of the National Union of Conservative. He was not re-elected at the 1868 general election, at a by-election in 1875 Gorst reentered parliament as member for Chatham, which he continued to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff, Lord Randolph Churchill and Arthur Balfour in the Fourth Party as an advocate of Tory democracy, when the Conservatives came to power in 1885 under Lord Salisbury he was made Solicitor-General and knighted. The government fell in January 1886 but when the Conservatives returned to office, in July of the same year and he was sworn of the Privy Council in 1890 and the following year he became Financial Secretary to the Treasury, a post he held until 1892. Between 1888 and 1891 he also served as deputy chairman of committees in the House of Commons, at the general election of 1892 Gorst became one of the two members for Cambridge University. However, he was never a member of the cabinet, however, he became exceedingly independent in his political action. He then withdrew from the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose League, of which he had one of the founders. In 1910 he contested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election, Gorst married Mary Elizabeth Moore in Geelong in 1860, they had met on the Red Jacket travelling from England to Melbourne. Their elder son, Sir Eldon Gorst, became Consul-General in Egypt, Gorst died in London in April 1916, aged 80, and lies buried in St Andrews churchyard, Castle Combe, Wilts. An account of his connection with Lord Randolph Churchill will be found in the Fourth Party, by his younger son, John Eldon Gorst, Gorst, John Eldon, Sir, 1835-1916
30.
John Rawlinson (footballer and MP)
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In the 1882 FA Cup Final, however, he was goalkeeper for the Old Etonians in the final against Blackburn Rovers. His solitary appearance for England came on 18 February 1882 against Ireland, as goalkeeper, he had little to do as the England forwards ran riot, scoring thirteen goals without reply. In 1882 he became a member of the committee for the Corinthians and he was also a member of the Wanderers club. C. W. Alcock described Rawlinson as an excellent goalkeeper, cool and sure, though he was said to be almost too casual at times. At university Rawlinson was a Prizeman in Common Law and achieved degrees of 1st Class Law Tripos in 1882, LL. B. in 1883, LL. M. in 1887, and honorary LL. D. from the same university in 1920. He qualified as a barrister and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1884, becoming a QC in 1897 and he was a member of the General Council of the Bar from its inception in 1894 and later served as Vice-Chairman. He was appointed recorder of Cambridge in 1896, and in 1901 became a county Justice of the Peace for Cambridgeshire, in 1895 he legally represented the Treasury at the government official inquiry into the Jameson Raid in South Africa. He was elected Conservative Member of Parliament for Cambridge University in 1906 and he was co-author with his father of Rawlinsons Municipal Corporations Acts, which became a standard work on the local government laws and went into ten editions. He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1923, Rawlinson died, unmarried, at his chambers in 5 Crown Office Row, Temple, London, after ten days illness with pleurisy at the age of 65, and was buried at Brookwood Cemetery, Woking, Surrey
31.
John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury
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John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury PC FRS, known as Sir John Lubbock, 4th Baronet from 1865 until 1900, was a banker, Liberal politician, philanthropist, scientist and polymath. He was a banker and worked with his family’s company, but also significant contributions in archaeology, ethnography. He helped establish archaeology as a discipline, and was also influential in nineteenth-century debates concerning evolutionary theory. He introduced the first law on the protection of the UKs archaeological and architectural heritage. John Lubbock was born in 1834, the son of Sir John Lubbock, 3rd Baronet, a London banker, the youth was soon a frequent visitor to Down House, and became the closest of Darwin’s younger friends. Their relationship stimulated young Lubbock’s passion for science and evolutionary theory, in 1845, Lubbock began studies at Eton College, and after graduation was employed by his fathers bank, of which he became a partner at the age of twenty-two. In 1865 he succeeded to the baronetcy, in the early 1870s Lubbock became increasingly interested in politics. In 1870, and again in 1874, he was elected as a Liberal Party Member of Parliament for Maidstone and he lost the seat at the election of 1880, but was at once elected member for London University, of which he had been vice-chancellor since 1872. He was successful with numerous enactments in parliament, including the Bank Holidays Act of 1871, when the Liberals split in 1886 on the issue of Irish Home Rule, Lubbock joined the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party in opposition to Irish home rule. A prominent supporter of the Statistical Society, he took a part in criticizing the encroachment of municipal trading. In 1879 Lubbock was elected the first president of the Institute of Bankers, in 1881 he was president of the British Association, and from 1881 to 1886 president of the Linnean Society of London. In March 1883 he founded the Bank Clerks Orphanage, which in 1986 became the Bankers’ Benevolent Fund – a charity for bank employees, past and present, in January 1884 he founded the Proportional Representation Society, later to become the Electoral Reform Society. From 1888 to 1892 he was president of the London Chamber of Commerce, from 1889 to 1890 vice-chairman, in February 1890 he was appointed a privy councillor, and was chairman of the committee of design for the new coinage in 1891. He was President of the Royal Statistical Society from 1900 to 1902, the quotation, We may sit in our library and yet be in all quarters of the earth, is widely attributed to Lubbock. This variation appears in his book The Pleasures of Life, in addition to his work at his father’s bank, Lubbock took a keen interest in archaeology and evolutionary theory. A collection of Iron Age antiquities Lubbock and Sir John Evans excavated at the site of Hallstatt in Austria is now in the British Museums collection and he spoke in support of the evolutionist Thomas Henry Huxley at the famous 1860 Oxford evolution debate. During the 1860s, he published articles in which he used archaeological evidence to support Darwin’s theory. In 1864, he one of the founding members of the elite X Club
32.
Michael Foster (physiologist)
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Sir Michael Foster, KCB, DCL, MD was an English physiologist. He was instrumental in organizing the Cambridge Biological School and acted as Secretary of the Royal Society, Foster was born in Huntingdon, Huntingdonshire, in March 1836, the son of Michael Foster, FRCS. He was educated at Huntingdon Grammar school and University College School, one of his most famous students at Cambridge was Charles Scott Sherrington who went on to win the Nobel Prize in 1932. He married first, in 1864, Georgina Edmonds, daughter of Cyrus Read Edmonds, following her death in 1869, he married secondly, in 1872, Margaret Rust, daughter of George Rust, JP, of Huntingdon. He excelled as a teacher and administrator, and had a large share in the organization. From 1881 to 1903 he was one of the secretaries of the Royal Society, in the 1899 Birthday Honours, he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, and served as president of the British Association at its meeting at Dover in September 1899. Foster was elected to represent the University of London in parliament in a by-election in February 1900 and he stood for the Liberal Unionist Party, and though returned as a Unionist, his political action was not to be dictated by party considerations, and he gravitated towards Liberalism. He played no prominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was defeated and he was joint editor with E. Ray Lankester of The Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley. Foster was also the author of many iris species. One of many irises he introduced includes Iris lineata Foster ex Regel, which was described and published in Gartenflora. Iris fosteriana was named in 1881, after Sir Michael Foster by Dr Aitchison, Sir Michael Foster MD FRS, the rise of the British school of physiology. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Foster. Obituary in The Journal of Physiology Photograph of Sir Michaels residence, Nine Wells House and this house used to have an extensive iris garden planted by Sir Michael, but the iris garden was lost during WW II. Sir Michael Foster works @Google Books
33.
Philip Magnus
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Sir Philip Magnus, 1st Baronet was a British educational reformer and politician, who represented the London University constituency as a Unionist from 1906 to 1922. He had previously been appointed director of the City and Guilds of London Institute and he was married to the writer and teacher Katie Magnus, and was father of the publisher Laurie Magnus. Laurie predeceased him, and on Philips death in 1933 he was succeeded in the baronetcy by Lauries eldest son Philip. After studying at University College School and University College London, where he took honours in both arts and science, Magnus chose to take up a religious career. During his time as rabbi, Magnus supplemented his income by teaching private students and he held a lectureship at Stockwell teacher training college, taught at University College London, and examined prospective teachers for the College of Preceptors. In 1880, he left his rabbinical work to become director of the newly formed City. Outside of the Institute, Magnus was influential in setting education policy, he sat on the Samuelson Commission of 1884. The Commissions report led to the Technical Instruction Act 1889, which supported local authorities in creating technical schools around the country, in the 1906 general election, he was elected to Parliament as a Liberal Unionist, representing the London University constituency. He narrowly defeated Sir Michael Foster, a prominent Cambridge physiologist, Magnus was re-elected in 1910, and on the demise of the Liberal Unionists in 1912 joined the Conservative Party. He held the seat in 1918 – where he defeated Sidney Webb –, in retirement, he continued to sit as a member of the Senate of the University of London, and chaired the council of the Royal Society of Arts. He was a governor of the Northampton Institute and Royal Grammar School, Guildford, and a vice-president of the Anglo-Jewish Association, the Board of Deputies of British Jews, Magnus, Sir Philip Montefiore, second baronet. Romano, Terrie M. Foster, Sir Michael, a & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc
34.
John Gilbert Talbot
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John Gilbert Talbot PC, was a British Conservative Party politician. Talbot was the son of the Honourable John Chetwynd-Talbot, fourth son of Charles Chetwynd-Talbot and his mother was the Honourable Jane Caroline, daughter of James Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie, 1st Baron Wharncliffe, grandson of Prime Minister John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute. The Right Reverend Edward Talbot, Bishop of Winchester, was his brother and Henry Chetwynd-Talbot, 18th Earl of Shrewsbury. Talbot entered Parliament at the 1868 general election for Kent West, a seat he held until 1878 and he won the by-election, and held that seat until he stepped down at the January 1910 general election. He served under Benjamin Disraeli as Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade from 1878 to 1880 and was sworn of the Privy Council in 1897. Talbot married the Honourable Meriel Sarah, daughter of George Lyttelton, 4th Baron Lyttelton and they had four sons and six daughters. Their eldest son Sir George Talbot was a Judge of the High Court of Justice while their daughter Dame Meriel Talbot became a public servant, Talbot died in February 1910, aged 74. His wife survived him by fifteen years and died in April 1925, Earl Talbot Earl of Shrewsbury Lundy, Darryl. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by John Gilbert Talbot
35.
Hugh Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood
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Hugh Richard Heathcote Gascoyne-Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood PC, styled Lord Hugh Cecil until 1941, was a British Conservative Party politician. He was the brother of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury, Lord William Cecil, Lord Cecil of Chelwood and Lord Edward Cecil and he was educated at Eton and University College, Oxford. After his graduation as BA in 1891, Cecil went to work in parliament, from 1891 to 1892 he was Assistant Private Secretary to his father, who was Foreign Secretary. He graduated as MA in 1894, and he entered the Commons as Conservative Member of Parliament for Greenwich in 1895, the ideal to be aimed at in education was the improvement of the national character. This was not the point on which he showed considerable independence of the government of which Balfour. During the early 20th century, Cecil was the leader of the Hughligans. Modelled after Lord Randolph Churchills Fourth Party, the Hughligans included Cecil, F. E. Smith, Arthur Stanley, Ian Malcolm and, until 1904, in 1908, Cecil was the best man at Churchills wedding. Cecil dissented from the beginning from Joseph Chamberlains policy of tariff reform and he took a prominent position among the Free Food Unionists, and consequently was attacked by the tariff reformers and lost his seat at Greenwich in 1906. In 1910 Cecil became an MP for Oxford University, which he represented for the next 27 years and he threw himself immediately with passion into the struggle against the Ministerial Veto Resolutions, comparing the Asquith government to thimble riggers. But he never regained the authority which he had possessed in the House in the early years of the century. In 1916 Cecil was part of the Mesopotamia Commission of Inquiry and he was sworn of the Privy Council on 16 January 1918. Apart from his political career Cecil served as a Lieutenant in the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War, in that capacity, he severely censured, in debate in 1918, the treatment of General Trenchard by the government. Lord Hugh was a committed Anglican, and a member of House of Laity in the Church Assembly from 1919 and he was awarded a Doctorate of Civil Law in 1924 by Oxford University. He pleaded for lenient treatment of conscientious objectors, and endeavoured unsuccessfully to relieve them of disability and he left the House of Commons in 1937 because the year before he had been appointed Provost of Eton College, a post he retained until 1944. On 25 January 1941 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Quickswood and he was a Trustee of London Library, an honorary Doctorate of Civil Law, Durham University. He was also honorary Doctor of Laws at University of Edinburgh in 1910, from 1944 he had an honorary association with New College, Oxford for the rest of his life. He died on 10 December 1956, aged 87, at time the barony became extinct. In Political Socialism, a Remonstrance, edited by Mark H. Judge, London, liberty and Authority, London, Edward Arnold,1910
