1.
Van's Aircraft
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Vans Aircraft is an American kit aircraft manufacturer, founded by Richard Van VanGrunsven in 1973. Vans RV series of aircraft, from the single-seat RV-3 to the latest RV-14, are all-aluminum, low-wing monoplanes of monocoque construction. The RV series of airplanes has been successful, and by the end of 2012, about 8,000 RV kits had been completed and flown. Completion rates currently average about 1.5 per day, making the one of the most numerous of all homebuilt aircraft. They feature responsive controls plus both good speed and fuel economy, in 2013, the company announced it would begin selling some assembled aircraft as well on a limited basis. Vans factory is located at Aurora State Airport, Oregon and this airport is the location of an annual fly-in for Vans aircraft owners. A modified version of the RV-6 was sold to the Nigerian government as a military trainer. The RV-12 is available as an experimental and special light-sport aircraft, RV-14, two seats, side-by-side version of the RV-10
2.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
3.
Van's Aircraft RV-6
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The Vans RV-6 and RV-6A are two-seat, single-engine, low-wing homebuilt airplanes sold in kit form by Vans Aircraft. The RV-6 is the tail-wheel equipped version while the RV-6A features a nose-wheel, the RV-6 was the first aircraft in the popular Van’s RV series to feature side-by-side seating and the first to offer a nosewheel option. It was first flown in 1985, over 2500 kits have been completed and flown. The RV-6 kit has been superseded by the similar, but improved, kit components are still available to allow builders to complete RV-6s under construction, but no new complete kits are available. Van’s Aircraft designer, Richard VanGrunsven, designed the RV-6 series as a two-seat side-by-side development of the RV-4, market demand motivated VanGrunsven to design the RV-6 and offer it as an optional nosewheel design. Many spouses of builders especially favoured the side-by-side configuration over the tandem arrangement, VanGrunsven worked diligently to create a side-by-side design with a generous 43-inch-wide cockpit that did not sacrifice the RV-4’s handling, STOL performance and especially its high cruise speed. In the end the RV-6 prototype produced cruise speeds that are only 3 mph slower than the RV-4 with the same engine, the first RV-6s had a forward hinged canopy design. This was a simple arrangement, but it made taxiing the aircraft with the canopy open more difficult. Later kits had the option of a sliding canopy that could more easily provide ventilation on the ground. One RV-6A was modified for open cockpit flight with an enclosed rear turtledeck, the RV-6A version features steel rod landing gear with the nosewheel strut attached to the engine mount. The nosewheel is friction castering and the aircraft is steered with differential braking, the brakes are mounted conventionally on the rudder pedal toes. The RV-6 has a distinction in the world of kit built aircraft - it is used as a military training aircraft. Searching for a trainer that could be assembled in Nigeria using local labour. The air training school is based at Kaduna, Nigeria, the only other amateur aircraft to have this distinction is the Pazmany PL-1, which was built as a trainer for Taiwans Air Force in the 1970s. A modified version of the RV-6A is manufactured in Iran by Aviation Industries of Iran as the AVA-202, first flown in 1997, the main change from the RV-6A is a greater wingspan of 28.67 ft. S. Janes All The Worlds Aircraft 1993-94, Vans Aircraft Website Vans Aircraft website - Nigerian Air Force International Air Force Directory 1999-2000 Vans Aircraft
4.
Homebuilt aircraft
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Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These aircraft may be constructed from scratch, from plans, or from assembly kits, in the United States, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, homebuilt aircraft may be licensed Experimental under FAA or similar local regulations. With some limitations, the builder of the aircraft must have done it for their own education and recreation rather than for profit, in the US, the primary builder can also apply for a repairmans certificate for that airframe. The repairmans certificate allows the holder to perform and sign off on most of the maintenance, repairs, alberto Santos-Dumont was the first to offer for free construction plans, publishing drawings of its Demoiselle in the June 1910 edition of Popular Mechanics. The first aircraft to be offered for sale as plans, rather than a completed airframe, was the Baby Ace in the late 1920s, homebuilt aircraft gained in popularity in the US in 1924 with the start of the National Air Races, held in Dayton, Ohio. These races required aircraft with useful loads of 150 lb and engines of 80 cubic inches or less, the years after Charles Lindberghs transatlantic flight brought a peak of interest between 1929 and 1933. During this period many aircraft designers, builders and pilots were self-taught, in 1946 Goodyear restarted the National Air Races, including a class for aircraft powered by 200 cubic inch and smaller engines. The midget racer class spread nationally in the US and this led to calls for acceptable standards to allow use of amateur-built aircraft. By the mid-1950s both the US and Canada once again allowed amateur-built aircraft to specified standards and limitations, homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four-seat sportsplanes which employ simple methods of construction. Engines are most often the same as, or similar to, the use of automotive engines helps to reduce costs, but many builders prefer dedicated aircraft engines, which are perceived to have better performance and reliability. Other engines that have used include chainsaw and motorcycle engines. In 2003, the number of homebuilts produced in the USA exceeded the number produced by any single certified manufacturer, the history of amateur-built aircraft can be traced to the beginning of aviation. Even if the Wright brothers, Clément Ader, and their successors had commercial objectives in mind, Aviation took a leap forward with the industrialization that accompanied World War I. In the post-war period, manufacturers needed to find new markets, however, these machines were affordable only by the very rich. Many of these were prototypes, but designs such as Bernard Pietenpols first 1923 design were some of the first homebuilt aircraft, in 1928, Henri Mignet published plans for his HM-8 Pou-du-Ciel, as did Pietenpol for his Air Camper. Pietenpol later constructed a factory, and in 1933 began creating and selling partially constructed aircraft kits, in 1936, an association of amateur aviation enthusiasts was created in France. Many types of aircraft began to make an appearance. The articles gained worldwide acclaim and the concept of aircraft homebuilding took off, until the late 1950s, builders had mainly kept to wood-and-cloth and steel tube-and-cloth design
5.
Conventional landing gear
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Conventional landing gear, or tailwheel-type landing gear, is an aircraft undercarriage consisting of two main wheels forward of the center of gravity and a small wheel or skid to support the tail. The term taildragger is also used, although some claim it should apply only to aircraft with a tail skid rather than a wheel. The term conventional persists for historical reasons, but all modern jet aircraft, in early aircraft, a tailskid made of metal or wood was used to support the tail on the ground. In most modern aircraft with landing gear, a small articulated wheel assembly is attached to the rearmost part of the airframe in place of the skid. This wheel may be steered by the pilot through a connection to the pedals, allowing the rudder. Before aircraft commonly used tailwheels, many aircraft were equipped with steerable tailskids and this is also used on some tricycle gear aircraft, with the nose wheel being the freely castering wheel instead. Like the steerable tailwheel/skid, it is integrated with the rudder pedals on the craft to allow an easy transition between wheeled and aerodynamic control. The tailwheel configuration offers several advantages over the landing gear arrangement. Due to its much further from the center of gravity. As a result, the wheel weighs less and causes less parasitic drag. If a tailwheel fails on landing, the damage to the aircraft will be minimal and this is not the case in the event of a nosewheel failure, which usually results in a prop strike. Tailwheel aircraft are suitable for operation on skis. Tailwheel aircraft are easier to fit into and maneuver inside some hangars, the conventional landing gear arrangement has disadvantages compared to nose wheel aircraft. Tailwheel aircraft are subject to nose-over accidents due to injudicious application of brakes by the pilot. Conventional geared aircraft are more susceptible to ground looping. A ground loop occurs when directional control is lost on the ground and this event can result in damage to the aircrafts undercarriage, tires, wingtips, propeller and engine. Avoiding ground loops requires more pilot training and skill, tailwheel aircraft generally suffer from poorer forward visibility on the ground, compared to nose wheel aircraft. Often this requires continuous S turns on the ground to allow the pilot to see where they are taxiing and they also suffer from lower crosswind capability and in some wind conditions may be unable to use crosswind runways or single-runway airports
6.
Van's Aircraft RV-4
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The Vans RV-4 is an American light homebuilt aircraft supplied in kit form by Vans Aircraft of Aurora, Oregon. It seats two people in a seating configuration with the pilot accommodated in the front seat. The Vans RV series has become the most popular aircraft in the world. The RV-4 is the second most popular RV model, outsold only by the now discontinued RV-6, as of November 2014,1372 RV-4s had been completed and flown worldwide. Richard VanGrunsven designed the RV-4 in the mid 1970s as a development of the single-seat RV-3. The RV-4 prototype first flew in August 1979, the RV-4 is a new design based upon the concepts proven in the RV-3 and is not merely a stretched RV-3. The RV-4 airframe will accept a range of engines up to 180 hp, the RV-4 has a new wing, with increased wingspan and wing area over the RV-3. The RV-4 is designed for sport aerobatics, the RV-4 has proven to be a capable cross country aircraft in service, able to carry two modest sized people and baggage on longer trips. RV-4s have been flown around the world, notably by an Australian, Jon Johanson, many larger people find the RV-4 cockpit design physically constraining, and as a result VanGrunsven has designed an entire family of derivative designs. The RV-6 was designed to allow side-by-side seating, and the RV-8 was created as an aircraft that follows the RV-4s philosophy. Unlike most later RV series designs, RV-4 kits are available with conventional landing gear. At least two RV-4s have also built with retractable landing gear. RV-4 Basic version Harmon Rocket Higher performance derivative of the RV4, with clipped wings, a 300 hp Lycoming IO-540 engine and a razorback turtledeck
7.
Van's Aircraft RV-8
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The Van’s RV-8 is a tandem two-seat, single-engine, low-wing homebuilt aircraft sold in kit form by Vans Aircraft. The RV-8 is equipped with landing gear, while the RV-8A version features tricycle landing gear. The design is a development of the RV-4, and is similar in appearance, although larger. Richard VanGrunsven designed the RV-8 series as an improved RV-4, itself a version of the single seat RV-3. The RV-8 first flew in 1995 and was first shown publicly at Oshkosh that year, the RV-8 incorporated changes as a result of lessons learned in producing the popular RV-4 design. The RV-8 airframe will accept larger engines, including the Lycoming IO-360, the RV-8 also has increased wingspan and wing area over the RV-4, as well as more cockpit width, headroom, legroom and an increased useful load, all with a view to accommodating larger pilots. Like the RV-3 to RV-7 that preceded it, the RV-8 is stressed for aerobatics, the RV-8 shares many common parts with the RV-7 and RV-9 which reduces production costs. Like the RV-7, the RV-8 uses computer assisted design to produce a kit with pre-drilled rivet holes, the RV-8 was intended from the start to have a nose-gear stablemate designated the RV-8A. The RV-8A was first flown in 1998 and features tubular steel landing gear with the nosewheel mounting tube welded to the engine mount, as in all nose-wheel equipped RV aircraft, the nosewheel is free castering and the aircraft is steered with differential braking. The brakes are mounted conventionally on the rudder pedal toes
8.
Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
9.
Lycoming O-320
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The Lycoming O-320 is a large family of 92 different normally aspirated, air-cooled, four-cylinder, direct-drive engines commonly used on light aircraft such as the Cessna 172 and Piper Cherokee. Different variants are rated for 150 or 160 horsepower, as implied by the engines name, its cylinders are arranged in horizontally opposed configuration and a displacement of 320 cubic inches. The O-320 family of engines includes the carbureted O-320, the fuel-injected IO-320, the mount, fuel-injected AIO-320. The LIO-320 is a version with the crankshaft rotating in the opposite direction for use on twin-engined aircraft to eliminate the critical engine. The first O-320 was FAA certified on 28 July 1953 to CAR13 effective 5 March 1952, the first IO-320 was certified on 10 April 1961, with the AIO-320 following on 23 June 1969 and the first aerobatic AEIO-320 on 12 April 1974. The LIO-320s were both certified on 28 August 1969, the O-320 family of engines externally resembles the Lycoming O-235 and O-290 family from which they were derived. The O-320 shares the same 3.875 in stroke as the smaller engines, the design uses hydraulic tappets and incorporates the provisions for a hydraulically controlled propeller installation as well. The controllable-pitch propeller models use a different crankshaft from those intended for fixed-pitch propellers, the O-320 uses a conventional wet sump system for lubrication. The main bearings, connecting rods, camshaft bearings, tappets and pushrods are all pressure lubricated, while the pins, cylinder walls. The oil system is pressurized by an accessory-drive mounted oil pump, a remotely mounted oil cooler is used, connected to the engine by flexible hoses. However, in cases the D series engine, with a fuel-pump modification, is allowed to use minimum 91 octane automotive gas as part of an STC for the Piper aircraft to which it is attached. The factory retail price of the O-320 varies by model, in 2010 the retail price of an O-320-B1A purchased outright was USD$47,076 O-320 later redesignated O-320-A1A150 hp at 2700 rpm, Minimum fuel grade 80/87 avgas, compression ratio 7.00,1. Provisions for a propeller and 25-degree spark advance. O-320-A1B150 hp at 2700 rpm, Minimum fuel grade 80/87 avgas, same as A1A but with straight riser in oil sump and -32 carburetor. O-320-A2A150 hp at 2700 rpm, Minimum fuel grade 80/87 avgas, same as A1A but with fixed-pitch propeller. O-320-A2B150 hp at 2700 rpm, Minimum fuel grade 80/87 avgas, same as A2A but with straight riser in oil sump and -32 carburetor. O-320-A2C150 hp at 2700 rpm, Minimum fuel grade 80/87 avgas, same as A2B but with retard breaker magnetos. O-320-A2D150 hp at 2700 rpm, Minimum fuel grade 80/87 avgas, same as E3D but with conical mounts
10.
Wing loading
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In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded mass of the aircraft divided by the area of the wing. An aircraft with a low wing loading has a wing area relative to its mass. The faster an aircraft flies, the lift is produced by each unit of wing area, so a smaller wing can carry the same weight in level flight. This increased wing load also increases takeoff and landing distances and speeds, a high wing loading also decreases maneuverability. The same constraints apply to winged biological organisms, the table, which shows wing loadings, is intended to give an idea of the range of wing loadings used by aircraft. There will be variations amongst variants of any particular type, the dates are approximate, indicating period of introduction. The upper critical limit for bird flight is about 25 kg/m2, an analysis of bird flight which looked at 138 species ranging in mass from 10 g to 10 kg, from small passerines to swans and cranes found wing loadings from about 1 to 20 kg/m2. The wing loadings of some of the lightest aircraft fall comfortably within this range, one typical hang glider has a maximum wing loading of 6.3 kg/m2, and an ultralight rigid glider 8.3 kg/m2. Wing loading is a measure of the general maneuvering performance of an aircraft. Wings generate lift owing to the motion of air over the wing surface, larger wings move more air, so an aircraft with a large wing area relative to its mass will have more lift available at any given speed. Therefore, an aircraft with wing loading will be able to take off. It will also be able to turn at a higher speed. Quantitatively, the lift force L on a wing of area A, traveling at speed v is given by L A =12 v 2 ρ C L, where ρ is the density of air and CL is the lift coefficient. The latter is a number of order unity which depends on the wing cross-sectional profile. At take-off or in flight, neither climbing nor diving, the lift force. With L/A = Mg/A =WSg, where M is the mass, WS = M/A the wing loading and g the acceleration due to gravity. As a consequence, aircraft with the same CL at takeoff under the atmospheric conditions will have takeoff speeds proportional to W S. So if a wing area is increased by 10% and nothing else changed
11.
Europa XS
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The Europa XS and Europa Classic are a family of British composite two-place low-wing monoplane kit aircraft. Designed by Ivan Shaw, the Europa was introduced in the early 1990s, Europas are manufactured by Europa Aircraft and supplied as kits for amateur construction. More than 450 Europas have been completed, the Europa was conceived as a modern kit aircraft for personal use within Europe. Apart from low cost, these objectives were largely met, Ivan Shaws design work on the Europa, as it was initially named, began in January 1990. The first prototype, G-YURO, first flew on 12 September 1992, most Europas have been sold in kit form, although five factory-assembled aircraft were produced between 1994 and 1996. The first kit-built aircraft to be completed flew on 14 October 1995, by the autumn of 2007450 Europas of all types had been completed and were flying. The basic design was developed by Ivan Shaw into a United States FAR certified aircraft. The Europa is classified as a homebuilt in its country of the UK. This limits it to day and VFR flight, previous restrictions of flying over built up areas were removed during 2008. In Canada the Europa is an aircraft and qualifies for a Special Certificate of Airworthiness. In 1997 UK Prime Minister Tony Blair launched the Millennium Products competition to promote British industry in the 21st Century and this culminated in 1999 with a winners list of 1012 manufacturers and their products. One of these was the Europa XS, described as A light aircraft which offers speed, economy and performance, Europas are flown in Europe in the very light aircraft category. The streamlined composite design and the low canopy give the Europa both high cruise speeds and high fuel efficiency due to its low drag. The Europa can be fitted with Rotax 912UL of 80 hp, Europas first became available with a monowheel landing gear and a tailwheel. The wings had small castors on outriggers that were lowered with the flaps, Shaw chose the monowheel configuration for its perceived advantages of reduced weight and improved performance over a tricycle configuration. Europas can be fitted with either normal wings made out of fiberglass with 102 sq ft wing area and 13.43 lb/ft2 wing loading at MTOW or motorglider wings, made from carbon fiber with a greater span. Since the fuselage is common to both motorglider and tourer then with both sets of wings the fuselage can be configured as a tourer and a motorglider alternately. The wings can be removed for transportation or storage in five minutes, wingspan is increased to 42 feet bringing the wing area to 135 sq ft
12.
Grumman American AA-1
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The Grumman American AA-1 series is a family of light, two-seat aircraft. The family includes the original American Aviation AA-1 Yankee Clipper and AA-1A Trainer, the Grumman American AA-1B Trainer and TR-2, the Yankee was originally designed in 1962 by Jim Bede as the BD-1 and was intended to be sold as a kit-built aircraft. Bede decided to certify the design under the then-new FAR Part 23 rules, no BD-1 kits were ever sold. The prototype first flew on July 11,1963 and featured folding wings for trailering, Bede formed a company, Bede Aviation Corporation, based in Cleveland Ohio, to produce the aircraft, but the BD-1 never entered production as a certified aircraft. At that time the FAA was hesitant to certify an aircraft with folding wings. The certification process was complex and expensive and disagreements arose between Bede and the other shareholders, as a result Bede was ousted by his business partners and the company renamed American Aviation. Americans engineers reworked the wing to a design, easing FAR Part 23 certification. The company designated the aircraft the AA-1 Yankee Clipper. The AA-1 was certified under FAR Part 23 on August 29,1967 with the first production AA-1 flying on May 30,1968. The first 1969 models were delivered in the fall of 1968 at a price of US$6495. American Aviation built 459 examples of the AA-1 Yankee Clipper between 1969 and 1971 at their factory in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1971 American Aviation modified the NACA 64-415 airfoil used on the AA-1s wing, creating the AA-1A Trainer. The recontoured leading edge produced softer stall characteristics and permitted lower approach speeds, while this did tame the AA-1s sharp stall, it also reduced the cruise speed compared to the original AA-1 by 10 mph. First flight was on March 25,1970 and 470 AA-1As were built in 1971-72, Grumman bought American Aviation in 1971, renaming it Grumman American Aviation and beginning in late 1972 sold the 1973 model year design as the Grumman American AA-1B Trainer for school use. The variant designed for the market was called the TR-2 and it featured a standard radio. The AA-1B was produced until 1976, all the AA-1s, AA-1As and AA-1Bs were powered by the Lycoming O-235-C2C low-compression engine designed for 80/87 avgas, which produced 108 hp. The Grumman light aircraft line was acquired by Gulfstream Aerospace in 1977 who formed it into their light aircraft division, Gulfstream American, in Savannah. That company division completed a redesign of the AA-1B, resulting in the AA-1C. It was marketed in two versions, differentiated by the fitted and the external trim package
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