1.
National Science Board
–
The NSB also serves as an independent policy advisory body to the President and Congress on science and engineering research and education issues. The Board has an obligation to. The President appoints the 24 Board members, NSFs director serves as an ex officio 25th member and is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Foundation shall consist of a National Science Board and a Director, as an independent Federal agency, NSF does not fall within a cabinet department, rather NSFs activities are guided by the National Science Board. The Board was established by the Congress to serve as a science policy body. It has dual responsibilities to, a) provide independent national science policy advice to the President and the Congress, the Board identifies issues that are critical to NSFs future, and approves NSFs strategic plan and the annual budget submission to the Office of Management and Budget. Specifically, the Board analyzes NSFs budget to progress and consistency in keeping with the strategic direction set for NSF. The President appoints 24 Members of the National Science Board for six year terms, the NSF director serves as an ex officio 25th member. Every two years, one-third of the members rotate off of the Board and eight new members are appointed to serve for six-year terms, Board member nominations are based on distinguished service and eminence in research, education and/or public service. Members are drawn from academia and industry, and represent a range of science, technology, engineering. Much of the work of the National Science Board is done through its committees. By statute, the Board has an Executive Committee, which such functions as are delegated to it by the Board. As of January 2009, the Board has five standing committees. One of the ways in which the National Science Board contributes to the U. S. science and engineering enterprise is with its biennial Science & Engineering Indicators report. Mandated by Congress, this report is produced in collaboration with NSFs statistical center and these reports include information about K-12, international comparisons of investments in R&D, workforce trends and public attitudes and understanding about science. Indicators serves as a resource for a range of users that can include policymakers at all levels, educators, analysts, reporters, the broad scientific community. • The most comprehensive source of quality, policy neutral data on the U. S. Digest of Key Science and Engineering Indicators, In 2006, the Board produced a pilot digest or condensed version of SEI comprising a selection of important indicators. S
National Science Board
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NSB Logo
National Science Board
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Motto: Supporting Education and Research across all fields of Science and Technology America's Investment in the Future Where Discoveries Begin
National Science Board
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Front Cover, NSB Merit Review Criteria: Review and Revisions, 2011
National Science Board
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Front Cover, Digital Research Data Sharing and Management, 2011
2.
Vannevar Bush
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He is also known in engineering for his work on analog computers, for founding Raytheon, and for the memex, a hypothetical adjustable microfilm viewer with a structure analogous to that of hypertext. The memex influenced generations of scientists, who drew inspiration from its vision of the future. He was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to the creation of the National Science Foundation, for his masters thesis, Bush invented and patented a profile tracer, a mapping device for assisting surveyors. It was the first of a string of inventions and he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1919, and founded the company now known as Raytheon in 1922. Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer, a computer with some digital components that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. An offshoot of the work at MIT by Bush and others was the beginning of digital circuit design theory, Bush became vice president of MIT and dean of the MIT School of Engineering in 1932, and president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1938. Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1938, Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor. As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts, on March 11,1890, the third child and only son of Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood née Paine. He had two sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry, the family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts, in 1892, and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909. He then attended Tufts, like his father before him, a popular student, he was vice president of his sophomore class, and president of his junior class. During his senior year, he managed the football team and he became a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, and dated Phoebe Clara Davis, who also came from Chelsea. Tufts allowed students to gain a degree in four years simultaneously with a bachelors degree, so for his masters thesis. This was a device for assisting surveyors that looked like a lawn mower and it had two bicycle wheels, and a pen that plotted the terrain over which it traveled. It was the first of a string of inventions, on graduation in 1913 he received both bachelor of science and master of science degrees. After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric in Schenectady, New York, as a test man, his job was to assess equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GEs plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to work on high voltage transformers, but after a fire out at the plant, Bush. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and he was awarded a $1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster, but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics
Vannevar Bush
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Vannevar Bush, ca. 1940–44
Vannevar Bush
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Meccano differential analyzer in use at the Cambridge University Mathematics Laboratory, 1938.
Douglas Hartree, who visited Bush in his laboratory in 1933, built it based upon Bush's design.
Vannevar Bush
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Bush attending a meeting at the
University of California, Berkeley in 1940. From left to right:
Ernest O. Lawrence,
Arthur H. Compton, Bush,
James B. Conant,
Karl T. Compton, and
Alfred L. Loomis
Vannevar Bush
–
Cut away diagram of the
proximity fuze Mark 53
3.
US presidents
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The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is elected to a four-year term by the people through an Electoral College. Since the office was established in 1789,44 people have served as president, the first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two terms in office, and is counted as the nations 22nd and 24th president. Thus the incumbent, Donald Trump, is the nations 45th president, there are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a president was on December 26,2006 with the death of Gerald Ford. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, dying 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. Of the individuals elected as president, four died in office of natural causes, four were assassinated, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tylers precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office, later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a vacancy was left unfilled. Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties, the Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and he was, and remains, the only U. S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a party at the time they assumed office. Four presidents held other high U. S. federal offices after leaving the presidency, several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U. S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency. Additionally, one president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War
US presidents
–
The
White House in
Washington, D.C. is the president's official residence, the center of the administration, and a prominent symbol of the office.
US presidents
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1
US presidents
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2
US presidents
4.
National Science Foundation
–
The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health, with an annual budget of about US$7.0 billion, the NSF funds approximately 24% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the current NSF director, confirmed in March 2014, is astronomer France A. Córdova, former president of Purdue University. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, the NSF also makes some contracts. Some proposals are solicited, and some are not, the NSF funds both kinds, the NSF does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being the NASA and the National Institutes of Health. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year and those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a merit review process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers, all proposal evaluations are confidential, the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. However, both already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act. The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for research centers, instruments. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the community as a whole. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering, Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. K-12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs, the NSFs workforce numbers about 1,700, nearly all working at its Arlington headquarters. In June 2013 it was announced that the NSF would relocate its headquarters to Alexandria, Virginia in 2017. S, examples include initiatives in, Nanotechnology The science of learning Digital libraries The ecology of infectious diseases The NSF was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is To promote the progress of science, to advance the health, prosperity, and welfare. Some historians of science have argued that the result was a compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government. The NSF was certainly not the government agency for the funding of basic science. By 1950, support for areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health
National Science Foundation
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Seal of the National Science Foundation
National Science Foundation
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National Science Foundation headquarters
5.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt in 1933
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years old.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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The birthplace of FDR at Springwood.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt sailing with half-niece Helen and father James, 1899.
6.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
United States Congress
United States Congress
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United States Congress
United States Congress
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In 1868, this committee of representatives prosecuted president
Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, but the Senate did not convict him.
United States Congress
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George Washington presiding over the signing of the
United States Constitution.
7.
USA Federal Government
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
USA Federal Government
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The
United States Capitol is the
seat of government for Congress.
USA Federal Government
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Great Seal of the United States
USA Federal Government
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Diagram of the Federal Government and American Union, 1862.
8.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman
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Truman in uniform ca. 1918
Harry S. Truman
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Drawer from the Senate desk used by Truman
Harry S. Truman
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Roosevelt /Truman poster from 1944
9.
Lee A. DuBridge
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Lee Alvin DuBridge was an American educator and physicist. DuBridge continued his work at the California Institute of Technology, Washington University. At Rochester, he began his career as an academic administrator, serving as dean of the faculty of arts. On leave from Rochester between 1940 and 1946, he became the director of the Radiation Laboratory at MIT. He also served as president of the California Institute of Technology between 1946 and 1969. He was presidential Science Advisor under President Harry S. Truman from 1952 to 1953 and under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1955 and he died of pneumonia at a retirement home in Duarte, California, on January 23,1994
Lee A. DuBridge
–
DuBridge with
Ceauşescu in
Romania
10.
Frederick Seitz
–
Frederick Seitz was an American physicist and a pioneer of solid state physics. Seitz was president of Rockefeller University, and president of the United States National Academy of Sciences 1962–1969, Seitz was the recipient of the National Medal of Science, NASAs Distinguished Public Service Award, and other honors. He founded the Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Seitz was also the founding chairman of the George C. Marshall Institute, a tobacco industry consultant and a prominent skeptic on the issue of global warming. He married Elizabeth K. Marshall on May 18,1935, Seitz died March 2,2008 in New York. He was survived by a son, three grandchildren, and four great-grandchildren, Seitz moved to Princeton University to study metals under Eugene Wigner, gaining his PhD in 1934. The Modern Theory of Solids helped unify and understand the relations between the fields of metallurgy, ceramics, and electronics and he was also a consultant on many World War II-related projects in metallurgy, radiation damage to solids and electronics amongst others. He, along with Hillard Huntington, made the first calculation of the energies of formation and migration of vacancies and interstitials in copper, from 1946 to 1947, Seitz was director of the training program in atomic energy at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. He was appointed Professor of physics at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, in 1949, becoming chairman of the department in 1957 and dean, Seitz also served as an advisor to NATO. From 1962 to 1969 Seitz served as President of the United States National Academy of Sciences, as NAS president he initiated the Universities Research Association, which contracted with the Atomic Energy Commission to construct the worlds largest particle accelerator at the time, Fermilab. He retired from Rockefeller University in 1979, when he was made President Emeritus, after Seitz published a paper on the darkening of crystals, DuPont asked him in 1939 for help with a problem they were having with the stability of chrome yellow. He became deeply involved in their research efforts, among other things, he investigated the possible use of non-toxic silicon carbide as a white pigment. Seitz was a director of Texas Instruments and of Akzona Corporation, shortly before his 1979 retirement from Rockefeller University, Seitz began working as a permanent consultant for the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, advising their medical program until 1988. Reynolds had previously provided very generous support for work at Rockefeller. Seitz later wrote that The money was all spent on science, medical science. Nonetheless, later studies of tobacco industry influence concluded that Seitz. In helping the industry produce uncertainty concerning the health impacts of smoking. According to a tobacco industry memo from 1989, Seitz was described by an employee of Philip Morris International as quite elderly, in 1984 Seitz was the founding chairman of the George C. Marshall Institute, and was its chairman until 2001
Frederick Seitz
–
Frederick Seitz
11.
Roger R. Revelle
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UC San Diegos first college is named Revelle College in his honor. D. in oceanography from the University of California, Berkeley in 1936. While at Cal, he studied under Dr. George D, much of his early work in oceanography took place at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego. He was also Oceanographer for the Navy during WWII and he became director of SIO from 1950 to 1964. He stood against the UC faculty being required to take an anti-communist oath during the Joseph McCarthy period and he served as Science Advisor to Interior Secretary Stewart Udall during the Kennedy Administration in the early 1960s, and was President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Revelle was deeply involved in the growth of oceanography in the United States, at Scripps he launched several major long-range expeditions in the 1950s, including the MIDPAC, TRANSPAC, EQUAPAC, and NORPAC, each traversing a different part of the Pacific Ocean. He and other scientists at Scripps Institution of Oceanography helped the U. S. government to plan nuclear weapons tests, in the hope that oceanographers might make use of the data. Revelle was one of the chairmen in the influential National Academy of Sciences studies of the biological effects of atomic radiation. In 1952, along with Dr. Seibert Q, duntley, he successfully moved the MIT Visibility Lab to SIO with financial support of the U. S. Navy. Along with oceanographers at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Revelle planned the American contributions to the program of the International Geophysical Year. During planning for the IGY, under Revelles directorship, SIO participated in, geology, geochemistry, atmospheric chemistry, ocean chemistry. This amounted to one of the earliest examples of integrated assessment, during the late 1950s, Revelle fought for the establishment of a University of California campus in San Diego. He also conflicted with San Diego politicians and businessmen who believed the campus should be established in San Diego proper, the decision was made in 1959, with the first graduate students enrolled in 1960, and the first undergraduates in 1964. In later years Revelle continued to some animosity toward Salk, once saying, He is a folk hero. When at Scripps and while building UCSD, Revelle also had to deal with a La Jolla community that refused to rent or sell property to Jews, Revelle left Scripps in 1963 and founded the Center for Population Studies at Harvard University. In his over ten years there as its Director, he focused upon the application of science, in 1976 he returned to UC San Diego as Professor of Science, Technology and Public Affairs in the schools political science department. In 1991, Revelles name appeared as co-author on a written by physicist S. Stringent economic controls now would be economically devastating particularly for developing countries. The article concluded, The scientific base for a greenhouse warming is too uncertain to justify drastic action at this time, there is little risk in delaying policy responses. These particular statements and the bulk of the article, including the title, had written and published a year earlier by S. Fred Singer
Roger R. Revelle
–
The atmosphere's CO 2 -concentration
12.
Hans A. Bethe
–
For most of his career, Bethe was a professor at Cornell University. During World War II, he was head of the Theoretical Division at the secret Los Alamos laboratory which developed the first atomic bombs. After the war, Bethe also played an important role in the development of the hydrogen bomb, Bethe later campaigned with Albert Einstein and the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists against nuclear testing and the nuclear arms race. He helped persuade the Kennedy and Nixon administrations to sign, respectively, freeman Dyson, once one of his students, called him the supreme problem-solver of the 20th century. Bethe was born in Strasbourg, which was part of Germany, on July 2,1906, the only child of Anna and Albrecht Bethe. Although his mother, the daughter of a professor at the University of Strasbourg, was Jewish, despite having a religious background, he was not religious in later life, and described himself as an atheist. His father accepted a position as professor and director of the Institute of Physiology at the University of Kiel in 1912, and he was initially schooled privately by a professional teacher as part of a group of eight girls and boys. The family moved again in 1915 when his father became the head of the new Institute of Physiology at the University of Frankfurt am Main, Bethe attended the Goethe-Gymnasium in Frankfurt, Germany. His education was interrupted in 1916, when he contracted tuberculosis, by 1917, he had recovered sufficiently to attend the local realschule, and the following year he was sent to the Odenwaldschule, a private, coeducational boarding school. He attended the Goethe-Gymnasium again for his three years of secondary schooling, from 1922 to 1924. Having passed his abitur, Bethe entered the University of Frankfurt in 1924 and he decided to major in chemistry. Bethe entered the University of Munich in April 1926, where Sommerfeld took him on as a student on Meissners recommendation, Sommerfeld taught an advanced course on differential equations in physics, which Bethe enjoyed. Because he was such a renowned scholar, Sommerfeld frequently received advance copies of scientific papers, when Bethe arrived, Sommerfeld had just received Erwin Schrödingers papers on wave mechanics. For his PhD thesis, Sommerfeld suggested that Bethe examine electron diffraction in crystals, as a starting point, Sommerfeld suggested Paul Ewalds 1914 paper on X-ray diffraction in crystals. Bethe later recalled that he became too ambitious, and, in pursuit of greater accuracy, when he met Wolfgang Pauli for the first time, Pauli told him, After Sommerfelds tales about you, I had expected much better from you than your thesis. I guess from Pauli, Bethe later recalled, that was a compliment, after Bethe received his doctorate, Erwin Madelung offered him an assistantship in Frankfurt, and in September 1928 Bethe moved in with his father, who had recently divorced his mother. His father met Vera Congehl earlier that year, and married her in 1929 and they had two children, Doris, born in 1933, and Klaus, born in 1934. Bethe did not find the work in Frankfurt very stimulating, while there, he wrote what he considered to be his greatest paper, Zur Theorie des Durchgangs schneller Korpuskularstrahlen durch Materie
Hans A. Bethe
–
Hans Bethe
Hans A. Bethe
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Signature
Hans A. Bethe
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Hans Bethe, aged 12, with his parents
Hans A. Bethe
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Hans Bethe lecturing at
Dalhousie University, 1978. On the day he learnt that he had been awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physics, he still insisted on teaching his regular physics class.
13.
I. I. Rabi
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Isidor Isaac Rabi was an American physicist and Nobel laureate, recognized in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance, which is used in magnetic resonance imaging. He was also one of the first scientists in the US to work on the cavity magnetron, which is used in microwave radar and microwave ovens. Born into a traditional Jewish family in Rymanów, Galicia, in what was part of Austria-Hungary. He entered Cornell University as an engineering student in 1916. Later, he interested in physics. He continued his studies at Columbia University, where he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on the susceptibility of certain crystals. In 1927, he headed for Europe, where he met, in 1929 Rabi returned to the United States, where Columbia offered him a faculty position. In collaboration with Gregory Breit, he developed the Breit-Rabi equation and his techniques for using nuclear magnetic resonance to discern the magnetic moment and nuclear spin of atoms earned him a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944. Nuclear magnetic resonance became an important tool for nuclear physics and chemistry, the subsequent development of magnetic resonance imaging from it has made it important to medicine as well. During World War II he worked on radar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Radiation Laboratory, after the war, he served on the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, and was chairman from 1952 to 1956. He also served on the Science Advisory Committees of the Office of Defense Mobilization and the Armys Ballistic Research Laboratory, and was Science Advisor to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. He was involved with the establishment of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1946, when Columbia created the rank of University Professor in 1964, Rabi was the first to receive such a chair. A special chair was named after him in 1985 and he retired from teaching in 1967 but remained active in the department and held the title of University Professor Emeritus and Special Lecturer until his death. Israel Isaac Rabi was born on 29 July 1898 into a Polish-Jewish Orthodox family in Rymanów, Galicia, soon after he was born, his father, David Rabi, emigrated to the United States. The younger Rabi and his mother, Sheindel, joined David there a few later. At home the family spoke Yiddish, when Rabi was enrolled in school, Sheindel said his name was Izzy, and a school official, thinking it was short for Isidor, put that down as his name. Henceforth, that became his official name, later, in response to anti-Semitism, he started writing his name as Isidor Isaac Rabi, and was known professionally as I. I. To most of his friends and family, including his sister Gertrude, who was born in 1903, he was simply as Rabi
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Isidor Isaac Rabi
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Signature
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Atomic physicists
Ernest O. Lawrence (left),
Enrico Fermi (center), and Isidor Rabi
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Original cavity magnetron developed by
John Randall and
Harry Boot at Birmingham University
14.
David Packard
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David Packard was an electrical engineer and co-founder, with William Hewlett, of Hewlett-Packard, serving as president, CEO, and Chairman of the Board. He served as U. S. Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1969 to 1971 during the Nixon administration, Packard served as President of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences from 1976 to 1981. He was also chairman of the Board of Regents from 1973 to 1982, Packard was the recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1988 and is noted for many technological innovations and philanthropic endeavors. David Packard was born in Pueblo, Colorado, and attended Centennial High School, where early on he showed an interest in science, engineering, sports, and leadership. He earned his B. A. Stanford is where he met two people who were important to his life, Lucile Salter and Bill Hewlett, Packard then briefly attended the University of Colorado before he left to work for the General Electric Company in Schenectady, New York. In 1938, he returned to Stanford from New York, where he earned a degree in Electrical Engineering in 1938. In the same year, he married Lucile Salter, with whom he had four children, David, Nancy, Susan, in 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with an initial capital investment of $538. Packard mentions in his book The HP Way that the name Hewlett-Packard was determined by the flip of a coin, HP and their first product was an audio frequency oscillator sold to Walt Disney Studios for use on the soundtrack of Fantasia. The HP Way describes HPs management philosophy, which encourages creativity and shuns traditional business hierarchy, during World War II HP produced radio, sonar, radar, nautical, and aviation devices. The company, where Packard proved to be an administrator and Hewlett provided many technical innovations, grew into the worlds largest producer of electronic testing. It also became a producer of calculators, computers, and laser. He left HP in 1969 to serve in the Nixon administration until 1971, at time he returned to HP and was re-elected Chairman of the Board. In 1991, Packard oversaw a reorganization at HP. He retired from HP in 1993, at the time of his death in 1996, Packards stake in the company was worth more than $1 billion. Upon entering office in 1969, President Richard M. Nixon appointed Packard U. S. Deputy Secretary of Defense under Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird, Packard resigned in December 1971 and returned to Hewlett-Packard in 1972 as Chairman of the Board. While serving in the Department of Defense, he brought concepts of resource management used in business to the military, in 1970, Packard issued a memorandum that contained a number of major reforms designed to address the real mess we have on our hands. A key reform was elimination of Robert MacNamaras Total Package Procurement except in rare situations, near the end of his time at DoD, Packard wrote the Packard Memo or Employment of Military Resources in the Event of Civil Disturbances. Providing military resources to civil authorities as prescribed in §215.9 of this part, according to Lindorff, these exceptions essentially reinstate the possibility of martial law in the U. S. prohibited since 1878
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David Packard
15.
Glenn T. Seaborg
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Glenn Theodore Seaborg was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His work in this also led to his development of the actinide concept. He advised ten US Presidents – from Harry S, throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and he was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards, the list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid. He was an author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles. He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Whos Who in America, Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19,1912, the son of Herman Theodore and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger and his family spoke Swedish at home. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate. About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn, Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid. Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor of degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles. He worked his way through school as a stevedore and an assistant at Firestone. Seaborg was a member of the chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, for several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley
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Glenn T. Seaborg
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Seaborg in his lab
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Seaborg (second from left) during
Operation Plumbob
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President Kennedy and his Atomic Energy Commission Chairman, Glenn Seaborg
16.
Linus Pauling
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Linus Carl Pauling was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics, new Scientist called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time, and as of 2000, he was rated the 16th most important scientist in history. Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry, for his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954. In 1962, for his activism, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. This makes him the person to be awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes. He is one of four individuals to have won more than one Nobel Prize. Pauling is also one of two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields, the other being Marie Curie. Pauling also worked on DNAs structure, a problem which was solved by James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, in his later years he promoted nuclear disarmament, as well as orthomolecular medicine, megavitamin therapy, and dietary supplements. None of the latter have gained acceptance in the scientific community. Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon, the child of Herman Henry William Pauling. He was named Linus Carl, in honor of Lucys father, Linus, in 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Paulings parents decided to move out of Portland, to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment. Lucy stayed with her husbands parents in Lake Oswego until Herman brought the family to Salem, within a year of Luciles birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore. He moved his family to Condon, Oregon in 1905, by 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent abdominal pain. He died of an ulcer on June 11,1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile. Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, in high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simons basement and they approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure. At age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter Oregon State University, lacking two American history courses required for his high school diploma, Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left Washington High School in June without a diploma, the school awarded him a diploma 45 years later, after he had won two Nobel Prizes
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Linus Pauling
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External video
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Photo of Herman Henry William Pauling, Linus Pauling's father, taken
c. 1900.
Linus Pauling
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Pauling's graduation photo from
Oregon State University, 1922
17.
James A. Van Allen
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James Alfred Van Allen was an American space scientist at the University of Iowa. He was instrumental in establishing the field of research in space. The Van Allen radiation belts were named after him, following their discovery by his Geiger–Müller tube instruments on the 1958 satellites, Van Allen led the scientific community for the inclusion of scientific research instruments on space satellites. Van Allen was born on 7 September 1914 on a farm near Mount Pleasant, Iowa, the second of four sons of Alfred Morris and Alma Olney Van Allen. He grew up in the town of Mount Pleasant, located forty-five miles due south of Iowa City. As a child he was fascinated by mechanical and electrical devices and was a reader of Popular Mechanics. He once horrified his mother by constructing a Tesla coil that produced foot-long sparks, Van Allen was valedictorian of his high school class in 1931, and received his bachelors degree in physics, summa cum laude, from Iowa Wesleyan College in 1935. While an undergraduate at Iowa Wesleyan, he assisted the senior scientist of the second Byrd Expedition to Antarctica in preparing seismic and magnetic experimental equipment and he earned his masters and doctorate from the University of Iowa in 1936 and 1939, respectively. Van Allen credits C. A. Cottrell, an instructor in his high school. He developed parallel interests in wood and metal crafts and did well in other subjects and his valedictorian address was, Pax Romana, Pax Americana. His slightly flat feet probably preserved Van Allen for the role that he was to play in developing the field of space science, with a strong interest in things nautical, he took the entrance examinations for entry into the U. S. Naval Academy while in high school. With outstanding grades, and with the backing of his local Congressman, William F. Kopp, all went well initially, but when he appeared for his physical examination, he was rejected for three reasons. He had the aforementioned flat feet, his eyesight was somewhat deficient, thus, he was forced to pursue a different path. Immediately following high school, Van Allen went to Iowa Wesleyan College in Mount Pleasant, there, during the summer of 1932, after completing his freshman year, Van Allen was introduced to geophysics research under the tutelage of physics professor Thomas C. Van Allen had great admiration for this early mentor throughout his life. He stated in one of his sketches, “Poulter, one of the most inspiring and creative experimentalists that I have ever known before or since that time. ”Poulter employed him as a summer assistant, “at 35 cents an hour, payable occasionally. ”Van Allen majored in physics. Poulter had been chosen by Admiral Richard E. Byrd as his chief scientist for the 1933-1935 Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition and he had the task of planning and conducting geophysical investigations during that expedition. Van Allen was entrusted with the checkout of an extra sensitive field magnetometer on loan from the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, reflecting later on this magnetometer, he referred to it as. the most beautiful instrument that I have ever used
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James Alfred Van Allen
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Byrd Second Antarctic Expedition USPS Commemorative Issue of 1933
James A. Van Allen
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James Van Allen Elementary in
North Liberty, Iowa
James A. Van Allen
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James Van Allen holding (Loki) instrumented Rockoon, Credit: JPL
18.
Norman Hackerman
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Norman Hackerman was an American chemist, internationally known as an expert in metal corrosion, and a former president of both the University of Texas at Austin and Rice University. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, he was the son of Jacob Hackerman and Anna Raffel, immigrants from the Baltic regions of the Russian Empire that later became Estonia and Latvia. Hackerman earned his bachelors degree in 1932 and his doctors degree in chemistry in 1935 from Johns Hopkins University. He taught at Johns Hopkins, Loyola College in Baltimore and the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, Hackerman left the University of Texas in 1970 for Rice, where he retired 15 years later. He was named professor emeritus of chemistry at the University of Texas in 1985 and he was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was awarded the Acheson Award by the Electrochemical Society in 1984 and he also served as editor of the Journal of The Electrochemical Society and as president of the Electrochemical Society. Hackermans wife of 61 years, Gene Coulbourn, died in 2002, in 2000 the Welch Foundation created the Norman Hackerman Award in Chemical Research to recognize the work of young researchers in Texas. The Rice Board of Trustees established the Norman Hackerman Fellowship in Chemistry in honor of Hackermans 90th birthday in 2002. In 2008, the original Experimental Science Building at the University of Texas at Austin campus was demolished and rebuilt as the Norman Hackerman Experimental Science Building in his name and honor. The building was completed in late-2010, with the opening and dedication ceremony on March 2,2011, the main building at the J. Erik Jonsson Center of the National Academy of Sciences is Hackerman House, named in his honor. Hackerman House overlooks Quissett Harbor in Woods Hole MA, on Cape Cod, history of the Jews in Houston Norman Hackerman Award in Chemical Research Electrochemical Society Norman Hackerman Young Author Award
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Norman Hackerman
19.
Frank Press
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Frank Press is an American geophysicist. An advisor to four U. S. Presidents, he served two consecutive terms as President of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences. He is the author of 160 scientific papers and co-author of the textbooks Earth, Press served on Presidents Science Advisory Committee during the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations and was appointed by President Nixon to the National Science Board. In 1977 he was appointed President Jimmy Carters science advisor and Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, serving until 1981. Born in Brooklyn, New York, Press graduated with a B. S. degree from the City College of New York and completed his M. A. and Ph. D. degrees at Columbia University under Maurice Doc Ewing. As one of Ewings two assistant professors, Press was a co-founder of Lamont Geological Observatory in Palisades, N. Y, originally trained as an oceanographer, Press participated in research cruises on the sailing vessels RV Vema and RV Atlantis. In the early 1950s, Press turned to seismology, co-authoring with Ewing, in 1957, Press was recruited by Caltech to succeed founder Beno Gutenberg as director of the Seismological Laboratory, a position in which he remained until 1965. The appointment was controversial in that it passed over both Hugo Benioff and Charles Richter, then the senior professors, for a much younger outsider. Press was also involved in the construction of a lunar seismograph. He remained at MIT until 1976, during this time, his work included collaborations with Vladimir Keilis-Borok and Leon Knopoff on computer pattern matching techniques that could be applied to earthquake prediction. In 1976, Press became science advisor to President Jimmy Carter and director of the Office of Science, in 1981 he was elected president of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences. Re-elected in 1987, he served for a total of 12 years, in 1996, Press co-founded WAG, a global consulting company with clients that included some fifty leading universities. WAG played a role all phases of the founding of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Thuwal. Press chaired that universitys international advisory committee until 2010, Press is the recipient of 30 honorary degrees. Named in his honor are Mount Press, in the Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica, and Osedax frankpressi, News and World Report U. S. Siever, Raymond. W. H. Freeman, c2001 The role of geoscientists in providing advice to government officials Press. Abstracts with Programs – Geological Society of America, vol.30, no.7, pp.247,1998 Growing up in the Golden Age of Science Press, Frank. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, vol.23, pp. 1–9,1995 Patterns of seismic release in the Southern California region Press, Frank, Allen, Clarence
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Frank Press
20.
Norman F. Ramsey, Jr.
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Among his other accomplishments are helping to found the United States Department of Energys Brookhaven National Laboratory and Fermilab. Norman Foster Ramsey Jr. was born in Washington, D. C and he was raised as an Army brat, frequently moving from post to post, and lived in France for a time when his father was Liaison Officer with the Direction dArtillerie and Assistant Military Attaché. This allowed him to skip a couple of grades along the way, so that he graduated from Leavenworth High School in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Ramseys parents hoped that he would go to West Point, but at 15, he was too young to be admitted. He was awarded a scholarship to Kansas University, but in 1930 his father was posted to Governors Island, Ramsey therefore entered Columbia University in 1931, and began studying engineering. He became interested in mathematics, and switched to this as his academic major, by the time he received his B. A. from Columbia in 1935, he had become interested in physics. J. At Cambridge, he took the tripos in order to study quantum mechanics, soon after Ramsey arrived at Columbia, Rabi invented molecular beam resonance spectroscopy, for which he was awarded the Nobel prize in physics in 1944. Ramsey was part of Rabis team that also included Jerome Kellogg, Polykarp Kusch, Sidney Millman, Ramsey worked with them on the first experiments making use of the new technique, and shared with Rabi and Zacharias in the discovery that the deuteron was a magnetic quadrupole. This meant that the nucleus was not spherical, as had been thought. He received his Ph. D. in physics from Columbia in 1940, in 1940, he married Elinor Jameson of Brooklyn, New York, and accepted a teaching position at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. The two expected to spend the rest of their lives there, but World War II intervened and this device, which promised to revolutionize radar, demolished any thoughts the Americans had entertained about their technological leadership. Alfred Lee Loomis of the National Defense Research Committee established the Radiation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to develop this technology, Ramsey was one of the scientists recruited by Rabi for this work. Initially, Ramsey was in Rabis magnetron group, when Rabi became a division head, Ramsey became the group leader. The role of the group was to develop the magnetron to permit a reduction in wavelength from 150 centimetres to 10 centimetres, and then to 3 centimetres or X-Band. Microwave radar promised to be small, lighter and more efficient than older types, Ramseys group started with the produced by Oliphants team in Britain. The Radiation Laboratory produced the designs, which were prototyped by Raytheon, in June 1941, Ramsey travelled to Britain, where he met with Oliphant, and the two exchanged ideas. He brought back some British components which were incorporated into the final design, a night fighter aircraft, the Northrop P-61 Black Widow, was designed around the new radar. In 1943, Ramsey was approached by Robert Oppenheimer and Robert Bacher, Ramsey agreed to do so, but the intervention of the Project director, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr. was necessary in order to prise him away from the Secretary of Wars office. A compromise was agreed to, whereby Ramsey remained on the payroll of the Secretary of War, the first thing he had to do was determine the characteristics of the aircraft that would be used
Norman F. Ramsey, Jr.
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Norman F. Ramsey
Norman F. Ramsey, Jr.
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The Northrop P-61 Black Widow
night fighter was specifically designed to take advantage of the new radar
Norman F. Ramsey, Jr.
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Ramsey signs the
Fat Man used at Nagasaki
Norman F. Ramsey, Jr.
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The Harvard cyclotron during construction in 1948. Shown are Ramsey (left) and
Lee Davenport (right)
21.
Philip H. Abelson
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Philip Hauge Abelson was an American physicist, a scientific editor, and a science writer. Abelson was born on April 27,1913, in Tacoma and he attended Washington State University, where he received degrees in chemistry and physics, and the University of California, Berkeley, where he earned his PhD in nuclear physics. As a young physicist, he worked for Ernest Lawrence at the UC Berkeley and he was among the first American scientists to verify nuclear fission in an article submitted to the Physical Review in February 1939. From 1939 until 1941, he worked as an assistant physicist at the Carnegie Institution in Washington DC and it was while he was here that he worked on a substance that emitted beta rays and was produced by irradiation of uranium with neutrons. After he collaborated with the Nobel Prize laureate Luis Alvarez they isolated the material, McMillan was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery among other elements. Abelson was a key contributor to the Manhattan Project during World War II, after the war, he turned his attention under the guidance of Ross Gunn to applying nuclear power to naval propulsion. While not written at a level, he wrote the first physics report detailing how a nuclear reactor could be installed in a submarine. His report anticipated the nuclear role as a missile platform. This concept was supported by Admiral Hyman G. Rickover. Under Rickover, the concept became reality in the form of USS Nautilus, from 1962 to 1984 he was editor of Science, one of the most prestigious academic journals, and served as its acting executive officer in 1974,1975 and 1984. From 1972 until 1974 he served as the president of the American Geophysical Union, Abelson was outspoken and well known for his opinions on science. In a 1964 editorial published in Science magazine, Abelson identified overspecialization in science as a form of bigotry and he estimated that based on his experiments alanine would be stable for billions of years. Perhaps his most famous work from time period is an editorial entitled Enough of Pessimism. This became the title of a 100 essay collection, during the 1970s he became interested in the problem of world energy supplies. Books on the topic include Energy for Tomorrow, from a series of lectures at the University of Washington and he pointed out the possibilities of mining the Athabascan tar sands, as well as oil shale in the Colorado Rockies. In addition he urged conservation and a change of attitude towards public transit, after 1984, he remained associated with the magazine. This would exceed by far the temperature fluctuations of the past several years and would very likely. Abelson died on August 1,2004, from complications following a brief illness
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Philip Abelson
22.
H. Guyford Stever
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Horton Guyford Stever was an American administrator, physicist, educator, and engineer. Stever was raised in Corning, New York, principally by his maternal grandmother and he played football in high school. He graduated from Colgate University with a degree in physics. He joined the staff of the lab at MIT. In 1942 he began serving the military as a scientific liaison officer based in London. After D-Day he was sent to France several times to study German technology and he returned to MIT after the war, serving as associate dean of engineering there from 1956 to 1959 and then as a department head. In 1965 he became the fifth President of Carnegie Mellon University, Stever House, a dorm on Carnegie Mellons campus is named for him. He also served as the director of the National Science Foundation from 1972 until 1976, between 1973 and 1977 he was President Gerald Fords Science Advisor. He also served on the board of trustees of Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, Stever received an LL. D. from Bates College in 1977. In 1997, he received the Vannevar Bush Award from the National Science Board, Guyford Stever was chairman or member of numerous advisory committees to the U. S. government. The NACAs Special Committee on Space Technology, also called the Stever Committee, was among the better-known of these, the committee released a report titled, Human Exploration of Space, A Review of NASAs 90-Day Study and Alternatives. Carnegie Mellon 1900-2000, A Centennial History, in War and Peace, My Life in Science and Technology. H. Guyford Stever Oral History from IEEE Announcement of his death
H. Guyford Stever
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NACA's Special Committee on Space Technology in their May 26, 1958 meeting. At the head of the table:
Wernher von Braun. Dr. Stever is third to his right.
Hendrik Wade Bode is fourth from the left.
23.
Robert M. White
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Robert Michael Bob White, was an American military aircraft test pilot, fighter pilot, electrical engineer, and a Major general in the United States Air Force. White broke a number of records with the North American X-15 experimental aircraft during the 1960s, White was born in New York City on 6 July 1924. He entered active service in November 1942 as an aviation cadet in the United States Army Air Forces. He was captured and remained a prisoner of war until his release in April 1945 and he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering from New York University in 1951, and a Master of Business Administration degree from the George Washington University in 1966. White was recalled to duty in May 1951, during the Korean War. In February 1952 he was assigned as a pilot and flight commander with the 40th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, based at Johnson Air Base. In August 1953, he returned overseas to serve as a systems engineer at Rome Air Development Center, Griffiss Air Force Base. He was promoted to Deputy Chief of the Flight Test Operations Division, White was designated the Air Forces primary pilot for the North American X-15 program in 1958. While the new plane was undergoing its initial tests, he attended the Air Command and Staff College at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, graduating in 1959. He made his first test flight of the X-15 on April 15,1960, four months later he flew to an altitude of 136,000 ft, above Rogers Dry Lake. White would have participated in the Air Forces Man In Space Soonest program, had it come to fruition. In February 1961, White unofficially set a new air speed record when he flew the X-15 at a speed of 2,275 mph, White was the first human to fly an aircraft at Mach 4 and later Mach 5 over the next eight months. On 9 November 1961, White flew the X-15 at 4,093 mph, a day later, Air Force Chief of Staff General Curtis E. LeMay awarded White his new rating as a Command Pilot Astronaut. On 17 July 1962, Major White flew the X-15 to an altitude of 314,750 feet and this qualified him for USAF astronaut wings, becoming the first winged astronaut, and one of a few who have flown into space without a conventional spacecraft. Major Bob White was featured with a story in the August 3,1962 issue of Life magazine. Pilot Robert White commented on his high altitude X-15 flights, My flights to 217,000 feet and 314,750 feet were very dramatic in revealing the Earths curvature. At my highest altitude I could turn my head through a 180-degree arc and he returned to the United States in August 1965 to attend the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Washington, D. C. and graduated a year later. He flew 70 combat missions over North Vietnam, including leading an attack against the Paul Doumer Bridge in Hanoi on August 11,1967, for which he was awarded the Air Force Cross
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Robert M. White
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Congratulated after a test flight
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X-15 in flight
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F-105D at Takhli RTAFB
24.
Maxine Frank Singer
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Maxine Frank Singer is an American molecular biologist and science administrator. She is known for her contributions to solving the genetic code, her role in the ethical and regulatory debates on recombinant DNA techniques, Singer was born in New York City. After attending public school in Brooklyn, she majored in chemistry at Swarthmore College. She went on to earn a Ph. D. in 1957 at Yale University, Fruton encouraged her to specialize in nucleic acids, and in 1956 she joined the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Leon Heppel at the National Institutes of Health. Through her work there on RNA synthesis, Singer produced synthetic nucleotides that were used in Marshall Nirenbergs experiments establishing the nature of the genetic code. Singer was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1988, she became president of Carnegie Institution of Washington, a position she held until 2002. In 2007, she was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, Maxine Singer papers – Library of Congress finding aid The Maxine Singer Papers – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine Why Cant School Science Be More Like Science. By Maxine Singer – Society for Developmental Biology
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Maxine Frank Singer
25.
Herbert F. York
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Herbert Frank York was a part-Mohawk American nuclear physicist. He held numerous research and administrative positions at various United States government and educational institutes. York was born in Rochester, New York where he received his B. S. and M. S. from the University of Rochester in 1943, and went on to obtain his Ph. D. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1949. During World War II he was a physicist at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory and at Oak Ridge and he was the first director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from 1952 to 1958. York was a professor of physics at the University of California and he was the founding Chancellor of the University of California, San Diego. He later served as U. S. ambassador to the Comprehensive Test Ban negotiations in Geneva and he also served on the board of the Council for a Livable World, a nonpartisan arms control organization in Washington, D. C. York occasionally guest lectured for UC San Diego and other institutions, Herbert York died 19 May 2009 in San Diego at age 87. Race to Oblivion, A Participants View of the Arms Race, making Weapons, Talking Peace, A Physicists Journey from Hiroshima to Geneva A Shield in Space. York Herbert F. York Papers MSS107, special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library
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Herbert F. York in 1957
26.
Norman Borlaug
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Norman Ernest Borlaug was an American agronomist and humanitarian who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to the extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution. Borlaug was awarded honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Borlaug received his B. Sc. in Forestry in 1937 and Ph. D. in plant pathology and he took up an agricultural research position in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high-yield, disease-resistant wheat varieties. During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963, between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. Borlaug was often called the father of the Green Revolution, and is credited with saving over a billion worldwide from starvation. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 in recognition of his contributions to peace through increasing food supply. Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing production in Asia. Borlaug was the great-grandchild of Norwegian immigrants to the United States, ole Olson Dybevig and Solveig Thomasdatter Rinde, from Feios, a small village in Vik kommune, Sogn og Fjordane, Norway, emigrated to Dane County, Wisconsin in 1854. The family eventually moved to the small Norwegian-American community of Saude, near Cresco, there they were members of Saude Lutheran Church, where Norman was both baptized and confirmed. The eldest of four children—his three younger sisters were Palma Lillian, Charlotte and Helen —Borlaug was born to Henry Oliver and Clara Borlaug on his grandparents farm in Saude in 1914. From age seven to nineteen, he worked on the 106-acre family farm west of Protivin, Iowa, fishing, hunting and he attended the one-teacher, one-room New Oregon #8 rural school in Howard County, through eighth grade. Today, the building, built in 1865, is owned by the Norman Borlaug Heritage Foundation as part of Project Borlaug Legacy. At Cresco High School, Borlaug played on the football, baseball and wrestling teams, on the latter of which his coach, Dave Barthelma, through a Depression-era program known as the National Youth Administration, he was able to enroll at the University of Minnesota in 1933. Borlaug failed the exam, but was accepted to the schools newly created two-year General College. After two quarters, he transferred to the College of Agricultures forestry program, wrestling taught me some valuable lessons. I always figured I could hold my own against the best in the world, many times, I drew on that strength. Its an inappropriate crutch perhaps, but thats the way Im made, to finance his studies, Borlaug had to put his education on hold periodically to take a job
Norman Borlaug
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Borlaug speaking at the Ministerial Methodist Conference and Expo on Agricultural Science and Technology, June 2003
Norman Borlaug
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Wheat is the third most-produced
cereal crop.
Norman Borlaug
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Nigerian exchange students meet Norman Borlaug (third from right) at the World Food seminar, 2003.
Norman Borlaug
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President George W. Bush along with House Majority Leader
Steny Hoyer and House Speaker
Nancy Pelosi congratulate Borlaug during the Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony on July 17, 2007.
27.
Harold Varmus
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Harold Eliot Varmus is an American Nobel Prize-winning scientist and was the 14th Director of the National Cancer Institute, a post to which he was appointed by President Barack Obama. He was a co-recipient of the 1989 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovery of the origin of retroviral oncogenes. He is currently the Lewis Thomas University Professor of Medicine at Weill Cornell Medicine, Varmus was born to Beatrice, a social service worker, and Frank Varmus, a physician, Jewish parents of Eastern European descent, in Oceanside, New York. He went on to earn a degree in English at Harvard University in 1962 before changing his mind once again. He was twice rejected from Harvard Medical School and that same year, he entered the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and later worked at a missionary hospital in Bareilly, India, and the Columbia-Presbyterian Hospital. As an alternative to serving militarily in the Vietnam War, Varmus joined the Public Health Service at the National Institutes of Health in 1968, working under Ira Pastan, he researched the regulation of bacterial gene expression by cyclic AMP. In 1970, he began research in Bishops lab at University of California. During this first period of research, he and Pastan. Much of this work was conducted jointly with Michael Bishop in a long scientific partnership. Their discovery triggered the identification of other cellular proto-oncogenes—progenitors of viral oncogenes. Much of this work and its consequences are described in his Nobel lecture and Bishops, notably, Varmus continued to conduct or direct laboratory work throughout his service in leadership positions at the NIH, MSKCC, and NCI. He also co-chaired Scientists and Engineers for Clinton-Gore during the 1992 Presidential Campaign, after the resignation of NIH Director Bernadine Healy in April,1993, Varmus was nominated for the post by President William J. Clinton in July, and confirmed by the Senate in November. Varmus supported the candidacies of Al Gore and John Kerry. During the George W. Bush presidency, he gave lectures critical of the Administrations science policies, but he has also written a laudatory account of PEPFAR, Bushs initiative to combat AIDS globally. Varmus declared his support for Barack Obamas quest for the Presidency early in 2008 and chaired the campaigns Science, following Obamas election, he was named by the President-elect as one of three co-chairs of PCAST. He resigned from that post to assume the Directorship of the National Cancer Institute on July 12,2010 after being named to the post by President Obama and he also renamed the Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research and started an initiative there to study RAS oncogenes. Deputy NCI Director Douglas Lowy became Acting Director of the NCI on April 1,2015, during his tenure as NCI Director, Varmus took the unusual step of co-authoring with three non-governmental colleagues a critique of several practices prevalent in the biomedical research community. That essay has been the point for several subsequent efforts to reduce the hypercompetitive atmosphere in biomedical research
Harold Varmus
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Harold Varmus
28.
Lewis M. Branscomb
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Lewis M. Branscomb is an American physicist, government policy advisor, and corporate research manager. He is best known as head of the National Bureau of Standards and, later, chief scientist of IBM. Following World War II service in the U. S. Navy and he received his Ph. D. from Harvard in 1949, and remained two additional years as a Junior Fellow. These years, and his interactions with scholars as diverse as Clyde Kluckhohn, Merle Fainsod, William Fairbank, no less remembered from this period, Branscomb played the role of Professor in Tom Lehrers 1951 The Physical Revue, premiering several Lehrer songs in early versions. Branscomb joined the U. S. National Bureau of Standards in 1951 as a research physicist, in 1972, Branscomb moved to IBM Corporation as vice president and chief scientist, and was later a member of the IBM Corporate Management Board. In 1986, he moved to Harvard as director of the Science, Technology and Public Policy Program in the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, holding that position until 1996. Branscomb was a member of President Johnsons Science Advisory Committee from 1964 to 1968, during which time he chaired PSACs Panel on Space Science, under President Reagan, he was a member of the National Productivity Advisory Committee and was chair of the National Science Board. Other honors include president of the American Physical Society, elected memberships in all three U. S. national academies, and honorary degrees from 15 universities. In 1998, Branscomb was awarded the Okawa Prize for outstanding contributions to the progress of informatics, scientific and technological policy and he serves on the Advisory Board of the Journal of Science Policy & Governance. Branscomb is an author of more than 500 scholarly publications and 11 books and he has served on the boards of several corporations and many non-profit organizations. For a continuous period of 57 years Branscomb and/or his father, harvie Branscomb, served as a trustee of Vanderbilt University. Beyond Spinoff, Military and Commercial Technologies in a Changing World, Empowering Technology, Implementing a U. S
Lewis M. Branscomb
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Lewis M. Branscomb
29.
Richard C. Atkinson
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Richard Chatham Atkinson is an American professor of psychology and academic administrator. He is the president and regent of the University of California system. The Education Program for Gifted Youth at Stanford is a descendant of early experiments. In 1975, Atkinsons career transitioned from research to administration when he was appointed as Director of the National Science Foundation and he later served as Chancellor of the University of California, San Diego, and President of the University of California system. Atkinson is widely recognized for his scientific, academic, and administrative accomplishments and he has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Medicine, the National Academy of Education, and the American Philosophical Society. He is past president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, former chair of the Association of American Universities and the recipient of many honorary degrees. Named in his honor are a mountain in Antarctica, and Atkinson Hall, except for a three-year interval at UCLA, he served as professor of psychology at Stanford from 1956 to 1975. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, the theory of human memory which Atkinson put forward with his student Richard Shiffrin has been influential in shaping research in the field of experimental psychology. Advances in computer-assisted instruction and methods for optimizing the process have been among the applied outcomes of his theoretical investigations. In 1977, he received the American Psychological Association’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, Atkinson was nominated by U. S. President Jimmy Carter to be director of the National Science Foundation. It became part of a comprehensive agreement on science and technology between China and the United States signed by Chair Deng Xiaoping and President Jimmy Carter in January 1979. This trend was aptly symbolized by Senator William Proxmire’s Golden Fleece Awards for waste, one was awarded to the NSF for a study of the sexual behavior of screwworm flies. As NSF director, Atkinson defended this and other projects, the value of which Senator Proxmire ultimately acknowledged and this highly successful effort yielded important dividends in the form of financial and community support. Private donations rose from $15 million to nearly $50 million annually during his chancellorship, despite a series of tight budgets in the late 1980s, he found innovative ways to fund the construction of new buildings and to support new academic programs. Its 1982 election to the prestigious Association of American Universities, consisting of the top research universities. Atkinsons tenure was marked by the steady growth in size. UC San Diegos faculty expanded by nearly 50 percent and enrollment doubled to about 18,000 students, in 1995, the quality of its graduate programs was ranked tenth in the nation by the National Research Council. In 1985, the UC San Diego Extension began running the self-sustaining UCSD CONNECT program and it was an advocate on public policy issues that affected business
Richard C. Atkinson
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Richard C. Atkinson
30.
Mary L. Good
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Mary Lowe Good is an inorganic chemist who has worked academically, in industrial research and in government. Dr. Good has contributed to the understanding of such as ruthenium which activate or speed up chemical reactions. She has held positions in the academic, industrial, and government sectors, where she has been a strong proponent of science, science education. She has received a number of significant awards including the Garvan–Olin Medal, the Othmer Gold Medal, the Priestley Medal, Mary Lowe was born in Grapevine, Texas to Winnie and John Lowe. The family moved to Kirby, Arkansas in 1942 and her father was a principal in a local school, and her mother was a teacher and librarian. The family later moved to Willisville, Arkansas, where Mary attended high school, Lowe initially attended Arkansas State Teachers College with the intention of being a home economics teacher. She became interested in chemistry as a freshman and changed her major to chemistry and physics and her professors encouraged her to go to graduate school. She received a fellowship, which enabled her to study radiochemistry with Raymond R. Edwards at the University of Arkansas, at age 19, as an atomic energy research assistant, she received her first Q-level government clearance. In 1952, she married Bill Jewel Good, a graduate student in physics. Mary Lowe Good received her MS in 1953 and her PhD in 1955 from the University of Arkansas and her graduate work involved studying radioactive iodine in aqueous solutions. She worked on processes of solvent extraction of metal complexes and described the chemical and physical properties of chemical species in an organic solvent. She was able to explain why solutions of iodine were unstable. Dr. Good spent 25 years in teaching and research at Louisiana State University and the University of New Orleans, Good went to Baton Rouge as director of the radiochemistry laboratory and as an instructor and assistant professor of chemistry. At Baton Rouge she worked on iodine and sulfur chemistry with Sean McGlynn, in 1958 Good and her husband moved to New Orleans when both were offered positions at a new campus that was being established. The Louisiana State University New Orleans was the first university in the states to open as a fully integrated institution. She was able to study molecular bonding in both solutions and solid states and she also was able to extract rhodium complexes, using organic solvents, and demonstrate that they were bimetallic. Good moved up the ranks to become the Boyd Professor of Chemistry at New Orleans. From 1978-1980, she returned to Baton Rouge to develop a new program as the Boyd Professor of Materials Science, Good was one of the first people to use Mössbauer spectroscopy techniques for basic chemical research
Mary L. Good
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Mary Lowe Good
Mary L. Good
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Mary Lowe Good with the Othmer Gold Medal, 1998
