1.
Martin van Meytens
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His painting style has inspired many other painters to paint in a similar format. Martin van Meytens was born and baptised in Stockholm, Sweden and he began his artistic studies with his father, the painter Martin Meytens the Elder, who had moved from The Hague to Sweden. He went rather early on a study trip and he visited London, Paris and Vienna, then he lived and worked for a long time in Italy. At the beginning he painted little enamel miniature portraits, and he changed to oil painting only around 1730, here he became very popular as a portrait painter in the circles of the court and the aristocracy. In 1732 he became a painter, and in 1759 the director of the Viennese Academy of Fine Arts. Franz Xaver Messerschmidt was his protégé and his personal virtues, varied interests, erudition and pleasant manners were highly appreciated by his contemporaries. The Wedding Supper depicts the wedding of Princess Isabella of Parma and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor,5 October 1760, the moment depicted is when the dessert is served, in the middle of the table is a garden made by sugar crust. Among his pupils was Giovanni Gabriele Cantone,1731, Kneeling Nun, Recto,1741, Kaiser Franz I 1745–1750, Familie der Grafen Pálffy 1750, Archduke Maximilian, 1752–1753, Fam. Grill, 1750–1755, Maria Theresia als Herrscherin,1754, Ksl, Familie,1759, Maria Theresia, Works Biography @ Austria Forum Biography @ the Web Gallery of Art Biography and more paintings @ ArtExperts. Media related to Martin van Meytens at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Palace of Venaria
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The Palace of Venaria is a former royal residence located in Venaria Reale, near Turin, in Piedmont, northern Italy. It is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy, the name itself derives from Latin, Venatio Regia meaning Royal Hunt. Charles Emmanuel was inspired by the example of the Castle of Mirafiori, the place was rechristened Venaria for his future function as hunting base. The design was commissioned from architects Amedeo di Castellamonte and Michelangelo Garove, the plan of the annexed borough was to symbolize the collar symbol of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, a dynastic order created by the House of Savoy. In 1675 the borough and the palace were completed, including the so-called Reggia di Diana (Royal Residence of Diana. Further damage was inflicted during the Siege of Turin, when the French troops under Louis dAubusson de La Feuillade were billeted there, after the Savoyard victory, Victor Amadeus named Filippo Juvarra as director of the works. It was here that during the reign of Charles Emmanuel III that his wife died giving birth to son. The structure was used after. During the Napoleonic domination, the structures were turned into barracks, the complex maintained this role also after the fall of Napoleon, and was used by the Italian Army until 1978, when it was sold to the Ministry of Culture. Restoration works were begun, but most of the complex was open for tourism from 13 October 2007, the entrance of the palace leads into the Cour dhonneur, which once housed a fountain with a deer. The main facade, covered in the 17th century section with plaster and featuring cornucopias, shells, the original gardens of the residence are now totally disappeared, since French troops turned them into training grounds. Recent works have recreated a park in modern style, exhibiting works by Giuseppe Penone. After the death of Garove, Juvarra built the Grand Gallery and in built a church dedicated to St. Hubertus. The church is included within the palaces structure, so that it was impossible to build a dome. Other works of the Juvarra period included the stables, the citroneria, ambienti e Figure di Torino Vecchia. Lux – a 2012 album by Brian Eno which was initially a soundtrack for the Grand Gallery Official website A. V. T. A
3.
King of Sardinia
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The following is a list of rulers of Sardinia, in particular, of the monarchs of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica from 1323 and then of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1479 to 1861. Owing to the absence of sources, little is known of the history of the Nuraghic civilization which constructed impressive megalithic structures between the 18th and the 12th centuries BCE. Greek colonization of the city of Olbia has been confirmed by recent archaeological excavations, Godas 533–535 According to Procopius, Godas was a Vandal governor of Sardinia who rebelled against his king, Gelimer, who ruled northern Africa and Sardinia. Procopius wrote that Godas behaved like a king, but it was a short-lived kingdom, Godas was defeated and killed after two years by an expedition from Carthage led by King Gelimers brother, Tzazo. Shortly afterwards, Roman troops sent by Emperor Justinianus and led by General Belisarius, totally annihilated the Vandal kingdom, before the Kingdom of Sardinia was founded, the rulers of the island were known as archons or judges. The island was organized into one judicatus from the 9th century, after the Muslim conquest of Sicily in the 9th century, the Byzantines could no longer defend their isolated far western province. In all likelihood a local noble family came to power, still identifying themselves as vassals of the Byzantines, of those rulers, only two names are known, Salusios and the protospatharios Turcoturios, who probably reigned some time in the 10th and 11th centuries. They were still linked to the Byzantines, both by a pact of ancient vassalage and from culturally, with the use of the Greek language. In the early 11th century, Muslims based in Spain attempted to conquer the island, the only records of that war are from Pisan and Genoese chronicles. The Christians won but afterwards the previous Sardinian kingdom had been undermined and was divided into four small judicati, Cagliari, Arborea, Gallura, List of judges of Arborea, c. 1070–1410 List of judges of Cagliari, c, 1060–1258 List of judges of Gallura, c. 1070–1288 List of judges of Logudoro, c, in 1249, he was captured by his enemies and imprisoned in Bologna, where he died 26 years later. None of these rulers had authority over the whole island. In 1269, a faction in Logudoro elected Philip of Sicily as king of all Sardinia. James II of Aragon received royal investiture from Pope Boniface VIII in 1297 as Rex Sardiniae et Corsicae, the Aragonese did not take possession of the island until 1323, after a victorious military campaign against the Pisans. However, the Sardinian royal title did not have a line of succession. Between 1410 and 1412 there was an interregnum, Sardinia was taken over by Habsburg troops in 1708 during the War of the Spanish Succession in the name of the Habsburg claimant to the Spanish throne, Charles III. At the end of the war, Sardinia remained in Charles possession and, Spanish forces invaded the kingdom in 1717 during the War of the Quadruple Alliance
4.
Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia
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Charles Emmanuel III was the Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia from 1730 until his death. He was born a Prince of Savoy in Turin to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy and his maternal grandparents were Prince Philippe of France and his first wife Princess Henrietta Anne, the youngest daughter of King Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria of France. From his birth he was styled as the Duke of Aosta, at the time of his birth, Charles Emmanuel was not the heir to the Duchy of Savoy, his older brother Prince Victor Amadeus John Philip, Prince of Piedmont, was the heir apparent. Charles Emmanuel was the second of three males that would be born to his parents and his older brother died in 1715 and Charles Emmanuel then became heir apparent. As a result of his aid in the War of the Spanish Succession, Victor Amadeus was forced to exchange Sicily for the less important kingdom of Sardinia in 1720 after objections from an alliance of four nations, including several of his former allies. Yet he retained his new title of King, however, Victor Amadeus in his late years was dominated by shyness and sadness, probably under the effect of some mental illness. In the end, on 3 September 1730, he abdicated and he was not loved by Victor Amadeus, and consequently received an incomplete education. He however acquired noteworthy knowledge in the field along his father. In summer,1731, after having recovered from a fatal illness. The old king was confined to the Castle of Rivoli, where he died without any further harm to Charles. In the War of the Polish Succession Charles Emmanuel sided with the French- backed king Stanislaw I, after the treaty of alliance signed in Turin, on 28 October 1733 he marched on Milan and occupied Lombardy without significant losses. However, when France tried to convince Philip V of Spain to join the coalition, he asked to receive Milan and this was not acceptable for Charles Emmanuel, as it would recreate a Spanish domination in Italy as it had been in the previous centuries. While negotiations continued about the matter, the Savoy-French-Spanish troops attacked Mantua under the command of Charles Emmanuel himself. Sure that in the end Mantua would be assigned to Spain, the Franco-Piedmontese army was victorious in two battles at Crocetta and Guastalla. In the end, when Austria and France signed a peace, in exchange, he was given some territories, including Langhe, Tortona and Novara. Charles Emmanuel was involved in the War of the Austrian Succession, in which he sided with Maria Theresa of Austria, with financial and naval support from England. After noteworthy but inconclusive initial successes, he had to face the French-Spanish invasion of Savoy and, after a failed allied attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples, when the enemy army invaded Piedmont, in 1744 he personally defended Cuneo against the Spanish-French besiegers. The following year, with some 20,000 men, he was facing an invasion of two armies with a total of some 60,000 troops, the important strongholds of Alessandria, Asti and Casale fell
5.
King of Sicily
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See Emirate of Sicily Sicily was granted, pending its Christian reconquest, to Robert Guiscard as duke in 1059 by Pope Nicholas II. The Guiscard granted it as a county to his brother Roger, Roger II received royal investiture from Antipope Anacletus II in 1130 and recognition from Pope Innocent II in 1139. Constance was married to the Emperor Henry VI and he pressed his claim to the kingdom from William IIs death, there is evidence that, during the baronial revolt of 1197, there was an attempt to make Count Jordan Lupin of Bovino king in opposition to Henry VI. He may even have been crowned and seems to have had the support of Constance, in the end he was captured and executed. He is accepted as a pretender to the throne by modern historians Evelyn Jamison, Manfred was regent of Sicily for his nephew, the child Conrad II, but took the crown in 1258, and continued to fight to keep the kingdom under the Hohenstaufen. In 1254 the pope, having declared the kingdom a papal possession, offered the crown to the King of Englands son, Edmund Crouchback, but the English never succeeded in taking the kingdom. In 1262 the pope reversed his previous decision and granted the kingdom to the King of Frances brother, Charles of Anjou, conradin continued his claim to the throne until his death by decapitation perpetrated by Charles of Anjou in 1268. Edmund Crouchback, son of King Henry III of England, claimed the Crown of Sicily between 1254 and 1263, the claim was taken seriously by both him and his father, but was completely ineffectual. Peter III of Aragon, Manfreds son in law, of the House of Barcelona, thereafter the old Kingdom of Sicily was centred on the mainland, with capital at Naples, and although informally called Kingdom of Naples it was still known formally as Kingdom of Sicily. Thus, there were two Sicilies — the island kingdom, however, was often called Sicily beyond the Lighthouse or Trinacria, the Duke of Savoy ceded it to Austria in 1720 by the Treaty of The Hague. Charles I, Duke of Parma conquered the kingdom during the War of the Polish Succession, at the end of the war Sicily was ceded to the new Charles V of Sicily. In 1816 the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily were merged as the new Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, List of viceroys of Sicily List of Counts of Apulia and Calabria List of monarchs of Naples List of monarchs of the Two Sicilies
6.
Philip V of Spain
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Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV. His father, Louis, the Grand Dauphin, had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, Philip was the first member of the House of Bourbon to rule as king of Spain. The sum of his two reigns,45 years and 21 days, is the longest in modern Spanish history and he was a younger brother of Louis, Duke of Burgundy, the father of Louis XV of France. At birth, Philip was created Duke of Anjou, a title for younger sons in the French royal family. He would be known by name until he became the king of Spain. Philip was tutored with his brothers by François Fénelon, Archbishop of Cambrai, the three were also educated by Paul de Beauvilliers. In 1700 the King Charles II of Spain died childless and his will named the turning 17-year-old Philip, grandson of Charles half-sister Maria Theresa, the first wife of Louis XIV, as his successor. Upon any possible refusal, the crown of Spain would be offered next to Philips younger brother, Philip had the better genealogical claim to the Spanish throne, because his Spanish grandmother and great-grandmother were older than the ancestors of the Archduke Charles of Austria. However, the Austrian branch claimed that Philips grandmother had renounced the Spanish throne for herself and this was countered by the French branchs claim that it was on the basis of a dowry that had never been paid. After the Royal Council decided to accept the provisions of the will of Charles II naming Philip king of Spain, the ambassador, along with his son, knelt before Philip and made a long speech in Spanish which Philip did not understand, although Louis XIV did. Philip only later learned to speak Spanish, on 2 November 1701 the almost 18 year old Philip married the 13-year-old Maria Luisa of Savoy, as chosen by his grandfather King Louis XIV, by then an old man of 63. She was the daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, there was a proxy ceremony at Turin, the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, and another one at Versailles on 11 September. As queen of Spain, Maria Luisa proved very popular with her subjects and she served as regent for her husband on several occasions. Her most successful term was when Philip was away touring his Italian domains for nine months in 1702, in 1714, she died at the age of 26 from tuberculosis, a devastating emotional blow to her husband. The actions of Louis XIV heightened the fears of the English, the Dutch, however, a second act of the French king justified a hostile interpretation, pursuant to a treaty with Spain, Louis occupied several towns in the Spanish Netherlands. This was the spark that ignited the powder keg created by the issues of the War of the League of Augsburg. Almost immediately the War of the Spanish Succession began, inside Spain, the Crown of Castile supported Philip of France
7.
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
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Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria was an Archduchess of Austria and the younger sister of Empress Maria Theresa. Maria Amalia was born at the Hofburg Imperial Palace in Vienna and she was the last daughter of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Like her sister, Maria Anna, her birth was not well received by her father and she died at 19 April 1730, in Vienna. Maria Amalia was the last member of the Austrian Habsburgs, after the death of her father, who had no male heirs, the imperial crown passed to Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, as the husband of Maria Theresa. The Habsburg dynasty of Austria became extinct in the line with the death of Charles VI
8.
Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy
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Charles Emmanuel II,20 June 1634 –12 June 1675) was the Duke of Savoy from 1638 to 1675 and under regency of his mother Christine of France until 1648. He was also Marquis of Saluzzo, Count of Aosta, Geneva, Moriana and Nice, as well as claimant king of Cyprus, at his death in 1675 his second wife Marie Jeanne of Savoy acted as Regent for their nine-year-old son. He was born in Turin to Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy and his maternal grandparents were Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. In 1638 at the death of his older brother Francis Hyacinth, Duke of Savoy and his mother governed in his place, and even after reaching adulthood in 1648, he invited her to continue to rule. Charles Emmanuel continued a life of pleasure, far away from the affairs of state and he became notorious for his persecution of the Vaudois culminating in the massacre of 1655. The massacre was so brutal that it prompted the English poet John Milton to write the sonnet On the Late Massacre in Piedmont. Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector, called for a general fast in England, sir Samuel Morland was commissioned with that task. He later wrote The History of the Evangelical Churches of the Valleys of Piemont, only after the death of his mother in 1663, did he really assume power. He was not successful in gaining a passage to the sea at the expense of Genoa, but he greatly improved commerce and wealth in the Duchy, developing the port of Nice and building a road through the Alps towards France. He also reformed the army, which then was mostly composed of mercenaries, he formed instead five Piedmontese regiments and recreated cavalry. He constructed many buildings in Turin, for instance the Palazzo Reale. He died on 12 June 1675, leaving his wife as regent for his son. He is buried at Turin Cathedral, Charles Emmanuel first met Marie Jeanne of Savoy in 1659 and fell in love with her. They were married 3 April 1663 and his mother died at the end of 1663, and his first wife died at the start of 1664. This left him free to get married on 20 May 1665 to Marie Jeanne of Savoy,20 June 1634 –4 October 1638 His Highness Prince Charles Emmanuel of Savoy 4 October 1638 –12 June 1675 His Highness the Duke of Savoy Oresko, Robert. Maria Giovanna Battista of Savoy-Nemours, daughter, consort, and Regent of Savoy, queenship in Europe 1660-1815, The Role of the Consort
9.
Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours
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Marie Jeanne of Savoy was born a Princess of Savoy and became the Duchess of Savoy by marriage. First married by proxy to Charles of Lorraine in 1662, Lorraine soon refused to recognise the union and she married Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy in 1665 who was her kinsman. The mother of the future Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia who saw the elevation of the House of Savoy to kings and she acted as Regent of Savoy from 1675 in the name of her son Victor Amadeus II, who was her husbands successor. Her regency officially ended in 1680, but she maintained power until her son banished her from further influence in the state in 1684 and she left a considerable architectural legacy in Turin, and was responsible for the remodelling of the Palazzo Madama, which was her private residence. At the time of her death she was the mother of the King of Sardinia as well as grandmother of two other kings, Louis I of Spain and Louis XV of France. Marie Jeanne Baptiste de Savoie was born at the Hôtel de Nemours in Paris, through her mother, Marie Jeanne was a great grand daughter of Henry IV of France via her father César de Bourbon, Légitimé de France, whose mother was Gabrielle dEstrées. This made her a half-first-cousin once removed of Louis XIV and a relation to most Catholic royalty at that time and she was a member of the Nemours cadet branch of the House of Savoy, which had settled in France in the sixteenth century. Marie Jeanne grew up with her sister Marie Françoise, Mademoiselle dAumale who was born in 1646 and she was styled as Mademoiselle de Nemours prior to marriage. As a young girl she frequented the salon of the famous Madame de La Fayette who later introduced Marie Jeanne into correspondence with Madame de Sévigné and these relationships would give her insight to the French court during her years as regent. Her father died in 1652, killed in a duel with his brother-in-law François, for the next several years she and her family were under the guardianship of her paternal uncle Henri II the new Duke of Nemours, though Marie Jeanne had inherited many of her fathers income sources. At Henris death in 1659 the duchy of Nemours reverted to the crown, with two young daughters, her mother Élisabeth looked to her maternal family for support in getting them properly settled. Élisabeths mother was a princess of Lorraine and her family wanted a match with Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy, who was the son of Christine Marie of France. Christine Marie summoned Marie Jeanne, her mother, and sister to Turin in 1659 for inspection, Charles Emmanuel showed a keen interest in Marie Jeanne as a potential wife. However, his mother had been warned by Cardinal Mazarin of Marie Jeannes ambitious nature, Christine Marie arranged a marriage between her son and Françoise Madeleine dOrléans, who proved suitably docile for the controlling mother. This wedding took place in 1663, having returned to France, Mademoiselle de Nemours caught the attention of the dashing Prince Charles of Lorraine, heir of the Duke of Lorraine. The court of Portugal had previously requested her hand in marriage, Charles rank was similar to that of the Duke of Savoy and the match was pursued by Marie Jeannes mother. She became engaged to Charles on 4 February 1662, the match was a popular one with the French court, and the union was supported by Queen Anne. However, when the Treaty of Montmartre was signed two days later, the duchies of Lorraine and Bar were surrendered to Louis XIV and this left the duke of Lorraine landless, and drove him to join the imperial court
10.
Royal Palace of Turin
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The Royal Palace of Turin is a historic palace of the House of Savoy in the city of Turin in Northern Italy. It was originally built in the 16th century and was modernized by Christine Marie of France in the 17th century. The palace also includes the Palazzo Chiablese and the Chapel of the Holy Shroud, in 1946, the building became the property of the state and was turned into a museum. In 1997, it was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list along with 13 other residences of the House of Savoy, construction of the palace was ordered by the Regent Maria Christina in 1645. She wanted a new residence for the court after her son returned from the civil war. The chosen location was the previous Bishops Palace, which had built in the middle of the new capital of Savoy, Turin, during the reign of Emmanuel Philibert. Its advantages included an open and sunny position, in addition to being close to buildings where the court met. The Duke was able to monitor the two entrances of the city from the Bishops Palace, the Bishops Palace in Turin was later captured by the French in 1536 and served as a residence of the French Viceroys of Savoy, who were appointed by Francis I of France. Opposite the Bishops Palace was the Palazzo Vecchio or the Palazzo di San Giovanni and this building, disparagingly known as Pasta con Tonno because of its architecture, was later replaced by the grand Ducal Palace. Thus the old Bishops Palace became the seat of power and was expanded by Emmanuel Philibert to house his ever growing collection of art, animals, marbles. Emmanuel Philibert died in Turin in August 1580 and the Savoyard throne was handed down to his son, Charles Emmanuel I and his son, the future Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy, entered into a prestigious marriage when he married the French Princess Christine Marie of France. Their marriage took place in Paris at the Louvre in 1619, Victor Amadeus I succeeded to the Duchy of Savoy in 1630. He had previously spent his youth in Madrid at the court of his grandfather and his wife set the tone for Victor Amadeus Is reign. Christine Marie had the court moved from the palace in Turin to the Castello del Valentino. Many of Victor Amadeus I and Christine Maries children were born at Valentino, including Francis Hyacinth, Duke of Savoy and his successor Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy. Christine Marie became the regent of Savoy after the death of her husband in 1637 on behalf of her two sons, who succeeded as Dukes of Savoy. During the reign of Victor Amadeus II, the Daniel gallery was created and named after Daniel Seiter, Victor Amadeus II also had a collection of summer apartments built to look onto the court and a winter apartment overlooking the gardens. His wife was the niece of Louis XIV, born Anne Marie dOrléans, Louis XVs mother and aunt were born in the palace in 1685 and 1688, respectively
11.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
12.
Duchy of Savoy
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From 1416 to 1860, the Duchy of Savoy was a state in Western Europe. It was created by Sigismund, King of the Romans, raised the County of Savoy into a duchy for Duke Amadeus VIII, the duchy was a subject of the Holy Roman Empire with a vote in the Imperial Diet. From the 16th century, it belonged to the Upper Rhenish Circle, during all its history, it was ruled by the House of Savoy. The Duchy is considered to be a part of the Savoyard state, the Duchy was created in 1416 following Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, awarding the title Duke to Count Amadeus VIII. Being landlocked at its conception in 1388, the then-County of Savoy acquired a few kilometres of coastline around Nice, other than this expansion, the 14th century was generally a time of stagnation. Pressure from neighboring powers, particularly France, prevented development, which characterizes the rest of the Renaissance era for Savoy, the reign of Amadeus VIII was a turning point for the economy and the policy of the state, which deeply marked the history of the nation. His long reign was highlighted by wars, as well as reforms and edicts, the first was in 1434, when he chose to withdraw to the Château de Ripaille, where, living the life of a hermit, he founded the Order of St. Maurice. In 1439 he received an appointment as antipope which he accepted, the duke left the territory largely formed from the old Savoy domain. As a cultured and refined man, Duke Amadeus gave great importance to art, among others, he worked with the famous Giacomo Jaquerio) in literature and architecture, encouraging the entry of art to the Italian Piedmont. However, his first son Amedeo died prematurely in 1431, succeeded by his second son Louis, during this period, France was more or less free to control the affairs of Savoy, which bound Savoy to the crown in Paris. The Duchys economy suffered during these years, not only because of war, but also because of the administration by Violante. The future of the nation was entrusted to the hands of a boy, Philibert I and he was succeeded by Charles I, whose ascent to the throne seemed to promise a rebirth of the country. When Philibert II died in 1504, he was succeeded by Charles III the Good, since 1515, Savoy was occupied by foreign armies, and Francis I of France was just waiting for the opportunity to permanently annex the duchy of Savoy and its possessions. In 1536 Francis I ordered the occupation of the Duchy, which was invaded by a military contingent. Charles III realized too late the weakness of the state, however, the city was lost on April 3 of the same year. Charles III retired in Vercelli, trying to continue the fight, Emmanuel Philibert was the Duke who more than any influenced the future policy of Savoy, managing to put an end to the more than twenty-year long occupation. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, signed in 1559, restored full autonomy for the duchy, from his military experience in Flanders, Emmanuel Philibert learned how to run an army, having won the famous Battle of St. Quentin. He was the first Duke of Savoy to establish a stable military apparatus that was not composed of mercenaries but rather by specially trained Savoyan soldiers
13.
Castle of Rivoli
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The Castle of Rivoli is a former Residence of the Royal House of Savoy in Rivoli. It is currently home to the Castello di Rivoli - Museo dArte Contemporanea, the House of Savoy acquired Rivoli in the 11th century, and soon began a feud with the bishops that as soon as 1184 resulted in damage to the castle. In 1330 Amadeus VI of Savoy moved in the castle the Consiglio dei Principi, the castle was also the first place of public veneration of the Shroud of Turin in his path towards Turin under Amadeus IX. After a period of decline, the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis established that Duke Emmanuel Philibert could not reside in Turin until he had not a male child and he therefore set his residency in the Castle of Rivoli, having it restored by architect Ascanio Vitozzi. In 1562 heir Charles Emmanuel I was born, and he returned to Turin, numerous works of art were however stolen by French troops in the following years. Victor Amadeus II commissioned a new façade from Filippo Juvarra, Victor Amadeus lived here as a prisoner with his morganatic spouse the Marchesa di Spigno after his abdication and his failed attempt to regain the reign from his son Charles Emmanuel III. After his death, the castle was abandoned, and in 1863 the commune of Rivoli turned it into barracks. The edifice was damaged during World War II, and remained in a substantial state of abandon until 1979. In 1984 the castle was reopened as seat of the Museo di Arte Contemporanea, the castle also contains the Michelin-starred restaurant Combal. Zero. The first renovation works was made by the Turin architect Andrea Bruno, unfortunately, the initiative was not completed for the budget was only enough to repair the structure damages. A few years later, in 1967, the same Bruno proceed to break down the parts of the atrium. The palace is the setting for the play King Victor and King Charles by Robert Browning
14.
Basilica of Superga
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The Basilica of Superga is a church in the vicinity of Turin. It was built from 1717 to 1731 for Victor Amadeus II of Savoy, designed by Filippo Juvarra and this fulfilled a vow the duke had made during the Battle of Turin, after defeating the besieging French army within the War of the Spanish Succession. The architect alluded to earlier styles while adding a baroque touch, the church contains the tombs of many princes and kings of the House of Savoy, including the Monument to Carlo Emanuele III by Ignazio Collino and his brother Filippo. Under the church are the tombs of the Savoy family, including most of its members and this church by Juvarra is considered late Baroque-Classicism. The dome was completed in 1726 and resembles some elements of Michelangelos dome at St. Peters Basilica and this is no coincidence as Juvarra studied and worked in Rome for ten years prior to working in Turin. The temple front protrudes from a dome structure citing the Pantheon, the temple front is larger than typical proportions because the Superga is set upon this hill. It is also believed that Victor Amadeus wanted the basilica to rest on this hill as reminder of the power of the Savoy family as well as continue a line of sight to the castle in Rivolli. Later, the Stupinigi completed the triangle between the three residences of Savoy, the Royal Crypt of Superga is the burial place of the Savoy family. Victor Amadeus, having knelt down in front of an old prop, swore that, in case of victory, from dawn until the early hours of the afternoon of September 7 the armies clashed in the fields at Jaya and Madonna di Campagna. Piedmontese armies achieved victory over the French, the entrance of the basilica with its portico supported by eight columns. Vittorio Amedeo was crowned King of Sicily and he entrusted the design of this building to Filippo Juvarra. The mountain at which the Basilica is found was the site of the Superga air disaster of Grande Torino football team in 1949. The Royal crypt is the burial place of members of the House of Savoy, successively Dukes of Savoy, Kings of Sardinia. Two kings of Italy, Victor Emmanuel II and Umberto I have been interred in the Pantheon, Rome. The earlier generations of the House of Savoy as well as the last king of Italy, Umberto II, are buried in Hautecombe Abbey, padre Benedetto Marengo, La Basilica di Superga. Cenni storici del più grande monumento juvarriano, Tipografia Scarafaglio, Torino,1997 Reina Gabriele, Guadalupi Gianni, il Mausoleo dei Savoia, Omega,2008, ISBN 88-7241-528-4 official site
15.
Anna Canalis di Cumiana
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Anna Carlotta Teresa Canalis di Cumiana was the morganatic wife of Victor Amadeus II, King of Sardinia. She was created Marchesa of Spigno, born at the Palazzo Canalis, Turin in 1680, she was a daughter of Francesco Maurizio Canalis, Count of Cumiana and his wife Monica Francesca San Martino dAgliè. Receiving education as a nun at the Convent of the Visitation in Turin and she was made a lady-in-waiting to Marie Jeanne of Savoy, mother of the ruler, Victor Amadeus II. She was styled as Mademoiselle de Cumiana and she was married on 21 April 1703 to Ignazio Francesco Novarina, the Count of San Sebastiano, by whom she purportedly had seven children. The marriage was organised by Duchess Marie Jeanne, to whose household she belonged, the couples first child is widely believed to have been fathered by Victor Amadeus but San Sebastiano accepted paternity. Victor Amadeus and Anna were in correspondence and she became a confidante in place of his wife. Leaving the court in 1723 with her husband who had a good career and she was later elevated to the position of Polyxenas Lady of the Bedchamber. In August 1728 Victor Amadeuss consort Anne Marie dOrléans died after a series of heart attacks, two years later he married Anna in a private ceremony on 12 August 1730 in the Royal Chapel in Turin, having obtained permission from Pope Clement XII. Victor Amadeus created her Marchesa of Spigno, the title was attached to a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, acquired as spoils of the War of the Spanish Succession and subsequently owned by an illegitimate brother of Victor Amadeus. The couple made their marriage public on 3 September 1730, much to the dismay of the court, a month later, Victor Amadeus announced his wish to abdicate the throne and did so in a ceremony at the Castle of Rivoli on the day of his marriage. His son succeeded him as Charles Emmanuel III, taking the style of King Victor Amadeus, he and Anna moved into the château de Chambéry outside the capital. The couple took a retinue of servants and Victor Amadeus was kept informed of matters of state. Under the influence of Anna and despite having suffered a stroke in 1731, Victor Amadeus decided he wanted to resume his tenure on the throne and she was returned to him on 12 April. The stroke seemed to have affected Victor Amadeus in a way which caused him to turn violent toward his wife. King Victor Amadeus having died in September 1732, Anna was imprisoned in the Convent of San Giuseppe di Carignano and she was later moved to the Convent of the Visitation in Pinerolo where she died aged 88. Her son later left the Savoy court in disgrace but succeeded to the marquisate of Spigno and she was buried at Pinerolo in a grave without a headstone
16.
Maria Luisa of Savoy
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Maria Luisa of Savoy was a Savoyard princess and the first wife of Philip V of Spain. She acted as Regent of Spain and had influence over her husband. She is closely associated with Princesse des Ursins, throughout her life, Maria Luisa remained close to her older sister Maria Adelaide who later married Louis, Duke of Burgundy, the eldest grandson of Louis XIV. In her youth, Maria Luisa was described as playful and fun loving and had received a good education, Philip V of Spain, a French prince, was recently crowned King of Spain upon the death of childless Charles II. In order to enforce his authority over Spain due to his French birth, Philip V decided to maintain ties with Victor Amadeus II. Maria Luisa was wed by proxy to Philip V on 12 September 1701 at the age of thirteen and was escorted to Nice. While in Nice, she was greeted by Pope Clement XI who gave her the Golden Rose on 20 September as a gift for the young princess. Within a week, she sailed from Nice for Antibes and was taken to Barcelona, the official marriage took place on 2 November 1701. The Princesse des Ursins was a member of the household of the Queen and she would maintain great influence over Maria Luisa as her Camarera mayor de Palacio, chief of the household to the young queen, who was still a child. As Philip V, contrary to the custom of the time, actually shared a bedroom with Maria Luisa and she was also said to be very beautiful and intelligent. Unlike what was normal for a Spanish monarch, he slept in her bed the entire night. In 1702, Philip V was obliged to leave Spain to fight in Naples as part of the ongoing War of Spanish Succession, during her husbands absence, Maria Luisa acted as Regent from Madrid. She was praised as a ruler, having successfully implemented various changes in government and insisted upon all complaints being investigated. Her leadership encouraged the reorganization in the junta and, in doing this, inspiring people, despite being only fourteen at that time, Maria Luisas effective regency made her admired in Madrid and throughout Spain. After her husbands return in 1703, she resumed her role as queen consort, in 1704, the Princesse des Ursins was exiled at the order of Louis XIV, devastating Maria Luisa. However, in 1705, the Princesse returned to Madrid, much to the joy of the young queen, Maria Luisa gave birth to the couples first child, Infante Luis Felipe in 1707. Maria Luisa gave birth to three children, two of whom would survive infancy. Towards the end of her life, the Queen became ill and she eventually died from the effects of tuberculosis on 14 February 1714
17.
Maria Vittoria of Savoy
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Maria Vittoria of Savoy was a legitimated daughter of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, first king of the House of Savoy. Married to the head of a branch of the House of Savoy, she is an ancestor of the kings of Sardinia. Maria Vittoria Francesca di Savoia was the child of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia and his maîtresse-en-titre, born in Turin on 9 February 1690 while her father was reigning Duke of Savoy, her parents affair had begun in early 1689. Daughter of a French duke of distinguished ancestry and wife of a prominent Savoyard nobleman, initially she sought to avoid becoming a mistress of Victor Amadeus, but ambition prompted her husbands family and even the Dukes wife, Anne Marie dOrléans, to encourage the liaison. Her mothers popularity made her unpopular at the Savoyard court, Maria Vittorias father, jealous and obsessed with Jeanne Baptiste, eventually had her shut up from view of the court. Jeanne Baptiste decided to flee Savoy in 1700 and sought refuge in France from Louis XIV, when her mother fled Savoy in 1700, Maria Vittoria and her brother, Vittorio Francesco di Savoia, remained in the duchy under the care of their father. Her father legitimated Maria Vittoria and her brother Vittorio Francesco, making him the Marchese di Susa and granting her the version of that title. In 1713 Victor Emmanuel acquired royal dignity, becoming King of Sicily and her father was fond of Prince Victor Amadeus but in 1717, her husband was found to be deeply in debt and lost the Kings favour. As a result, Maria Vittorias husband fled to France in July 1718 during the Regency of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the couple settled in Paris at the court of the infant Louis XV, who lived at the Tuileries Palace. Her husband was created Intendant des Ménus Plaisirs – a sort of Master of Ceremonies by the Regent, Maria Vittoria and her husband led a scandalous life at the Hôtel de Soissons, turning it into one of the most dangerous for gambling in the capital. She also became an intimate of Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, Maria Vittoria is alleged to have intrigued with the Duke of Bourbon, reporting all to her father back in Savoy, effectively acting as a spy. She also reported attempts of Queen Marie Leszczyńska to influence Louis XV politically – which involved the Duke of Bourbons trying to dispose of Fleury, a move which ended very badly for the duke. The Queen is said to have sought Maria Vittorias advice as to how to reconcile with the King when he took offence at her attempts to interfere in his relations with Fleury. She advised the queen to henceforth discontinue all involvement in politics and act only as a model for the consort of the Most Christian King of France. Nonetheless, Maria Vittoria never became very intimate with the Queen, in 1726 she, Maria Vittoria saw her son marry Landgravine Christine of Hesse-Rotenburg, whose sister Caroline of Hesse had married the disgraced Duke of Bourbon in 1728, in 1740. Anna Teresa had one child, Victoire de Rohan, who would become the governess of Louis XVIs daughter. Maria Vittoria of Savoy-Carignan died in Paris on 8 July 1766 aged 76 and she was the paternal grandmother of the Princesse de Lamballe, tragic friend of Marie Antoinette
18.
Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont
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Victor Amadeus of Savoy was the eldest son of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy and his French wife Anne Marie dOrléans. He was the heir apparent of Savoy from his birth and as such was styled as the Prince of Piedmont and he acted as Regent of Savoy from September 1713 till September 1714 in the absences of his father. He died of smallpox at the age of 15, the Prince of Piedmont was born in Turin on 6 May 1699. He was the child and first son of his parents and was baptised with the names Vittorio Amadeo Giovanni Filippo. The eldest son he would close to his father all his life who in turn adored his son who was named after him. Though his parents were not close he also had a relationship with his mother Anne Marie dOrléans. From birth he was styled as the Prince of Piedmont, the style for the Heir apparent to the Duke of Savoy. Piedmont was born at a time when the House of Savoy was in need of a heir to succeed as the duchy observed Salic law which forbade females to inherit the throne. His birth was greeted with celebration and throughout his life. He was the brother of the Princess Maria Adelaide, wife of the Duke of Burgundy and his other sister was Queen Maria Luisa of Spain, wife of Philip V. In 1701 his brother Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta was born, during the Battle of Turin, he, his mother, grandmother and younger brother had to flee Turin for their safety and go to Genoa. His father took part in the battle which was played out to west of the city, the prince was moved from female care in 1708. In 1713, at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, by the Treaty of Utrecht, Sicily was ceded to the Duke of Savoy, as such, Piedmont became the heir to a Kingdom rather than a sovereign Duchy. In September his parents set off for Palermo in Sicily in order to be crowned officially, Victor Amadeus II asked his mother, Marie Jeanne of Savoy, to maintain a regency in his absence but she declined and Piedmont was give the post. Piedmonts regency ended when his father returned in September 1714, there were also negotiations for Piedmont to wed Infanta Francisca Josefa of Portugal or Elisabeth Farnese. Victor Amadeus died in Turin on 22 March 1715 having caught smallpox and he was buried at the Cathedral of Saint Giovanni Battista and later moved to the Basilica of Superga outside Turin. His body is located in the Sala degli Infanti and he was succeeded as Prince of Piedmont by his younger brother Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta. 6 May 1699 –11 April 1713 His Highness the Prince of Piedmont 11 April 1713 –22 March 1715 His Royal Highness the Prince of Piedmont
19.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
20.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
21.
House of Savoy
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The House of Savoy is one of the oldest royal families in the world, being founded in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, it grew from ruling a small county in that region to the attainment of the rank of king in 1713, the Savoyard kings of Italy were Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II. The last monarch ruled for a few weeks before being deposed following the Constitutional Referendum of 1946, the name derives from the historical region of Savoy in the Alpine region between what is now France and Italy. Over time, the House of Savoy expanded its territory and influence through judicious marriages, from rule of a small region on the French/Italian border, the dynastys realm included nearly all of the Italian Peninsula by the time of its deposition. The house descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, Humberts family are thought to have originated from near Magdeburg in Saxony, with the earliest recording of the family being two 10th century brothers, Amadeus and Humbert. Though Sabaudia was originally a county, later counts were diplomatically skilled. Two of Humberts sons were bishops at the Abbey of Saint Maurice on the River Rhone east of Lake Geneva and this diplomatic skill caused the great powers such as France, England, and Spain to take the counts opinions into account. Piedmont was later joined with Sabaudia, and the name evolved into Savoy, the people of Savoy were descended from the Celts and Romans. In 1494, Charles VIII of France passed through Savoy on his way to Italy and Naples, during the outbreak of the Italian war of 1521-1526, Emperor Charles V stationed imperial troops in Savoy. In 1536, Francis I of France invaded Savoy and Piedmont taking Turin by April of that year, Charles III, Duke of Savoy, fled to Vercelli. He served Philip II as Governor of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559, in this capacity he led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a victory at St. Quentin in 1557. He took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin and he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin. The 17th century brought economic development to the Turin area. Charles Emmanuel II developed the port of Nice and built a road through the Alps towards France, and through skillful political manoeuvres territorial expansion continued. Savoy rule over Sicily lasted only seven years, the crown of Sicily, the prestige of being kings at last, and the wealth of Palermo helped strengthen the House of Savoy further. In 1720 they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, on the mainland, the dynasty continued its expansionist policies as well. In 1798, Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate, eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna. In the meantime, nationalist figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini were influencing popular opinion, the Kingdom of Italy was the first Italian state to include the Italian Peninsula since the fall of the Roman Empire
22.
Roman Catholicism
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
23.
Marquis
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A marquess is a nobleman of hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The term is used to translate equivalent Asian styles, as in imperial China. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling of the aristocratic title of this rank is marquess. In Scotland the French spelling is sometimes used. In Great Britain and Ireland, the ranks below a duke. A woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness /ˌmɑːrʃəˈnɛs/ in Great Britain, the dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate. The theoretical distinction between a marquess and other titles has, since the Middle Ages, faded into obscurity. In times past, the distinction between a count and a marquess was that the land of a marquess, called a march, was on the border of the country, while a land, called a county. As a result of this, a marquess was trusted to defend and fortify against potentially hostile neighbours and was more important. The title is ranked below that of a duke, which was restricted to the royal family. In the German lands, a Margrave was a ruler of an immediate Imperial territory, German rulers did not confer the title of marquis, holders of marquisates in Central Europe were largely associated with the Italian and Spanish crowns. The word entered the English language from the Old French marchis in the late 13th or early 14th century, the French word was derived from marche, itself descended from the Middle Latin marca, from which the modern English words march and mark also descend. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling for an English aristocrat of this rank is marquess. The word marquess is unusual in English, ending in -ess but referring to a male, a woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness in Great Britain and Ireland, or a marquise /mɑːrˈkiːz/ elsewhere in Europe. The dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate, the honorific prefix The Most Honourable is a form of address that precedes the name of a marquess or marchioness in the United Kingdom. The rank of marquess was a late introduction to the British peerage, no marcher lords had the rank of marquess. The following list may still be incomplete, feminine forms follow after a slash, many languages have two words, one for the modern marquess and one for the original margrave. Even where neither title was used domestically, such duplication to describe foreign titles can exist
24.
Saluzzo
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Saluzzo is a town and former principality in the province of Cuneo, Piedmont region, Italy. The city of Saluzzo is built on a hill overlooking a vast, iron, lead, silver, marble, slate etc. are found in the surrounding mountains. It has a population of approximately 17,000, Saluzzo was the birthplace of the writer Silvio Pellico and of typographer Giambattista Bodoni. Saluzzo was a civitas of the Vagienni, or mountain Ligures and this district was brought under Roman control by the Consul Marcus Fulvius circa 125BC. The marquisate embraced the territory lying between the Alps, the Po and the Stura, and was extended on several occasions, in the Middle Ages it had a chequered existence, often being in conflict with powerful neighbours, chiefly the Counts of Savoy. After Manfred IIs death, his widow had to accept a series of tributes, thomas III, a vassal of France, wrote the romance Le chevalier errant. Ludovico I started the Golden Age of the city and imposed himself as a mediator between the neighbouring powers, Ludovico II constructed a tunnel, no longer in use, through the Monviso, a remarkable work for the time. He was a patron of clerics and authors, in 1490 Ludovico regained power, but after his deaths his sons struggled longly for the rule and impoverished the state. In 1588 Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy took possession of the city, thenceforward Saluzzo shared the destinies of Piedmont, with which it formed one of the keys of the house of Italy. The Marquisate of Saluzzo is the setting of Boccaccios tale of Griselda, Saluzzo Cathedral, Church was built in Lombard-Gothic style. The façade is decorated with rose-windows, frescoes and statues, the interior contains a magnificent Baroque high altar, plus a 16th-century terracotta group portraying the Deposition, ad Adoration of the Shepherds by Sebastiano Ricci. San Bernardo church formerly belonging to the Conventuals, has interesting tombs of the counts della Torre, San Giovanni, Dominican church begun in 1330 in Gothic style and completed in 1504 with Bramantesque influences. The apse, from 1504, houses a Funerary Chapel of Ludovico II, work by Antoine Le Moiturier covered with green stone, the sepulchre of Ludovico II is a Renaissance work by Benedetto Briosco. Annexed are the Gothic cloister and the Capitular Hall with the Mausoleum of a vicar-general of the marquisate, Galeazzo Cavassa di Carmagnola, casa Cavassa, site of the civic museum and rebuilt with a Renaissance interior. San Agostino and San Bernardino Town Hall is the former Jesuit College, while the older one, the 16th century Villa Belvedere has elegant rooms with late-Renaissance decorations. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles. LItalia da scoprire, Guide di BellItalia, ed. Giorgio Mondadori,2006
25.
Duke
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A duke or duchess can either be a monarch ruling over a duchy or a member of the nobility, historically of highest rank below the monarch. During the Middle Ages the title signified first among the Germanic monarchies, Dukes were the rulers of the provinces and the superiors of the counts in the cities and later, in the feudal monarchies, the highest-ranking peers of the king. During the 19th century many of the smaller German and Italian states were ruled by Dukes or Grand Dukes, but at present, with the exception of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, there are no dukes ruling as monarchs. Duke remains the highest hereditary title in Portugal, Spain, in Sweden, members of the Royal Family are given a personal dukedom at birth. The Pope, as a sovereign, has also, though rarely. In some realms the relative status of duke and prince, as borne by the nobility rather than by members of reigning dynasties, varied—e. g. in Italy. A woman who holds in her own right the title to such duchy or dukedom, Queen Elizabeth II, however, is known by tradition as Duke of Normandy in the Channel Islands and Duke of Lancaster in Lancashire. A duchy is the territory or geopolitical entity ruled by a duke, a dukedom is the title or status of a duke, a rank in the present or past nobility, and is not necessarily attached to a duchy. A few examples exist today, The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a independent state and its head. In Scotland the male heir apparent to the British crown is always the Duke of Rothesay as well, the Channel Islands are two of the three remaining Crown Dependencies, the last vestiges of the lands of the Duchy of Normandy. The Islanders in their loyal toast will say La Reine, notre Duc, however, the Channel Islands, part of the lost Duchy, remained a self-governing possession of the English Crown. While the islands today retain autonomy in government, they owe allegiance to The Queen in her role as Duke of Normandy. During the Middle Ages, after Roman power in Western Europe collapsed, in 1332, Robert of Taranto succeeded his father, Philip. John took the style of Duke of Durazzo, in 1368, Durazzo fell to Karl Thopia, who was recognized by Venice as Prince of Albania. The Visigoths retained the Roman divisions of their kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula and they were the most powerful landowners and, along with the bishops, elected the king, usually from their own midst. They were the commanders and in this capacity often acted independently from the king. The army was structured decimally with the highest unit, the thiufa, the cities were commanded by counts, who were in turn answerable to the dukes, who called up the thiufae when necessary. When the Lombards entered Italy, the Latin chroniclers called their war leaders duces in the old fashion and these leaders eventually became the provincial rulers, each with a recognized seat of government
26.
Montferrat
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Montferrat is part of the region of Piedmont in Northern Italy. It comprises roughly the provinces of Alessandria and Asti. Montferrat is one of the most important wine districts of Italy and it also has a strong literary tradition, including the 18th century Asti-born poet and dramatist Vittorio Alfieri and the Alessandrian Umberto Eco. The territory is cut in two by the river Tanaro, the northern part, which lies between that river and the Po, is an area of rolling hills and plains. The southern part rises from the banks of the Tanaro into the mountains of the Apennines, on 22 June 2014, Montferrat was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its marchesi and their members were related to the Kings of France. Members of the family participated frequently in the Crusades, and intermarried with the family of Jerusalem. The March of Montferrat was briefly controlled by Spain before it passed to the Gonzaga Dukes of Mantua, in 1574, Montferrat was raised to a Duchy by Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor. The next heir of the House of Gonzaga was later compensated by giving Duchy of Teschen in Silesia to them, there are various interpretations and assumptions concerning the etymology of Monferrato, but to date none are certain. Still another refers to the left by the Romans in their conquest. It is bounded on the north and east by the rivers Po, Asti is the geographical heart of this macro-region, bordered on the south by the valley of the river Belbo and west roughly from the path of the stream Versa and whose right side is located Asti. The highest point of the area is the hill of Albugnano of 549 meters above sea level, the main center is Acqui Terme. The sea covered the hill of Turin, the Langhe, Montferrat, the rotation of the Corsica-Sardinia block opposed by the African block produced a pressure that gave rise to the Apennines. In the period from 7 to 5 million years ago the Mediterranean Sea was closed and remained isolated from the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently, the Mediterranean Sea was opened, and the water began to circulate between the Alps and the Apennines had formed a triangular gulf that covered the entire Po Valley. The marine deposits of this period are visible in the area of Asti, Monferrato is one of the most famous Italian wine regions in the world, especially regarding red wines and sparkling wines. The widespread dissemination of indigenous grapes and consequently a wide variety of wines, among the wines, the most famous are Barbera dAsti, Asti spumante, Moscato dAsti, Cortese, Malvasia, and Grignolino. The Monferrato, together with Alba, is known for the production of truffles, there are many fairs in this trade
27.
Prince
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A prince is a male ruler, monarch, or member of a monarchs or former monarchs family. Prince is also a title in the nobility of some European states. The feminine equivalent is a princess, the English word derives, via the French word prince, from the Latin noun princeps, from primus + capio, meaning the chief, most distinguished, ruler, prince. The Latin word prīnceps, became the title of the informal leader of the Roman senate some centuries before the transition to empire. Emperor Augustus established the position of monarch on the basis of principate. The term may be used of persons in various cultures. These titles were borne by courtesy and preserved by tradition, not law, in medieval and Early Modern Europe, there were as many as two hundred such territories, especially in Italy, Germany, and Gaelic Ireland. In this sense, prince is used of any and all rulers and this is the Renaissance use of the term found in Niccolò Machiavellis famous work, Il Principe. Most small territories designated as principalities during feudal eras were allodial and this is attested in some surviving styles for e. g. British earls, marquesses, and dukes are still addressed by the Crown on ceremonial occasions as high, in parts of the Holy Roman Empire in which primogeniture did not prevail, all legitimate agnates had an equal right to the familys hereditary titles. Gradual substitution of the title of Prinz for the title of Fürst occurred. Both Prinz and Fürst are translated into English as prince, but they not only different. This distinction had evolved before the 18th century for dynasties headed by a Fürst in Germany, note that the princely title was used as a prefix to his Christian name, which also became customary. Cadets of Frances other princes étrangers affected similar usage under the Bourbon kings, the post-medieval rank of gefürsteter Graf embraced but elevated the German equivalent of the intermediate French, English and Spanish nobles. By the 19th century, cadets of a Fürst would become known as Prinzen, the husband of a queen regnant is usually titled prince consort or simply prince, whereas the wives of male monarchs take the female equivalent of their husbands title. In Brazil, Portugal and Spain, however, the husband of a monarch was accorded the masculine equivalent of her title. To complicate matters, the style His/Her Highness, a prefix often accompanying the title of a dynastic prince, although the arrangement set out above is the one that is most commonly understood, there are also different systems. Depending on country, epoch, and translation, other usages of prince are possible, foreign-language titles such as Italian principe, French prince, German Fürst and Prinz, Russian knyaz, etc. are usually translated as prince in English
28.
Piedmont
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Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.6 million, the capital of Piedmont is Turin. The name Piedmont comes from medieval Latin Pedemontium or Pedemontis, i. e. ad pedem montium, meaning “at the foot of the mountains”. Other towns of Piedmont with more than 20,000 inhabitants sorted by population and it borders with France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment with Emilia Romagna. The geography of Piedmont is 43. 3% mountainous, along with areas of hills. Piedmont is the second largest of Italys 20 regions, after Sicily and it is broadly coincident with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po, which rises from the slopes of Monviso in the west of the region and is Italy’s largest river. The Po collects all the waters provided within the semicircle of mountains which surround the region on three sides, from the highest peaks the land slopes down to hilly areas, and then to the upper, and then to the lower great Padan Plain. 7. 6% of the territory is considered protected area. There are 56 different national or regional parks, one of the most famous is the Gran Paradiso National Park located between Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They were later subdued by the Romans, who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. In the 9th–10th centuries there were incursions by the Magyars. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks, in 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry. Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful comuni of Asti and Alessandria, the County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont. A new client republic, the Piedmontese Republic, existed between 1798 and 1799 before it was reoccupied by Austrian and Russian troops, in June 1800 a third client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont. It fell under full French control in 1801 and it was annexed by France in September 1802, in the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was a springboard for Italys unification in 1859–1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820–1821 and this process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were countered by the efforts of rural farmers
29.
Count
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Count or countess is a title in European countries for a noble of varying status, but historically deemed to convey an approximate rank intermediate between the highest and lowest titles of nobility. The word count came into English from the French comte, itself from Latin comes—in its accusative comitem—meaning “companion”, the adjective form of the word is comital. The British and Irish equivalent is an earl, alternative names for the count rank in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as Graf in Germany and Hakushaku during the Japanese Imperial era. In the Western Roman Empire, Count came to indicate generically a military commander, in the Eastern Roman Empire, from about the seventh century, count was a specific rank indicating the commander of two centuries. Military counts in the Late Empire and the Germanic successor kingdoms were often appointed by a dux, the position of comes was originally not hereditary. By virtue of their estates, many counts could pass the title to their heirs—but not always. For instance, in Piast Poland, the position of komes was not hereditary, the title had disappeared by the era of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the office had been replaced by others. Only after the Partitions of Poland did the title of count resurface in the title hrabia, in the United Kingdom, the equivalent Earl can also be used as a courtesy title for the eldest son of a duke or marquess. In Italy, by contrast, all the sons of certain counts were counts, in Sweden there is a distinction between counts created before and after 1809. All children in comital families elevated before 1809 are called count/countess, the following lists are originally based on a Glossary on Heraldica. org by Alexander Krischnig. The male form is followed by the female, and when available, apart from all these, a few unusual titles have been of comital rank, not necessarily to remain there. Dauphin was a comital title in southern France, used by the Dauphins of Vienne and Auvergne. The Dauphin was the lord of the province known as the région Dauphiné. Conde-Barão Count-Baron is a title used in Portugal, notably by D. Luís Lobo da Silveira, 7th Baron of Alvito. His palace in Lisbon still exists, located in a named after him. The German Graf and Dutch graaf stems from the Byzantine-Greek grapheus meaning he who calls a meeting together), the Ottoman military title of Serdar was used in Montenegro and Serbia as a lesser noble title with the equivalent rank of a Count. Since Louis VII, the highest precedence amongst the vassals of the French crown was enjoyed by those whose benefice or temporal fief was a pairie, i. e. In the eleventh century, conti like the Count of Savoy or the Norman Count of Apulia, were virtually sovereign lords of broad territories
30.
Aosta
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Aosta is the principal city of Aosta Valley, a bilingual region in the Italian Alps,110 km north-northwest of Turin. It is situated near the Italian entrance of the Mont Blanc Tunnel, at the confluence of the Buthier and the Doire baltée, Aosta is not the capital of the province, because Aosta Valley is the only Italian region not divided into provinces. Provincial administrative functions are shared by the region and the communes. Aosta was settled in times and later became a centre of the Salassi. The campaign was led by Terentius Varro, who founded the Roman colony of Augusta Praetoria Salassorum. After 11 BC Aosta became the capital of the Alpes Graies province of the Empire. Its position at the confluence of two rivers, at the end of the Great and the Little St Bernard Pass, gave it military importance. After the fall of the Western Empire, the city was conquered, in turn, by the Burgundians, the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, who had annexed it to their Italian kingdom, were expelled by the Frankish Empire under Pepin the Short. Under his son, Charlemagne, Aosta acquired importance as a post on the Via Francigena, after 888 AD it was part of the renewed Kingdom of Italy under Arduin of Ivrea and Berengar of Friuli. In the 10th century Aosta became part of the Kingdom of Burgundy, after the fall of the latter in 1032, it became part of the lands of Count Humbert I of Savoy. The ancient town walls of Augusta Prætoria Salassorum are still preserved almost in their entirety and they are 6.4 metres high, built of concrete faced with small blocks of stone. At the bottom, the walls are nearly 2.75 metres thick, towers stand at angles to the enceinte and others are positioned at intervals, with two at each of the four gates, making twenty towers in total. They are roughly 6.5 metres square, and project 4.3 metres from the wall. Of the 20 original towers, the following are well preserved, Le lépreux de la cité dAoste, a novel by Xavier de Maistre, is also named after this leper. Tower of Bramafan, built in the 11th century over a Roman bastion and it was the residence of the Savoy viscounts. The Franco-Provençal term Bramafan is translated as He who screams for hunger, the east and south gates exist intact. The latter, a gate with three arches flanked by two towers known as the Porta Praetoria was the eastern gate to the city, and has preserved its original forms apart from the marble covering. It is formed by two series of arches enclosing a small square, the rectangular arrangement of the streets is modeled on a Roman plan dividing the town into 64 blocks
31.
Moriana
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Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is a commune in the Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department and it lies in the Maurienne, the valley of the River Arc. It was also an Episcopal See of Savoy during the Ancien Régime and its original name was simply Maurienne, or Moriana in Italian and Latin. Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is located at the confluence of the Arc, a river which has shaped the Maurienne Valley, the neighbouring communes of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne are Saint-Julien-Mont-Denis, Jarrier, Hermillon, Villargondran, Albiez-le-Jeune, Albiez-Montrond, Saint-Pancrace and Pontamafrey-Montpascal. The climate is the type because of the presence of the Alpine Massif. Route nationale 6 A43 autoroute Col de la Croix de Fer Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is located on the route of the future new Lyon-Turin rail link, homes, businesses, the SNCF railway station and the rescue centre are fully affected by this project. Responsible for the studies, the Lyon Turin Railway company foresees the installation of a new station in the Sous-le-Bourg quarter, serving the historic line. Geological and topographical investigations are underway and this project promises to be even more complex than that of the Channel Tunnel. The town of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is equipped with a network of public transport run by the Communauté de communes Cœur de Maurienne, a heliport is available for the helicopter of the gendarmerie whose base is located in Modane. La Bastille, les Chaudannes and les Clapeys are the three main quarters, the total number of dwellings in the commune is 4,240. Among such housing,87. 9% are principal residences,5. 4% are secondary homes and 6. 7% are vacant dwellings. These accommodations have a share of 17. 5% as individual houses,79. 3% as apartments, the number of residents who own their homes is 37. 9%. This is lower than the average which adds up to nearly 55. 3%. The number of tenants is 56. 7% throughout the housing which is higher than the average of 39. 8%. It may be noted also that 5. 4% of the inhabitants of the commune are people who are housed for free while at the level of the whole of the France the percentage is 4. 9%. Still on all of the municipality housing,3. 5% are studios,11. 5% are two-room housing,28. 4% have three,34. 5% of dwellings have four rooms, and 22. 1% of dwellings have five rooms or more. Locality named after John the Baptist, the precursor, who was born in Ain-Karim, son of Zechariah and Saint Elizabeth, cousin of Jesus, Latin name, Mauriana Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne has been the capital of the Maurienne Valley since the 6th century. The oldest possessions of the Counts of Savoy were the counties of Maurienne, Savoy proper, the Duchy of Savoy, which had been a French-speaking province under the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, was invaded by Revolutionary France, but restored to Piedmont in 1815
32.
Nice
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Nice is the fifth most populous city in France and the capital of the Alpes-Maritimes département. The urban area of Nice extends beyond the city limits. Nice is about 13 kilometres from the principality of Monaco, the city is nicknamed Nice la Belle, which means Nice the Beautiful, which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of todays Nice contains Terra Amata, a site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia, after Nike, through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength, for centuries it was a dominion of Savoy, and was then part of France between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to Piedmont-Sardinia until its re-annexation by France in 1860. The citys main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais owes its name to visitors to the resort, for decades now, the picturesque Nicean surroundings have attracted not only those in search of relaxation, but also those seeking inspiration. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to some of Western cultures most outstanding painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse. Nice has the second largest hotel capacity in the country and it is one of its most visited cities and it also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the capital city of the County of Nice. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by the Greeks of Massalia, the ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice. In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens, but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, during the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, during the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town, the landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill, another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the area was also defended by walls
33.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
34.
War of the Spanish Succession
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The War of the Spanish Succession was a major European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death in 1700 of the last Habsburg King of Spain, the infirm and childless Charles II. Charles II had ruled over a vast global empire, and the question of who would succeed him had long troubled the governments of Europe, the English, the Dutch and the Austrians formally declared war in May 1702. By 1708, the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy had secured victory in the Spanish Netherlands and in Italy, France faced invasion and ruin, but Allied unity broke first. With the Grand Alliance defeated in Spain and with its casualties mounting and aims diverging, French and British ministers prepared the groundwork for a peace conference, and in 1712 Britain ceased combat operations. The Dutch, Austrians, and German states fought on to strengthen their own negotiating position, the Treaty of Utrecht and the Treaty of Rastatt partitioned the Spanish empire between the major and minor powers. The European balance of power was assured, in the late 1690s the declining health of King Charles II of Spain brought to a head the problem of his succession, a problem which had underlain much of European diplomacy for several decades. The empire was in decline, but remained the largest of the European overseas empires, unlike the French crown, the Spanish crowns could all be inherited by, or through, a female in default of a male line. The next in line after Charles II, therefore, were his two sisters, Maria Theresa, the elder, and Margaret Theresa, the younger, Maria Theresa had married Louis XIV in 1660 and by him she had a son, Louis, Dauphin of France. The testament of her father, Philip IV, reiterated this waiver and bequeathed the reversion of the whole of the Spanish dominions to his younger daughter, Margaret Theresa. However the French, using in part the excuse that the dowry promised Maria Theresa was never paid, nor was it clear whether a princess could waive the rights of her unborn children. Leopold I married Margaret Theresa in 1666, at her death in 1673 she left one living heir, Maria Antonia, who in 1685 married Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. Shortly before her death in 1692, she gave birth to a son, if he chose, Louis XIV could attempt to assert his will on Spain by force of arms, but the Nine Years War had been an immense drain on Frances resources. To seek a solution and gain support, Louis XIV turned to his long-standing rival William of Orange. England and the Dutch Republic had their own commercial, strategic and political interests within the Spanish empire, however, the Maritime Powers were in a weakened state and both had reduced their forces at the conclusion of the Nine Years War. Louis XIV and William III, therefore, sought to solve the problem of the Spanish inheritance through negotiation, based on the principle of partition, to take effect after the death of Charles II. However, the bulk of the empire – most of peninsular Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Spanish Empire was now divided between the three surviving candidates. By this new treaty Archduke Charles would receive most of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, and the overseas empire. For Leopold I, however, control of Spain and its empire was less important than Italy
35.
Kingdom of Sicily under Savoy
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The Kingdom of Sicily was ruled by the House of Savoy from 1713 until 1720, although they lost control of it in 1718 and did not relinquish their title to it until 1723. The only king of Sicily from the House of Savoy was Victor Amadeus II, during this period, the Savoyard monarch used his new title to affirm his sovereign independence. Victor Amadeuss policy towards Sicily was to bring it more in line with his mainland possessions and his own domain was weakened by the addition of Sicily, becoming more fragmented and extended, and more composite. He was finally forced to renounce Sicily in exchange for Sardinia, the death of Prince Joseph Ferdinand, heir to the Spanish empire, on 6 February 1699 rendered the First Partition Treaty of 1698 inoperative. In subsequent negotiations, Louis XIV of France proposed that Victor Amadeus II cede his lands to France in exchange for the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, both possessions of the Spanish. This proposal was rejected by Victor Amadeus, who was unwilling to part with the Principality of Piedmont, although he was willing to cede the Duchy of Savoy and County of Nice. The succession question was unsolved at the death of Charles II of Spain, during the war, Savoy allied with Great Britain against France. When peace negotiations began in 1709, the British argued, partly in their own interests as well as those of Savoy, for giving the Savoyards the thrones of Sicily, Victor Amadeus real interest was in acquiring the Duchy of Milan. In 1710 at Geertruydenberg, the Dutch pensionary Anthonie Heinsius and the Imperial envoy Karl von Zinzendorf mooted proposals for the Savoyard acquisition of Milan or Sicily. The Savoyard ambassador, the Marchese del Borgo, suggested exchanging the Savoyard state for Naples, Sicily, the French were informed the same day, and on 4 September Philip V of Spain consented to relinquish his claim on Sicily. The division of the Spanish empire was designed in part to recognise Savoys claim to the Spanish inheritance and these limitations were written into the subsequent Treaty of Utrecht between France and Savoy. In the interim the new king had attempted to exchange it for territory closer to his Piedmontese domains, the formal handover of power was conducted on 10 June, and a final treaty of peace between Savoy and Spain was signed on 13 July. Victor Amadeus was made the heir to the Spanish empire if Philip produced no heirs, Philip retained second sovereignty over several fiefs in Sicily, lands he had seized from pro-Habsburg vassals during the war, such as the County of Modica. The end of the war and Victor Amadeus rise in status were celebrated in the streets of Turin from 1–3 August, ending in gun salutes, fireworks and a Te Deum. In October 1713, Victor Amadeus and his wife, Anne Marie dOrléans, the last Spanish viceroy evacuated his troops, and the new kings arrival was greeted with jubilation. The king and queen were crowned in the cathedral of Palermo on 24 December, in February 1714 the Sicilian Parliament convened to swear an oath of allegiance to their new sovereign. Victor Amadeus also received the Maltese falcon, the tribute of the Knights of Malta to their Sicilian overlord. In September 1714 he ordered a census of people, animals and rents, although it received Piedmontese aid to meet its budge, Sicily was found to have surpluses of grain, olive oil and raw silk, and Palermo was a centre of manufacturing and a thriving port
36.
Kingdom of Sardinia
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The Kingdom of Sardinia was a state in Southern Europe which existed from the early 14th until the mid-19th century. It was the state of todays Italy. When it was acquired by the Duke of Savoy in 1720, however, the Savoyards united it with their possessions on the Italian mainland and, by the time of the Crimean War in 1853, had built the resulting kingdom into a strong power. The formal name of the entire Savoyard state was the States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia and its final capital was Turin, the capital of Savoy since the Middle Ages. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia, in 1420 the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire, in 1720 it was ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. While in theory the traditional capital of the island of Sardinia and seat of its viceroys was Cagliari, the Congress of Vienna, which restructured Europe after Napoleons defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria, taken from the Republic of Genoa. In 1847–48, in a fusion, the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system, with the capital in Turin, and granted a constitution. There followed the annexation of Lombardy, the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies, Venetia, in 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century, when it was occupied by the Vandals, in 534 AD it was reconquered by the Romans, but now from the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium. It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century, after that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Starting from 705–706, Saracens from north Africa harassed the population of the coastal cities, information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from the Balearics, the Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicatus with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa, free cities of the Holy Roman Empire. Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the republics of Pisa. Even the title of Judices was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, of these sovereigns only two names are known, Turcoturiu and Salusiu, who probably ruled in the 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the first documents of the Judex of Cagliari, their successor, was written in romance Sardinian language. The realm was divided into four kingdoms, the Judicati, perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the Pope. That was the cause of leading to a long war between the Judices, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles
37.
Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi
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The Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy in northern Italy, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list. Built as a hunting lodge in the early 18th century, it is located in Stupinigi. The original castle was owned by the Acaja line of the House of Savoy, Lords of Piedmont until 1418 and it was then acquired by Emmanuel Philibert in 1563, when the ducal capital was moved from Chambéry to Turin. The new palace was designed by the architect Filippo Juvarra to be used as a palazzina di caccia for Victor Amadeus II, within two years construction was far enough advanced for the first formal hunt to take place. Juvarra called upon a team of decorators, many of them from Venice, the final building has a total of 137 rooms and 17 galleries, and covers 31,050 square meters. Polissena of Hesse-Rotenburg, wife of Carlo Emanuele III also carried out improvements, the original purpose of the hunting lodge is symbolized by the bronze stag perched at the apex of the stepped roof of its central dome, and the hounds heads that decorate the vases on the roofline. The building has a plan, four angled wings project from the oval-shaped main hall. The extensions resulted in separate pavilions linked by long angled galleries, Stupinigi was the preferred building to be used for celebrations and dynastic weddings by members of the House of Savoy. Here, in 1773, Maria Teresa, Princess of Savoy, married Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, brother of Louis XVI and the future Charles X of France. Stupinigi has the most important collection of Piedmontese furniture, including works by Turins three most famous Royal cabinet-makers, Giuseppe Maria Bonzanigo, Pietro Piffetti and Luigi Prinotti, some of the sculptures of hunting figures are by Giovanni Battista Bernero. Additionally, temporary exhibitions are held in its galleries, such as the Mostra del Barocco. The hunting park that belonged to a branch of the House of Savoia was given to Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy in 1563, since 1992, woods and agricultural land surrounding Stupinigi have been preserved as the Parco naturale di Stupinigi. Wildlife includes beech martens, weasels, foxes, hazel dormouses, European hares, white storks, tree squirrels, list of Baroque residences Roberto, Baffert, Francesco Fenoglio. Castelvecchio di Stupinigi, storia e trasformazioni, page at Piemonte on line Visiting information Pages by the Park Authority on Parks. it Photos
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Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy
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Victor Amadeus I was the Duke of Savoy from 1630-37. He was titular King of Cyprus and Jerusalem and he was also known as the Lion of Susa. He was born in Turin, Piedmont to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and Catherine Micaela of Spain and he spent much of his childhood at the Spanish court in Madrid, at the court of his grandfather Philip II. He stayed there until the death in 1598, when Victor Amadeus was 11. When his brother, Filippo Emanuele, died in 1605, he became heir to the Duchy of Savoy. Victor Amadeus became Duke of Savoy after his fathers death in 1630, Charles Emmanuels policies had brought a great instability in the relationships with both France and Spain, and troops were needed to defend the Duchy. As money was lacking to recruit mercenaries or train indigenous soldiers, with the Treaty of Cherasco, Savoy was forced to give Pinerolo to France. This gave France a strategic route into the heart of Savoy territory, the rulers of Savoy from that point resented this loss, and worked for decades with the goal of regaining that loss. Subsequently, under the direction of Cardinal Richelieu, Victor Amadeus attempted to create a league in Italy. He achieved two victories against the Spanish, In 1636 in the Battle of Tornavento and on 8 September 1637 in the Battle of Mombaldone, on 25 September of that year, Victor Amadeus fell ill after a dinner offered by the Duke of Créqui. He was carried to Vercelli, where he died on 7 October, in 1619, he married Christine Marie of France, a daughter of Henry IV of France and Marie de Medici. Following his death, she served as regent of the Duchy from 1637 to 1663, war, Diplomacy and the Rise of Savoy 1690-1720
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Heir apparent
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An heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person. An heir presumptive, by contrast, is someone who is first in line to inherit a title, today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles, particularly monarchies. They are also used metaphorically to indicate an anointed successor to any position of power, in France the title was le Dauphin. See crown prince for more examples and this article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture—as opposed to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir. An heir presumptive, by contrast, can always be bumped down in the succession by the birth of more closely related in a legal sense to the current title-holder. The clearest example occurs in the case of a title-holder with no children, if at any time he or she were to produce children, they rank ahead of whatever more distant relative had been heir presumptive. Many legal systems assume childbirth is always possible regardless of age or health, in such circumstances a person may be, in a practical sense, the heir apparent but still, legally speaking, heir presumptive. Adelaide was 44 at the time, so pregnancy was even if unlikely. Daughters may inherit titles that descend according to male-preference primogeniture, thus, normally, even an only daughter will not be heir apparent, since at any time a brother might be born who, though younger, would assume that position. Hence, she is an heir presumptive, for example, Queen Elizabeth II was heir presumptive during the reign of her father, King George VI, because at any stage up to his death, George could have fathered a legitimate son. In a system of absolute primogeniture that disregards gender, female heirs apparent occur, several European monarchies that have adopted such systems in the last few decades furnish practical examples. Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway is heir apparent to her father, Victoria was not heir apparent from birth, but gained the status in 1980 following a change in the Swedish Act of Succession. Her younger brother Carl Philip was thus heir apparent for a few months, then, as the representative of her fathers line she would assume a place ahead of any more distant relatives. Such a situation has not to date occurred with the English or British throne, several times an heir apparent has died, however, there have been several female heirs apparent to British peerages. In one special case, however, England and Scotland had an heir apparent. William, by contrast, was to reign for life only, thus, although after Marys death William continued to reign, he had no power to beget direct heirs, and Anne became the heir apparent for the remainder of Williams reign. She eventually succeeded him as Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland, the position of an heir apparent is normally unshakable, it can be assumed they will inherit. Sometimes, however, extraordinary events—such as the death or the deposition of the parent—intervene
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Peter II of Portugal
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He was the fifth and last child of King John IV and his wife Queen Luisa de Guzmán. Third son of King John IV and Queen Luisa, he was created Duke of Beja, following his fathers death, his mother became regent for the new king Afonso VI, Peters elder, partially paralysed, and mentally unstable brother. In 1662 Afonso put away his mother and assumed control of the state, Peter not only inherited his brothers throne but also wed his widow, Queen Marie-Françoise of Savoy. They had one daughter, Isabel Luísa, Princess of Beira, a Sempre-Noiva, because of the many marriage projects intended for her that never came to fruition. Peter consolidated Portugals independence with the signing of the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, putting the wars of Restoration and he formed an alliance with Britain and had its decisive support based on marriage clauses that united Charles II of England with his sister Catherine of Braganza in 1661. In exchange, Britain would give Lisbon military support, protecting Portuguese shipments in the Mediterranean, the British alliance was decisive in the consolidation of Peters leadership. He centralized the power and dissolved the excessive strength the nobility had gained after the death of John IV in 1656. His long tenure was one of important accomplishments, in 1671 he conceded freedom of commerce to the British residing in Portugal and began the establishment of textile manufactures. Dona Isabel Luisa was proclaimed heiress to the throne at the Cortes of 1674, Peter promulgating a letter «on the regencies, the Cortes didnt attend to totality of his request, but the great aprehension was in the coastal defense. «The shipments from India and Brazil were the object of greed», says Veríssimo Serrão, «History of Portugal», Volume V, page 213. The squadron left the Tejo on 21 July 1675, under the command of Pedro Jacques de Magalhães, but the results of such a costly undertaking were none. » There was a legal impediment to the marriage of his daughter with her cousin, the Duke of Savoy. The so-called «Law of the Cortes of Lamego» prevented the marriage of an heiress with a foreign prince and this alleged document became fundamental law of the Realm in 1640. The Cortes, called on 1 November 1679, proceeded with the derogation, by then the ambassador of Savoy, the Marquis of Ornano, had come to Lisbon to celebrate the marriage by proxy. In 1683 died the King Afonso VI and Queen Maria Francisca, in court there was a strong «French party», headed by the Duke of Cadaval, the then Count of Vila Maior and by the Viscount of Ponte de Lima, but others favored a closer alliance with Spain. By marrying again, Peter II chose the sister of the Queen of Spain, daughter of Philipp Wilhelm, the new Queen, Maria Sophia of Neuburg, never influenced political life, maintaining a low profile. The couple had eight children, including the younger John, who succeeded his father in 1706 as King John V of Portugal, Peter initially supported France and Spain in the War of Spanish Succession, but on 16 May 1703, Portugal and Great Britain signed the Methuen Treaty. This trade accord granted mutual commercial privileges for Portuguese wine and English textile traders and this was followed in December 1703 by a military alliance between Portugal, Austria and Great Britain for an invasion of Spain. Portuguese and Allied forces, under the command of the Marquis of Minas, captured Madrid in 1706, Peter obtained papal approval for the elevation of the Bahia bishopric to the category of archbishopric, and the creation of the bishoprics of Olinda and Rio de Janeiro in 1676
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Maria Francisca of Savoy
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Maria Francisca of Savoy was twice queen consort of Portugal as the spouse of two Portuguese kings. She first became queen of Portugal at the age of 20 on the day of her marriage to Afonso VI, since the marriage was never consummated, she was able to obtain an annulment. On 28 March 1668, she married Afonsos brother, the Infante Peter, Duke of Beja, Maria Francisca became queen of Portugal for the second time when Peter succeeded his brother as Peter II in 1683. She herself died later that year, Maria Francisca was born in Paris as the younger daughter of Charles Amadeus, Duke of Nemours, and Élisabeth de Bourbon. Elisabeth was a granddaughter of Henry IV of France and his mistress Gabrielle dEstrées and her only surviving sibling was Marie Jeanne of Savoy. Prior to marriage she was styled Mademoiselle dAumale, a derived from the duchy of Aumale which was a property of her father. She departed from La Rochelle aboard the Vendôme, upon her arrival in Portugal, she became known as Maria Francisca Isabel de Sabóia. She was deeply disappointed with her new life at the court of Portugal, the wedding with King Afonso took place on 2 August 1666. She soon saw fit to participate in a coup that ended the government of Luís de Vasconcelos e Sousa, 3rd Count of Castelo Melhor, in cooperation with her brother-in-law. As the Portuguese Restoration War continued, the incapable King Afonso VI became dominated by members of the nobility. The queen began an affair with her brother-in-law, Peter, queen Maria Francisca and the kings brother Peter sponsored a revolt that forced the king to abdicate his powers and consent to an exile in Terceira in the Azores. She was revolted at her impotent and fat husband King Afonso, months after her annulment, Maria Francisca married the Infante Peter, now the Prince Regent of Portugal. In 1669 she gave birth to a daughter, Isabel Luísa Josefa of Portugal, the Braganza dynasty was at the brink of extinction, and Peter needed heirs, yet Maria Francisca was unable to produce further issue. When Afonso died in 1683, Peter succeeded him as Peter II of Portugal and Maria Francisca became queen again —, Maria Franciscas only child, the Infanta Isabel Luísa, died unmarried at age 22. Peter remarried to Maria Sofia of the Palatinate, who produced the much-needed heir and she was first buried at the Convent of the Francesinhas, then moved in 1912 to the Braganzas Pantheon at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora. Maria Giovanna Battista of Savoy-Nemours, daughter, consort, and Regent of Savoy, queenship in Europe 1660-1815, The Role of the Consort
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Kingdom of Portugal
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The Kingdom of Portugal was a monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula and the predecessor of modern Portugal. It was in existence from 1139 until 1910, after 1248, it was also known as the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves and between 1815 and 1822, it was known as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The name is often applied to the Portuguese Empire, the realms extensive overseas colonies. The nucleus of the Portuguese state was the County of Portugal, established in the 9th century as part of the Reconquista, by Vímara Peres, a vassal of the King of Asturias. The county became part of the Kingdom of León in 1097, the kingdom was ruled by the Alfonsine Dynasty until the 1383–85 Crisis, after which the monarchy passed to the House of Aviz. During the 15th and 16th century, Portuguese exploration established a vast colonial empire, from 1580 to 1640, the kingdom of Portugal was in personal union with Habsburg Spain. After the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640–1668, the passed to the House of Braganza and after to the House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg. From this time, the influence of Portugal declined, but it remained a major due to its most valuable colony. Portugal was an absolute monarchy before 1822. It rotated between absolute and constitutional monarchy from 1822 until 1834, and was a constitutional monarchy after 1834. The Kingdom of Portugal finds its origins in the County of Portugal, the Portuguese County was a semi-autonomous county of the Kingdom of León. Independence from León took place in three stages, The first on 26 July 1139 when Afonso Henriques was acclaimed King of the Portuguese internally, the second was on 5 October 1143, when Alfonso VII of León and Castile recognized Afonso Henriques as king through the Treaty of Zamora. The third, in 1179, was the Papal Bull Manifestis Probatum, once Portugal was independent, D. Afonso Is descendants, members of the Portuguese House of Burgundy, would rule Portugal until 1383. Even after the change in houses, all the monarchs of Portugal were descended from Afonso I, one way or another. With the start of the 20th century, Republicanism grew in numbers and support in Lisbon among progressive politicians, however a minority with regard to the rest of the country, this height of republicanism would benefit politically from the Lisbon Regicide on 1 February 1908. When returning from the Ducal Palace at Vila Viçosa, King Carlos I, with the death of the king and his heir, Carlos Is second son would become king as King Manuel II of Portugal. Manuels reign, however, would be short-lived, ending by force with the 5 October 1910 revolution, sending Manuel into exile in England, on 19 January 1919, the Monarchy of the North was proclaimed in Porto. The monarchy would be deposed a month later and no other monarchist counterrevolution in Portugal has happened since, after centuries of Portuguese dominion in Angola, the Kingdom of Kongo was made a vassal state of the Portuguese kingdom, its king pledging allegiance to the King of Portugal
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Victor Amedeus II.". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
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