1.
Reading, Massachusetts
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Reading is a small New England town with a vibrant history in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States,10 miles north of central Boston. The population was 24,747 at the 2010 census, many of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys original settlers arrived from England in the 1630s through the ports of Lynn and Salem. In 1639 some citizens of Lynn petitioned the government of the colony for a place for an inland plantation and they were initially granted six square miles, followed by an additional four. The first settlement in this grant was at first called Lynn Village and was located on the shore of the Great Pond. On June 10,1644 the settlement was incorporated as the town of Reading, taking its name from the town of Reading in England. The first church was organized soon after the settlement, and the first parish separated and became the town of South Reading in 1812, thomas Parker was one of the founders of Reading. He also was a founder of the 12th Congregational Church, and he was a selectman of Reading and was appointed a judicial commissioner. There is evidence that Parker was conspicuous in naming the town and that he was related to the Parker family of Little Norton, England, a special grant in 1651 added land north of the Ipswich River to the town of Reading. In 1853 this area became the town of North Reading. The area which comprises the town of Reading was originally known as Wood End. The town of Reading was initially governed by a town meeting and a board of selectmen. In 1769, the house was constructed, in the area which is now the Common in Reading. A stone marker commemorates the site, Reading played an active role in the American Revolutionary War. It was prominently involved in the engagements pursuing the retreating British Army after the battles of Lexington, john Brooks, later to become Governor of Massachusetts, was captain of the Fourth Company of Minute and subsequently served at the Battle of White Plains and at Valley Forge. Only one Reading soldier was killed in action during the Revolution, in 1791, sixty members started the Federal Library. This was a subscription Library with each member paying $1.00 to join, the towns public library was created in 1868. The Andover-Medford Turnpike was built by a corporation in 1806-7. This road, now known as Massachusetts Route 28, provided the citizens of Reading with a means of travel to the Boston area
2.
Memory
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Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Memory is vital to experiences and related to systems, it is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, often memory is understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory processor allows information from the world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to with various levels of focus. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor, information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material, finally, the function of long-term memory is to store data through various categorical models or systems. Explicit and implicit functions of memory are known as declarative and non-declarative systems. These systems involve the purposeful intention of memory retrieval and storage, declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data. Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory, semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning, while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane. Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory, non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information. An example of a process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory. Memory is not a processor, and is affected by many factors. The manner information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted, the amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage. Also, the process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage. Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory, normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived, the ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to see more than they can actually report, the first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted by George Sperling using the partial report paradigm
3.
Graphics Device Interface
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GDI is responsible for tasks such as drawing lines and curves, rendering fonts and handling palettes. It is not directly responsible for drawing windows, menus, etc. that task is reserved for the user subsystem, other systems have components that are similar to GDI, for example macOS Quartz and X Window Systems Xlib/XCB. GDIs most significant advantages over more direct methods of accessing the hardware are perhaps its scaling capabilities, using GDI, it is very easy to draw on multiple devices, such as a screen and a printer, and expect proper reproduction in each case. This capability is at the center of most What You See Is What You Get applications for Microsoft Windows, simple games that do not require fast graphics rendering may use GDI. However, GDI is relatively hard to use for advanced animation, modern games usually use DirectX or OpenGL instead, which let programmers exploit the features of modern hardware. A Device Context is used to define the attributes of text, the actual context is maintained by GDI. A handle to the Device Context is obtained before output is written and then released after elements have been written, GDI uses Bresenhams line drawing algorithm to draw aliased lines. GDI was present in the release of Windows. MSDOS programs had hitherto manipulated the graphics hardware using software interrupts, BYTE in December 1983 discussed Microsofts plans for a system to output graphics to both printers and monitors with the same code in the forthcoming first release of Windows. With the introduction of Windows XP, GDI was complemented by the C++-based GDI+ subsystem, GDI+ uses ARGB values to represent color. GDI+ is included with all versions of Windows from Windows XP, the GDI+ dynamic library can also be shipped with an application and used under older versions of Windows from Windows 98 and Windows NT4.0 onwards. The Microsoft. NET class library provides an interface for GDI+ via the System. Drawing namespace. GDI+ is similar to Apples QuickDraw GX subsystem, and the open-source libart, in Windows Vista, all Windows applications including GDI and GDI+ applications run in the new compositing engine, Desktop Window Manager which is built atop the Windows Display Driver Model. However, due to the nature of desktop composition, operations like window moves can be faster or more responsive because underlying content does not need to be re-rendered by the application, Windows 7 includes GDI hardware acceleration for blitting operations in the Windows Display Driver Model v1.1. Most primitive GDI operations are still not hardware-accelerated, unlike Direct2D, as of November 2009, both AMD and Nvidia have released WDDM v1.1 compatible video drivers. GDI+ continues to rely on software rendering in Windows 7, a GDI printer or Winprinter is a printer designed to accept output from a host computer running the GDI under Windows. The combination of the GDI and the driver is bidirectional, they receive information from the printer such as whether it is ready to print, if it is out of paper or ink, and so on. Non-GDI printers require hardware, firmware, and memory for page rendering, some manufacturers produce essentially the same printer in a version compatible with a printer control language such as PCL or PostScript, and a cheaper GDI-only version
4.
DR-DOS
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DR-DOS is an operating system of the DOS family, written for IBM PC-compatible personal computers. It was originally developed by Gary Kildalls Digital Research and derived from Concurrent PC DOS6.0, as ownership changed, various later versions were produced with names including Novell DOS and Caldera OpenDOS. Digital Researchs original CP/M for the 8-bit Intel 8080 and Z-80 based systems spawned numerous spin-off versions, IBM originally approached Digital Research, seeking an x86 version of CP/M. However, there were disagreements over the contract, and IBM withdrew, instead, a deal was struck with Microsoft, who purchased another operating system, 86-DOS, from Seattle Computer Products. This became Microsoft MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS, 86-DOS command structure and application programming interface imitated that of CP/M. Digital Research threatened legal action, claiming PC DOS/MS-DOS to be too similar to CP/M, IBM settled by agreeing to sell their x86 version of CP/M, CP/M-86, alongside PC DOS. However, PC DOS sold for $40, while CP/M-86 had a price tag. This was shown publicly in December 1983 and shipped in March 1984 as Concurrent DOS3.1 to hardware vendors, therefore, over time two attempts were made to sideline the product. Its DOS compatibility was limited, and Digital Research made another attempt and this new disk operating system was launched in 1988 as DR DOS. As requested by several OEMs Digital Research started to develop a new DOS operating system addressing the shortcomings left by MS-DOS in 1987. The first DR DOS version was released on 28 May 1988, the system files were named DRBIOS. SYS and DRBDOS. SYS, the disk OEM label used was DIGITAL␠. It was also cheaper to license than MS-DOS, and was ROMable right from the start, the ROMed version of DR DOS was also named ROS. DRI was approached by a number of PC manufacturers who were interested in a third-party DOS, at this time, MS-DOS was only available to OEMs bundled with hardware. Consequently, DR DOS achieved some success when it became possible for consumers to buy it through normal retail channels since 3. 4x. Known versions are DR DOS3.31,3.32,3.33,3.34,3.35,3.40,3.41, like MS-DOS, most of them were produced in several flavors for different hardware. While most OEMs kept the DR DOS name designation, one OEM version is known to be called EZ-DOS3.41. DR DOS version 5.0 was released in May 1990, still reporting itself as PC DOS3.31 for compatibility purposes, but internally indicating a single-user BDOS6.4 kernel. This introduced ViewMAX, a GEM-based GUI file management shell, the patented BatteryMAX power management system, bundled disk-caching software, and also offers vastly improved memory management
5.
John Wiley & Sons
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Founded in 1807, Wiley is also known for publishing For Dummies. As of 2015, the company had 4,900 employees, Wiley was established in 1807 when Charles Wiley opened a print shop in Manhattan. Wiley later shifted its focus to scientific, technical, and engineering subject areas, Charles Wileys son John took over the business when his father died in 1826. The firm was successively named Wiley, Lane & Co. then Wiley & Putnam, the company acquired its present name in 1876, when Johns second son William H. Wiley joined his brother Charles in the business. Through the 20th century, the company expanded its activities, the sciences. Since the establishment of the Nobel Prize in 1901, Wiley and its companies have published the works of more than 450 Nobel Laureates. Wiley in December 2010 opened an office in Dubai, to build on its business in the Middle East more effectively, the company has had an office in Beijing, China, since 2001, and China is now its sixth-largest market for STEM content. Wiley established publishing operations in India in 2006, and has established a presence in North Africa through sales contracts with academic institutions in Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. On April 16,2012, the announced the establishment of Wiley Brasil Editora LTDA in São Paulo, Brazil. Wileys scientific, technical, and medical business was expanded by the acquisition of Blackwell Publishing in February 2007. Through a backfile initiative completed in 2007,8.2 million pages of content have been made available online. Other major journals published include Angewandte Chemie, Advanced Materials, Hepatology, International Finance, launched commercially in 1999, Wiley InterScience provided online access to Wiley journals, major reference works, and books, including backfile content. Journals previously from Blackwell Publishing were available online from Blackwell Synergy until they were integrated into Wiley InterScience on June 30,2008, in December 2007, Wiley also began distributing its technical titles through the Safari Books Online e-reference service. On February 17,2012, Wiley announced the acquisition of Inscape Holdings Inc. which provides DISC assessments and training for interpersonal business skills. On August 13,2012, Wiley announced it entered into an agreement to sell all of its travel assets, including all of its interests in the Frommers brand. On October 2,2012, Wiley announced it would acquire Deltak edu, LLC, Deltak is expected to contribute solid growth to both Wileys Global Education business and Wiley overall. Seventh-generation members Jesse and Nate Wiley work in the companys Professional/Trade and Scientific, Technical, Medical, and Scholarly businesses, respectively. Wiley has been owned since 1962, and listed on the New York Stock Exchange since 1995, its stock is traded under the symbols NYSE, JW. A and NYSE
6.
Addison-Wesley
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Addison-Wesley is a publisher of textbooks and computer literature. It is an imprint of Pearson PLC, a global publishing, in addition to publishing books, Addison-Wesley also distributes its technical titles through the Safari Books Online e-reference service. Addison-Wesleys majority of sales derive from the United States and Europe, the Addison-Wesley Professional Imprint produces content including books, eBooks, and video for the professional IT worker including developers, programmers, managers, system administrators. Classic titles include The Art of Computer Programming, The C++ Programming Language, The Mythical Man-Month, Addison-Wesley Professional is also a partner with Safari Books Online. Its first computer book was Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer, by Wilkes, Wheeler, in 1977, Addison-Wesley acquired W. A. Benjamin Company, and merged it with the Cummings division of the company to form Benjamin Cummings. It was purchased by the publishing and education company, Pearson PLC in 1988. The trade publishing division of Addison-Wesley was sold to Perseus Books Group in 1997, Pearson acquired the educational division of Simon & Schuster in 1998, and merged it with Addison Wesley Longman to form Pearson Education and subsequently rebranded to Pearson in 2011. Pearson moved the former Addison Wesley Longman offices from Reading, Massachusetts to Boston in 2004 and its current executives hail from the original Addison-Wesley with a storied history of their own. Addison-Wesley Secondary Math, An Integrated Approach, Focus on Algebra The Art of Computer Programming by Donald Knuth The Feynman Lectures on Physics by Richard Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands Concrete Mathematics, A Foundation For Computer Science by Ronald Graham, Donald Knuth, exploratory data analysis by John W. Tukey, based on a course taught at Princeton. The Mythical Man-Month by Fred P. Brooks
7.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
8.
Windows 3.1x
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Windows 3. 1x is a series of 16-bit operating environments produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers. The series began with Windows 3.1, which was first sold during April 1992 as a successor to Windows 3.0, subsequent versions were released between 1992 and 1994 until the series was superseded by Windows 95. Windows 3.1, released on April 6,1992, introduced a TrueType font system, similar functionality was available for Windows 3.0 through Adobe Type Manager font system from Adobe. Windows 3.1 was designed to have compatibility with older Windows platforms. As with Windows 3.0, version 3.1 had File Manager and Program Manager and it included Minesweeper as a replacement for Reversi. Windows 3.1 Multimedia PC Version included a viewer. It was targeted to the new Multimedia PC standard and included sound, Windows 3.1 dropped real mode support and required a minimum of a 286 PC with 1 MB of RAM to run. The effect of this was to increase system stability over the crash-prone Windows 3.0, some older features were removed, like CGA graphics support and compatibility with real mode Windows 2. x applications. Truetype font support was added, providing scalable fonts to Windows applications, Windows 3.1 included the following fonts, Arial, Courier New, Times New Roman, and Symbol in regular, bold, italic, and bold-italic versions. Truetype fonts could be scaled to any size and rotated, depending on the calling application, a few DOS applications, such as late releases of Microsoft Word, could access Windows Clipboard. Windows own drivers couldnt work directly with DOS applications, hardware such as mice required a DOS driver to be loaded before starting Windows, icons could be dragged and dropped for the first time, in addition to having a more detailed appearance. A file could be dragged onto Print Manager icon and the file would be printed by the current printer, assuming it was associated with a capable of printing. Alternatively, the file could be dragged out of File Manager, while Windows 3.0 was limited to 16 MB maximum memory, Windows 3.1 can access a theoretical 4 GB in 386 Enhanced Mode. However, no process can use more than 16 MB. File Manager was significantly improved over Windows 3.0, Multimedia support was enhanced over what was available in Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions and available to all Windows 3.1 users. Windows 3.1 was available via 720 KB,1.2 MB, and 1.44 MB floppy distributions. It was also the first version of Windows to be distributed on CD-ROM — although this was common for Windows for Workgroups 3.11. Installed size on the disk was between 10 MB and 15 MB
9.
DOS
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None of these systems were officially named DOS, and indeed DOS is a general term for disk operating system. MS-DOS dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, and Microsoft Windows, still ran on top of it until about 2001, dozens of other operating systems also use the acronym DOS, including DOS/360 from 1966. Others are Apple DOS, Apple ProDOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, TRSDOS, see List of DOS operating systems § Other operating systems. IBM PC DOS and its predecessor, 86-DOS, resembled Digital Researchs CP/M—the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080, DOS instead ran on Intel 8086 16-bit processors. Starting with MS-DOS1.28 and PC DOS2.0 the operating system incorporated various features inspired by Xenix, when IBM introduced the IBM PC, built with the Intel 8088 microprocessor, they needed an operating system. Seeking an 8088-compatible build of CP/M, IBM initially approached Microsoft CEO Bill Gates, IBM was sent to Digital Research, and a meeting was set up. However, the negotiations for the use of CP/M broke down, Digital Research wished to sell CP/M on a royalty basis, while IBM sought a single license. Digital Research founder Gary Kildall refused, and IBM withdrew, Gates in turn approached Seattle Computer Products. There, programmer Tim Paterson had developed a variant of CP/M-80, the system was initially named QDOS, before being made commercially available as 86-DOS. Microsoft purchased 86-DOS, allegedly for $50,000 and this became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS, introduced in 1981. Within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies, Microsoft later required the use of the MS-DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant. IBM continued to develop their version, PC DOS, for the IBM PC, Digital Research became aware that an operating system similar to CP/M was being sold by IBM, and threatened legal action. IBM responded by offering an agreement, they would give PC consumers a choice of PC DOS or CP/M-86, side-by-side, CP/M cost almost $200 more than PC DOS, and sales were low. CP/M faded, with MS-DOS and PC DOS becoming the operating system for PCs. Microsoft originally sold MS-DOS only to original equipment manufacturers, one major reason for this was that not all early PCs were 100% IBM PC compatible. DOS was structured such that there was a separation between the specific device driver code and the DOS kernel. Microsoft provided an OEM Adaptation Kit which allowed OEMs to customize the device driver code to their particular system, by the early 1990s, most PCs adhered to IBM PC standards so Microsoft began selling MS-DOS in retail with MS-DOS5.0. In the mid-1980s Microsoft developed a version of DOS
