1.
Website
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A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol network, such as the Internet, or a local area network. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website for a company. Websites are typically dedicated to a topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language. They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors, Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which may optionally employ encryption to provide security and privacy for the user. The users application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. Hyperlinking between web pages conveys to the reader the site structure and guides the navigation of the site, Some websites require user registration or subscription to access content. As of 2016 end users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktop and laptop computers, tablet computers, smartphones, the World Wide Web was created in 1990 by the British CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as text files without formatting. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website. Websites can be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, any website can contain a hyperlink to any other website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, can be blurred. Websites are written in, or converted to, HTML and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent. Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including computers, laptops, PDAs. A website is hosted on a system known as a web server. These terms can refer to the software that runs on these systems which retrieves
2.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
3.
Web search engine
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A web search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search results are presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine results pages. The information may be a mix of web pages, images, some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by human editors, Internet search engines themselves predate the debut of the Web in December 1990. The Who is user search dates back to 1982 and the Knowbot Information Service multi-network user search was first implemented in 1989, the first well documented search engine that searched content files, namely FTP files was Archie, which debuted on 10 September 1990. Prior to September 1993 the World Wide Web was entirely indexed by hand, there was a list of webservers edited by Tim Berners-Lee and hosted on the CERN webserver. One historical snapshot of the list in 1992 remains, but as more and more web servers went online the central list could no longer keep up, on the NCSA site, new servers were announced under the title Whats New. The first tool used for searching content on the Internet was Archie, the name stands for archive without the v. It was created by Alan Emtage, Bill Heelan and J. Peter Deutsch, the rise of Gopher led to two new search programs, Veronica and Jughead. Like Archie, they searched the file names and titles stored in Gopher index systems, Veronica provided a keyword search of most Gopher menu titles in the entire Gopher listings. Jughead was a tool for obtaining information from specific Gopher servers. While the name of the search engine Archie Search Engine was not a reference to the Archie comic book series, Veronica and Jughead are characters in the series, thus referencing their predecessor. In the summer of 1993, no search engine existed for the web, oscar Nierstrasz at the University of Geneva wrote a series of Perl scripts that periodically mirrored these pages and rewrote them into a standard format. This formed the basis for W3Catalog, the webs first primitive search engine, in June 1993, Matthew Gray, then at MIT, produced what was probably the first web robot, the Perl-based World Wide Web Wanderer, and used it to generate an index called Wandex. The purpose of the Wanderer was to measure the size of the World Wide Web, the webs second search engine Aliweb appeared in November 1993. Aliweb did not use a web robot, but instead depended on being notified by website administrators of the existence at each site of a file in a particular format. NCSAs Mosaic™ - Mosaic wasnt the first Web browser, but it was the first to make a major splash. In November 1993, Mosaic v 1, jumpStation used a web robot to find web pages and to build its index, and used a web form as the interface to its query program
4.
Web crawler
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A Web crawler, sometimes called a spider, is an Internet bot that systematically browses the World Wide Web, typically for the purpose of Web indexing. Web search engines and some sites use Web crawling or spidering software to update their web content or indices of others sites web content. Web crawlers can copy all the pages they visit for later processing by an engine which indexes the downloaded pages so the users can search much more efficiently. Crawlers consume resources on the systems they visit and often visit sites without approval, issues of schedule, load, and politeness come into play when large collections of pages are accessed. Mechanisms exist for public sites not wishing to be crawled to make known to the crawling agent. For instance, including a robots. txt file can request bots to index only parts of a website, as the number of pages on the internet is extremely large, even the largest crawlers fall short of making a complete index. For that reason search engines were bad at giving relevant search results in the years of the World Wide Web. This is improved greatly by modern engines, nowadays very good results are given instantly. Crawlers can validate hyperlinks and HTML code and they can also be used for web scraping. A Web crawler may also be called a Web spider, an ant, a Web crawler starts with a list of URLs to visit, called the seeds. As the crawler visits these URLs, it all the hyperlinks in the page and adds them to the list of URLs to visit. URLs from the frontier are recursively visited according to a set of policies, if the crawler is performing archiving of websites it copies and saves the information as it goes. The archives are stored in such a way they can be viewed, read and navigated as they were on the live web. The archive is known as the repository and is designed to store, the repository only stores HTML pages and these pages are stored as distinct files. A repository is similar to any system that stores data. The only difference is that a repository does not need all the functionality offered by a database system, the repository stores the most recent version of the web page retrieved by the crawler. The large volume implies the crawler can only download a limited number of the Web pages within a given time, the high rate of change can imply the pages might have already been updated or even deleted. The number of possible URLs crawled being generated by server-side software has made it difficult for web crawlers to avoid retrieving duplicate content
5.
RSS
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RSS uses a family of standard web feed formats to publish frequently updated information, blog entries, news headlines, audio, video. An RSS document includes full or summarized text, and metadata, like publishing date, RSS feeds enable publishers to syndicate data automatically. A standard XML file format ensures compatibility with many different machines/programs, RSS feeds also benefit users who want to receive timely updates from favourite websites or to aggregate data from many sites. Subscribing to a website RSS removes the need for the user to check the website for new content. Instead, their browser constantly monitors the site and informs the user of any updates, the browser can also be commanded to automatically download the new data for the user. Software termed RSS reader, aggregator, or feed reader, which can be web-based, desktop-based, or mobile-device-based, users subscribe to feeds either by entering a feeds URI into the reader or by clicking on the browsers feed icon. The RSS reader checks the users feeds regularly for new information and can download it. The reader also provides a user interface, the RSS formats were preceded by several attempts at web syndication that did not achieve widespread popularity. RDF Site Summary, the first version of RSS, was created by Dan Libby and it was released in March 1999 for use on the My. Netscape. Com portal. This version became known as RSS0.9, in July 1999, Dan Libby of Netscape produced a new version, RSS0.91, which simplified the format by removing RDF elements and incorporating elements from Dave Winers news syndication format. Libby also renamed the format from RDF to RSS Rich Site Summary and this would be Netscapes last participation in RSS development for eight years. Winer published a version of the RSS0.91 specification on the UserLand website, covering how it was being used in his companys products. A few months later, UserLand filed a U. S. trademark registration for RSS, but failed to respond to a USPTO trademark examiners request and the request was rejected in December 2001. The RSS-DEV Working Group, a project whose members included Guha and representatives of OReilly Media and Moreover and he also released drafts of RSS0.93 and RSS0.94 that were subsequently withdrawn. In September 2002, Winer released a new version of the format, RSS2.0. RSS2.0 removed the type attribute added in the RSS0.94 draft, to preserve backward compatibility with RSS0.92, namespace support applies only to other content included within an RSS2.0 feed, not the RSS2.0 elements themselves. Because neither Winer nor the RSS-DEV Working Group had Netscapes involvement and this has fueled ongoing controversy in the syndication development community as to which entity was the proper publisher of RSS. One product of that debate was the creation of an alternative syndication format, Atom
6.
Web server
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A web server is a computer system that processes requests via HTTP, the basic network protocol used to distribute information on the World Wide Web. The term can refer to the system, or specifically to the software that accepts. The primary function of a web server is to store, process, the communication between client and server takes place using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Pages delivered are most frequently HTML documents, which may include images, the resource is typically a real file on the servers secondary storage, but this is not necessarily the case and depends on how the web server is implemented. While the primary function is to serve content, an implementation of HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files, many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using Active Server Pages, PHP, or other scripting languages. This means that the behaviour of the web server can be scripted in separate files, usually, this function is used to generate HTML documents dynamically as opposed to returning static documents. The former is used for retrieving or modifying information from databases. The latter is much faster and more easily cached but cannot deliver dynamic content. Web servers are not only used for serving the World Wide Web and they can also be found embedded in devices such as printers, routers, webcams and serving only a local network. The web server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring or administering the device in question and this usually means that no additional software has to be installed on the client computer, since only a web browser is required. In 1989 Tim Berners-Lee proposed a new project to his employer CERN, the project resulted in Berners-Lee writing two programs in 1990, A browser called WorldWideWeb. In 1994 Berners-Lee decided to constitute the World Wide Web Consortium to regulate the development of the many technologies involved through a standardization process. On an Apache server, this is commonly /home/www, the result is the local file system resource, /home/www/path/file. html The web server then reads the file, if it exists, and sends a response to the clients web browser. The response will describe the content of the file and contain the file itself or a message will return saying that the file does not exist or is unavailable. A web server can be incorporated into the OS kernel. Web servers that run in user-mode have to ask the system for permission to use more memory or more CPU resources, executing in user mode can also mean useless buffer copies which are another handicap for user-mode web servers. When a web server is near to or over its limit, it becomes unresponsive, at any time web servers can be overloaded due to, Excess legitimate web traffic
7.
Tim Berners-Lee
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Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee OM KBE FRS FREng FRSA FBCS, also known as TimBL, is an English computer scientist, best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the development of the Web. He is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation and is a researcher and holder of the founders chair at the MIT Computer Science. He is a director of the Web Science Research Initiative, in 2011, he was named as a member of the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation. In 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, in April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Named in Time magazines list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and he tweeted This is for everyone, which instantly was spelled out in LCD lights attached to the chairs of the 80,000 people in the audience. Berners-Lee was born in London, England, United Kingdom, one of four born to Mary Lee Woods. His parents worked on the first commercially built computer, the Ferranti Mark 1, a keen trainspotter as a child, he learnt about electronics from tinkering with a model railway. He studied at The Queens College, Oxford, from 1973 to 1976, after graduation, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at the telecommunications company Plessey in Poole, Dorset. In 1978, he joined D. G. Nash in Ferndown, Dorset, Berners-Lee worked as an independent contractor at CERN from June to December 1980. While in Geneva, he proposed a project based on the concept of hypertext, to demonstrate it, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE. After leaving CERN in late 1980, he went to work at John Pooles Image Computer Systems, Ltd, in Bournemouth and he ran the companys technical side for three years. The project he worked on was a remote procedure call which gave him experience in computer networking. In 1984, he returned to CERN as a fellow and it then was accepted by his manager, Mike Sendall. He used similar ideas to those underlying the ENQUIRE system to create the World Wide Web, for which he designed and his software also functioned as an editor, and the first Web server, CERN HTTPd. The first web site was built at CERN, despite this being an international organisation hosted by Switzerland, the office that Berners-Lee used was just across the border in France. It was put online on 6 August 1991 for the first time, It provided an explanation of what the World Wide Web was and we can connect with each other instantly, all over the world. In 1994, Berners-Lee founded the W3C at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web
8.
CERN
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The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of atomic nuclei, therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, which better describes the research being performed there. Several important achievements in physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate the sharing of information between researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
9.
E-commerce
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E-commerce is a transaction of buying or selling online. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web for at least one part of the life cycle although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail. 1979, Michael Aldrich demonstrates the first online shopping system,1981, Thomson Holidays UK is the first business-to-business online shopping system to be installed. 1982, Minitel was introduced nationwide in France by France Télécom,1983, California State Assembly holds first hearing on electronic commerce in Volcano, California. Testifying are CPUC, MCI Mail, Prodigy, CompuServe, Volcano Telephone and it is the first comprehensive electronic commerce service. 1989, In May 1989, Sequoia Data Corp, introduced Compumarket The first internet based system for e-commerce. Sellers and buyers could post items for sale and buyers could search the database,1990, Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, using a NeXT computer. 1992, Book Stacks Unlimited in Cleveland opens a sales website selling books online with credit card processing. 1993, Paget Press releases edition No.3 of the first app store, The Electronic AppWrapper 1994, Netscape 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 with SSL encryption that made transactions secure. 1994, Ipswitch IMail Server becomes the first software available online for sale,1994, Ten Summoners Tales by Sting becomes the first secure online purchase through NetMarket. 1995, The US National Science Foundation lifts its former strict prohibition of commercial enterprise on the Internet, the shopping service at launch featured W H Smith, Tesco, Virgin Megastores/Our Price, Great Universal Stores, Interflora, Dixons Retail, Past Times, PC World and Innovations. 1995, Jeff Bezos launches Amazon. com and the first commercial-free 24-hour, internet-only radio stations, Radio HK, eBay is founded by computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as AuctionWeb. 1996, IndiaMART B2B marketplace established in India,1996, ECPlaza B2B marketplace established in Korea. 1996, The use of Excalibur BBS with replicated Storefronts was an implementation of electronic commerce started by a group of SysOps in Australia. 1998, Electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web,1999, Alibaba Group is established in China. Business. com sold for US $7.5 million to eCompanies, the peer-to-peer filesharing software Napster launches. ATG Stores launches to sell items for the home online. 2000, Complete Idiots Guide to E-commerce released on Amazon 2000,2001, Alibaba. com achieved profitability in December 2001
10.
Yahoo! Directory
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Directory was a web directory which at one time rivaled DMOZ in size. The directory was Yahoo. s first offering, changed to crawler-based listings for its main results in October 2002, the human-edited directorys significance dropped, but it was still being updated as of April 16,2014. Users could browse thousands of listings which were organized in 7 or more tiers, for example, if a user was looking for a site on chess they might follow a path such as, recreation -> games -> board games -> chess. The directory originally offered two options for suggesting websites for possible listing, Standard, which was free, and a submission process which offered expedited review. Standard was dropped, and a non-refundable review fee of $299 was required when suggesting any website, if listed, the same amount was charged annually. On September 26,2014, Yahoo. announced that it would be closing the directory on December 31,2014 and this followed the closing of a number of country-specific directories in 2010
11.
DMOZ
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DMOZ was a multilingual open-content directory of World Wide Web links. The site and community who maintained it were known as the Open Directory Project. It was owned by AOL but constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors, DMOZ used a hierarchical ontology scheme for organizing site listings. Listings on a similar topic were grouped into categories which included smaller categories. It was announced on February 28,2017 that DMOZ would close down on March 14,2017, DMOZ was founded in the United States as Gnuhoo by Rich Skrenta and Bob Truel in 1998 while they were both working as engineers for Sun Microsystems. Skrenta had developed TASS, an ancestor of tin, the popular threaded Usenet newsreader for Unix systems, the original category structure of the Gnuhoo directory was based loosely on the structure of Usenet newsgroups then in existence. The Gnuhoo directory went live on June 5,1998, then objected to the use of Hoo in the name, prompting a proposed name change, to ZURL. Prior to switching to ZURL, NewHoo was acquired by Netscape Communications Corporation in October 1998, Netscape released Open Directory data under the Open Directory License. Netscape was acquired by AOL shortly thereafter and DMOZ was one of the assets included in the acquisition, by the time Netscape assumed stewardship, the Open Directory Project had about 100,000 URLs indexed with contributions from about 4500 editors. On October 5,1999, the number of URLs indexed by DMOZ reached one million, according to an unofficial estimate, the URLs in DMOZ numbered 1.6 million in April 2000, surpassing those in the Yahoo. DMOZ achieved the milestones of indexing two million URLs on August 14,2000, three million listings on November 18,2001 and four million on December 3,2003. As of April,2013 there were 5,169,995 sites listed in over 1,017,500 categories, on October 31,2015, there were 3,996,412 sites listed in 1,026,706 categories. In January 2006, DMOZ began publishing reports to inform the public about the development of the project. The first report covered the year 2005, monthly reports were issued subsequently until September 2006. These reports gave greater insight into the functioning of the directory than the statistics provided on the front page of the directory. The number of listings and categories cited on the front page included Test and Bookmarks categories, there were about 7330 active editors during August 2006. 75,151 editors had contributed to the directory as of March 31,2007, as of April 2013, the number of contributing editors had increased to 97,584. On October 20,2006, DMOZs main server suffered a failure that prevented editors from working on the directory until December 18,2006
12.
Open content
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Open content is a neologism coined by David Wiley in 1998 which describes a creative work that others can copy or modify. The term evokes the concept of open source software. It has since come to describe a class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. Unlike open source and free content, there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as open content, in 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses, where he joined as Director of Educational Licenses. The Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation, in 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works among other licenses. Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation, founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge, UK in 2004 as a global network to promote and share open content. In October 2014 with version 2, a distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility and the readability. Among several conformant licenses, six are recommended, three own and the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0 creative commons licenses. The OpenContent website once defined OpenContent as freely available for modification, use, however, such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbade charging a fee for the itself, a right required by free and open source software licenses. The term since shifted in meaning, OpenContent is licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, Open access refers to toll-free or gratis access to content, consisting mainly of published peer-reviewed scholarly journal articles. Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution, over the past decade, open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Traditional universities are expensive, and their rates are increasing. Open content allows a way of obtaining higher education that is focused on collective knowledge. There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare Initiative, The Saylor Foundation, some universities, like MIT, Yale, and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet. The textbook industry is one of the industries in which open content can make the biggest impact. Traditional textbooks, aside from being expensive, can also be inconvenient and out of date, Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem, because they are online and thus easily updatable. Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers, because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teachers unique curriculum, there are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks
13.
Cluster analysis
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Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group are more similar to each other than to those in other groups. Cluster analysis itself is not one specific algorithm, but the task to be solved. It can be achieved by various algorithms that differ significantly in their notion of what constitutes a cluster, popular notions of clusters include groups with small distances among the cluster members, dense areas of the data space, intervals or particular statistical distributions. Clustering can therefore be formulated as an optimization problem. The appropriate clustering algorithm and parameter settings depend on the data set. Cluster analysis as such is not a task, but an iterative process of knowledge discovery or interactive multi-objective optimization that involves trial. It is often necessary to modify data preprocessing and model parameters until the result achieves the desired properties, besides the term clustering, there are a number of terms with similar meanings, including automatic classification, numerical taxonomy, botryology and typological analysis. The notion of a cluster cannot be defined, which is one of the reasons why there are so many clustering algorithms. There is a common denominator, a group of data objects, however, different researchers employ different cluster models, and for each of these cluster models again different algorithms can be given. The notion of a cluster, as found by different algorithms, understanding these cluster models is key to understanding the differences between the various algorithms. Typical cluster models include, Connectivity models, for example, hierarchical clustering builds models based on distance connectivity, centroid models, for example, the k-means algorithm represents each cluster by a single mean vector. Distribution models, clusters are modeled using statistical distributions, such as multivariate normal distributions used by the Expectation-maximization algorithm, density models, for example, DBSCAN and OPTICS defines clusters as connected dense regions in the data space. Subspace models, in Biclustering, clusters are modeled with both members and relevant attributes. Group models, some algorithms do not provide a model for their results. Graph-based models, a clique, that is, a subset of nodes in a such that every two nodes in the subset are connected by an edge can be considered as a prototypical form of cluster. Relaxations of the connectivity requirement are known as quasi-cliques, as in the HCS clustering algorithm. A clustering is essentially a set of clusters, usually containing all objects in the data set. Additionally, it may specify the relationship of the clusters to each other, for example, the following overview will only list the most prominent examples of clustering algorithms, as there are possibly over 100 published clustering algorithms
14.
PHP
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PHP is a server-side scripting language designed primarily for web development but also used as a general-purpose programming language. Originally created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1994, the PHP reference implementation is now produced by The PHP Development Team, PHP originally stood for Personal Home Page, but it now stands for the recursive acronym PHP, Hypertext Preprocessor. PHP code may be embedded into HTML or HTML5 code, or it can be used in combination with various web template systems, web content management systems and web frameworks. PHP code is usually processed by a PHP interpreter implemented as a module in the web server or as a Common Gateway Interface executable. The web server combines the results of the interpreted and executed PHP code, PHP code may also be executed with a command-line interface and can be used to implement standalone graphical applications. The standard PHP interpreter, powered by the Zend Engine, is free software released under the PHP License, PHP has been widely ported and can be deployed on most web servers on almost every operating system and platform, free of charge. The PHP language evolved without a formal specification or standard until 2014. Since 2014 work has gone on to create a formal PHP specification, PHP development began in 1995 when Rasmus Lerdorf wrote several Common Gateway Interface programs in C, which he used to maintain his personal homepage. He extended them to work with web forms and to communicate with databases, PHP/FI could help to build simple, dynamic web applications. This release already had the functionality that PHP has as of 2013. This included Perl-like variables, form handling, and the ability to embed HTML, the syntax resembled that of Perl but was simpler, more limited and less consistent. A development team began to form and, after months of work and beta testing, the fact that PHP lacked an original overall design but instead developed organically has led to inconsistent naming of functions and inconsistent ordering of their parameters. Zeev Suraski and Andi Gutmans rewrote the parser in 1997 and formed the base of PHP3, changing the name to the recursive acronym PHP. Afterwards, public testing of PHP3 began, and the launch came in June 1998. Suraski and Gutmans then started a new rewrite of PHPs core and they also founded Zend Technologies in Ramat Gan, Israel. On May 22,2000, PHP4, powered by the Zend Engine 1.0, was released, as of August 2008 this branch reached version 4.4.9. PHP4 is no longer under development nor will any security updates be released, on July 13,2004, PHP5 was released, powered by the new Zend Engine II. PHP5 included new features such as improved support for object-oriented programming, the PHP Data Objects extension, in 2008 PHP5 became the only stable version under development
15.
Amazon (company)
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Amazon. com, also called Amazon, is an American electronic commerce and cloud computing company that was founded on July 5,1994, by Jeff Bezos and is based in Seattle, Washington. It is the largest Internet-based retailer in the world by total sales, the company also produces consumer electronics—notably, Kindle e-readers, Fire tablets, Fire TV, and Echo—and is the worlds largest provider of cloud infrastructure services. Amazon also sells certain low-end products like USB cables under its in-house brand AmazonBasics. Amazon has separate retail websites for the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Canada, Germany, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Australia, Brazil, Japan, China, India, and Mexico. Amazon also offers international shipping to other countries for some of its products. In 2016, Dutch, Polish, and Turkish language versions of the German Amazon website were launched. In 2015, Amazon surpassed Walmart as the most valuable retailer in the United States by market capitalization, in 1994, Bezos left his employment as vice-president of D. E. Shaw & Co. a Wall Street firm and moved to Seattle. He began to work on a plan for what would eventually become Amazon. com. Bezos incorporated the company as Cadabra on July 5,1994, Bezos changed the name to Amazon a year later after a lawyer misheard its original name as cadaver. In September 1994, Bezos purchased the URL Relentless. com and briefly considered naming his online store Relentless, the domain is still owned by Bezos and still redirects to the retailer. The company went online as Amazon. com in 1995, Bezos placed a premium on his head start in building a brand, telling a reporter, Theres nothing about our model that cant be copied over time. But you know, McDonalds got copied, and it still built a huge, multibillion-dollar company. A lot of it comes down to the brand name, brand names are more important online than they are in the physical world. Additionally, a beginning with A was preferential due to the probability it would occur at the top of any list that was alphabetized. Since June 19,2000, Amazons logotype has featured a curved arrow leading from A to Z, representing that the company carries every product from A to Z, with the arrow shaped like a smile. After reading a report about the future of the Internet that projected annual Web commerce growth at 2, 300% and he narrowed the list to what he felt were the five most promising products, which included, compact discs, computer hardware, computer software, videos and books. Amazon was founded in the garage of Bezos home in Bellevue, the company began as an online bookstore, an idea spurred off with discussion with John Ingram of Ingram Book, along with Keyur Patel who still holds a stake in Amazon. Amazon was able to access books at wholesale from Ingram, in the first two months of business, Amazon sold to all 50 states and over 45 countries
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Tag (metadata)
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In information systems, a tag is a keyword or term assigned to a piece of information. This kind of metadata helps describe an item and allows it to be again by browsing or searching. Tags are generally chosen informally and personally by the creator or by its viewer, depending on the system. Tagging was popularized by websites associated with Web 2.0 and is an important feature of many Web 2.0 services and it is now also part of other database systems, desktop applications, and operating systems. People use tags to aid classification, mark ownership, note boundaries, Tags may take the form of words, images, or other identifying marks. An analogous example of tags in the world is museum object tagging. People were using textual keywords to classify information and objects long before computers, computer based search algorithms made the use of such keywords a rapid way of exploring records. Tagging gained popularity due to the growth of social bookmarking, image sharing and these sites allow users to create and manage labels that categorize content using simple keywords. Websites that include tags often display collections of tags as tag clouds, on websites that aggregate the tags of all users, an individual users tags can be useful both to them and to the larger community of the websites users. Tagging systems have sometimes been classified into two kinds, top-down and bottom-up, top-down taxonomies are created by an authorized group of designers, whereas bottom-up taxonomies are created by all users. Some researchers and applications have experimented with combining hierarchical and non-hierarchical tagging to aid in information retrieval, others are combining top-down and bottom-up tagging, including in some large library catalogs such as WorldCat. When tags or other taxonomies have further properties such as relationships and attributes, the use of keywords as part of an identification and classification system long predates computers. This use of the word tag did not refer to metadata tags, online databases and early websites deployed keyword tags as a way for publishers to help users find content. In The Equator the term Tag for user-input was described as a literal or keyword to aid the user. However, users defined singular Tags, and did not share Tags at that point, the success of Flickr and the influence of Delicious popularized the concept, and other social software websites—such as YouTube, Technorati, and Last. fm—also implemented tagging. In 2005, the Atom web syndication standard provided a category element for inserting subject categories into web feeds, many blog systems allow authors to add free-form tags to a post, along with placing the post into a predetermined category. For example, a post may display that it has been tagged with baseball, each of those tags is usually a web link leading to an index page listing all of the posts associated with that tag. The blog may have a listing all the tags in use on that blog
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Search engine optimization
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Search engine optimization is the process of affecting the visibility of a website or a web page in a web search engines unpaid results—often referred to as natural, organic, or earned results. SEO may target different kinds of search, including search, local search, video search, academic search, news search. Promoting a site to increase the number of backlinks, or inbound links, is another SEO tactic, by May 2015, mobile search had surpassed desktop search. Google is developing and pushing mobile search as the future in all of its products, in response, many brands are beginning to take a different approach to their internet strategies. Webmasters and content providers began optimizing sites for search engines in the mid-1990s, the process involves a search engine spider downloading a page and storing it on the search engines own server. All of this information is placed into a scheduler for crawling at a later date. Site owners recognized the value of a ranking and visibility in search engine results. According to industry analyst Danny Sullivan, the search engine optimization probably came into use in 1997. Sullivan credits Bruce Clay as one of the first people to popularize the term, on May 2,2007, Jason Gambert attempted to trademark the term SEO by convincing the Trademark Office in Arizona that SEO is a process involving manipulation of keywords and not a marketing service. Early versions of search algorithms relied on webmaster-provided information such as the keyword meta tag or index files in engines like ALIWEB, meta tags provide a guide to each pages content. Inaccurate, incomplete, and inconsistent data in meta tags could, Web content providers also manipulated some attributes within the HTML source of a page in an attempt to rank well in search engines. Early search engines, such as Altavista and Infoseek, adjusted their algorithms in an effort to prevent webmasters from manipulating rankings, by relying so much on factors such as keyword density which were exclusively within a webmasters control, early search engines suffered from abuse and ranking manipulation. This meant moving away from reliance on term density to a more holistic process for scoring semantic signals. Search engines responded by developing more complex ranking algorithms, taking into account additional factors that were difficult for webmasters to manipulate. Companies that employ overly aggressive techniques can get their client websites banned from the search results, in 2005, the Wall Street Journal reported on a company, Traffic Power, which allegedly used high-risk techniques and failed to disclose those risks to its clients. Wired magazine reported that the company sued blogger and SEO Aaron Wall for writing about the ban. Googles Matt Cutts later confirmed that Google did in fact ban Traffic Power, some search engines have also reached out to the SEO industry, and are frequent sponsors and guests at SEO conferences, chats, and seminars. Major search engines provide information and guidelines to help with site optimization, Google has a Sitemaps program to help webmasters learn if Google is having any problems indexing their website and also provides data on Google traffic to the website
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Business.com
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The site covers business industry news and trends for growth companies and the B2B community to stay up-to-date, currently housing more than 15,000 pieces of content as of November 2014. In October 2014, the website was ranked #1 on Inc. coms 50 Websites Your Startup Needs to Succeed. Business. com, Inc. was founded in 1999 by Jake Winebaum, previously chairman of the Walt Disney Internet Group, and Sky Dayton, founder of Earthlink, Boingo Wireless, and Helio, among others. Around that time, the Business. com domain name was purchased from Marc Ostrofsky by Winebaums eCompanies Ventures for a then record $7.5 million. This represented a tidy profit over the $150,000 price tag of the domain in 1997, in addition to investment by eCompanies, early funding in the amount of $61 million was provided in 2000 by Pearson PLC, Reed Business Information, McGraw Hill, and others. In its initial form, Business. com aimed to be the Internets leading search engine for small business, as with much of the nascent and well-hyped Internet industry, Business. com struggled through the Dot-com bubble years. The company retooled beginning in 2002 after massive layoffs and a new focus on developing a pay for performance ad network model, on October 9,2006, Business. com launched Work. com, a site with business how-to guides contributed by the small business community. Work. com was sold in March 2012 and is now owned by Salesforce. com, the deal closed on August 23,2007. In June 2009, R. H. Donnelley filed for bankruptcy, the company emerged from Chapter 11 as Dex One Corporation on February 1,2010. JMI Equity, an equity firm that specializes in investments in internet companies, provided funding in support of the transaction. Terms of the transactions were not disclosed, in January 2013, the appointment of Tony Uphoff as CEO was announced. Uphoff was most recently CEO of UBM TechWeb and named a Top 100 business media exec by B2B Magazine, in March 2013, Business. com launched a site refresh, new logo and new suite of products. In August,2014, the Business. com website was relaunched expanding beyond a home page, Business. com produces daily content, in which the staff reporters and market experts are featured. Their Daily Business Quote of the Day was featured by Time Inc. as one of the 27 Pinterest Boards that will make life better. The market experts and staff provide insight for the latest news and discussions around marketing, human resources, technology, entrepreneurship, sales, market experts are outside contributors providing expertise and insights on trends happening in their perspective businesses. Market experts include Mike Volpe of Hubspot, Sarah benard of iCrossing, the site also features content to help make a purchasing decision including comparison charts, white papers and case studies that are non-biased for the business buyer. Business. com serves advertisers looking to reach the growth companies audience characterized as 20-1000 employee size, advertising customers include some of the largest B2B brands in B2B such as Intel, Salesforce, Marketo, ADP, Sprint as well as smaller brands. Its suite of digital marketing products include display advertising, pay per click, email marketing, content marketing demand generation, in December,2014, the company launched LENS, a lead expansion and nurturing service, as part of their demand generation product set
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Wiki
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A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
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Business directory
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A business directory is a website or printed listing of information which lists all businesses within some category. Businesses can be categorized by business, location, activity, or size, Business may be compiled either manually or through an automated online search software. Online yellow pages are a type of business directory, as is the phone book. The details provided in a business directory varies from business to business, some directories include a section for user reviews, comments, and feedback. Business directories in the past would take a printed format but have recently upgraded to websites due to the advent of the internet. Many business directories offer complimentary listings in addition to the premium options, there are many business directories and some of these have moved over to the internet and away from printed format. Whilst not being search engines, business directories often have a search facility, Business directories can be in either hard copy or in digital format. Ease of use and distribution means that many trade directories have digital version, online Business Directories vary in quality and content. There is a balance between professional advertising, value for money and quality of service, Business owners are looking for ROI, web traffic, exposure for their business, plus SEO benefits of backlinks. Web directory Kellys Directory Surplus Record Machinery & Equipment Directory
