1.
2007 Pan American Games
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The 2007 Pan American Games, officially known as the XV Pan American Games, were a major continental multi-sport event that took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from July 13 to July 29,2007. A total of 5,633 athletes from 42 National Olympic Committees competed in 332 events in 34 sports and this was the first Games held in Brazil since the 1963 Pan American Games that took place in São Paulo. According to the Rio de Janeiro Organizing Committee, the Games called for the implementation of the countrys largest organizational, the official bid was submitted in August 2001 during the XXXIX Pan American Sports Organization General Assembly held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. The Bidding Committee then submitted a detailed bid file for the Games, the document was prepared and developed with the assistance of Fundação Getúlio Vargas, which had been commissioned by Rio de Janeiros City Government. According to PASO statute and regulations, the host city was selected by direct voting during the XL PASO General Assembly held in Mexico City, Mexico, on August 24,2002. The candidate city that received the majority of votes from representatives of the 42 member National Olympic Committees would be awarded the right to host the competition. The announcement was made by PASO President Mario Vázquez Raña, Rio de Janeiro received 30 votes against 21 from San Antonio. Marked by a strategy that included the showing of city and project videos, Rio de Janeiros campaign convinced the majority of voters. The 39-member Brazilian delegation erupted into boisterous celebration celebrating the countrys highest achievement in terms of sporting event organization, to sort this table by nation, total medal count, or any other column, click on the icon next to the column title. The organization of the Rio 2007 Games has chosen the figure of the Sun to represent the event, the character reflects the main characteristics of the host city and harmonizes with the graphic work developed for the logo and the visual identity of both Games. The name was chosen through voting by Internet, cellular phone messages and public ballot boxes placed around the main Brazilian cities. Over 1.2 million people participated in the election, traditionally used in large sport events, the mascot figure serves the purpose of cheering the event, enforcing the playful aspect of sports and captivating spectators and athletes. The mascots main choice is to transmit messages of peace, respect to the environment, friendship and brotherhood, the Opening Ceremony of the XV Pan American Games took place on July 13,2007. Approximately 90,000 people packed Rio de Janeiros Maracanã Stadium for the occasion, the ceremony included a cast of 7,000 and a multimillion-dollar budget, being produced by Scott Givens. The show began at 05,30 pm and lasted for two and a half hours, the theme of the show was based on the theme of the Rio 2007 Games, Viva Essa Energia and the oath of the athletes was performed by Brazilian Taekwondo athlete Natália Falavigna. Also, an abbreviated version of the Olympic Anthem was played. Contrary to plan, the games were not opened by Brazils head of state, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, prior to the official opening, Lula had been constantly booed whenever the in-stadium camera showed his image or when his name was mentioned. The competitions were carried through in a ray of 25 km, marapendi Club – Tennis City of Sports Complex – Basketball, Cycling, Artistic Gymnastics, Swimming, Synchronized Swimming, Roller Skating
2.
Wheelchair
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A wheelchair, often abbreviated to just chair, is a chair with wheels, used when walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. Wheelchairs come in a variety of formats to meet the specific needs of their users. They may include specialized seating adaptions, individualized controls, and may be specific to particular activities, as seen with sports wheelchairs and beach wheelchairs. The earliest records of wheeled furniture are an inscription found on a slate in China. The first records of wheeled seats being used for transporting disabled people date to three centuries later in China, the Chinese used early wheelbarrows to move people as well as heavy objects. A distinction between the two functions was not made for several hundred years, around 525 CE, when images of wheeled chairs made specifically to carry people begin to occur in Chinese art. Later records show the use of technology in Europe by the Renaissance. The invalid carriage or Bath chair brought the technology into more common use from around 1760, in 1887, wheelchairs were introduced to Atlantic City so invalid tourists could rent them to enjoy the Boardwalk. Soon, many healthy tourists also rented the decorated rolling chairs and servants to them as a show of decadence. In 1933 Harry Jennings and his disabled friend Herbert Everest, both engineers, invented the first lightweight, steel, collapsible wheelchair. Everest had previously broken his back in a mining accident, Everest and Jennings saw the business potential of the invention and went on to become the first mass-market manufacturers of wheelchairs. Their x-brace design is still in use, albeit with updated materials. There are a variety of types of wheelchair, differing by propulsion method, mechanisms of control. Some wheelchairs are designed for everyday use, others for single activities. The iBot is perhaps the best known example of this in recent years, a self-propelled manual wheelchair incorporates a frame, seat, one or two footplates and four wheels, usually two caster wheels at the front and two large wheels at the back. There will generally also be a seat cushion. As this causes friction and heat build-up, particularly on long downslopes, everyday manual wheelchairs come in two major varieties, folding or rigid. Folding chairs are generally low-end designs, whose predominant advantage is being able to fold, however this is largely an advantage for part-time users who may need to store the wheelchair more often than use it
3.
Track and field
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Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running, jumping, and throwing. The name is derived from the sports venue, a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and jumping events take place. Track and field is categorised under the sport of athletics, which also includes road running, cross country running. The foot racing events, which include sprints, middle- and long-distance events, the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who achieves the greatest distance or height. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also combined events or multi events, such as the pentathlon consisting of five events, heptathlon consisting of seven events, in these, athletes participate in a combination of track and field events. Most track and field events are individual sports with a victor, the most prominent team events are relay races. Events are almost exclusively divided by gender, although both the mens and womens competitions are held at the same venue. It is one of the oldest sports, in ancient times, it was an event held in conjunction with festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece. The ancient Olympic Games began in the year 776 BC, when Koroibos, a cook from the city of Elis, won the stadium race. According to some traditions, this was the only athletic event of the games for the first 13 Olympic festivals. In modern times, the two most prestigious track and field competitions are athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the governing body. Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, however, if athletes are deemed to have violated the events rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased. In North America, the track and field may be used to refer to other athletics events, such as the marathon. The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory, Track and field-style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested, Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC
4.
Summer Paralympic Games
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The Summer Paralympic Games or the Games of the Paralympiad, are an international multi-sport event, where athletes with physical disabilities compete. This includes athletes with mobility disabilities, amputations, blindness, the Paralympic Games are held every four years, organized by the International Paralympic Committee. Medals are awarded in each event, with medals for first place, silver for second and bronze for third. The United States and the United Kingdom have each hosted two Summer Paralympic Games, more than any other nation. Other countries that have hosted the summer Paralympics are Australia, Canada, China, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, South Korea, Spain, in the 2016 Summer Paralympics, Brazil will host the first Summer Games in South America in Rio de Janeiro. Tokyo will be the first city to host the Summer Paralympics more than once,1964 and 2020. Seven of those countries have won at least one medal at every Summer Paralympic Games, Australia, Austria, France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands. The United States have been the nation for eight of the Paralympic Summer Games,1964,1968,1976,1980,1984,1988,1992 and 1996. China have been the nation for the four most recent Games,2004,2008,2012 and 2016. Italy, West Germany and Australia have been the nation one time each. Qualification rules for each of the Paralympic sports are set by the International Federation that governs that sports international competition, the first official Paralympic Games, was held in Rome in 1960. 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games though only athletes in wheelchairs competed, at the 1976 Summer Games athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a summer Paralympics. With the inclusion of more disability classifications, the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1,600 athletes from 40 countries, the 1988 Summer Paralympics were the first to be hosted in the same venues as the Olympics of that year. Since then, all Paralympic Games are now held in the city that hosted the Olympics. Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications, dependent upon the physical demands of competition. Events are given a code, made of numbers and letters, describing the type of event, within the ten disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to their level of impairment. The classification systems differ from sport to sport, and is intended to even the playing field so as to allow as many athletes to participate as possible, classifications vary in accordance with the different skills required to perform the sport. Archery, Archery is open to athletes with a physical disability, classifications are broken up into three divisions, W1, spinal cord injured and Cerebral Palsy athletes with impairment in all four limbs
5.
Sport of athletics
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Athletics is a collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common types of competitions are track and field, road running, cross country running. The results of racing events are decided by finishing position, while the jumps, the simplicity of the competitions, and the lack of a need for expensive equipment, makes athletics one of the most commonly competed sports in the world. Athletics is mostly an individual sport, with the exception of relay races and competitions which combine athletes performances for a team score, organized athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from 776 BCE. The rules and format of the events in athletics were defined in Western Europe and North America in the 19th and early 20th century. Most modern top level meetings are conducted by the International Association of Athletics Federations, the athletics meeting forms the backbone of the Summer Olympics. The foremost international athletics meeting is the IAAF World Championships in Athletics, other top level competitions in athletics include the IAAF World Cross Country Championships and the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. Athletes with a disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the IPC Athletics World Championships. The word athletics is derived from the Ancient Greek ἀθλητής from ἆθλον or ἆθλος, initially, the term was used to describe athletic contests in general – i. e. sporting competition based primarily on human physical feats. In the 19th century, the term acquired a more narrow definition in Europe. This definition continues to be the most prominent one in the United Kingdom, furthermore, foreign words in many German and Roman languages which are related to the term athletics also have a similar meaning. In much of North America, athletics is synonymous with sports in general, the word athletics is rarely used to refer to the sport of athletics in this region. Track and field is preferred, and is used in the United States and Canada to refer to most athletics events, including racewalking, Athletic contests in running, walking, jumping and throwing are among the oldest of all sports and their roots are prehistoric. Athletics events were depicted in the Ancient Egyptian tombs in Saqqara, with illustrations of running at the Heb Sed festival, the Tailteann Games were an ancient Celtic festival in Ireland, founded around 1800 BCE, and the thirty-day meeting included running and stone-throwing among its sporting events. The original and only event at the first Olympics in 776 BCE was a running event known as the stadion. This later expanded to include throwing and jumping events within the ancient pentathlon, Athletics competitions also took place at other Panhellenic Games, which were founded later around 500 BCE. The Cotswold Olimpick Games, a festival which emerged in 17th century England. Annually, from 1796 to 1798, LOlympiade de la République was held in revolutionary France, the premier event of this competition was a running event, but various ancient Greek disciplines were also on display
6.
Paralympic athletics
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Paralympic athletics is a disabled sport practiced by athletes with a physical disability who have competed at separate international events since 1952. It is governed by the International Paralympic Committee through its World Para Athletics subcommittee, rules for the sport are adapted from those set forth by the International Association of Athletics Federations. The majority of rules for Paralympic athletics are the same as those for able-bodied competitions, competitors at elite level competitions are classified by disability, to arrange athletes with a similar disability in the same event. A classified T12 athlete for example, is an athlete with a visual impairment. F = Field athletes T = Track athletes 11–13 – Visual impairment,20 – Intellectual disability 31–38 – Cerebral palsy 41–46 – Amputation, and others 51–58 – Wheelchair In wheelchair racing, athletes compete in lightweight racing chairs. Most major marathons have wheelchair divisions and the elite racers consistently beat the runners on foot, Paralympic athletes compete in the following events
7.
Ludwig Guttmann
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Sir Ludwig Poppa Guttmann CBE FRS was a German-born British neurologist who established the Paralympic Games in England. Ludwig Guttmann, the eldest child of the family, was born in Tost, within Upper Silesia and his family moved when he was three years old to the Silesia city of Königshütte. Guttman first encountered a patient with a spinal injury in 1917. The patient was a miner who later died of sepsis. Guttman started his studies in April 1918 at the University of Breslau. He transferred to the University of Freiburg in 1919 and received his Doctorate of Medicine in 1924, by 1933, Guttmann was considered the top neurosurgeon in Germany. Following the violent attacks on Jewish people and properties during Kristallnacht on 9 November 1938, the following day he justified his decision on a case-by-case basis with the Gestapo. Out of 64 admissions,60 patients were saved from arrest, in early 1939, Guttmann and his family left Germany because of the Nazi persecution of the Jews. An opportunity for escape arose when the Nazis provided him with a visa, Guttmann was scheduled to return to Germany via London, where the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics arranged for him to remain in the UK. He arrived with his wife Else Samuel Guttmann and two children, a son, Dennis and daughter, Eva aged 6 in Oxford, England, CARA, which negotiated with the British Home Office on their behalf, gave Guttmann and his family £250 to help settle in Oxford. Guttmann continued his spinal injury research at the Nuffield Department of Neurosurgery in the Radcliffe Infirmary, for the first few weeks after arrival the family resided in the Masters Lodge of Balliol College until they moved into a small semi-detached house in Lonsdale Road. Both children were offered places by the headmistress of Greycotes School. The family were members of the Oxford Jewish community, and Eva remembers becoming friendly with Miriam Margolyes, the Jewish community in Oxford was growing rapidly as a result of the influx of displaced academic Jews from Europe. With the outbreak of the Second World War, Guttmann and his family stayed in the home of Lord Lindsay, CARA Councillor, in September 1943 the British government asked Guttmann to establish the National Spinal Injuries Centre at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Buckinghamshire. When the centre opened on 1 February 1944, Guttmann was appointed its director, Guttmann became a naturalised citizen of the United Kingdom in 1945. He organised the first Stoke Mandeville Games for disabled persons on 28 July 1948, Guttmann used the term paraplegic games for national games held in order to encourage his patients to take part. This came to be known as the Paralympics, which later became the Parallel Games. By 1952, more than 130 international competitors had entered the Stoke Mandeville Games, as the annual event continued to grow, the ethos and efforts by all those involved started to impress the organisers of the Olympic Games and members of the international community
8.
2015 Tokyo Marathon
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The 2015 Tokyo Marathon was the ninth edition of the annual marathon race in Tokyo, Japan and was held on Sunday,22 February. An IAAF Gold Label Road Race, it was the first World Marathon Majors event to be held that year, the elite race winners were both from Ethiopia – the first such time that athletes from the same nation won the mens and womens division. Endeshaw Negesse was just over twenty seconds off the record with 2,06,00 hours while Berhane Dibaba took the womens title in 2,23,15. It was the first major win for both athletes, although Berhane Dibaba had been runner-up in Tokyo the previous year. The reigning Olympic and world champion Stephen Kiprotich was runner-up in the race and Dickson Chumba was third. The womens podiumw as rounded out by Helah Kiprop and reigning Olympic champion Tiki Gelana, the 2014 womens champion, Tirfi Tsegaye did not return to defend her title. The fastest home athletes both finished in seventh overall, Masato Imai in the mens and Madoka Ogi in the womens division. As in the year, the wheelchair race was principally a national affair. Wakako Tsuchida defended her title while Kota Hokinoue—winner at the 2014 Berlin Marathon—won the mens race for the first time. Other notable performers Ryo Yamamoto, 17th,2,12,46 Yuki Sato, 20th,2,14,15 Arata Fujiwara, 37th,2,19,40 Race results Results 2015 Tokyo Marathon Man
9.
Archery
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Archery is the sport, practice or skill of using a bow to propel arrows. The word comes from the Latin arcus, historically, archery has been used for hunting and combat. In modern times, it is mainly a competitive sport and recreational activity, a person who participates in archery is typically called an archer or a bowman, and a person who is fond of or an expert at archery is sometimes called a toxophilite. The bow and arrow seems to have invented in the later Paleolithic or early Mesolithic periods. The oldest signs of its use in Europe come from the Stellmoor in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the late Paleolithic, about 10, 000–9000 BC. The arrows were made of pine and consisted of a mainshaft, there are no definite earlier bows, previous pointed shafts are known, but may have been launched by spear-throwers rather than bows. The oldest bows known so far come from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark, bows and arrows have been present in Egyptian culture since its predynastic origins. In the Levant, artifacts that could be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture, the Khiamian and PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads. Classical civilizations, notably the Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, Persians, Parthians, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, akkadians were the first to use composite bows in war according to the victory stele of Naram-Sin of Akkad. The Welsh longbow proved its worth for the first time in Continental warfare at the Battle of Crécy, in the Americas archery was widespread at European contact. Archery was highly developed in Asia, the Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurveda, came to refer to martial arts in general. In East Asia, Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was well known for its regiments of skilled archers. Central Asian tribesmen and American Plains Indians became extremely adept at archery on horseback, lightly armoured, but highly mobile archers were excellently suited to warfare in the Central Asian steppes, and they formed a large part of armies that repeatedly conquered large areas of Eurasia. Shorter bows are more suited to use on horseback, and the bow enabled mounted archers to use powerful weapons. It is possible that barbarian peoples were responsible for introducing archery or certain types of bows to their civilized counterparts—the Xiong-nu, similarly, short bows seem to have been introduced to Japan by northeast Asian groups. The development of firearms rendered bows obsolete in warfare, albeit efforts were made to preserve archery practice. In Wales and England, for example, the government tried to practice with the Longbow until the end of the 16th century. This was because it was recognised that the bow had been instrumental to military success during the Hundred Years War, early firearms were inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very susceptible to wet weather
10.
Bowls
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Bowls or lawn bowls is a sport in which the objective is to roll biased balls so that they stop close to a smaller ball called a jack or kitty. It is played on a green which may be flat or convex or uneven. It is normally played outdoors and the surface is either natural grass, artificial turf. It has been traced certainly to the 13th century, and conjecturally to the 12th, the jactus lapidum of which he speaks may have been more akin to shotput. It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a form, was played in the 13th century. A manuscript of that period in the library, Windsor. The worlds oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, another manuscript of the same century has a crude but spirited picture which brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack, a 14th-century manuscript, Book of Prayers, in the Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian Library at Oxford contains a drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt suggests that the first players bowl may have been regarded by the player as a species of jack. In the third he stands almost upright, in the first he kneels, in the second he stoops, the game eventually came under the ban of king and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardise the practice of archery, then so important in battle. Statutes forbidding it and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III, Richard II, even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The word bowls occurs for the first time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII confirmed previous enactments against unlawful games and it was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside his own garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. While those possessed of lands of the value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private greens. Young Mitchell was only 11 when he played on Kilmarnock Bowling green and this is turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn bowls, most football codes, lawn tennis and others. National Bowling Associations were established in the late 1800s, today the sport is played in over 40 countries with more than 50 member national authorities. The home of the game is still Scotland with the World Bowls centre in Edinburgh at Caledonia House,1 Redheughs Rigg, South Gyle, Edinburgh. Lawn bowls is played on a large, rectangular, precisely levelled and manicured grass or synthetic surface known as a bowling green which is divided into parallel playing strips called rinks. Once it has come to rest, the jack is aligned to the centre of the rink, a bowl may curve outside the rink boundary on its path, but must come to rest within the rink boundary to remain in play
