1.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
2.
International standard
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International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide, the most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization. International standards may be used either by application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. Technical barriers arise when different groups together, each with a large user base. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem, the implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts. Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, some companies in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. Joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841 and it came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries. By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies were making trade increasingly difficult and strained, the Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the worlds first national standards body. After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries, by the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. An important figure was R. E. B, Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current, adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for a standard for electric engineering. In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the bodys first President, the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II, after the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee with a proposal to form a new global standards body. List of international common standards List of technical standard organisations Global Frameworks and standards organized along function lines, accessed 2014 ^ Cordova
3.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
4.
Windows 3.0
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Windows 3.0, a graphical environment, is the third major release of Microsoft Windows, and was released on May 22,1990. It became the first widely successful version of Windows and a rival to Apple Macintosh and it was followed by Windows 3.1. Windows 3.0 originated in 1989 when David Weise and Murray Sargent independently decided to develop a protected mode Windows as an experiment and they cobbled together a rough prototype and presented it to company executives, who were impressed enough to approve it as an official project. However, this was of limited use for the home market, the MS-DOS Executive file manager/program launcher was replaced with the icon-based Program Manager and the list-based File Manager, splitting files and programs. The Control Panel, previously available as an applet, was re-modeled after the one in the classic Mac OS. It centralized system settings, including control over the scheme of the interface. A number of applications were included, such as the text editor Notepad and the word processor Write, a macro recorder, the paint program Paintbrush. Also, the earlier Reversi game was complemented with the card game Microsoft Solitaire, 256-color VGA and MCGA modes were supported for the first time. Windows 3.0 includes a Protected/Enhanced mode which allows Windows applications to use memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. It can run in any of Real, Standard, or 386 Enhanced modes, Windows 3.0 tries to auto detect which mode to run in, although it can be forced to run in a specific mode using the switches, /r, /s and /3 respectively. Since Windows 3.0 runs in 16-bit 286 protected mode and not 32-bit 386 protected mode, however, on 32-bit CPUs, the programmer had access to larger memory pointers and so it was possible to expand program segments to whatever size was desired. Because of this, Windows 3.0 can access only 16 MB total of RAM and this was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel for Windows/286. The official system requirements for Windows 3.1 or higher Also, Windows 3.0 cannot run in full color on most 8086/88 machines, as the built-in 640×350 EGA and 640×480 VGA drivers contained Intel 80186 instructions. MCGA 320×200 and 640×480 drivers did not contain these instructions and this could be worked around by installing the Windows 2. x EGA/VGA drivers, replacing the CPU with an NEC V20/V30, or by using a modified VGA driver that supports the 8086/88. Real mode primarily existed as a way to run Windows 2. x applications and it was removed in Windows 3. 1x. Almost all applications designed for Windows 3.0 had to be run in standard or 386 enhanced modes, however, it was necessary to load Windows 3.0 in real mode to run SWAPFILE. EXE, which allowed users to change virtual memory settings. Officially, Microsoft stated that an 8Mhz turbo 8086 was the minimum CPU needed to run Windows 3.0 and it could be run on 4.77 MHz 8088 machines, but performance is so slow as to render the OS almost unusable. Up to 4 MB of EMS memory is supported in real mode, Standard mode was used most often as its requirements were more in-line with an average PC of that era — an 80286 processor with at least 1 MB of memory
5.
Windows 95
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Windows 95 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft. It was released on August 24,1995, and was a significant improvement over the companys previous DOS-based Windows products, Windows 95 merged Microsofts formerly separate MS-DOS and Windows products. It featured significant improvements over its predecessor, Windows 3.1, most notably in the user interface. It was also suggested that Windows 95 had an effect of driving other major out of business. Three years after its introduction, Windows 95 was succeeded by Windows 98, Microsoft ended support for Windows 95 on December 31,2001. The initial design and planning of Windows 95 can be traced back to around March 1992, at this time, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and Windows NT3.1 were still in development and Microsofts plan for the future was focused on Cairo. Cairo would be Microsofts next-generation operating system based on Windows NT and featuring a new interface and an object-based file system. However, Cairo would partially ship in July 1996 in the form of Windows NT4.0, but without the object-based file system, simultaneously with Windows 3. 1s release, IBM started shipping OS/22.0. Microsoft realized they were in need of a version of Windows that could support 32-bit applications and preemptive multitasking. So the development of Windows Chicago was started and, as it was planned for a late 1993 release, became known as Windows 93. Initially, the decision was not to include a new user interface, as this was planned for Cairo, and only focus on making installation, configuration. Windows 93 would ship together with MS-DOS7.0, offering an integrated experience to the user. The first version of Chicagos feature specification was finished on September 30,1992, cougar was to become Chicagos kernel. Prior to Windows 95s official release, users in the United States had an opportunity to preview it in the Windows 95 Preview Program. For US$19.95, users would receive several 3. 5-inch floppy disks that would be used to install Windows 95 either as an upgrade from Windows 3. 1x or as a fresh installation. Participants were also given a preview of The Microsoft Network. The preview versions expired in November 1995, after which the user would have to purchase their own copy of the version of Windows 95. Windows 95 was designed to be compatible with existing MS-DOS and 16-bit Windows programs and device drivers, while offering a more stable
6.
Windows XP
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Windows XP is a personal computer operating system that was produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. It was released to manufacturing on August 24,2001, however, in January 2000, both projects were shelved in favor of a single OS codenamed Whistler, which would serve as a single OS platform for both consumer and business markets. Windows XP was an advance from the MS-DOS based versions of Windows in security, stability. It introduced a significantly redesigned graphical user interface and was the first version of Windows to use product activation in an effort to reduce its copyright infringement. Despite some initial concerns over the new licensing model and product activation system, Windows XP eventually proved to be popular and widely used. It is estimated that at least 400 million copies of Windows XP were sold globally within its first five years of availability, sales of Windows XP licenses to original equipment manufacturers ceased on June 30,2008, but continued for netbooks until October 2010. Windows XP remained popular even after the release of newer versions, vistas 2009 successor, Windows 7, only overtook XP in total market share at the end of 2011. Extended support for Windows XP ended on April 8,2014, as of November 2016, Windows XP desktop market share makes it the fourth most popular Windows version after Windows 7, Windows 10 and Windows 8.1. Windows XP is still popular in some countries, Africa as a whole and in Asia, e. g. in China. A number of activity centers were planned, serving as hubs for email communications, playing music, managing or viewing photos, searching the Internet, however, the project proved to be too ambitious. Microsoft discussed a plan to delay Neptune in favor of an interim OS known as Asteroid, which would have been an update to Windows 2000, and since Neptune and Odyssey would be based on the same code-base anyway, it made sense to combine them into a single project. In June 2000, Microsoft began the technical beta testing process, Whistler was expected to be available in Personal, Professional, Server, Advanced Server. At PDC on July 13,2000, Microsoft announced that Whistler would be released during the half of 2001. Build 2257 featured further refinements to the Watercolor theme, along with the introduction of the two-column Start menu. Microsoft released Whistler Beta 1, build 2296, on October 31,2000, build 2410 in January 2001 introduced Internet Explorer 6.0 and the Microsoft Product Activation system. Making it very friendly for the user to use. Builds 2416 and 2419 added the File and Transfer Settings Wizard, on February 5,2001, Microsoft officially announced that Whistler would be known as Windows XP, where XP stands for experience. As a complement, the version of Microsoft Office was also announced as Office XP
7.
Windows Vista
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Windows Vista is an operating system by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs and media center PCs. Development was completed on 8 November 2006, and over the three months, it was released in stages to computer hardware and software manufacturers, business customers. On 30 January 2007, it was released worldwide and was available for purchase. It was succeeded by Windows 7, which was released to manufacturing on 22 July 2009, Vista aimed to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network, using peer-to-peer technology to simplify sharing files and media between computers and devices. Windows Vista included version 3.0 of the. NET Framework, Microsofts primary stated objective with Windows Vista was to improve the state of security in the Windows operating system. One common criticism of Windows XP and its predecessors was their commonly exploited security vulnerabilities and overall susceptibility to malware, viruses, Microsoft stated that it prioritized improving the security of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 above finishing Windows Vista, thus delaying its completion. While these new features and security improvements have garnered positive reviews, Vista has also been the target of much criticism, as a result of these and other issues, Windows Vista had seen initial adoption and satisfaction rates lower than Windows XP. In May 2010, Windows Vistas market share had a range from 15% to 26%. On 22 October 2010, Microsoft ceased sales of copies of Windows Vista. As of March 2017, Vistas market share was 0. 72%, Microsoft stopped providing mainstream support for Windows Vista on 10 April 2012. Extended support will end on 11 April 2017, Microsoft began work on Windows Vista, known at the time by its codename Longhorn, in May 2001, five months before the release of Windows XP. It was originally expected to ship sometime late in 2003 as a step between Windows XP and Blackcomb, which was planned to be the companys next major operating system release. Gradually, Longhorn assimilated many of the important new features and technologies slated for Blackcomb, in some builds of Longhorn, their license agreement said For the Microsoft product codenamed Whistler. Many of Microsofts developers were also re-tasked to build updates to Windows XP, faced with ongoing delays and concerns about feature creep, Microsoft announced on 27 August 2004, that it had revised its plans. Longhorn became known as Vista in 2005, the early development stages of Longhorn were generally characterized by incremental improvements and updates to Windows XP. After several months of relatively little news or activity from Microsoft with Longhorn, Microsoft released Build 4008 and it was also privately handed out to a select group of software developers. An optional new taskbar was introduced that was thinner than the previous build, the most notable visual and functional difference, however, came with Windows Explorer. The incorporation of the Plex theme made blue the dominant color of the entire application, the Windows XP-style task pane was almost completely replaced with a large horizontal pane that appeared under the toolbars
8.
Windows 7
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Windows 7 is a personal computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It is a part of the Windows NT family of operating systems, Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22,2009, and became generally available on October 22,2009, less than three years after the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows 7s server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time, Windows 7 continued improvements on Windows Aero with the addition of a redesigned taskbar that allows applications to be pinned to it, and new window management features. Other new features were added to the system, including libraries, the new file sharing system HomeGroup. A new Action Center interface was added to provide an overview of system security and maintenance information. Windows 7 also shipped with updated versions of several applications, including Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media Player. Windows 7 was a success for Microsoft, even prior to its official release. Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP, major features were planned for Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querying data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to enable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release, codenamed Longhorn, was announced for 2003, by the middle of 2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. Development of Longhorn was also restarted, and thus delayed, in August 2004, a number of features were cut from Longhorn. Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in early 2006, as such, adoption of Vista in comparison to XP remained somewhat low. In July 2007, six months following the release of Vista, it was reported that the next version of Windows would then be codenamed Windows 7. Bill Gates, in an interview with Newsweek, suggested that Windows 7 would be more user-centric, Gates later said that Windows 7 would also focus on performance improvements. Senior Vice President Bill Veghte stated that Windows Vista users migrating to Windows 7 would not find the kind of device compatibility issues they encountered migrating from Windows XP, an estimated 1,000 developers worked on Windows 7. These were broadly divided into core operating system and Windows client experience, in October 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would also be the official name of the operating system. The first external release to select Microsoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1, at PDC2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its reworked taskbar. On December 27,2008, the Windows 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. According to a performance test by ZDNet, Windows 7 Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key areas, including boot and shutdown time and working with files, such as loading documents
9.
Windows 8
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Windows 8 is a personal computer operating system developed by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. Development of Windows 8 started before the release of its predecessor, Windows 7 and it was announced at CES2011, and followed by the release of three pre-release versions from September 2011 to May 2012. The operating system was released to manufacturing on August 1,2012, Windows 8 added support for USB3.0, Advanced Format hard drives, near field communications, and cloud computing. Windows 8 was released to a critical reception. Despite these shortcomings,60 million Windows 8 licenses were sold through January 2013, on October 17,2013, Microsoft released Windows 8.1. It addressed some aspects of Windows 8 that were criticized by reviewers and early adopters, Windows 8 was ultimately succeeded by Windows 10 in July 2015. Support for Windows 8 RTM ended on January 12,2016, per Microsoft lifecycle policies regarding service packs, Windows 8.1 must be installed to maintain support, Windows 8 development started before Windows 7 had shipped in 2009. Three milestone releases of Windows 8 leaked to the general public, milestone 1, Build 7850, was leaked on April 12,2011. It was the first build where the text of a window was written centered instead of aligned to the left and it was also probably the first appearance of the Metro-style font, and its wallpaper had the text shhh. Lets not leak our hard work, however, its detailed build number reveals that the build was created on September 22,2010. The leaked copy was Enterprise edition, the OS still reads as Windows 7. Milestone 2, Build 7955, was leaked on April 25,2011, the traditional Blue Screen of Death was replaced by a new black screen, although this was later scrapped. This build introduced a new ribbon in Windows Explorer, Build 7959, with minor changes but the first 64-bit version, was leaked on May 1,2011. The Windows 7 logo was replaced with text displaying Microsoft Confidential. On June 17,2011, build 7989 64-bit edition was leaked and it introduced a new boot screen featuring the same fish as the default Windows 7 Beta wallpaper, which was later scrapped, and the circling dots as featured in the final. It also had the text Welcome below them, although this was also scrapped, on June 1,2011, Microsoft unveiled Windows 8s new user interface, as well as additional features at both Computex Taipei and the D9, All Things Digital conference in California. The Building Windows 8 blog launched on August 15,2011, featuring details surrounding Windows 8s features, Microsoft unveiled more Windows 8 features and improvements on the first day of the Build conference on September 13,2011. Microsoft released the first public build of Windows 8, Windows Developer Preview at the event
10.
Windows 8.1
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Windows 8.1 is an upgrade for Windows 8, a computer operating system released by Microsoft. Windows 8.1 is available free of charge for copies of Windows 8. However, unlike previous service packs, Windows 8.1 cannot be acquired via Windows Update, Windows 8.1 also added support for such emerging technologies as high-resolution displays, 3D printing, Wi-Fi Direct, and Miracast streaming, as well as the ReFS file system. Despite these improvements, Windows 8.1 was still criticized for not addressing all digressions of Windows 8, as of March 2017, the market share of Windows 8.1 is 6. 66%. com, and SkyDrive. Lending credibility to the reports, Foley noted that a Microsoft staff member had listed experience with Windows Blue on his LinkedIn profile, a post-RTM build of Windows 8, build 9364, was leaked in March 2013. Shortly afterward on March 26,2013, corporate president of corporate communications Frank X. In early May, press reports announcing the upcoming version in Financial Times, the theme was then echoed and debated in the computer press. Shaw rejected this criticism as extreme, adding that he saw a comparison with Diet Coke as more appropriate, on May 14, Microsoft officially announced that Blue would be named Windows 8.1. Following a keynote presentation focusing on this version, the beta of Windows 8.1 was released on June 26,2013 during Build. Build 9600 of Windows 8.1 was released to OEM hardware partners on August 27,2013, however, after criticism, Microsoft reversed its decision and released the RTM build on MSDN and TechNet on September 9,2013. Prior to the release of Windows 8.1, Microsoft premiered a new television commercial in late-September 2013 that focused on its changes as part of the Windows Everywhere campaign, shortly after its release, Windows RT8. On October 21,2013, Microsoft confirmed that the bug was limited to the original Surface tablet, the company released recovery media and instructions which could be used to repair the device, and restored access to Windows RT8.1 the next day. It was also found changes to screen resolution handling on Windows 8. Users also found the issues to be pronounced when using gaming mice with high resolution and/or polling rates. Microsoft released a patch to fix the bug on certain games in November 2013, on April 8,2014, Microsoft released the Windows 8.1 Update, which included all past updates plus new features. It was unveiled by Microsoft vice president Joe Belfiore at Mobile World Congress on February 23,2014, and detailed in full at Microsofts Build conference on April 2. Belfiore noted that the update would lower the minimum requirements for Windows. Unlike Windows 8.1 itself, this update is distributed through Windows Update
11.
Windows NT
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Windows NT is a family of operating systems produced by Microsoft, the first version of which was released in July 1993. It is a processor-independent, multiprocessing, multi-user operating system, the first version of Windows NT was Windows NT3.1 and was produced for workstations and server computers. It was intended to complement consumer versions of Windows that were based on MS-DOS, gradually, the Windows NT family was expanded into Microsofts general-purpose operating system product line for all personal computers, deprecating the Windows 9x family. NT was formerly expanded to New Technology but no longer carries any specific meaning, starting with Windows 2000, NT was removed from the product name and is only included in the product version string. NT was the first purely 32-bit version of Windows, whereas its consumer-oriented counterparts, Windows 3. 1x and it is a multi-architecture operating system. Initially, it supported several CPU architectures, including IA-32, MIPS, DEC Alpha, PowerPC, the latest versions support x86 and ARM. This lineage is made clear in Cutlers foreword to Inside Windows NT by Helen Custer and it has been suggested that Dave Cutler intended the initialism WNT as a play on VMS, incrementing each letter by one. However, the project was intended as a follow-on to OS/2 and was referred to as NT OS/2 before receiving the Windows brand. One of the original NT developers, Mark Lucovsky, states that the name was taken from the original target processor—the Intel i860, the letters were dropped from the names of releases from Windows 2000 onwards, though Microsoft described that product as being Built on NT Technology. A main design goal of NT was hardware and software portability, the idea was to have a common code base with a custom Hardware Abstraction Layer for each platform. However, support for MIPS, Alpha, and PowerPC was later dropped in Windows 2000, broad software compatibility was achieved with support for several API personalities, including Windows API, POSIX, and OS/2 APIs – the latter two were phased out starting with Windows XP. Partial MS-DOS compatibility was achieved via an integrated DOS Virtual Machine – although this feature is being phased out in the x86-64 architecture, NT supported per-object access control lists allowing a rich set of security permissions to be applied to systems and services. NT supported Windows network protocols, inheriting the previous OS/2 LAN Manager networking, Windows NT3.1 was the first version of Windows to use 32-bit flat virtual memory addressing on 32-bit processors. Its companion product, Windows 3.1, used segmented addressing, notably, in Windows NT3. x, several I/O driver subsystems, such as video and printing, were user-mode subsystems. In Windows NT4, the video, server, and printer spooler subsystems were moved into kernel mode, NTFS, a journaled, secure file system, was created for NT. Windows NT also allows for other file systems, starting with versions 3.1. Windows NT introduced its own model, the Windows NT driver model. With Windows 2000, the Windows NT driver model was enhanced to become the Windows Driver Model, which was first introduced with Windows 98, but was based on the NT driver model
12.
Bitmap
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In computing, a bitmap is a mapping from some domain to bits, that is, values which are zero or one. It is also called a bit array or bitmap index, in computer graphics, when the domain is a rectangle a bitmap gives a way to store a binary image, that is, an image in which each pixel is either black or white. The more general term refers to a map of pixels. Often bitmap is used for this as well, in some contexts, the term bitmap implies one bit per pixel, while pixmap is used for images with multiple bits per pixel. A bitmap is a type of organization or image file format used to store digital images. The term bitmap comes from the computer programming terminology, meaning just a map of bits, now, along with pixmap, it commonly refers to the similar concept of a spatially mapped array of pixels. Raster images in general may be referred to as bitmaps or pixmaps, whether synthetic or photographic, besides BMP, other file formats that store literal bitmaps include InterLeaved Bitmap, Portable Bitmap, X Bitmap, and Wireless Application Protocol Bitmap. Similarly, most other file formats, such as JPEG, TIFF, PNG, and GIF, also store bitmap images. In typical uncompressed bitmaps, image pixels are stored with a color depth of 1,4,8,16,24,32,48. Pixels of 8 bits and fewer can represent either grayscale or indexed color. An alpha channel may be stored in a bitmap, where it is similar to a grayscale bitmap, or in a fourth channel that, for example. The bits representing the bitmap pixels may be packed or unpacked, depending on the color depth, a pixel in the picture will occupy at least n/8 bytes, where n is the bit depth. In the formula above, header size and color palette size, due to effects of row padding to align each row start to a storage unit boundary such as a word, additional bytes may be needed. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the format for them is called DIB file format or BMP file format. According to Microsoft support, A device-independent bitmap is a used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another, a DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object. A DIB is normally transported in metafiles, BMP files, here, device independent refers to the format, or storage arrangement, and should not be confused with device-independent color. The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black-and-white images, numerous other uncompressed bitmap file formats are in use, though most not widely
13.
Plain text
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In computing, plain text is the data that represent only characters of readable material but not its graphical representation nor other objects. It may also include a number of characters that control simple arrangement of text. Plain text is different from formatted text, where information is included. The encoding has traditionally been either ASCII, sometimes EBCDIC, unicode-based encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16 are gradually replacing the older ASCII derivatives limited to 7 or 8 bit codes. Files that contain markup or other meta-data are generally considered plain-text, the use of plain text rather than bit-streams to express markup, enables files to survive much better in the wild, in part by making them largely immune to computer architecture incompatibilities. According to The Unicode Standard, Plain text is a sequence of character codes. Styled text, also known as rich text, is any text representation containing plain text completed by such as a language identifier, font size, color. For instance, Rich text such as SGML, RTF, HTML, XML, wiki markup, according to The Unicode Standard, plain text has two main properties in regard to rich text, plain text is the underlying content stream to which formatting can be applied. Plain text is public, standardized, and universally readable, Plain text represents the basic, interchangeable content of text. Plain text represents character content only, not its appearance and it can be displayed in a variety of ways and requires a rendering process to make it visible with a particular appearance. If the same plain text sequence is given to disparate rendering processes, instead, the disparate rendering processes are simply required to make the text legible according to the intended reading. This legibility criterion constrains the range of possible appearances, the relationship between appearance and content of plain text may be summarized as follows, Plain text must contain enough information to permit the text to be rendered legibly, and nothing more. The Unicode Standard encodes plain text, the distinction between plain text and other forms of data in the same data stream is the function of a higher-level protocol and is not specified by the Unicode Standard itself. The purpose of using plain text today is primarily independence from programs that require their own special encoding or formatting or file format. Plain text files can be opened, read, and edited with countless text editors, a command-line interface allows people to give commands in plain text and get a response, also in plain text. Plain text files are almost universal in programming, a code file containing instructions in a programming language is almost always a plain text file. Plain text is commonly used for configuration files, which are read for saved settings at the startup of a program. Plain text is used for much e-mail, a comment, a. txt file, or a TXT Record generally contains only plain text intended for humans to read
14.
Table of contents
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Pliny the Elder credits Quintus Valerius Soranus as the first author to provide a table of contents to help readers navigate a lengthy work. Plinys own table of contents for his encyclopedic Historia naturalis may be viewed online in Latin and in English, the depth of detail in tables of contents depends on the length of the work, with longer works having less. Formal reports also have a table of contents, printed tables of contents indicate page numbers where each part starts, while digital ones offer links to go to each part. The format and location of the numbers is a matter of style for the publisher. In some cases, the number appears before the text. If a book or document contains chapters, articles, or stories by different authors, matter preceding the table of contents is generally not listed there. However, all pages except the cover are counted. Example with leaders, Chapter 1, Getting Started,3 Example without leaders, Chapter 1, Getting Started 1 Introduction 2 Next Steps 3 Example with authors,1. Introduction to Biology Arthur C. Smith 12, chang 24 Example with descriptive text, Chapter 13 In which we first meet our hero and heroine, attend a gala feast, and begin an unexpected journey. Chapter 212 The journey takes a turn, and new villains are discovered. The Chicago Manual of Style Gerald J. Alred, Charles T. Brusaw, Walter E. Oliu
15.
Raster graphics
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Raster images are stored in image files with varying formats. A raster is technically characterized by the width and height of the image in pixels, the printing and prepress industries know raster graphics as contones. The opposite to contones is line work, usually implemented as vector graphics in digital systems, the word raster has its origins in the Latin rastrum, which is derived from radere. It originates from the scan of cathode ray tube video monitors. By association, it can refer to a rectangular grid of pixels. The word rastrum is now used to refer to a device for drawing musical staff lines, most modern computers have bitmapped displays, where each on-screen pixel directly corresponds to a small number of bits in memory. The screen is refreshed simply by scanning through pixels and coloring them according to set of bits. The refresh procedure, being speed critical, is implemented by dedicated circuitry. Most computer images are stored in raster graphics formats or compressed variations, including GIF, JPEG, and PNG, three-dimensional voxel raster graphics are employed in video games and are also used in medical imaging such as MRI scanners. GIS programs commonly use rasters that encode geographic data in the values as well as the pixel locations. Raster graphics are resolution dependent, meaning they cannot scale up to a resolution without loss of apparent quality. This property contrasts with the capabilities of graphics, which easily scale up to the quality of the device rendering them. Raster graphics deal more practically than vector graphics with photographs and photo-realistic images, typically, a resolution of 150 to 300 PPI works well for 4-color process printing. However, for printing technologies that perform color mixing through dithering rather than through overprinting, printer DPI and image PPI have a different meaning. Thus, for instance, printing an image at 250 PPI may actually require a printer setting of 1200 DPI, when an image is rendered in a raster-based image editor, the image is composed of millions of pixels. At its core, an image editor works by manipulating each individual pixel. Most pixel-based image editors work using the RGB color model, and this article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later
16.
BMP file format
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The BMP file format is capable of storing two-dimensional digital images both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and optionally with data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles. The Windows Metafile specification covers the BMP file format, among others wingdi. h defines BMP constants and structures. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the format for them is called DIB file format or BMP image file format. According to Microsoft support, A device-independent bitmap is a used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another, a DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object. A DIB is normally transported in metafiles, BMP files, the following sections discuss the data stored in the BMP file or DIB in detail. This is the standard BMP file format, some applications create bitmap image files which are not compliant with the Microsoft documentation. Also, not all fields are used, a value of 0 will be found in these unused fields, the bitmap image file consists of fixed-size structures as well as variable-size structures appearing in a predetermined sequence. Many different versions of some of these structures can appear in the file, the in-memory DIB data structure is almost the same as the BMP file format, but it does not contain the 14-byte bitmap file header and begins with the DIB header. For DIBs loaded in memory, the table can also consist of 16-bit entries that constitute indexes to the currently realized palette. In all cases, the array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In non-packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should be located immediately after the table and before the gap1. In all cases, the array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In some cases it may be necessary to adjust the number of entries in the table in order to force the memory address of the pixel array to a multiple of 4 bytes. For packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should immediately follow the pixel array, packed DIBs are required by Windows clipboard API functions as well as by some Windows patterned brush and resource functions. This block of bytes is at the start of the file and is used to identify the file, a typical application reads this block first to ensure that the file is actually a BMP file and that it is not damaged. The first 2 bytes of the BMP file format are the character B then the character M in ASCII encoding, all of the integer values are stored in little-endian format. This block of bytes tells the detailed information about the image
17.
Emphasis (typography)
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In typography, emphasis is the exaggeration of words in a text with a font in a different style from the rest of the text—to emphasize them. It is the equivalent of prosodic stress in speech, the most common methods in Bold fall under the general technique of emphasis through a change or modification of font, italics, boldface and small caps. Other methods include the alteration of letter case and spacing as well as color, the human eye is very receptive to differences in brightness within a text body. Therefore, one can differentiate types of emphasis according to whether the emphasis changes the “blackness” of text. With one or the other of these techniques, words can be highlighted without making them out much from the rest of the text. This was used for marking passages that have a different context, such as words from languages, book titles. By contrast, a bold font weight makes text darker than the surrounding text, for example, printed dictionaries often use boldface for their keywords, and the names of entries can conventionally be marked in bold. Small capitals are used for emphasis, especially for the first line of a section, sometimes accompanied by or instead of a drop cap. If the text body is typeset in a typeface, it is also possible to highlight words by setting them in a sans serif face. It is still using some font superfamilies, which come with matching serif and sans-serif variants. In Japanese typography, due to the legibility of heavier Minchō type. Of these methods, italics, small capitals and capitalisation are oldest, with bold type, the house styles of many publishers in the United States use all caps text for, chapter and section headings, newspaper headlines, publication titles, warning messages, word of important meaning. Capitalization is used less commonly today by British publishers. All-uppercase letters are a form of emphasis where the medium lacks support for boldface, such as old typewriters, plain-text email, SMS. Culturally all-caps text has become an indication of shouting, for example when quoting speech and it was also once often used by American lawyers to indicate important points in a legal text. Another means of emphasis is to increase the spacing between the letters, rather than making them darker, but still achieving a distinction in blackness and this results in an effect reverse to boldface, the emphasized text becomes lighter than its environment. This is often used in typesetting and typewriter manuscripts. On typewriters a full space was used between the letters of a word and also one before and one after the word
18.
Italic type
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In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a stylized form of calligraphic handwriting. Owing to the influence from calligraphy, italics normally slant slightly to the right, italics are a way to emphasise key points in a printed text, or when quoting a speaker a way to show which words they stressed. One manual of English usage described italics as the print equivalent of underlining, the name comes from the fact that calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents traditionally written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. Aldus Manutius and Ludovico Arrighi were the type designers involved in this process at the time. Different glyph shapes from roman type are usually used – another influence from calligraphy –, an alternative is oblique type, in which the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape, this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces. Italic type was first used by Aldus Manutius and his press in Venice in 1500, Manutius used italic not for emphasis but for the text of small, easily carried editions of popular books, replicating the style of handwritten manuscripts of the period. The choice of using italic type, rather than the type in general use at the time, was apparently made to suggest informality in editions designed for leisure reading. Manutius italic type, cut and conceived by his employee, punchcutter Francesco Griffo, replicated handwriting of the following from the style of Niccolò de Niccoli. The first use in a volume was a 1501 edition of Virgil dedicated to Italy. Manutius italic was different in some ways from modern italics, unlike the italic type of today, the capital letters were upright capitals on the model of Roman square capitals, shorter than the ascending lower-case italic letters. While modern italics are more condensed than roman types, historian Harry Carter describes Manutius italic as about the same width as roman type. To replicate handwriting, Griffo cut at least sixty-five tied letters in the Aldine Dante, Italic typefaces of the following century used varying but reduced numbers of ligatures. Manutius type rapidly became popular in its own day and was widely imitated. The Venetian Senate gave Aldus exclusive right to its use, a patent confirmed by three successive Popes, but it was widely counterfeited as early as 1502. Griffo, who had left Venice in a dispute, cut a version for printer Girolamo Soncino. The Italians called the character Aldino, while called it Italic. Italics spread rapidly, historian Hendrik Vervliet dates the first production of italics in Paris to 1512, chancery italics faded as a style over the course of the sixteenth century, although revivals were made beginning in the twentieth century. Chancery italics may have backward-pointing serifs or round terminals pointing forwards on the ascenders, Vervliet comments that among punchcutters the main name associated with the change is Granjons
19.
Adobe RoboHelp
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Adobe RoboHelp is a help authoring tool developed and published by Adobe Systems for Windows. RoboHelp was created by Gen Kiyooka, and Blue Sky Software released version 1.0 in January 1992, Blue Sky Software was founded in 1990 and changed its name to eHelp Corporation on 4 April 2000. Macromedia acquired eHelp Corporation on 24 October 2003, macromedia was, in turn, acquired by Adobe Systems on 3 December 2005. Adobe Systems has developed and released eight successive versions of RoboHelp since 2007. and dropped the X used in the previous version and this decision caused confusion because Blue Sky Software released RoboHelp 6.0 in 1998. Adobe Systems continued with that system and used versions 7 through 11 for successive versions of RoboHelp released from September 2007 to January 2014. In June 2015, Adobe Systems used a new numbering system with the year instead of a version number with RoboHelp 2015. This new version numbering system has removed any uncertainty about which version is the most recent, the current version, Adobe RoboHelp 2017, is the 21st version of the software released in RoboHelps 25-year history. The network-specific version of Adobe RoboHelp, Adobe RoboHelp Server, is released on a separate schedule, Adobe RoboHelp Server, formerly RoboSource Control, provides version control, deployment, and access to online help files on a network. The current version of Adobe RoboHelp Server, version 10, was released on 12 April 2016, official website Adobe RoboHelp forums Adobe RoboHelp 2017 Help Resources
20.
Menu (computing)
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In computing and telecommunications, a menu or menu bar is graphical control element. It is a list of options or commands presented to an operator by a computer or communications system, entering the appropriate short-cut selects a menu item. A more sophisticated solution offers navigation using the keys or the mouse. The current selection is highlighted and can be activated by pressing the enter key, a computer using a graphical user interface presents menus with a combination of text and symbols to represent choices. By clicking on one of the symbols or text, the operator is selecting the instruction that the symbol represents, a context menu is a menu in which the choices presented to the operator are automatically modified according to the current context in which the operator is working. A common use of menus is to provide convenient access to various such as saving or opening a file, quitting a program. Most widget toolkits provide some form of pull-down or pop-up menu, according to traditional human interface guidelines, menu names were always supposed to be verbs, such as file, edit and so on. This has been ignored in subsequent user interface developments. A single-word verb however is unclear, and so as to allow for multiple word menu names. Menus are now seen in consumer electronics, starting with TV sets and VCRs that gained on-screen displays in the early 1990s. Menus allow the control of settings like tint, brightness, contrast, bass and treble, other more recent electronics in the 2000s also have menus, such as digital media players. Menus are sometimes hierarchically organized, allowing navigation through different levels of the menu structure, selecting a menu entry with an arrow will expand it, showing a second menu with options related to the selected entry. Usability of sub-menus has been criticized as difficult, because of the height that must be crossed by the pointer. The steering law predicts that this movement will be slow, federal Standard 1037C Drop-down menu Hamburger button Pie menu Radio button WIMP MenUA, A Design Space of Menu Techniques Site that discusses various menu design techniques
21.
Button (computing)
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A typical button is a rectangle or rounded rectangle, wider than it is tall, with a descriptive caption in its center. The most common method of pressing a button is clicking it with a controlled by a mouse. A button is not however always restricted to a rectangular shape, the sole requirement of button interaction is that the user can execute a command by a click action. Thus pictures and background areas can be programmed as buttons, when pressed, in addition to performing a predetermined task, buttons often undergo a graphical change to mimic a mechanical button being depressed. Other buttons are designed to toggle behavior on and off like a check box and these buttons will show a graphical clue to indicate the state of the option. A button often displays a tooltip when a user moves the pointer over it, the tooltip serves as built-in documentation that briefly explains the purpose of the button. Normally these buttons are light grey in color, and turn blue when pressed, the button with keyboard focus appears with a blue glow surrounding it. The default button in the active window animates between a blue and a darker blue. Also used, primarily within application toolbars, are slightly rounded rectangles with a grey metallic appearance. These buttons appear darker and pushed inward when pressed, Window management controls appear in the top left corner of each window. These buttons are similar in style to standard aqua buttons, but are color-coded as a memory aid. From left to right, these are, Close Window, shown in red, Minimize Window, shown in yellow, and Zoom, shown in green, buttons in Microsoft Windows are usually rectangular, with mildly rounded corners in Windows XP, Vista, and 7. In Windows 8, the buttons are rectangular with sharp corners, a button with active focus is shown with a black dotted line just inside the border of the button. In addition, more recent versions, the button is shown with a blue border. In Windows Vista and Windows 7, the button will slowly fade between its normal appearance and the blue border. Window management controls are in the upper corner of the application window, and, from left to right, minimize the window, maximize the window. The use of multiple toolkits can lead to less uniform look, most widget toolkits also have theming capabilities, so there is no single standard appearance as there is with Mac OS and Windows. Buttons appear as elements of HTML forms to carry out such as clearing user input or submitting the form contents to the server
22.
Underline
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An underline, also called an underscore, is a more or less horizontal line immediately below a portion of writing. Single and occasionally double underlining is used in hand-written or typewritten documents as a way to emphasise key text, in printed documents underlining is generally avoided, with italics or small caps often used instead, or using capitalization or bold type. Underlines are sometimes used as a diacritic, to indicate that a letter has a different pronunciation from its non-underlined form. In web browsers, default settings typically distinguish hyperlinks by underlining them, the HTML special inline element <ins>, denoting inserted text, is often presented as underlined text. HTML also has a presentational element <u>, denoting underlined text, the elements may also exist in other markup languages, such as MediaWiki. The Text Encoding Initiative provides a selection of related elements for marking editorial activity. Wikipedias style guide recommends that text should never be underlined, however, if it is necessary to underline text on a MediaWiki-server page, CSS can be used, and it is also possible to enclose with its HTML-tags, <u> to open and then </u> to cease underlining. Unicode has the combining diacritic combining low line at U+0332 ◌̲ that results in an underline when run together, not to be confused is the combining macron below. For example, You must use a paint on the ceiling. Underline is often used by spell checkers to denote misspelled or otherwise incorrect text, in Chinese, the underline is a punctuation mark for proper names. Its meaning is somewhat akin to capitalization in English and should never be used for even if the influence of English computing makes the latter sometimes occur. A wavy underline serves a function, but marks names of literary works instead of proper names. In the case of two or more adjacent proper names, each proper name is separately underlined so there should be a slight gap between the underlining of each proper name
23.
Dialog box
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The graphical control element dialog box is a small window that communicates information to the user and prompts them for a response. Dialog boxes are classified as modal or modeless, depending on whether they block interaction with the software that initiated the dialog, the type of dialog box displayed is dependent upon the desired user interaction. An example of a box is the about box found in many software programs, which usually displays the name of the program, its version number. Non-modal or modeless dialog boxes are used when the information is not essential to continue. In general, good software design calls for dialogs to be of this type where possible, an example might be a dialog of settings for the current document, e. g. the background and text colors. The user can continue adding text to the main window whatever color it is, usability practitioners generally regard modal dialogs as bad design-solutions, since they are prone to produce mode errors. Dangerous actions should be undoable wherever possible, a modal alert dialog that appears unexpectedly or which is dismissed automatically will not protect from the dangerous action, a modal dialog interrupts the main workflow. This effect has either been sought by the developer because it focuses on the completion of the task at hand or rejected because it prevents the user from changing to a different task when needed. The concept of a document modal dialog has recently used, most notably in OS X. In the first case, they are shown as sheets attached to a parent window and these dialogs block only that window until the user dismisses the dialog, permitting work in other windows to continue, even within the same application. In OS X, dialogs appear to emanate from a slot in their parent window and this helps to let the user understand that the dialog is attached to the parent window, not just shown in front of it. The OS X dialog box blocks the parent window, preventing the user from referring to it while interacting with the dialog and this may require the user to close the dialog to access the necessary information, then re-open the dialog box to continue
24.
Dynamic-link library
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Dynamic-link library is Microsofts implementation of the shared library concept in the Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating systems. These libraries usually have the file extension DLL, OCX, or DRV, the file formats for DLLs are the same as for Windows EXE files – that is, Portable Executable for 32-bit and 64-bit Windows, and New Executable for 16-bit Windows. As with EXEs, DLLs can contain code, data, and resources, data files with the same file format as a DLL, but with different file extensions and possibly containing only resource sections, can be called resource DLLs. Examples of such DLLs include icon libraries, sometimes having the extension ICL, the first versions of Microsoft Windows ran programs together in a single address space. Every program was meant to co-operate by yielding the CPU to other programs so that the user interface could multitask. All operating-system level operations were provided by the operating system. All higher-level services were provided by Windows Libraries Dynamic Link Library, the Drawing API, Graphics Device Interface, was implemented in a DLL called GDI. EXE, the user interface in USER. EXE. The code in GDI needed to translate drawing commands to operations on specific devices, on the display, it had to manipulate pixels in the frame buffer. When drawing to a printer, the API calls had to be transformed into requests to a printer, although it could have been possible to provide hard-coded support for a limited set of devices, Microsoft chose a different approach. GDI would work by loading different pieces of code, called device drivers, with dynamic linking, shared code is placed into a single, separate file. The programs that call this file are connected to it at run time, with the operating system, for those early versions of Windows, the DLLs were the foundation for the entire GUI. As such, display drivers were merely DLLs with a. EXE extension and this notion of building up the operating system from a collection of dynamically loaded libraries is a core concept of Windows that persists as of 2015. DLLs provide the benefits of shared libraries, such as modularity. Modularity allows changes to be made to code and data in a single self-contained DLL shared by several applications without any change to the applications themselves, another benefit of modularity is the use of generic interfaces for plug-ins. A single interface may be developed which allows old as well as new modules to be integrated seamlessly at run-time into pre-existing applications and this concept of dynamic extensibility is taken to the extreme with the Component Object Model, the underpinnings of ActiveX. In Windows 1. x,2. x and 3. x, a DLL was only loaded once into this address space, from then on, all programs using the library accessed it. The librarys data was shared across all the programs and this could be used as an indirect form of inter-process communication, or it could accidentally corrupt the different programs. With the introduction of 32-bit libraries in Windows 95 every process runs in its own address space, while the DLL code may be shared, the data is private except where shared data is explicitly requested by the library
25.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
26.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
27.
Adobe FrameMaker
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Adobe FrameMaker is a document processor designed for writing and editing large or complex documents, including structured documents. FrameMaker became an Adobe product in 1995 when Adobe purchased Frame Technology Corp, Adobe added SGML support, which eventually morphed into todays XML support. In April 2004, Adobe stopped supporting FrameMaker for the Macintosh and this reinvigorated rumors surfacing in 2001 that product development and support for FrameMaker were being wound down. FrameMaker has two ways of approaching documents, structured and unstructured, structured FrameMaker uses SGML and XML concepts. The author works with an EDD, which is a FrameMaker-specific DTD, attributes or Metadata can be added to these elements and used for single source publishing or for filtering elements during the output processes. The author can view the conditions and contexts in a structure derived from the grammar or as formatted in a typical final output form. Unstructured FrameMaker uses tagged paragraphs without any imposed logical structure, except that expressed by the concept, topic organization. When a user opens a file in unstructured FrameMaker, the structure is lost. MIF is a language that functions as a companion to FrameMaker. The purpose of MIF is to represent FrameMaker documents in a simple, ASCII-based format. Any document that can be created interactively in FrameMaker can also be represented, exactly and completely, all versions of FrameMaker can export documents in MIF, and can also read MIF documents, including documents created by an earlier version or by another program. The only substantial DTP product at the time of FrameMakers conception was Interleaf, after only a few months, Corfield had completed a functional prototype of FrameMaker. The prototype caught the eyes of salesmen at the fledgling Sun Microsystems and they got permission from Corfield to use the prototype as demoware for their computers, and hence, the primitive FrameMaker received plenty of exposure in the Unix workstation arena. Steve Kirsch saw the demo and realized the potential of the product, Kirsch used the money he earned from Mouse Systems to fund a startup company, Frame Technology Corp. to commercialize the software. Corfield chose to sue Meiry for release of rights to the software so they could easily obtain additional investment capital with Kirsch. Meiry had little means to fight a lengthy and expensive lawsuit with Corfield and his new business partners, originally written for SunOS on Sun machines, FrameMaker was a popular technical writing tool, and the company was profitable early on. Because of the desktop publishing market on the Apple Macintosh. In the early 1990s, a wave of UNIX workstation vendors—Apollo, Data General, MIPS, Motorola, at the height of its success, FrameMaker ran on more than thirteen UNIX platforms, including NeXT Computers NeXTSTEP and IBMs AIX operating systems
28.
Microsoft Help 2
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Microsoft Help 2. x is a proprietary format for online help files, developed by Microsoft and first released in 2001 as a help system for Visual Studio. NET and MSDN Library. Microsoft Help 2. x is the engine used in Microsoft Visual Studio 2002/2003/2005/2008 and Office 2007. Help files are made with the Help 2.0 Workshop, the default viewer for Help 2. x files is Microsoft Document Explorer, and there are several third-party viewers available such as H2Viewer and Help Explorer Viewer. Visual Studio 2010 uses a new engine, Microsoft Help Viewer. March 2001—Microsoft announced Microsoft Help 2. x at WritersUA conference, january 2003—Microsoft decided not to release Microsoft Help 2 as a general Help platform. Help 2 remained a Visual Studio Help integration tool, august 2003—Borland have released C# Builder. Documentation is all in Microsoft Help 2 format and displayed in Microsoft Document Explorer, december 2005—Microsoft continues support of Help 2 by releasing the Help Integration Wizard which is Visual Studio 2005 compatible. December 2006—Office 2007 is released and uses Microsoft Help 2, the Office help viewer is a custom viewer that can only view Office 2007 help. April 2009—Microsoft announced at 2009 WritersUA conference that Microsoft Help System 1. x will ship with Visual Studio 2010, a Microsoft Help 2. x file has a. hxs extension. Microsoft WinHelp Microsoft Compiled HTML Help Microsoft Help Viewer Microsoft Help 2. x
29.
OS/2
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OS/2 is a series of computer operating systems, initially created by Microsoft and IBM, then later developed by IBM exclusively. The name stands for Operating System/2, because it was introduced as part of the generation change release as IBMs Personal System/2 line of second-generation personal computers. The first version of OS/2 was released in December 1987 and newer versions were released until December 2001, OS/2 was intended as a protected mode successor of PC DOS. Because of this heritage, OS/2 shares similarities with Unix, Xenix, IBM discontinued its support for OS/2 on 31 December 2006. Since then, it has been updated, maintained and marketed under the name eComStation, in 2015 it was announced that a new OEM distribution of OS/2 would be released that was to be called ArcaOS. The development of OS/2 began when IBM and Microsoft signed the Joint Development Agreement in August 1985 and it was code-named CP/DOS and it took two years for the first product to be delivered. OS/21.0 was announced in April 1987 and released in December, the original release is textmode-only, and a GUI was introduced with OS/21.1 about a year later. OS/2 features an API for controlling the display and handling keyboard. In addition, development tools include a subset of the video, a task-switcher named Program Selector is available through the Ctrl-Esc hotkey combination, allowing the user to select among multitasked text-mode sessions. Communications and database-oriented extensions were delivered in 1988, as part of OS/21.0 Extended Edition, SNA, X. 25/APPC/LU6.2, LAN Manager, Query Manager, SQL. The promised graphical user interface, Presentation Manager, was introduced with OS/21.1 in October,1988 and it had a similar user interface to Windows 2.1, which was released in May of that year. The Extended Edition of 1.1, sold only through IBM sales channels, introduced distributed database support to IBM database systems, in 1989, Version 1.2 introduced Installable Filesystems and notably the HPFS filesystem. HPFS provided a number of improvements over the older FAT file system, including long filenames, in addition, extended attributes were also added to the FAT file system. The Extended Edition of 1.2 introduced TCP/IP and Ethernet support, OS/2 and Windows-related books of the late 1980s acknowledged the existence of both systems and promoted OS/2 as the system for the future. The collaboration between IBM and Microsoft unravelled in 1990, between the releases of Windows 3.0 and OS/21.3, during this time, Windows 3.0 became a tremendous success, selling millions of copies in its first year. Much of its success was because Windows 3.0 was bundled with most new computers, OS/2, on the other hand, was available only as an expensive stand-alone software package. In addition, OS/2 lacked device drivers for many devices such as printers. Windows, on the hand, supported a much larger variety of hardware
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Cmd.exe
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Command Prompt, also known as cmd. exe or cmd, is the command-line interpreter on Windows NT, Windows CE, OS/2 and eComStation operating systems. It is the counterpart of COMMAND. COM in DOS and Windows 9x systems, the initial version of Command Prompt for Windows NT was developed by Therese Stowell. Command Prompt interacts with the user through a command-line interface, in Windows, this interface is implemented through Win32 console. Command Prompt may take advantage of available to native programs of its own platform. For example, in OS/2, it can use real pipes in command pipelines, as a result, it is possible to redirect the standard error stream. In Windows, Command Prompt is compatible with COMMAND. COM but provides the following extensions over it, in the OS/2, errors are reported in the chosen language of the system, their text being taken from the system message files. The HELP command can then be issued with the error message number to obtain further information, supports using of arrow keys to scroll through command history. This function was available to COMMAND. COM via an external component called DOSKEY. Adds command-line completion for file and folder paths Treats the Caret character as the character, in other words. There special characters in Command Prompt and COMMAND. COM that are part of the syntax and, if specified without caret, supports delayed variable expansion, fixing DOS idioms that made using control structures hard and complex. The extensions can be disabled, providing a stricter compatibility mode, internal commands have also been improved, The DelTree command was merged into the RD command, as part of its /S switch. SetLocal and EndLocal commands limit the scope of changes to the environment, changes made to the command line environment after SetLocal commands are local to the batch file. EndLocal command restores the previous settings, the Call command allows subroutines within batch file. The Call command in COMMAND. COM only supports calling external batch files, File name parser extensions to the Set command are comparable with C shell. The Set command can perform expression evaluation, an expansion of the For command supports parsing files and arbitrary sets in addition to file names. The new PushD and PopD commands provide access past navigated paths similar to forward, the conditional IF command can perform case-insensitive comparisons and numeric equality and inequality comparisons in addition to case-sensitive string comparisons. This was available in DR-DOS but not in PC DOS or MS-DOS
31.
Control Panel (Windows)
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Additional applets can be provided by third party software. The Control Panel has been an inherent part of the Microsoft Windows operating system since Windows 2.0, physically, these applets are stored as. cpl files. For example, the Add or Remove Programs applet is stored under the name appwiz. cpl in the SYSTEM32 folder, many of the individual Control Panel applets can be accessed in other ways. For instance, Display Properties can be accessed by right-clicking on an empty area of the desktop, the classic view consists of shortcuts to the various control panel applets, usually without any description. The categories are seen if the user use Details view, the category view consists of categories, which when clicked on display the control panel applets related to the category. In Windows Vista, the category used applets below the name of the category, the Control Panel can be accessed quickly by typing control in the Run dialog box. HKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\Current Version\Explorer\ControlPanel\Namespace This contains the location of the CLSID variables for all the panels not included as cpl files and these are commonly folders or shell applets, though Windows Vista allows physical programs themselves to be registered as well. The CLSID then allows items such as the icon, infobox and category to be set, the control panel then uses these lists to locate the applets and load them into the control panel program when started by the user. In addition to using the panel, a user can also invoke the applets manually via the command processor. For instance, the syntax Control. exe inetcpl. cpl or control. exe /name Microsoft. InternetOptions will run the internet properties applet in Windows XP or Vista respectively, while both syntax examples are accepted on Windows Vista, only the former one is accepted on Windows XP. These are options in the panel that show devices connected to the computer. They do not actually offer a direct interface to control these devices, such applets include, Scanners and Cameras Game Controllers Portable Media Devices Third-party software vendors have released many applets. Although it is impossible to mention all of them, some of them are listed here, System Preferences – same purpose program on macOS How to run Control Panel tools by typing a command at Microsoft. com
32.
Device Manager
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Device Manager is a Control Panel applet in Microsoft Windows operating systems. It allows users to view and control the hardware attached to the computer, when a piece of hardware is not working, the offending hardware is highlighted for the user to deal with. The list of hardware can be sorted by various criteria, in NT-based versions, it is included as a Microsoft Management Console snap-in. A disabled device has either been disabled by a user or by some way of error. In Windows 95 through XP, this is denoted by a red X, in Windows Vista and Windows 7, this was replaced by a grey downward pointing arrow in the lower right-hand corner of the devices icon. There are many reasons why hardware may not work properly, if Windows recognizes a problem with a device, it is denoted by a black exclamation point on a yellow triangle in the lower right-hand corner of the devices icon. Hardware may not be recognized if it is not installed properly or not compatible with your system and this is denoted by a yellow question mark in place of the devices icon. Note that this does not indicate a problem or disabled state, Device Manager error codes are numerical codes, each accompanied by an error message, which help users determine what kind of issue Windows is having with a piece of hardware. The driverquery command-line program generates lists of installed devices and drivers, similar to the Device Managers output and this is useful for note-taking and for reporting problems to remote third parties such as technical support personnel. Device driver Microsoft Management Console Troubleshooting The DevCon utility
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Disk Cleanup
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Disk Cleanup is a computer maintenance utility included in Microsoft Windows designed to free up disk space on a computers hard drive. The utility first searches and analyzes the hard drive for files that are no longer of any use, the option of removing hibernation data may not be ideal for some users as this may remove the hibernate option. Aside from removing unnecessary files, users also have the option of compressing files that have not been accessed over a set period of time and this option provides a systematic compression scheme. Infrequently accessed files are compressed to free up disk space while leaving the frequently used files uncompressed for faster access times. If after file compression, a user wishes to access a compressed file, the access times may be increased and vary from system to system
34.
Disk Defragmenter (Windows)
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Disk Defragmenter is a utility in Microsoft Windows designed to increase access speed by rearranging files stored on a disk to occupy contiguous storage locations, a technique called defragmentation. Defragmenting a disk minimizes head travel, which reduces the time it takes to read files from, beginning with Windows XP, Disk Defragmenter also reduces system startup times. As of Windows 10, the program has been renamed to Defragment, Microsofts MS-DOS did not defragment hard disks. Several third party software developers marketed defragmenters to fill this gap, Windows NT, however, did not offer a Defrag utility, and Symantec was suggested as a possible source of the utility. Initial releases of Windows NT lacked a defragmentation tool, versions through Windows NT3.51 did not have an application programming interface for moving data clusters on hard disks. Microsoft included file system control commands to move clusters in the Windows NT4.0 kernel, however, Windows NT4.0 did not provide a graphical or command-line user interface. Disk Defragmenter also shipped as part of Windows 95, Windows 98 and it could be scheduled using a Maintenance Wizard and supported command line switches. This version had the limitation that if the contents of the drive changed during defragmentation, it rescanned the drive, the Disk Defragmenter in Windows 2000 was a stripped-down licensed version of Diskeeper, licensed from Diskeeper Corporation. It uses the techniques, Moving all the index or directory information to one spot. Moving this spot into the center of the data, i. e. one third of the way in, Moving infrequently used files further from the directory area. Obeying a user-provided table of file descriptions to emphasize or ignore, making files contiguous so that they can be read without unnecessary seeking. In Windows 2000 and later operating systems, Disk Defragmenter has the following limitations, in particular, this includes the registry, page file and hibernation file. Prior to the Windows Vista release, only one volume could be analyzed or defragmented at a time, only local volumes can be defragmented, network volumes are not supported. The GUI version prior to Windows Vista cannot be scheduled, however, the command line utility since Windows XP and later can be scheduled. Unlike previous versions, the GUI version in Windows Vista does not display a map of disk fragmentation, in addition, the Windows 2000 version has the following limitations which were removed in Windows XP, Defragmenting NTFS volumes with cluster sizes larger than 4 kilobytes is not possible. It is not possible to perform fine-grained movement of uncompressed NTFS file data in Windows 2000, Moving a single file cluster also moves the 4 KB part of the file that contains the cluster. EFS encrypted files are not defragmented, Windows Disk Defragmenter was updated to alleviate some restrictions. It no longer relies on the Windows NT Cache Manager, which prevented the defragmenter from moving pieces of a file that cross a 256KB boundary within the file, NTFS metadata files can also be defragmented
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Driver Verifier
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Driver Verifier is a tool included in Microsoft Windows that replaces the default operating system subroutines with ones that are specifically developed to catch device driver bugs. Once enabled, it monitors and stresses drivers to detect illegal function calls or actions that may be causing system corruption and it can simulate certain conditions such as low memory, I/O verification, pool tracking, IRQL checking, deadlock detection, DMA checks, IRP logging, etc. The verifier works by forcing drivers to work with minimal resources, each new Windows version has since introduced several new, more stringent checks for testing and verifying drivers and detecting new classes of driver defects. Driver Verifier is not normally used on machines used in productive work and it can cause undetected and relatively harmless errors in drivers to manifest, especially ones not digitally signed by Windows Hardware Quality Labs, causing blue screen fatal system errors. It also causes resource-starved drivers to underperform and slow general operation if the constraints imposed by Verifier are not reversed after debugging, Microsoft recommends not all drivers should be verified at the same time
