1.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
2.
Markup language
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A markup language is a system for annotating a document in a way that is syntactically distinguishable from the text. The idea and terminology evolved from the marking up of manuscripts, i. e. the revision instructions by editors. In digital media this blue pencil instruction text was replaced by tags, examples include typesetting instructions such as those found in troff, TeX and LaTeX, or structural markers such as XML tags. Markup instructs the software displays the text to carry out appropriate actions. Some markup languages, such as the widely used HTML, have pre-defined presentation semantics—meaning that their specification prescribes how to present the structured data, others, such as XML, do not have them and are general purpose. Such markup is usually hidden from users, even authors or editors. Procedural markup Markup is embedded in text and provides instructions for programs that are to process the text, well-known examples include troff, TeX, and PostScript. It is expected that the processor will run through the text from beginning to end, Text with such markup is often edited with the markup visible and directly manipulated by the author. Popular procedural-markup systems usually include programming constructs, so macros or subroutines can be defined and invoked by name, descriptive markup Markup is used to label parts of the document rather than to provide specific instructions as to how they should be processed. Well-known examples include LaTeX, HTML, and XML, the objective is to decouple the inherent structure of the document from any particular treatment or rendition of it. Such markup is often described as semantic, an example of descriptive markup would be HTMLs <cite> tag, which is used to label a citation. Descriptive markup—sometimes called logical markup or conceptual markup—encourages authors to write in a way that describes the material conceptually, there is considerable blurring of the lines between the types of markup. In modern word-processing systems, presentational markup is often saved in descriptive-markup-oriented systems such as XML, the programming constructs in procedural-markup systems such as TeX may be used to create higher-level markup systems that are more descriptive, such as LaTeX. In recent years, a number of small and largely unstandardized markup languages have developed to allow authors to create formatted text via web browsers, for use in wikis. These are sometimes called lightweight markup languages, Markdown or the markup language used by Wikipedia are examples of such wiki markup. It is computer jargon used in coding proof, Markup was also commonly applied by editors, proofreaders, publishers, and graphic designers, and indeed by document authors. The first well-known public presentation of markup languages in computer processing was made by William W. Tunnicliffe at a conference in 1967. It can be seen as a response to the emergence of such as RUNOFF that each used their own control notations
3.
Standard Generalized Markup Language
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The Standard Generalized Markup Language is a standard for defining generalized markup languages for documents. Declarative markup is less likely to conflict with unforeseen future processing needs, Markup should be rigorous so that the techniques available for processing rigorously-defined objects like programs and databases can be used for processing documents as well. HTML was theoretically an example of an SGML-based language until HTML5, DocBook SGML and LinuxDoc are better examples, as they were used almost exclusively with actual SGML tools. SGML, in 1996, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to add extended naming rules allowing arbitrary-language, SGML, in 1998, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to better support XML and WWW requirements. Full SGML is rarely found or used in new projects, DSSSL —Document processing and styling language based on Scheme. DSSSL was reworked into W3C XSLT and XSL-FO which use an XML syntax, nowadays, DSSSL is rarely used in new projects apart from Linux documentation. HyTime—Generalized hypertext and scheduling. HyTime was partially reworked into W3C XLink, HyTime is rarely used in new projects. SGML descended from IBMs Generalized Markup Language, which Charles Goldfarb, Edward Mosher, Goldfarb, editor of the international standard, coined the “GML” term using their surname initials. Goldfarb also wrote the work on SGML syntax in The SGML Handbook. The syntax of SGML is closer to the COCOA format, as a document markup language, SGML was originally designed to enable the sharing of machine-readable large-project documents in government, law, and industry. Many such documents must remain readable for several long time in the information technology field. SGML also was applied by the military, and the aerospace, technical reference. The advent of the XML profile has made SGML suitable for application for small-scale. SGML defines two kinds of validity, according to the revised Terms and Definitions of ISO8879, A conforming SGML document must be either a type-valid SGML document, a tag-valid SGML document, or both. Note, A user may wish to enforce additional constraints on a document, a type-valid SGML document is defined by the standard as An SGML document in which, for each document instance, there is an associated document type declaration to whose DTD that instance conforms. A tag-valid SGML document is defined by the standard as An SGML document, there need not be a document type declaration associated with any of the instances. Note, If there is a document type declaration, the instance can be parsed with or without reference to it, the standard calls this fully tagged. Integrally stored reflects the XML requirement that elements end in the entity in which they started
4.
XHTML
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Extensible Hypertext Markup Language is part of the family of XML markup languages. It mirrors or extends versions of the widely used Hypertext Markup Language, XHTML documents are well-formed and may therefore be parsed using standard XML parsers, unlike HTML, which requires a lenient HTML-specific parser. XHTML1.0 became a World Wide Web Consortium Recommendation on January 26,2000, XHTML1.1 became a W3C Recommendation on May 31,2001. The standard known as XHTML5 is being developed as an XML adaptation of the HTML5 specification, XHTML1.0 is a reformulation of the three HTML4 document types as applications of XML1.0. The World Wide Web Consortium also continues to maintain the HTML4.01 Recommendation, and the specifications for HTML5 and XHTML5 are being actively developed. In the current XHTML1.0 Recommendation document, as published and revised to August 2002, by migrating to XHTML today, content developers can enter the XML world with all of its attendant benefits, while still remaining confident in their contents backward and future compatibility. However, in 2005, the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group formed, independently of the W3C, the WHATWG eventually began working on a standard that supported both XML and non-XML serializations, HTML5, in parallel to W3C standards such as XHTML2. In 2007, the W3Cs HTML working group voted to officially recognize HTML5, in 2009, the W3C allowed the XHTML2 Working Groups charter to expire, acknowledging that HTML5 would be the sole next-generation HTML standard, including both XML and non-XML serializations. Of the two serializations, the W3C suggests that most authors use the HTML syntax, rather than the XHTML syntax, XHTML was developed to make HTML more extensible and increase interoperability with other data formats. In addition, browsers were forgiving of errors in HTML, and most websites were displayed despite technical errors in the markup, the XML standard, approved in 1998, provided a simpler data format closer in simplicity to HTML4. By using namespaces, XHTML documents could provide extensibility by including fragments from other XML-based languages such as Scalable Vector Graphics, finally, the renewed work would provide an opportunity to divide HTML into reusable components and clean up untidy parts of the language. There are various differences between XHTML and HTML, the Document Object Model is a tree structure that represents the page internally in applications, and XHTML and HTML are two different ways of representing that in markup. Both are less expressive than the DOM, and generally XHTMLs XML syntax is a more expressive than HTML. First off, one source of differences is immediate, XHTML uses an XML syntax, secondly however, because the expressible contents of the DOM in syntax are slightly different, there are some changes in actual behavior between the two models. XML is case-sensitive for element and attribute names, while HTML is not, there are numerous other technical requirements surrounding namespaces and precise parsing of whitespace and certain characters and elements. The exact parsing of HTML in practice has been undefined until recently, see the HTML5 specification for full details, Second, in contrast to these minor syntactical differences, there are some behavioral differences, mostly arising from the underlying differences in serialization. For example, Most prominently, behavior on parse errors differ, a fatal parse error in XML causes document processing to be aborted. Most content requiring namespaces will not work in HTML, except the built-in support for SVG, javaScript processing is a little different in XHTML, with minor changes in case sensitivity to some functions, and further precautions to restrict processing to well-formed content
5.
RSS
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RSS uses a family of standard web feed formats to publish frequently updated information, blog entries, news headlines, audio, video. An RSS document includes full or summarized text, and metadata, like publishing date, RSS feeds enable publishers to syndicate data automatically. A standard XML file format ensures compatibility with many different machines/programs, RSS feeds also benefit users who want to receive timely updates from favourite websites or to aggregate data from many sites. Subscribing to a website RSS removes the need for the user to check the website for new content. Instead, their browser constantly monitors the site and informs the user of any updates, the browser can also be commanded to automatically download the new data for the user. Software termed RSS reader, aggregator, or feed reader, which can be web-based, desktop-based, or mobile-device-based, users subscribe to feeds either by entering a feeds URI into the reader or by clicking on the browsers feed icon. The RSS reader checks the users feeds regularly for new information and can download it. The reader also provides a user interface, the RSS formats were preceded by several attempts at web syndication that did not achieve widespread popularity. RDF Site Summary, the first version of RSS, was created by Dan Libby and it was released in March 1999 for use on the My. Netscape. Com portal. This version became known as RSS0.9, in July 1999, Dan Libby of Netscape produced a new version, RSS0.91, which simplified the format by removing RDF elements and incorporating elements from Dave Winers news syndication format. Libby also renamed the format from RDF to RSS Rich Site Summary and this would be Netscapes last participation in RSS development for eight years. Winer published a version of the RSS0.91 specification on the UserLand website, covering how it was being used in his companys products. A few months later, UserLand filed a U. S. trademark registration for RSS, but failed to respond to a USPTO trademark examiners request and the request was rejected in December 2001. The RSS-DEV Working Group, a project whose members included Guha and representatives of OReilly Media and Moreover and he also released drafts of RSS0.93 and RSS0.94 that were subsequently withdrawn. In September 2002, Winer released a new version of the format, RSS2.0. RSS2.0 removed the type attribute added in the RSS0.94 draft, to preserve backward compatibility with RSS0.92, namespace support applies only to other content included within an RSS2.0 feed, not the RSS2.0 elements themselves. Because neither Winer nor the RSS-DEV Working Group had Netscapes involvement and this has fueled ongoing controversy in the syndication development community as to which entity was the proper publisher of RSS. One product of that debate was the creation of an alternative syndication format, Atom
6.
Atom (standard)
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The name Atom applies to a pair of related Web standards. The Atom Syndication Format is an XML language used for web feeds, Web feeds allow software programs to check for updates published on a website. To provide a web feed, the owner may use specialized software that publishes a list of recent articles or content in a standardized. A feed contains entries, which may be headlines, full-text articles, excerpts, summaries, and/or links to content on a website, the Atom format was developed as an alternative to RSS. Proponents of the new format formed the IETF Atom Publishing Format, the Atom syndication format was published as an IETF proposed standard in RFC4287, and the Atom Publishing Protocol was published as RFC5023. The blogging community uses web feeds to share recent entries headlines, full text, the providers allow other websites to incorporate a blogs syndicated headline or headline-and-short-summary feeds under various usage agreements. As of 2016 people use Atom and other formats for many purposes, including journalism, marketing, bug-reports. Atom also provides a way to export an entire blog, or parts of it. It is common to find web feeds on major websites, as well as on smaller ones. Some websites let people choose between RSS- or Atom-formatted web feeds, others offer only RSS or only Atom, in particular, many blog and wiki sites offer their web feeds in the Atom format. A feed reader or aggregator program can be used to check feeds, client-side readers may also be designed as standalone programs or as extensions to existing programs like web browsers. Web-based feed readers and news aggregators require no software installation and make the users feeds available on any computer with Web access, some aggregators syndicate web feeds into new feeds, e. g. taking all football-related items from several sports feeds and providing a new football feed. The Atom working group chose instead to use timestamps formatted according to the rules specified by RFC3339, while the RSS vocabulary has a mechanism to indicate a human language for the feed, there is no way to specify a language for individual items or text elements. Atom, on the hand, uses the standard xml. The elements of the RSS vocabulary are not generally reusable in other XML vocabularies, the Atom syntax was specifically designed to allow elements to be reused outside the context of an Atom feed document. For instance, it is not uncommon to find atom, link elements being used within RSS2.0 feeds. Despite the emergence of Atom as an IETF Proposed Standard and the decision by major companies such as Google to embrace Atom, use of the older, there are several reasons to this, RSS2.0 support for enclosures led directly to the development of podcasting. While many podcasting applications, such as iTunes, support the use of Atom 1.0, many sites choose to publish their feeds in only a single format
7.
KML
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Keyhole Markup Language is an XML notation for expressing geographic annotation and visualization within Internet-based, two-dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers. KML was developed for use with Google Earth, which was originally named Keyhole Earth Viewer and it was created by Keyhole, Inc, which was acquired by Google in 2004. KML became a standard of the Open Geospatial Consortium in 2008. Google Earth was the first program able to view and graphically edit KML files, other projects such as Marble have also started to develop KML support. The KML file specifies a set of features for display in Here Maps, Google Earth, Maps and Mobile, each place always has a longitude and a latitude. Other data can make the more specific, such as tilt, heading, altitude. KML shares some of the same grammar as GML. Some KML information cannot be viewed in Google Maps or Mobile, KML files are very often distributed in KMZ files, which are zipped KML files with a. kmz extension. These must be legacy compression compatible, otherwise the. kmz file might not uncompress in all geobrowsers. The contents of a KMZ file are a single root KML document and optionally any overlays, images, icons, the root KML document by convention is a file named doc. kml at the root directory level, which is the file loaded upon opening. By convention the root KML document is at level and referenced files are in subdirectories. An example KML document is, The MIME type associated with KML is application/vnd. google-earth. kml+xml, the longitude, latitude components are as defined by the World Geodetic System of 1984. The vertical component is measured in meters from the WGS84 EGM96 Geoid vertical datum, if altitude is omitted from a coordinate string, e. g. then the default value of 0 is assumed for the altitude component, i. e. A formal definition of the reference system used by KML is contained in the OGC KML2.2 Specification. This definition references well-known EPSG CRS components, the KML2.2 specification was submitted to the Open Geospatial Consortium to assure its status as an open standard for all geobrowsers. In November 2007 a new KML2.2 Standards Working Group was established within OGC to formalize KML2.2 as an OGC standard. Comments were sought on the standard until January 4,2008. The OGC KML Standards Working Group finished working on change requests to KML2.2, the official OGC KML2.3 standard was published in August 4,2015
8.
International standard
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International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide, the most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization. International standards may be used either by application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. Technical barriers arise when different groups together, each with a large user base. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem, the implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts. Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, some companies in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. Joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841 and it came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries. By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies were making trade increasingly difficult and strained, the Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the worlds first national standards body. After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries, by the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. An important figure was R. E. B, Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current, adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for a standard for electric engineering. In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the bodys first President, the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II, after the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee with a proposal to form a new global standards body. List of international common standards List of technical standard organisations Global Frameworks and standards organized along function lines, accessed 2014 ^ Cordova
9.
Tim Bray
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Timothy William Bray is a Canadian software developer and entrepreneur and one of the co-authors of the original XML specification. He has worked for Amazon Web Services since December 2014 and previously for Google, Sun Microsystems, Bray was born on June 21,1955 in Alberta, Canada. He grew up in Beirut, Lebanon and returned to Canada to attend school at the University of Guelph in Guelph and he graduated in 1981 with a Bachelor of Science, double majoring in Mathematics and Computer Science. Tim described his switch of focus from Math to Computer Science this way, In math I’d worked like a dog for my Cs, fresh out of university, Bray joined Digital Equipment Corporation in Toronto as a software specialist. In 1983, Bray left DEC for Microtel Pacific Research and he joined the New Oxford English Dictionary project at the University of Waterloo in 1987 as its manager. It was during this time Bray worked with SGML, a technology that would become central to both Open Text Corporation and his XML and Atom standardization work. Bray was director of Web Technologies at Sun Microsystems from early 2004 to early 2010 and he joined Google as a developer advocate in 2010, focusing on Android and then on Identity. He left Google in March 2014, unwilling to relocate to Silicon Valley from Vancouver and he started working for Amazon Web Services in December 2014. Bray has been involved in entrepreneurial activities including, Tim Bray served as the part-time CEO of Waterloo Maple during 1989–1990. Waterloo Maple is the developer of the popular Maple mathematical software, Bray left the new OED project in 1989 to co-found Open Text Corporation with two colleagues. Open Text commercialised the search engine employed in the new OED project, Bray recalled that “in 1994 I heard a conference speaker say that search engines would be big on the Internet, and in five seconds all the pieces just fell into place in my head. I realized that we could build such a thing with our technology. ”Thus in 1995, Open Text released the Open Text Index, Open Text Corporation is now publicly traded on the Nasdaq under the symbol OTEX. From 1991 until 1996, Bray held the position of Senior Vice President—Technology, Bray, along with his wife Dr. Lauren Wood, ran Textuality, a successful consulting practice in the field of web and publishing technology. He was contracted by Netscape in 1999, along with Ramanathan V. Guha, in part to create a new version of Meta Content Framework called Resource Description Framework, in 1999 he founded Antarctica Systems, a Vancouver, Canada-based company that specializes in visualization-based business analytics. Bray has contributed to several important standards in technology, particularly Web standards at the World Wide Web Consortium, as an Invited Expert at the World Wide Web Consortium between 1996 and 1999, Bray co-edited the XML and XML namespace specifications. Halfway through the project Bray accepted an engagement with Netscape. This led to dispute in the Working Group, eventually solved by the appointment of Microsofts Jean Paoli as third co-editor. In 2001, Bray wrote an article called Taxi to the Future for Xml, between 2001 and 2004 he served as a Tim Berners-Lee appointee to the W3C Technical Architecture Group
10.
Michael Sperberg-McQueen
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C. M. Michael Sperberg-McQueen is an American markup language specialist. He was co-editor of the Extensible Markup Language 1.0 spec and he was also instrumental in the Text Encoding Initiative, an international cooperative project to develop and disseminate guidelines for the encoding and interchange of electronic text for research. He was co-editor, with Lou Burnard, of the TEIs Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and he also served as Editor in chief of the TEI from 1988 to 2000. XML and TEI have become ubiquitous in their domains, sue Polanka notes that the TEI. He holds a Ph. D. in comparative literature from Stanford University, and has taught and published widely on markup systems, overlapping markup, formal languages, semantic theory, and other topics
11.
W3C XML Schema
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XSD, a recommendation of the World Wide Web Consortium, specifies how to formally describe the elements in an Extensible Markup Language document. It can be used by programmers to verify each piece of content in a document. They can check if it adheres to the description of the element it is placed in, like all XML schema languages, XSD can be used to express a set of rules to which an XML document must conform in order to be considered valid according to that schema. Such a post-validation infoset can be useful in the development of XML document processing software, XML Schema, published as a W3C recommendation in May 2001, is one of several XML schema languages. It was the first separate schema language for XML to achieve Recommendation status by the W3C, in Version 1.1 the W3C has chosen to adopt XSD as the preferred name, and that is the name used in this article. In its appendix of references, the XSD specification acknowledges the influence of DTDs and other early XML schema efforts such as DDML, SOX, XML-Data and it has adopted features from each of these proposals but is also a compromise among them. Of those languages, XDR and SOX continued to be used and supported for a while after XML Schema was published, a number of Microsoft products supported XDR until the release of MSXML6.0 in December 2006. Commerce One, Inc. supported its SOX schema language until declaring bankruptcy in late 2004, the XSD1.0 specification was originally published in 2001, with a second edition following in 2004 to correct large numbers of errors. XSD1.1 became a W3C Recommendation in April 2012, technically, a schema is an abstract collection of metadata, consisting of a set of schema components, chiefly element and attribute declarations and complex and simple type definitions. These components are created by processing a collection of schema documents. In popular usage, however, a document is often referred to as a schema. Schema documents are organized by namespace, all the named schema components belong to a namespace. A schema document may include other schema documents for the same namespace, XML Schema Documents usually have the filename extension. xsd. A unique Internet Media Type is not yet registered for XSDs, so application/xml or text/xml should be used, the main components of a schema are, Element declarations, which define properties of elements. These include the element name and target namespace, an important property is the type of the element, which constrains what attributes and children the element can have. In XSD1.1, the type of the element may be conditional on the values of its attributes. An element may belong to a group, if element E is in the substitution group of element H, then wherever the schema permits H to appear. Element declarations may be global or local, allowing the name to be used for unrelated elements in different parts of an instance document
12.
Computing
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Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating a mathematical sequence of steps known as an algorithm — e. g. through computers. The field of computing includes computer engineering, software engineering, computer science, information systems, the ACM Computing Curricula 2005 defined computing as follows, In a general way, we can define computing to mean any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computers. For example, an information systems specialist will view computing somewhat differently from a software engineer, regardless of the context, doing computing well can be complicated and difficult. Because society needs people to do computing well, we must think of computing not only as a profession, the fundamental question underlying all computing is What can be automated. The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating, in earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, but long before abstractions like the number arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts include one-to-one correspondence, comparison to a standard, the earliest known tool for use in computation was the abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon circa 2400 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles, abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known computer and most advanced system of calculation known to date - preceding Greek methods by 2,000 years. The first recorded idea of using electronics for computing was the 1931 paper The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena by C. E. Wynn-Williams. Claude Shannons 1938 paper A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations, a computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program. The program has a form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its source code form, enables a programmer to study. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, the execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer and they trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions, computer software or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software
13.
Electronic document
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An electronic document is any electronic media content that are intended to be used in either an electronic form or as printed output. Originally, any computer data were considered as something internal — the final output was always on paper. However, the development of networks has made it so that in most cases it is much more convenient to distribute electronic documents than printed ones. And the improvements in electronic display technologies mean that in most cases it is possible to view documents on screen instead of printing them, however, using electronic documents for final presentation instead of paper has created the problem of multiple incompatible file formats. Even more problems are connected with complex file formats of various word processors, spreadsheets, to alleviate the problem, many software companies distribute free file viewers for their proprietary file formats. Digital era governance Electronic paper Paperless office Bureaucrat E-Government Act of 2002 E-government Public administration What is a digital document Digital Imaging Frequent Questions
14.
Human-readable medium
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A human-readable medium or human-readable format is a representation of data or information that can be naturally read by humans. In computing, human-readable data is encoded as ASCII or Unicode text. In many jurisdictions, barcode labels used in retail shopping must also include a price on the merchandise. In addition, these representations can be compressed very effectively for transmission or storage. Human readable protocols greatly reduce the cost of debugging, various organizations have standardized the definition of human-readable and machine-readable data and how they are applied in their respective fields of application, e. g. the Universal Postal Union. Occasionally human-readable is used to describe ways of encoding an arbitrary integer into a series of English words. Compared to decimal or other compact binary-to-text encoding systems, English words are easier for humans to read, remember, and type in
15.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
16.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
17.
Language
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Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics, questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought, 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky, estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. However, any precise estimate depends on an arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, in whistling, signed and this is because human language is modality-independent. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings, human language has the properties of productivity and displacement, and relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex structure affords a wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication. Language is processed in different locations in the human brain. Humans acquire language through interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old. The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture, a group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family. The languages of the Dravidian family that are mostly in Southern India include Tamil. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100. The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s tongue, speech, language through Latin lingua, language, tongue, and Old French language. The word is used to refer to codes, ciphers. Unlike conventional human languages, a language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information. This article specifically concerns the properties of human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics. As an object of study, language has two primary meanings, an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e. g. French
18.
Data structure
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In computer science, a data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Data structures can implement one or more abstract data types, which specify the operations that can be performed on a data structure. In comparison, a structure is a concrete implementation of the specification provided by an ADT. Different kinds of structures are suited to different kinds of applications. For example, relational databases commonly use B-tree indexes for data retrieval, Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services. Usually, efficient data structures are key to designing efficient algorithms, some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design. Data structures can be used to organize the storage and retrieval of stored in both main memory and secondary memory. Many data structures use both principles, sometimes combined in non-trivial ways, the implementation of a data structure usually requires writing a set of procedures that create and manipulate instances of that structure. The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those operations, there are numerous types of data structures, generally built upon simpler primitive data types, An array is a number of elements in a specific order, typically all of the same type. Elements are accessed using an index to specify which element is required. Typical implementations allocate contiguous memory words for the elements of arrays, arrays may be fixed-length or resizable. A linked list is a collection of data elements of any type, called nodes, where each node has itself a value. The principal advantage of a linked list over an array, is that values can always be efficiently inserted and removed without relocating the rest of the list, certain other operations, such as random access to a certain element, are however slower on lists than on arrays. A record is a data structure. A record is a value that contains other values, typically in fixed number and sequence, the elements of records are usually called fields or members. A union is a structure that specifies which of a number of permitted primitive types may be stored in its instances. Contrast with a record, which could be defined to contain a float, enough space is allocated to contain the widest member datatype. A tagged union contains an additional field indicating its current type, a class is a data structure that contains data fields, like a record, as well as various methods which operate on the contents of the record
19.
Web service
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A web service is a service offered by an electronic device to another electronic device, communicating with each other via the World Wide Web. Another common application offered to the end user may be a mashup, where a web server consumes several web services at different machines, the W3C defines a web service generally as, A web service is a software system designed to support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. Web services may use SOAP over HTTP protocol, allowing less costly interactions over the Internet than via proprietary solutions like EDI/B2B, besides SOAP over HTTP, web services can also be implemented on other reliable transport mechanisms like FTP. In a 2002 document, the W3C Web Services Architecture Working Group defined a Web Services Architecture, in this, It has an interface described in a machine-processable format. The term web service describes a way of integrating web-based applications using the XML, SOAP, WSDL. A web service is a method of communication between two electronic devices over a network and it is a software function provided at a network address over the web with the service always on as in the concept of utility computing. Many organizations use multiple systems for management. Different software systems often need to exchange data with other. The software system that requests data is called a service requester, whereas the system that would process the request. Different software may use different programming languages, and hence there is a need for a method of exchange that doesnt depend upon a particular programming language. Most types of software can, however, interpret XML tags, thus, web services can use XML files for data exchange. Rules for communication between different systems need to be defined, such as, How one system can request data from another system, which specific parameters are needed in the data request. What would be the structure of the data produced, what error messages to display when a certain rule for communication is not observed, to make troubleshooting easier. All of these rules for communication are defined in a file called WSDL, a directory called UDDI defines which software system should be contacted for which type of data. So when one software system needs one particular report/data, it would go to the UDDI, once the software system finds out which other system it should contact, it would then contact that system using a special protocol called SOAP. The service provider system would first validate the data request by referring to the WSDL file, a Web API is a development in web services where emphasis has been moving to simpler representational state transfer based communications. RESTful APIs do not require XML-based web service protocols to support their interfaces, Automated tools can aid in the creation of a web service. For services using WSDL, it is possible to automatically generate WSDL for existing classes or to generate a class skeleton given existing WSDL
20.
Microsoft Office
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Microsoft Office is an office suite of applications, servers, and services developed by Microsoft. It was first announced by Bill Gates on 1 August 1988, initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a spell checker, OLE data integration. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for software under the Office Business Applications brand. On 10 July 2012, Softpedia reported that Office is used by over a billion people worldwide, Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end-users and computing environments. The original, and most widely used version, is the version, available for PCs running the Windows. The most current desktop version is Office 2016 for Windows and macOS, released on 22 September 2015 and 9 July 2015, more recently, Microsoft developed Office Mobile, which are free-to-use versions of Office applications for mobile devices. Microsoft also produces and runs Office Online, a version of core Office apps. Microsoft Word is a word processor available for Windows and macOS, Word is also included in some editions of the now discontinued Microsoft Works. The first version of Word, released in the autumn of 1983, was for the MS-DOS operating system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse to a broad population, Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though none was required. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSIWYG features into its package, Word for Mac was released in 1985. Word for Mac was the first graphical version of Microsoft Word and its proprietary Doc format is a de facto standard, although Word 2007 deprecated this format in favor of Office Open XML, which was later standardized by Ecma International as an open format. Support for Portable Document Format and OpenDocument was first introduced in Word for Windows with Service Pack 2 for Word 2007, Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that originally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, and eventually outsold it. It is available for the Windows and macOS platforms, Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac OS in 1985, and the first Windows version in November 1987. Microsoft PowerPoint is a program for Windows and macOS. It is used to create slideshows, composed of text, graphics, and other objects, Microsoft Access is a database management system for Windows that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. Microsoft Access stores data in its own based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications, Microsoft Outlook is a personal information manager
21.
Office Open XML
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Office Open XML is a zipped, XML-based file format developed by Microsoft for representing spreadsheets, charts, presentations and word processing documents. The format was initially standardised by Ecma, and by the ISO, starting with Microsoft Office 2007, the Office Open XML file formats have become the default target file format of Microsoft Office. Microsoft Office 2010 provides read support for ECMA-376, read/write support for ISO/IEC29500 Transitional, Microsoft Office 2013 and Microsoft Office 2016 additionally support both reading and writing of ISO/IEC29500 Strict. In 2000, Microsoft released a version of an XML-based format for Microsoft Excel. In 2002, a new format for Microsoft Word followed. The Excel and Word formats—known as the Microsoft Office XML formats—were later incorporated into the 2003 release of Microsoft Office, Microsoft announced in November 2005 that it would co-sponsor standardization of the new version of their XML-based formats through Ecma International as Office Open XML. The presentation was made to Ecma by Microsofts Jean Paoli and Isabelle Valet-Harper, Microsoft submitted initial material to Ecma International Technical Committee TC45, where it was standardized to become ECMA-376, approved in December 2006. This standard was then fast-tracked in the Joint Technical Committee 1 of ISO, the resulting four-part International Standard was published in November 2008 and can be downloaded from the ITTF. A technically equivalent set of texts is published by Ecma as ECMA-376 Office Open XML File Formats — 2nd edition, the ISO standardization of Office Open XML was controversial and embittered, with much discussion both about the specification and about the standardization process. The same InfoWorld article reported that IBM threatened to leave standards bodies that it said allow dominant corporations like Microsoft to wield undue influence, richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation has stated that Microsoft offers a gratis patent license for OOXML on terms which do not allow free implementations. Microsoft, the contributor to the standard, provided a covenant not to sue for its patent licensing. The covenant received a reception, with some like the Groklaw blog criticizing it. The Open Specification Promise was included in documents submitted to ISO/IEC in support of the ECMA-376 fast-track submission, Ecma International asserted that, The OSP enables both open source and commercial software to implement. The Office Open XML specification exists in a number of versions, the ECMA standard is structured in five parts to meet the needs of different audiences. Open Packaging Conventions The Open Packaging Conventions, for the package model and it defines core properties, thumbnails, digital signatures, and authorizations & encryption capabilities for parts or all of the contents in the package. XML schemas for the OPC are declared as XML Schema Definitions, markup Compatibility and Extensibility Describes extension facilities of OpenXML documents and specifies elements & attributes through which applications can operate across different extensions. Later versions of the ECMA-376 standard are aligned and technically equivalent to the corresponding ISO standard, Part 4 is to be read as a modification to Part 1, which it requires. A technically equivalent set of texts is published by Ecma as ECMA-376 2nd edition
22.
OpenOffice.org
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OpenOffice. org, commonly known as OpenOffice, is a discontinued open-source office suite. It was a version of the earlier StarOffice, which Sun Microsystems acquired in 1999. OpenOffice included a word processor, a spreadsheet, an application, a drawing application, a formula editor. Its default file format was the OpenDocument Format, an ISO/IEC standard and it could also read a wide variety of other file formats, with particular attention to those from Microsoft Office. Sun open-sourced the OpenOffice in July 2000 as a competitor to Microsoft Office, in 2011 Oracle Corporation, the then-owner of Sun, announced that it would no longer offer a commercial version of the suite and soon after donated the project to the Apache Foundation. Apache renamed the software Apache OpenOffice, other active successor projects include LibreOffice and NeoOffice. OpenOffice. org was primarily developed for Linux, Microsoft Windows and Solaris and it was distributed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3, early versions were also available under the Sun Industry Standards Source License. OpenOffice. org originated as StarOffice, an office suite developed by German company StarDivision from 1985 on. In August 1999, StarDivision was acquired by Sun Microsystems for US$59.5 million, the new project was known as OpenOffice. org, and the code was released as open source on 13 October 2000. The first public release was Milestone Build 638c, released in October 2001. OpenOffice. org became the office suite on Linux and spawned many derivative versions. It quickly became noteworthy competition to Microsoft Office, achieving 14% penetration in the enterprise market by 2004. It was made OpenOffice. orgs native format from version 2 on, many governments and other organisations adopted OpenDocument, particularly given there was a free implementation of it readily available. Development of OpenOffice. org was sponsored primarily by Sun Microsystems, developers who wished to contribute code were required to sign a Contributor Agreement granting joint ownership of any contributions to Sun, in support of the StarOffice business model. This was controversial for many years, an alternative Public Documentation Licence was also offered for documentation not intended for inclusion or integration into the project code base. After acquiring Sun in January 2010, Oracle Corporation continued developing OpenOffice. org and StarOffice, oracles lack of activity on or visible commitment to OpenOffice. org had also been noted by industry observers. TDF released the fork LibreOffice in January 2011, which most Linux distributions soon moved to, in April 2011, Oracle stopped development of OpenOffice. org and fired the remaining StarDivision development team. In June 2011, Oracle contributed the trademarks to the Apache Software Foundation and it also contributed Oracle-owned code to Apache for relicensing under the Apache License, at the suggestion of IBM, as IBM did not want the code put under a copyleft license
23.
LibreOffice
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LibreOffice is a free and open source office suite, a project of The Document Foundation. It was forked from OpenOffice. org in 2010, which was a version of the earlier StarOffice. The LibreOffice suite comprises programs for processing, the creation and editing of spreadsheets, slideshows, diagrams and drawings, working with databases. It is available in 110 languages, LibreOffice uses the international ISO/IEC standard OpenDocument file format as its native format to save documents for all of its applications. LibreOffice also supports the file formats of most other major office suites, including Microsoft Office, LibreOffice is available for a variety of computing platforms, including Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux, as well as in the form of an online office suite. It is the office suite of most popular Linux distributions. It is the most actively developed free and open-source office suite, with approximately 50 times the development activity of Apache OpenOffice, between January 2011 and October 2011, LibreOffice was downloaded approximately 7.5 million times. The project claims 120 million unique downloading addresses from May 2011 to May 2015, excluding Linux distributions, the Document Foundation developers target LibreOffice for Microsoft Windows, Linux and macOS. Community ports for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD and Mac OS X10.5 PowerPC receive support from contributors to those projects, Libreoffice is also installable on OpenIndiana via SFE. LibreOffice Online will allow for the use of LibreOffice through a web browser by using the element of HTML5. Development was announced at the first LibreOffice Conference in October 2011, LibreOffice announced a collaboration with Icewarp and Collabora to work on the cross-platform interface. A version of the software was shown in a September 2015 conference, on 15 December 2015, Collabora, in partnership with ownCloud, released a technical preview of Libreoffice Online branded as Collabora Online Development Edition. By October 2016, Collabora had released nine updates to CODE, in 2011, developers announced plans to port LibreOffice both to Android and to iOS. A beta version of a document viewer for Android 4.0 or newer was released in January 2015, In May 2015, in January 2015, a LibreOffice Impress remote app was unveiled for the Pebble smartwatch. A detailed 60-page report in June 2015 compared the progress of the LibreOffice project with its cousin project Apache OpenOffice and it showed that OpenOffice received about 10% of the improvements LibreOffice did in the period of time studied. LibreOffice can use the GStreamer multimedia framework in Linux to render multimedia content such as videos in Impress and they are also used on the toolbars and menus by default. LibreOffice also ships with a theme which looks native on GTK-based Linux distributions. It also renders fonts via Cairo on Linux distributions, this means that text in LibreOffice is rendered the same as the rest of the Linux desktop, LibreOffice has a feature similar to WordArt called Fontwork
24.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
25.
IWork
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IWork is an office suite of applications created by Apple Inc. for its macOS and iOS operating systems, and also available cross-platform through the iCloud website. It includes Keynote, a program, the word processing and desktop publishing application Pages. The equivalent Microsoft Office applications to Pages, Numbers, and Keynote are Word, Excel, although Microsoft Office applications cannot open iWork documents, iWork applications can export documents from their native formats to Microsoft Office formats as well as to PDF files. The oldest application in iWork is Keynote, first released as an application in 2003. Pages was released with the first iWork release in 2005, Numbers was added in 2007 with the release of iWork 08. The next release, iWork 09, also included access to iWork. com, an iOS port was released in 2010 with the first iPad and has been regularly updated since. In 2013, Apple released a new OS X version and iWork for iCloud, in September 2016, Apple announced that the real-time collaboration feature will be available for all iWork apps. The first version of iWork, iWork 05, was announced on January 11,2005 at the Macworld Conference & Expo and made available on January 22 in the United States and worldwide on January 29. IWork 05 comprised two applications, Keynote 2, a presentation program, and Pages, a word processor. IWork 05 was sold for US$79, a 30-day trial was also made available for download on Apples website. Originally IGG Software held the rights to the name iWork, while iWork was billed by Apple as a successor to AppleWorks, it does not replicate AppleWorkss database and drawing tools. IWork 06 was released on January 10,2006 and contained updated versions of both Keynote and Pages, the next version of the suite, iWork 08, was announced and released on August 7,2007 at a special media event at Apples campus in Cupertino, California. IWork 08, like previous updates, contained updated versions of Keynote, a new spreadsheet application, Numbers, was also introduced. IWork 09, was announced on January 6,2009 and released the same day and it contains updated versions of all three applications in the suite. IWork 09 also included access to a version of the iWork. com service. Users of iWork 09 could upload a document directly from Pages, Keynote, or Numbers, viewers could write notes and comments in the document, and download a copy in iWork, Microsoft Office, or PDF formats. On January 27,2010, Apple announced iWork for iPad, on October 22,2013, Apple announced an overhaul of the iWork software for both the Mac and iOS. Both suites were available via the respective App Stores
26.
Communications protocol
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These are the rules or standard that defines the syntax, semantics and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of both, Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has a meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses pre-determined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is independent of how it is to be implemented. Communications protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved, to reach agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication, a group of protocols designed to work together are known as a protocol suite, when implemented in software they are a protocol stack. Most recent protocols are assigned by the IETF for Internet communication, the ITU-T handles telecommunications protocols and formats for the PSTN. As the PSTN and Internet converge, the two sets of standards are also being driven towards convergence, the nature of a communication, the actual data exchanged and any state-dependent behaviors, is defined by these specifications. In digital computing systems, the rules can be expressed by algorithms, expressing the algorithms in a portable programming language makes the protocol software operating-system independent. Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate each other. This communication is governed by protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no memory, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared transmission medium. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems, to implement a networking protocol, the protocol software modules are interfaced with a framework implemented on the machines operating system. This framework implements the functionality of the operating system. The best known frameworks are the TCP/IP model and the OSI model and this gave rise to the concept of layered protocols which nowadays forms the basis of protocol design. Systems typically do not use a protocol to handle a transmission. Instead they use a set of cooperating protocols, sometimes called a family or protocol suite. Some of the best known protocol suites are TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, X.25, AX.25, the protocols can be arranged based on functionality in groups, for instance there is a group of transport protocols
27.
XMPP
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Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol is a communications protocol for message-oriented middleware based on XML. It enables the exchange of structured yet extensible data between any two or more network entities. Originally named Jabber, the protocol was developed by the Jabber open-source community in 1999 for near real-time instant messaging, presence information, the Internet Engineering Task Force formed an XMPP working group in 2002 to formalize the core protocols as an IETF instant messaging and presence technology. The XMPP Working group produced four specifications, which were approved as Proposed Standards in 2004, in 2011, RFC3920 and RFC3921 were superseded by RFC6120 and RFC6121 respectively, with RFC6122 specifying the XMPP address format. In 2015, RFC6122 was superseded by RFC7622, in addition to these core protocols standardized at the IETF, the XMPP Standards Foundation is active in developing open XMPP extensions. XMPP-based software is deployed widely across the Internet, and by 2003, was used by ten million people worldwide. Jeremie Miller began working on the Jabber technology in 1998 and released the first version of the server on January 4,1999. The early Jabber community focused on software, mainly the jabberd server. The early Jabber protocol, as developed in 1999 and 2000, formed the basis for XMPP as published in RFC3920, note that RFC3920 and RFC3921 have been superseded by RFC6120 and RFC6121, published in 2011. The first IM service based on XMPP was Jabber. org, from 1999 until February 2006, the service used jabberd as its server software, at which time it migrated to ejabberd. In January 2010, the migrated to the proprietary M-Link server software produced by Isode Ltd. In August 2005, Google introduced Google Talk, a combination VoIP and IM system that uses XMPP for instant messaging and as a base for a voice, the initial launch did not include server-to-server communications, Google enabled that feature on January 17,2006. Google has since added video functionality to Google Talk, also using the Jingle protocol for signaling, in May 2013, Google announced Jabber compatibility would be dropped from Google Talk for server-to-server federation, although it would retain client-to-server support. In January 2008, AOL introduced experimental XMPP support for its AOL Instant Messenger service, however, in March 2008, this service was discontinued. As of May 2011, AOL offers limited XMPP support, in September 2008, Cisco Systems acquired Jabber, Inc. the creators of the commercial product Jabber XCP. In February 2010, the social-networking site Facebook opened up its chat feature to third-party applications via XMPP, some functionality was unavailable through XMPP, and support was dropped in April 2014. Similarly, in December 2011, Microsoft released an XMPP interface to its Microsoft Messenger service, skype, its de facto successor, also provides limited XMPP support. However, these are not native XMPP implementations, decentralization The architecture of the XMPP network is similar to email, anyone can run their own XMPP server and there is no central master server
28.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
29.
.NET Framework
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. NET Framework is a software framework developed by Microsoft that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a class library named Framework Class Library and provides language interoperability across several programming languages. FCL and CLR together constitute. NET Framework, FCL provides user interface, data access, database connectivity, cryptography, web application development, numeric algorithms, and network communications. Programmers produce software by combining their source code with. NET Framework, the framework is intended to be used by most new applications created for the Windows platform. Silverlight was available as a web browser plugin, Microsoft began developing. NET Framework in the late 1990s, originally under the name of Next Generation Windows Services. By late 2000, the first beta versions of. NET1.0 were released, in August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Intel worked to standardize Common Language Infrastructure and C#. By December 2001, both were ratified Ecma International standards, International Organisation for Standardisation followed in April 2003. The current version of ISO standards are ISO-IEC23271,2012, while Microsoft and their partners hold patents for CLI and C#, ECMA and ISO require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. The firms agreed to meet these terms, and to make the patents available royalty-free, however, this did not apply for the part of. NET Framework not covered by ECMA-ISO standards, which included Windows Forms, ADO. NET, and ASP. NET. Patents that Microsoft holds in these areas may have deterred non-Microsoft implementations of the full framework, on 3 October 2007, Microsoft announced that the source code for. NET Framework 3.5 libraries was to become available under the Microsoft Reference Source License. The source code became available online on 16 January 2008 and included BCL, ASP. NET, ADO. NET, Windows Forms, WPF. Scott Guthrie of Microsoft promised that LINQ, WCF, and WF libraries were being added, in November 2014, Microsoft also produced an update to its patent grants, which further extends the scope beyond its prior pledges. The new grant does maintain the restriction that any implementation must maintain compliance with the mandatory parts of the CLI specification. On 31 March 2016, Microsoft announced at Microsoft Build that they will completely relicense Mono under an MIT License even in scenarios where formerly a commercial license was needed and it was announced that the Mono Project was contributed to the. NET Foundation. These developments followed the acquisition of Xamarin, which began in February 2016 and was finished on 18 March 2016. Microsofts press release highlights that the cross-platform commitment now allows for a fully open-source, however, Microsoft does not plan to release the source for WPF or Windows Forms. By implementing the core aspects of. NET Framework within the scope of CLI, microsofts implementation of CLI is Common Language Runtime. It serves as the engine of. NET Framework
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History of the Internet
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The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts of packet networking originated in several science laboratories in the United States, United Kingdom. The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including the development of the ARPANET. Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, NPL network, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, Donald Davies first designed a packet-switched network at the National Physics Laboratory in the UK, which became a testbed for UK research for almost two decades. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network. In 1982, the Internet protocol suite was introduced as the networking protocol on the ARPANET. Commercial Internet service providers began to emerge in the very late 1980s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSFs very high speed Backbone Network Service, Internet2, increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of information, commerce, entertainment. Such communication systems were limited to point to point communication between two end devices. Telegraph systems and telex machines can be considered precursors of this kind of communication. The Telegraph in the late 19th century was the first fully digital communication system, fundamental theoretical work in data transmission and information theory was developed by Claude Shannon, Harry Nyquist, and Ralph Hartley in the early 20th century. Early computers had a processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved, new systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances or with higher speed that were necessary for the computer model. These technologies made it possible to exchange data between remote computers, however, the point-to-point communication model was limited, as it did not allow for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems, a physical link was necessary. The technology was considered unsafe for strategic and military use because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case of an enemy attack. With limited exceptions, the earliest computers were connected directly to terminals used by individual users, such networks became known as local-area networks. Networking beyond this scope, known as wide-area networks, emerged during the 1950s, J. C. R. Licklider, Vice President at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc
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