1.
Chinese name
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Chinese personal names are names used by those from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and the Chinese diaspora overseas. Prior to the 20th century, educated Chinese also utilized a courtesy name or style name called zi by which they were known among those outside of their family and closest friends. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Han Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a given name. In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority, peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures – particularly emperors – used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and those possessing names identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. Although some terms in the ancient Chinese naming system, such as xìng and míng, are used today, they were used in different. Commoners possessed only a name, and the modern concept of a surname or family name did not yet exist at any level of society.3 billion citizens. In fact, just the top three – Wang, Li, and Zhang – cover more than 20% of the population. This homogeneity results from the majority of Han family names having only one character. Chinese surnames arose from two separate traditions, the xìng and the shì. The original xìng were clans of royalty at the Shang court, the shì did not originate from families, but denoted fiefs, states, and titles granted or recognized by the Shang court. Apart from the Jiang and Yao families, the original xìng have nearly disappeared, xìng is now used to describe the shì surnames which replaced them, while shì is used to refer to maiden names. The enormous modern clans sometimes share ancestral halls with one another, nonetheless, however tenuous these bonds sometimes are, it remains a minor taboo to marry someone with the same family name. In modern mainland China, it is the norm that a woman keeps her name unchanged. A child usually inherits his/her fathers surname, though the law explicitly states that a child may use either parents or the grandparents. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to both parents surnames. In the older generations, it was common for a married woman to prepend her husbands surname to her own. This practice is now almost extinct in mainland China, though there are a few such as the name change of Gu Kailai, but survives in some Hong Kong, Macau
2.
Chinese surname
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Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames existed, namely xing or lineage names, and shi or clan names, Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except in places with more Western influences such as Hong Kong, traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous. The colloquial expressions laobaixing and bǎixìng are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, prior to the Warring States period, only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was also a difference between clan names or xing and lineages names or shi, Xing were surnames held by the noble clans. They generally are composed of a nü radical which has taken by some as evidence they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages. Another hypothesis has been proposed by sinologist Léon Vandermeersch upon observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou, the female radical seems to appear at the Zhou period next to Shang sinograms indicating an ethnic group or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean lady of such or such clan, prior to the Qin Dynasty China was largely a fengjian society. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing, after the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred. Many shi surnames survive to the present day, according to Kiang Kang-Hu, there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived, while others suggested at least 24. The following are some of the sources, Xing, These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family. Of these xings, only Jiang and Yao have survived in their form to modern days as frequently occurring surnames. Royal decree by the Emperor, such as Kuang, state name, Many nobles and commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. These are some of the most common Chinese surnames, name of a fief or place of origin, Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang, there are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present. Names of an ancestor, Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples,200 of which are two-character surnames, often an ancestors courtesy name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the character of his grandfathers courtesy name Boyuan as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames, seniority within the family, In ancient usage, the characters of meng, zhong, shu and ji were used to denote the first, second, third and fourth eldest sons in a family
3.
Haining
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Haining is a county-level city in Zhejiang Province, China, and under the jurisdiction of Jiaxing. It is in the side of Yangtze River Delta. It is 125 kilometers west of Shanghai, and 61.5 kilometers east of Hangzhou, to its south lies the Qiantang River. The city has an area of 700.5 sq. kilometers. Haining is known for its industry and spectacular tide in the Qiantang River. Haining consists of 4 administrative districts and 8 towns, administrative districts, Xiashi, Haizhou, Haichang, Maqiao, Towns, Xucun, Changan, Zhouwangmiao, Yanguan, Xieqiao, Dingqiao, Yuanhua, Huangwan. In May 1949 Haining was occupied by the Communist Army, and Haining County was formed, in June 1949 the county government was relocated to Xiashi Town. In October 1958 Haiyan County was merged into Haining, in December 1961 Haiyan County was re-established. In November 1986 Haining County was elevated to Haining City, under jurisdiction of Jiaxing, in history, Yanguan Town had long served as the seat of county government. During Sino-Japanese War, the county seat was moved to Yuanhua Town, after the war, the county government was formed in Xiashi Town. Haining is famous for its show, colored lanterns. Haining began to be inhabited as early as the New Stone Age some 6,000 years ago. During the Spring and Autumn period, it part of the State of the Wu. In 221BC, during the Qin Dynasty, it fell under the jurisdiction of Changshui County, in 223AD, or the second year of the reign of Wu State King Huangwu of the Three Kingdoms period, it became known as Yanguan County. In 1295, or the first year of the reign of Yuan Emperor Yuanzheng and it became Haining Prefecture in 558. As the sea invaded the prefecture via the Qiantangjiang River, the area was renamed Haining Prefecture in 1329 in the hope of calming the waves. Following the founding the PRC, the area became Haining County, Haining has developed as a city well known for its quality leather products. Zhejiang Jinko Solar Co. Ltd. founded in 2006 as a subsidiary of Hong Kong-invested JinkoSolar Holding Co, Ltd, produces solar panel photovoltaic cells and wafers
4.
Tai'an
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Taian is a prefecture-level city in western Shandong province of the Peoples Republic of China. To the west, Taian is separated from the province of Henan by the Yellow River and its population was 5,494,207 as of the 2010 census, of whom 1,735,425 lived in the built-up area made of 2 urban districts. The prefecture-level city of Taian administers 6 county-level divisions, including 2 districts,2 county-level cities and 2 counties, taishan District Daiyue District Xintai City Feicheng City Ningyang County Dongping County Taian was home to the Dawenkou culture during the neolithic era. During the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, the site of major historical and cultural significance in the area is Mount Tai. Taian is centered on the side of Mount Tai. Taian lies in the temperate zone and has a continental. The average annual temperatures are −2.1 °C,12.8 °C, the average annual precipitation is 681 mm. There is a highway from Taian to the Jinan Airport. Within Taian there are tree lined avenues throughout the city. The nearest major airport is Jinan Yaoqiang International Airport, about 120 km to the north, list of twin towns and sister cities in China Taian travel guide from Wikivoyage Government website of Taian
5.
Shandong
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Shandong is a coastal province of the Peoples Republic of China, and is part of the East China region. Shandongs Mount Tai is the most revered mountain of Taoism and one of the sites with the longest history of continuous religious worship. The Buddhist temples in the mountains to the south of the capital of Jinan were once among the foremost Buddhist sites in China. The city of Qufu is the birthplace of Confucius, and was established as the center of Confucianism. Individually, the two Chinese characters in the name Shandong mean mountain and east, Shandong could hence be translated literally as east of the mountains and refers to the provinces location to the east of the Taihang Mountains. A common nickname for Shandong is Qílǔ, after the States of Qi and Lu that existed in the area during the Spring and Autumn period. Whereas the State of Qi was a power of its era. Lu, however, became renowned for being the home of Confucius, the cultural dominance of the State of Lu heritage is reflected in the official abbreviation for Shandong which is 鲁. English speakers in the 19th century called the province Shan-tung, the province is on the eastern edge of the North China Plain and in the lower reaches of the Yellow River, and extends out to sea as the Shandong Peninsula. The earliest dynasties exerted varying degrees of control over western Shandong, over subsequent centuries, the Dongyi were eventually sinicized. During the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, at this time, Shandong was home to two major states, the state of Qi at Linzi and the state of Lu at Qufu. Lu is noted for being the home of Confucius, the state was, however, comparatively small, and eventually succumbed to the larger state of Chu from the south. The state of Qi was, on the hand, was a major power throughout the period. Cities it ruled included Linzi, Jimo and Ju, the Qin dynasty conquered Qi and founded the first centralized Chinese state in 221 BCE. The Han dynasty that followed created a number of commanderies supervised by two regions in what is now modern Shandong, Qingzhou in the north and Yanzhou in the south, during the division of the Three Kingdoms, Shandong belonged to the Cao Wei, which ruled over northern China. After the Three Kingdoms period, a period of unity under the Western Jin dynasty gave way to invasions by nomadic peoples from the north. Northern China, including Shandong, was overrun, Shandong stayed with the Northern Dynasties for the rest of this period. The Sui dynasty reestablished unity in 589, and the Tang dynasty presided over the golden age of China
6.
University of Shanghai
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University of Shanghai, also known as Shanghai College and Hujiang University, was a university established by the American Baptist Missionary Union and the Southern Baptist Convention in Shanghai. It was the predecessor of University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, the Central China Mission of the American Southern Baptist Convention and the East China Mission of the American Baptist Missionary Union gathered in Shanghai. The two missions collaborated for higher education, establishing the Shanghai Baptist Theological Seminary in 1906 and Shanghai Baptist College in 1909, the two were combined in 1911 to form Shanghai Baptist College and Theological Seminary. The name University of Shanghai was adopted when it was registered with the Chinese Government in 1929, in 1952, University of Shanghai was merged into East China Normal University and other universities in Shanghai. In 1919, the campus was designed by the American architect Henry Murphys company, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology
7.
Tianjin University
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Tianjin University is the first modern higher education institution in China, and now a national university under the direct administration of the Ministry of Education of China. It was established in 1895 as Tientsin University/Imperial Tientsin University and later Peiyang University, in 1951, after restructuring, it was renamed Tianjin University, and became one of the largest multidisciplinary engineering universities in China. The university was one of the first 16 universities accredited by the nation in 1959 and it is also among the first group of institutions of higher learning in the national “211-Project” to which priority is given in construction. In 1895, Sheng Xuanhuai submitted his memorial to the Guangxu Emperor to request for approval to set up a higher education institution in Tianjin. After approval on October 2,1895, Peiyang Western Study College was founded by him and American educator Charles Daniel Tenney and it was the first university providing four year degree modern higher education in China. The university modeled itself on the famous American Universities and aimed to rejuvenate China by training qualified personnel with new scientific, after the PR Chinas foundation and university restructures, Peiyang University was renamed Tianjin University in 1951. Peiyang University / Tianjin University contributes greatly to the Chinese society, in its early days, undergraduates had the permission to directly pursue graduate study at Harvard and Yale without any entrance exams. Its Law School, which is the first Law School in China, was merged into Peking University, peiyangs Department of Aeronautics was separated and developed into Beihang University. And The Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Tsinghua University,1895 Peiyang University founded 1899 The first modern diploma in China granted 1907 Developed into a comprehensive university integrating Engineering with Liberal Arts, Law and Education. The total student population is 25,000 with 9500 doctoral students and students for masters degree, over 100,000 students have graduated from Tianjin University. The university occupies an area of 1.37 km2, and has an area of 800,000 m2. More than 100 provincial, municipal, autonomous regional or ministerial leaders were graduated from Tianjin University since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. A discipline layout, with stress on engineering, incorporating science, engineering, economics, management, humanities, education, law, the university now has 6 national key disciplines and 17 municipal key disciplines. The university also confers masters degrees in business administration and public administration, the university consists of 12 schools. Forty-three majors are available for undergraduates, in addition, the university has a Graduate School, Continuing Education School, Professional Education School, Network Education School, and International Education School. The Administrators’ Training Center of Higher Engineering Education of the Ministry of Education is also located at this university, in the undergraduate teaching evaluation organized by the Ministry of Education in 1999, the university was appraised as “Excellent”. The university boasts a team of professional and concurrent researchers. There are over 80 laboratories,110 research institutes,15 experimental research, since the policy of reform and opening up to the outside world, hundreds of scientific and technological achievements of the university have won prizes
8.
Peking University
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Peking University, is a major Chinese research university located in Beijing and a member of the C9 League. It is the first modern national university established in China, founded as the Imperial University of Peking in 1898 as a replacement of the ancient Taixue or Guozijian and it also served as the highest administration for education in China at the beginning of its founding. By 1920, it had become a center for progressive thought, Peking University is consistently ranked as the top higher learning institution in mainland China. In addition to academics, Peking University is especially renowned for its campus grounds, and the beauty of its traditional Chinese architecture. Throughout its history, the university has educated and hosted many prominent modern Chinese thinkers, including such as, Mao Zedong, Lu Xun, Gu Hongming, Mao Dun, Li Dazhao. Peking University was influential in the birth of Chinas New Culture Movement, May Fourth Movement, when it was established on July 3,1898, the school was known as the Imperial University of Peking. It was established to replace Taixue or Guozijian, or Imperial Academy, in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution, the Imperial University was renamed National Peking University. Cai, inspired by the German model of freedom, recruited an intellectually diverse faculty that included Hu Shih, Chen Duxiu. In 1919, students of Peking University formed the bulk of the protesters of the May Fourth Movement, efforts by the Beiyang government to end the protests by sealing off the Peking University campus led to Cais resignation. In 1920, Peking University became the first Chinese university to accept female students, after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Peking University moved to Changsha and formed the Changsha Temporary University along with Tsinghua University and Nankai University. In 1938, the three schools moved again, this time to Kunming, and formed the National Southwestern Associated University, in 1946, after World War II, Peking University moved back to Beijing. At that time, the university comprised six schools, and an institute for humanities. The total student enrollment grew up to 3,000, in 1949, after the Peoples Republic of China was established, Peking University lost its national appellation to reflect the fact that all universities under the new socialist state would be public. In 1952, Mao Zedongs government re-grouped the countrys higher education institutions with individual institutions tending to specialize in a field of study. As a result, some arts and science faculties of Tsinghua University, at the same time, however, the university lost its Law, Medicine, Engineering and Agriculture schools. These schools and faculties were merged into other universities or to found new colleges. During the re-grouping, Yenching University was closed up, Peking University moved from downtown Beijing to the former Yenching campus. The first disturbances of the Cultural Revolution began at Peking University in 1966, in 2000, Beijing Medical University was merged back into Peking University and became the Peking University Health Science Campus
9.
Clark University
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Clark University is an American private research university located in Worcester, Massachusetts, the second largest city in New England. It is adjacent to University Park about 50 miles west of Boston, founded in 1887 with a large endowment from its namesake Jonas Gilman Clark, a prominent businessman, Clark was one of the first modern research universities in the United States. Originally an all-graduate institution, Clarks first undergraduates entered in 1902. S, News & World Report and as one of 40 Colleges That Change Lives. The university competes intercollegiately in 17 NCAA Division III varsity sports as the Clark Cougars and is a part of the New England Womens and Mens Athletic Conference, intramural and club sports are also offered in a wide range of activities. Clark was ranked no.27 on the U. S. News list of Best Value Schools, the university is also the alma mater of at least three living billionaires, in addition to its alumni having won two Pulitzer Prizes and an Emmy Award. An Act of Incorporation was duly enacted by the legislature and signed by the governor on March 31 of that same year. Opening on October 2,1889, Clark was the first all-graduate university in the United States, with departments in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, G. Stanley Hall was appointed the first president of Clark University in 1888. He had been a professor of psychology and pedagogy at Johns Hopkins University, Hall spent seven months in Europe visiting other universities and recruiting faculty. He became the founder of the American Psychological Association and earned the first Ph. D. in psychology in the United States at Harvard, Clark has played a prominent role in the development of psychology as a distinguished discipline in the United States ever since. This had been opposed by President Hall in years past but Clark College opened in 1902. Clark College and Clark University had different presidents until Halls retirement in 1920, Clark University began admitting women after Clarks death, and the first female Ph. D. in psychology was awarded in 1908. Early Ph. D. students in psychology were ethnically diverse, in 1920, Francis Sumner became the first African American to earn a Ph. D. in psychology. Clark withdrew its membership in 1999, citing a conflict with its mission, in order to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Clarks opening, President Hall invited a number of leading thinkers to the University. This was Freuds only set of lectures in the United States, in the 1920s Robert Goddard, a pioneer of rocketry, considered one of the founders of space and missile technology, served as a professor and chairman of the Physics Department. On November 23,1929, noted aviator Charles Lindbergh visited campus, the Robert H. Goddard Library, a distinctive modern building in the brutalist style by architect John M. Johansen, was completed in 1969. In 1963, student DArmy Bailey invited Malcolm X to campus to speak and he delivered a speech in Atwood Hall. On March 15,1968, The Jimi Hendrix Experience performed at Clark University as part of the bands American tour in support of Axis, the Experience played in the Atwood Hall, which could accommodate more than six hundred students. Tickets for the concerts, which sold out, were priced, with seats priced at $3.00, $3.50
10.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
11.
London School of Economics
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The London School of Economics is a public research university located in London, England and a constituent college of the federal University of London. LSE is located in Westminster, central London, near the boundary between Covent Garden and Holborn, the area is historically known as Clare Market. The LSE has more than 10,000 students and 3,300 staff and it had a total income of £340.7 million in 2015/16, of which £30.3 million was from research grants. 155 nationalities are represented amongst LSEs student body and the school has the highest percentage of students of all British universities. Despite its name, the school is organised into 25 academic departments and institutes which conduct teaching and research across a range of legal studies, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the School had the highest proportion of world-leading research among research submitted of any British non-specialist university. The LSE is usually considered part of the triangle of highly research-intensive universities in southeast England. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. LSE has produced notable alumni in the fields of law, history, economics, philosophy, business, literature, media. Alumni and staff include 52 past or present heads of state or government and 20 members of the current British House of Commons. To 2016, 27% of all the Nobel Prizes in Economics have been awarded or jointly awarded to LSE alumni, current staff or former staff, LSE alumni and staff have also won 3 Nobel Peace Prizes, and 2 Nobel Prizes in Literature. Out of all European universities, LSE has educated the most billionaires according to a 2014 global census of U. S dollar billionaires, LSE graduates earn higher incomes on average than those of any other British university. The London School of Economics was founded in 1895 by Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Hutchinson, a lawyer and member of the Fabian Society, left the money in trust, to be put towards advancing its objects in any way they deem advisable. The five trustees were Sidney Webb, Edward Pease, Constance Hutchinson, William de Mattos, LSE records that the proposal to establish the school was conceived during a breakfast meeting on 4 August 1894, between the Webbs, Graham Wallas and George Bernard Shaw. The proposal was accepted by the trustees in February 1895 and LSE held its first classes in October of that year, in rooms at 9 John Street, Adelphi, in the City of Westminster. The School joined the federal University of London in 1900, and was recognised as a Faculty of Economics of the university, the University of London degrees of BSc and DSc were established in 1901, the first university degrees dedicated to the social sciences. Expanding rapidly over the years, the school moved initially to the nearby 10 Adelphi Terrace, then to Clare Market. The foundation stone of the Old Building, on Houghton Street, was laid by King George V in 1920, the 1930s economic debate between LSE and Cambridge is well known in academic circles. The dispute also concerned the question of the role
12.
King's College, Cambridge
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Kings College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. Formally The Kings College of Our Lady and Saint Nicholas in Cambridge, Kings was founded in 1441 by Henry VI, soon after he had founded its sister college in Eton. However, the Kings plans for the college were disrupted by the Wars of the Roses and resultant scarcity of funds, and his eventual deposition. Little progress was made on the project until in 1508 Henry VII began to take an interest in the college, the building of the colleges chapel, begun in 1446, was finally finished in 1544 during the reign of Henry VIII. Kings College Chapel is regarded as one of the greatest examples of late Gothic English architecture and it has the worlds largest fan-vault, and the chapels stained-glass windows and wooden chancel screen are considered some of the finest from their era. The building is seen as emblematic of Cambridge, the chapels choir, composed of male students at Kings and choristers from the nearby Kings College School, is one of the most accomplished and renowned in the world. Every year on Christmas Eve the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols is broadcast from the chapel to millions of listeners worldwide, on 12 February 1441 King Henry VI issued letters patent founding a college at Cambridge for a rector and twelve poor scholars. This college was to be named after Saint Nicholas, upon whose saint day Henry had been born, William Millington, a fellow of Clare College was installed as the rector. Henry directed the publication of the colleges first governing statutes in 1443 and his original modest plan for the college was abandoned, and provision was instead made for community of seventy fellows and scholars headed by a provost. Henry had belatedly learned of William of Wykehams 1379 twin foundation of New College, Oxford and Winchester College, the King had in fact founded Eton College on 11 October 1440, but up until 1443 Kings and Eton had been unconnected. However, that year the relationship between the two was remodelled upon Wykehams successful institutions and the sizes of the colleges scaled up to surpass Wykehams. A second royal charter which re-founded the now much larger Kings College was issued on 12 July 1443, members of Kings were to be recruited entirely from Eton. Membership of Kings was a vocation for life, scholars were eligible for election to the fellowship after three years of probation, irrespective of whether they had achieved a degree or not. In fact, undergraduates at Kings – unlike those other colleges – did not even have to pass university examinations to achieve their BA degree. The gateway and south range of Old Court had already been built, Henrys grand design for the new college buildings survives in the 1448 Founders Will which describes his vision in detail. Behind the hall and buttery was to be another courtyard, the first stone of the chapel was laid by the King on St James Day,25 July 1446. However, within a decade Henrys engagement in the Wars of the Roses meant that funds began to dry up, work proceeded sporadically until a generation later in 1508 when the Founders nephew Henry VII was prevailed upon to finish the shell of the building. The interior had to wait a further generation until completion by 1544 with the aid of Henry VIII, the chapel would be the only part of Henry VIs Founders Will to be realised
13.
Zhang Youyi
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Zhang Youyi was a Chinese educator, banker, and the first wife of the Chinese poet Xu Zhimo. With assistance from her brother Chang Kia-ngau, who was the manager of Bank of China, she ran her own bank. In 1912, when Zhang Youyi was aged 12, she found an advertisement in the newspaper Shen Bao about a school in Suzhou called the Teachers College Preparatory School. She raised the idea of attending the school with her parents, Zhang and her First Sister both entered the school after completing an entrance exam. As Zhang was prepared for marriage in 1915, her parents urged her to quit her schooling, Zhang Youyi did in fact, attend school after her engagement, but two months before her wedding, she left. She followed her first husband to Europe in 1921, but he left her, Zhang chose to study there because it required the least amount of German language skill. She married the prominent poet Xu Zhimo, and gave birth to two sons, Hsu Chi-kai and Peter Hsu, after giving birth to her second son, Youyi received a letter from her estranged husband, declaring his intentions to divorce. In his letter, Xu reasoned that marriage not based on love was intolerable, Zhang consented, and signed the divorce papers. ISBN0385479638 Reminiscences of Xu Zhimo
14.
Lu Xiaoman
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Lu Xiaoman was a beloved cultural figure in 20th century Chinese history. She was given the name of Mei, but later changed her name to Xiaoman, although she was well known for her very passionate and public relationship with Xu Zhimo, she was a celebrated painter, writer, singer, and actor. She studied under such as Liu Haisu, Chen Banding. As an artist, she specialized in flowers, birds, and she was also known to write poetry, prose, and fiction, but her writings were never published. Nevertheless, her appreciation for poetry inspired her to create a series of ink paintings in honor of the Tang poet Du Fu, lu Xiaoman was also a singer, and she debuted on stage after receiving training in the renowned Peking Opera. She quickly gained attention from bachelors of wealthy, famous families after her first performance, in the 1950s and 60s, she worked as a paid artist at the Shanghai Academy of Chinese Painting, but only to produce works for the academy. Even so, she was able to create and successfully sell paintings at Duoyun Zhai apart from her obligations to the academy, lu was born in Shanghai in 1903 and raised in Changzhou, Jiangsu province. She was educated in Beijing Womens Normal Primary when she was 7 years old and she attended Beijing Girls Junior High at the age of 9 and finished at 14. She later attended Beijing Sacred Heart School and she also studied in France and was fluent in English and French by the age of 18. She was employed by Gu Weijun, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Northern Government, in 1922, she married Wang Geng ， but they divorced soon after their marriage. After that, she was in a relationship with Xu Zhimo, in 1931, Xu died in a plane crash
15.
Jin Yong
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Louis Cha Leung-yung, GBM, OBE, better known by his pen name Jin Yong, is a Chinese novelist and essayist based in Hong Kong. Having co-founded the Hong Kong daily Ming Pao in 1959, he was the newspapers first editor-in-chief, Chas fiction, which is of the wuxia genre, has a widespread following in Chinese-speaking areas, including Hong Kong, China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and the United States. His 15 works written between 1955 and 1972 earned him a reputation as one of the finest wuxia writers ever and he is currently the best-selling Chinese author alive, over 100 million copies of his works have been sold worldwide. Chas works have translated into English, French, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese, Thai, Burmese, Malay. He has many fans abroad as well, owing to the adaptations of his works into films, television series, comics. Asteroid 10930 Jinyong is named after him, Cha was named along with Gu Long and Liang Yusheng as the Three Legs of the Tripod of Wuxia. Cha was born in Haining City, Zhejiang Province in Republican China as the second of six children from the scholarly Zha family of Haining and his ancestral home, however, was in Wuyuan County, Shangrao City, Jiangxi Province. He is purportedly a descendant of Zha Jizuo, a scholar who lived in the late Ming dynasty and his grandfather, Zha Wenqing, obtained the position of a tong jinshi chushen in the imperial examination during the Qing dynasty. Cha was a reader of literature from an early age, especially wuxia. He was once expelled from his school for openly criticising the Nationalist government as autocratic. He studied at Hangzhou High School in 1937 but was dismissed in 1941 and he studied in Jiaxing No.1 High School and later was admitted to the Faculty of Foreign Languages of the Central School of Political Affairs in Chongqing Municipality. Cha later dropped out of the school and he took the entrance exam and gained admission to the Faculty of Law at Soochow University, where he majored in international law with the intention of pursuing a career in the foreign service. When Cha was transferred to Hsin Wan Pao as Deputy Editor, he met Chen Wentong, Chen and Cha became good friends and it was under the formers influence that Cha began work on his first serialised martial arts novel, The Book and the Sword, in 1955. In 1957, while working on wuxia serialisations, he quit his previous job and worked as a scenarist-director and scriptwriter at Great Wall Movie Enterprises Ltd. In 1959, Cha co-founded the Hong Kong newspaper Ming Pao with his school classmate Shen Baoxin. Cha served as its editor-in-chief for years, writing both serialised novels and editorials, amounting to some 10,000 Chinese characters per day and his novels also earned him a large readership. Cha completed his last wuxia novel in 1972, after which he retired from writing novels. The first complete edition of his works appeared in 1979
16.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
17.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
18.
Chinese literature
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In more modern times, the author Lu Xun is considered the founder of baihua literature in China. An attempt at tracing the genealogy of Chinese literature to religious spells, there is a wealth of early Chinese literature dating from the Hundred Schools of Thought that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science and Chinese history. Note that, except for the books of poems and songs, most of this literature is philosophical and didactic, however, these texts maintained their significance through both their ideas and their prose style. These nine books therefore became the center of the educational system and they have been grouped into two categories, the Five Classics, allegedly commented and edited by Confucius, and the Four Books. Other important philosophical works include the Mohist Mozi, which taught inclusive love as both an ethical and social principle, and Hanfeizi, one of the central Legalist texts, important Daoist classics include the Dao De Jing, the Zhuangzi, and the Classic of the Perfect Emptiness. Later authors combined Daoism with Confucianism and Legalism, such as Liu An, among the classics of military science, The Art of War by Sun Tzu was perhaps the first to outline guidelines for effective international diplomacy. It was also the first in a tradition of Chinese military treatises, such as the Wujing Zongyao, the Chinese kept consistent and accurate court records after the year 841 BC, with the beginning of the Gonghe Regency of the Western Zhou Dynasty. The earliest known history of China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BC. The Book of Documents included early information on geography in the Yu Gong chapter, the oldest extant dictionary in China is the Erya, dated to the 3rd century BC, anonymously written but with later commentary by the historian Guo Pu. Other early dictionaries include the Fangyan by Yang Xiong and the Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen, one of the largest was the Kangxi Dictionary compiled by 1716 under the auspices of the Kangxi Emperor, it provides definitions for over 47,000 characters. This groundbreaking text laid the foundation for Chinese historiography and the many official Chinese historical texts compiled for each dynasty thereafter and this was often difficult for the official dynastic historians, who used historical works to justify the reign of the current dynasty. Large encyclopedias were also produced in China through the ages, the Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia was completed by Ouyang Xun in 624 during the Tang Dynasty, with aid from scholars Linghu Defen and Chen Shuda. This included the Extensive Records of the Taiping Era, the Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era, the Finest Blossoms in the Garden of Literature, the rich tradition of Chinese poetry began with two influential collections. In northern China, the Shijing or Classic of Poetry comprises over 300 poems in a variety of styles ranging from those with a suggestion of folk music to ceremonial hymns. The word shi has the meaning of poem or poetry. Confucius is traditionally credited with editing the Shijing and its stately verses are usually composed of couplets with lines of four characters each, and a formal structure of end rhymes. Many of these early poems establish the tradition of starting with a description of nature that leads into emotionally expressive statements, known as bi, xing
19.
Marble
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
20.
The Backs
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The name the Backs refers to the backs of the colleges. St Johns — buildings on both sides of the river, spanned by the St Johns kitchen bridge and the Bridge of Sighs Trinity — buildings on the east bank, Trinity Hall — buildings on the east bank but with no rear grounds on the west bank. Clare — buildings on the east bank, spanned by Clare bridge, Kings — buildings on the east bank, spanned by Kings bridge. Queens — buildings on both sides of the river, spanned by the Mathematical Bridge, historically, much of the land was used by the colleges for grazing livestock or growing fruit. The river was also an important commercial thoroughfare to the mill at Silver Street, in the 16th century, the area consisted of pasture, gardens and orchards owned by colleges of the University, with wooden bridges across the Cam. Over time, the colleges planted avenues of trees and built sturdier bridges, in 1772, St Johns College consulted English landscape architect Lancelot Brown, who laid out a wilderness on the college side of Queens Road which still exists today. In 1779, Brown presented a plan to the University of Cambridge to create country-house style parkland with its focus on Kings Colleges Gibbs Building, the plan would have involved removing avenues, transforming the river into a lake, and planting clumps of trees to screen the other colleges. It was never implemented, possibly because it would have removed historic college boundaries, in response to many elm trees succumbing to Dutch elm disease, a Backs Committee was formed in 1979 so that a joint approach could be taken to the problem facing The Backs. As a result of the work, trees were cut down. However, the committee stopped meeting in 1994, in 1995, English Heritage listed The Backs as a Grade 1 Historic Park. In the 2000s, six University colleges on The Backs commissioned Robert Myers, the report, entitled The Backs Cambridge Landscape Strategy, was completed in November 2007 and released on 1 December 2007. It sets out proposals for the evolution of The Backs over the next 50 years, over-mature and inappropriately-sited trees will be removed and new ones planted. In addition, there will be a replacement of avenues, an extension of the wilderness planting behind St Johns and along the edge of Queens Road. In December 2007, The Daily Telegraph reported that there has been a degree of consensus between institutions well known for prizing their autonomy. List of bridges in Cambridge Punt Stubbings, Frank H. Bedders, Bulldogs and Bedells, academical Elysium — The Landscaping of the Cambridge Backs. Queens College Record 2000 — The Grove Elms, archived from the original on 2008-01-28. Some of the references in this section were obtained from The Backs Cambridge landscape strategy, University of Cambridge Official Map — The Backs
21.
River Cam
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The River Cam is the main river flowing through Cambridge in eastern England. After leaving Cambridge, it flows north and east into the Great Ouse to the south of Ely at Popes Corner. The Great Ouse connects the Cam to the North Sea at Kings Lynn, The total distance from Cambridge to the sea is about 40 mi and is navigable for punts, small boats, and rowing craft. The Great Ouse also connects to Englands canal system via the Middle Level Navigations, in total, the Cam runs for around 69 kilometres from its furthest source to its confluence with the Great Ouse. This was not universally applied, however, and the stretch of the river continues to be informally known as the Granta. It has been said that the river is the Granta above the Silver Street Bridgemap 11, the Rhee tributary is also formally known as the Cam, and the Granta has a tributary on its upper stretch also known as the Granta. The Cam has no connection with the much smaller River Cam in Gloucestershire, an organisation called the Conservators of the River Cam was formed in 1702, charged with keeping the river navigable. The Conservators are responsible for the two locks in and north east of Cambridge, Jesus Lockmap 7 and Baits Bite Lock. map 3 The stretch north of Jesus Lock is sometimes called the lower river. The stretch between Jesus Lock and Baits Bite Lock is much used for rowing, there are also many residential boats on this stretch, their occupants forming a community who call themselves the Camboaters. Navigation on the lowest section of the Cam, below and including Bottisham Lock, the stretch above Jesus Lock is sometimes known as the middle river. Between Jesus Lock and the Mill Pond, map 12 it passes through the Backsmap 10 below the walls of many of the colleges and this is the section of river most popular with tourists, with its picture-postcard views of elegant bridges, green lawns and graceful willows. Access for mechanically powered boats is prohibited above La Mimosa Pub between 1 April and 30 September, when the middle and upper river are only to manually propelled craft. The most common of these are the flat-bottomed punts, punts and canoes can be manhandled around the weir above the Mill Pool by means of the rollers, a slipway from lower to upper level. From the Mill Pool and its weir, the river can be followed upstream through Grantchester meadows to the village of Grantchestermap 14 and Byrons Pool, the two principal tributaries of the Cam are the Granta and the Rhee, though both are also known as the Cam. The Rhee begins just off the High Street, at Ashwell in Hertfordshire, just after flowing under the Roman Ermine Street, it crosses the avenue of Wimpole Hall and a few kilometres later it receives the waters of the minor River Mel that runs through Meldreth. It runs along the edge of the village of Barrington. At Harston it passes Harston Mill, the site of a mill from at least the 11th century until the need for mill died out in the mid-20th century. It then touches the edge of the village of Haslingfield before joining the Granta at Hauxton Junction
22.
Simplified Chinese characters
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Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to increase literacy and they are officially used in the Peoples Republic of China and Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau. Overseas Chinese communities generally tend to use traditional characters, Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially. Strictly, the latter refers to simplifications of character structure or body, character forms that have existed for thousands of years alongside regular, Simplified character forms were created by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of traditional Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms, some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification, and are identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. Some simplified characters are very dissimilar to and unpredictably different from traditional characters and this often leads opponents not well-versed in the method of simplification to conclude that the overall process of character simplification is also arbitrary. In reality, the methods and rules of simplification are few, on the other hand, proponents of simplification often flaunt a few choice simplified characters as ingenious inventions, when in fact these have existed for hundreds of years as ancient variants. However, the Chinese government never officially dropped its goal of further simplification in the future, in August 2009, the PRC began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 characters was promulgated by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China on June 5,2013, cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print have always existed, they date back to as early as the Qin dynasty, One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lubi Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China, Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and it was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Fu Sinian, a leader of the May Fourth Movement, called Chinese characters the writing of ox-demons, lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die. Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the problems in China during that time
23.
Traditional Chinese characters
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Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
24.
Worcester, Massachusetts
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Worcester /ˈwʊstər/ WUUSS-tər local pronunciation /ˈwᵻstə/ is a city and the county seat of Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. Named after Worcester, England, as of the 2010 Census the citys population was 181,045, Worcester is located approximately 40 miles west of Boston,50 miles east of Springfield and 40 miles north of Providence. Due to its location in Central Massachusetts, Worcester is known as the Heart of the Commonwealth, thus, however, the heart symbol may also have its provenance in lore that the mass-produced Valentines Day card was invented in the city. S. Census Combined Statistical Area, or Greater Boston, the city features many examples of Victorian-era mill architecture. The area was first inhabited by members of the Nipmuc tribe, the native people called the region Quinsigamond and built a settlement on Pakachoag Hill in Auburn. In 1673 English settlers John Eliot and Daniel Gookin led an expedition to Quinsigamond to establish a new Christian Indian praying town and identify a new location for an English settlement. On July 13,1674, Gookin obtained a deed to eight miles of land in Quinsigamond from the Nipmuc people. In 1675, King Philips War broke out throughout New England with the Nipmuc Indians coming to the aid of Indian leader King Philip, the English settlers completely abandoned the Quinsigamond area and the empty buildings were burned by the Indian forces. The town was abandoned during Queen Annes War in 1702. Finally in 1713, Worcester was permanently resettled for a time by Jonas Rice. Named after the city of Worcester, England, the town was incorporated on June 14,1722, on April 2,1731, Worcester was chosen as the county seat of the newly founded Worcester County government. Between 1755 and 1758, future U. S. president John Adams worked as a schoolteacher, in the 1770s, Worcester became a center of American revolutionary activity. British General Thomas Gage was given information of patriot ammunition stockpiled in Worcester in 1775, also in 1775, Massachusetts Spy publisher Isaiah Thomas moved his radical newspaper out of British occupied Boston to Worcester. Thomas would continuously publish his paper throughout the American Revolutionary War, on July 14,1776, Thomas performed the first public reading in Massachusetts of the Declaration of Independence in front of the Worcester town hall. He would later go on to form the American Antiquarian Society in Worcester in 1812, during the turn of the 19th century Worcesters economy moved into manufacturing. Factories producing textiles, shoes and clothing opened along the nearby Blackstone River, however, the manufacturing industry in Worcester would not begin to thrive until the opening of the Blackstone Canal in 1828 and the opening of the Worcester and Boston Railroad in 1835. The city transformed into a hub and the manufacturing industry flourished. Worcester was officially chartered as a city on February 29,1848, immigrants moved into new triple-decker houses which lined hundreds of Worcesters expanding streets and neighborhoods
25.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
26.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
27.
John Keats
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John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He had a significant influence on a range of poets. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keatss work was the most significant literary experience of his life, the poetry of Keats is characterised by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through the emphasis of natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular, John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, born Frances Jennings. There is no evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October and he was the eldest of four surviving children, his younger siblings were George, Thomas, and Frances Mary Fanny who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez. Another son was lost in infancy and his father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, the Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a dame school as a child. His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow, so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to board at John Clarkes school in Enfield, the small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools. In the family atmosphere at Clarkes, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, the headmasters son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapmans translations. The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a character, always in extremes, given to indolence. However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, in April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died. The cause of death was a fracture, suffered when he fell from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats. Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four went to live with their grandmother, Alice Jennings. In March 1810 when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis and she appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, to take care of them. That autumn, Keats left Clarkes school to apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour, Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery at 7 Church Street until 1813
28.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
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Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the major English Romantic poets, and is regarded by some as among the finest lyric, as well as most influential, poets in the English language. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not see fame during his lifetime, but recognition for his poetry grew steadily following his death. Shelley was a key member of a circle of visionary poets and writers that included Lord Byron, Leigh Hunt, Thomas Love Peacock, and his own second wife, Mary Shelley. Shelley is perhaps best known for such poems as Ozymandias, Ode to the West Wind, To a Skylark, Music, When Soft Voices Die, The Cloud. Shelleys close circle of friends included some of the most important progressive thinkers of the day, including his father-in-law, the philosopher William Godwin and Leigh Hunt. Though Shelleys poetry and prose output remained steady throughout his life, most publishers, Shelley became a lodestone to the subsequent three or four generations of poets, including important Victorian and Pre-Raphaelite poets such as Robert Browning and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. He was admired by Oscar Wilde, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Bertrand Russell, yeats, Upton Sinclair and Isadora Duncan. Henry David Thoreaus civil disobedience was apparently influenced by Shelleys non-violence in protest, Shelleys popularity and influence has continued to grow in contemporary poetry circles. Shelley was born on 4 August 1792 at Field Place, Broadbridge Heath, near Horsham, West Sussex, England. He was the eldest legitimate son of Sir Timothy Shelley, a Whig Member of Parliament for Horsham from 1790–92 and he had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. He received his education at home, tutored by the Reverend Evan Edwards of nearby Warnham. His cousin and lifelong friend Thomas Medwin, who lived nearby and it was a happy and contented childhood spent largely in country pursuits such as fishing and hunting. In 1802, he entered the Syon House Academy of Brentford, in 1804, Shelley entered Eton College, where he fared poorly, and was subjected to an almost daily mob torment at around noon by older boys, who aptly called these incidents Shelley-baits. Surrounded, the young Shelley would have his books torn from his hands and his clothes pulled at and this daily misery could be attributed to Shelleys refusal to take part in fagging and his indifference towards games and other youthful activities. Because of these peculiarities he acquired the nickname Mad Shelley, Shelley possessed a keen interest in science at Eton, which he would often apply to cause a surprising amount of mischief for a boy considered to be so sensible. Shelley would often use an electric machine to charge the door handle of his room. His friends were particularly amused when his tutor, Mr Bethell, in attempting to enter his room, was alarmed at the noise of the electric shocks. His mischievous side was again demonstrated by his last bit of naughtiness at school, despite these jocular incidents, a contemporary of Shelley, W. H. Merie, recalled that Shelley made no friends at Eton, although he did seek a kindred spirit without success
29.
Symbolists
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Symbolism was a late nineteenth-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. In literature, the style originates with the 1857 publication of Charles Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, the works of Edgar Allan Poe, which Baudelaire admired greatly and translated into French, were a significant influence and the source of many stock tropes and images. The aesthetic was developed by Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine during the 1860s and 1870s, in the 1880s, the aesthetic was articulated by a series of manifestos and attracted a generation of writers. The name symbolist itself was first applied by the critic Jean Moréas, distinct from, but related to, the style of literature, symbolism in art is related to the gothic component of Romanticism and Impressionism. In ancient Greece, the symbolon was a shard of pottery which was inscribed, Symbolism was a reaction in favour of spirituality, the imagination, and dreams. Some writers, such as Joris-Karl Huysmans, began as naturalists before becoming symbolists, for Huysmans, the Symbolist poets have a more complex relationship with Parnassianism, a French literary style that immediately preceded it. The Symbolists continued to admire Théophile Gautiers motto of art for arts sake, many Symbolist poets, including Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine, published early works in Le Parnasse contemporain, the poetry anthologies that gave Parnassianism its name. One of Symbolisms most colourful promoters in Paris was art and literary critic Joséphin Péladan, a number of Symbolists were associated with the Salon. Symbolists believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly, thus, they wrote in a very metaphorical and suggestive manner, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. Jean Moréas published the Symbolist Manifesto in Le Figaro on 18 September 1886, the Symbolist Manifesto names Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Paul Verlaine as the three leading poets of the movement. In a nutshell, as Mallarmé writes in a letter to his friend Cazalis, to not the thing. Symbolist poems were attempts to evoke, rather than primarily to describe, – both poets seek to identify one sense experience with another. The earlier Romanticism of poetry used symbols, but these symbols were unique, the symbolists were more extreme, investing all things, even vowels and perfumes, with potential symbolic value. The physical universe, then, is a kind of language that invites a privileged spectator to decipher it, Symbolist symbols are not allegories, intended to represent, they are instead intended to evoke particular states of mind. The nominal subject of Mallarmés Le cygne is of a trapped in a frozen lake. Significantly, in French, cygne is a homophone of signe, un cygne d’autrefois se souvient que c’est lui Magnifique mais qui sans espoir se délivre. They were also portrayed as at odds with society, having tragic lives and these traits were not hindrances but consequences of their literary gifts. Schopenhauers aesthetics represented shared concerns with the symbolist programme, they tended to consider Art as a contemplative refuge from the world of strife and will
30.
Bengali poetry
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Bengali poetry is a form that originated in Pāli and other Prakrit socio-cultural traditions. It is antagonistic towards Vedic rituals and laws as opposed to the shramanic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism, however the modern Bengali owes much to Sanskrit. The history of Bengali poetry underwent three successive stages of development, poetry of the age, the Medieval period and the age of modern poetry. Modernity was introduced into Bengali poetry in the 1930s, Bengali poetry probably began during the 10th century. It is known for the mystic poems called Charyacharyavinishchaya, and sometimes called Charyapad or Charyagiti and these poems were discovered in Nepals Royal Library by Bengali scholar Mahamahopadhyay Haraprasad Shastri. Krittibas Ojha Kashiram Das The Medieval period of Bengali poetry was between 1350 and 1800 and it was known as the period of Jayadeva, the renowned 12th-century poet from neighboring Odisha who was famous for his poem Gitagovinda. Other noted poets from this period include 13th century Vidyapati, known for his lyrics and Baḍu, Chandidas. Sri Krishna Kirtan is considered to be the most important philosophical, the period from 1500 to 1800 is known as the Late Middle Bengali Period. During this period, there was an influence of Chaitanya. Vaishnava poets include Govinddas and Gyandas, beside Vaishnava poetry, the most significant work of the 16th century was Mukunda Chakravartis Chandimangal. Other Mangal-Kāvyas or religious texts are Manasamangal, Dharmamangal and Phullaketu, two of Bengals most well known Muslim poets, Daulat Qazi and Alaol, lived in the 15th century in Myanmar. Bharat Chandra marks the transition between Precolonial theocentric poetry and modern poetry, iswar Gupta, Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Biharilal Chakravarti, Rabindranath Tagore are noteworthy poets of this period. It was a movement that brought permanent change to the structure. Kazi Nazrul Islam first built the foundation of modern Bengali poetry by introducing modern concept of revolt against all autocracy, hypocrisy, superstition, one notable sect of modernists included pro-socialism poets like Sukanta Bhattacharya and Samar Sen. Modern Bengali poetry has also witnessed feminist intellect Kabita Singha, mallika Sengupta, Krishna Basu and Sriparna Bandyopadhyay being some of the most prominent names
31.
Rabindranath Tagore
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Author of Gitanjali and its profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse, he became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. Sometimes referred to as the Bard of Bengal, Tagores poetic songs were viewed as spiritual and mercurial, however, his elegant prose, a Pirali Brahmin from Calcutta with ancestral gentry roots in Jessore, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old. At the age of sixteen, he released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha, by 1877 he graduated to his first short stories and dramas, published under his real name. As a humanist, universalist internationalist, and ardent anti-nationalist, he denounced the British Raj, Tagore modernised Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms and resisting linguistic strictures. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to topics political and personal, Gitanjali, Gora and Ghare-Baire are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed—or panned—for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and unnatural contemplation. His compositions were chosen by two nations as national anthems, Indias Jana Gana Mana and Bangladeshs Amar Shonar Bangla, the Sri Lankan national anthem was inspired by his work. The youngest of thirteen surviving children, Tagore was born on 7 May 1861 in the Jorasanko mansion in Calcutta to Debendranath Tagore, Tagore was raised mostly by servants, his mother had died in his early childhood and his father travelled widely. The Tagore family was at the forefront of the Bengal renaissance and they hosted the publication of literary magazines, theatre and recitals of Bengali and Western classical music featured there regularly. Tagores father invited several professional Dhrupad musicians to stay in the house, Tagores oldest brother Dwijendranath was a philosopher and poet. Another brother, Satyendranath, was the first Indian appointed to the elite, yet another brother, Jyotirindranath, was a musician, composer, and playwright. His sister Swarnakumari became a novelist, jyotirindranaths wife Kadambari Devi, slightly older than Tagore, was a dear friend and powerful influence. Her abrupt suicide in 1884, soon after he married, left him for years profoundly distraught, Tagore largely avoided classroom schooling and preferred to roam the manor or nearby Bolpur and Panihati, idylls which the family visited. His brother Hemendranath tutored and physically conditioned him—by having him swim the Ganges or trek through hills, by gymnastics and he learned drawing, anatomy, geography and history, literature, mathematics, Sanskrit, and English—his least favourite subject. Tagore loathed formal education—his scholarly travails at the local Presidency College spanned a single day, there Tagore read biographies, studied history, astronomy, modern science, and Sanskrit, and examined the classical poetry of Kālidāsa. Tagore returned to Jorosanko and completed a set of works by 1877. As a joke, he claimed that these were the lost works of a newly discovered 17th-century Vaiṣṇava poet Bhānusiṃha, regional experts accepted them as the lost works of Bhānusiṃha. He debuted in the genre in Bengali with Bhikharini. Published in the year, Sandhya Sangit includes the poem Nirjharer Swapnabhanga
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Varieties of Chinese
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Chinese, also known as Sinitic, is a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family consisting of hundreds of local language varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible. The differences are similar to those within the Romance languages, with particularly strong in the more rugged southeast. These varieties, often called dialects, have been classified into seven to ten groups, the largest being Mandarin, Wu, Min, Chinese varieties differ most in their phonology, and to a lesser extent in vocabulary and syntax. Southern varieties tend to have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, all have phonemic tones, with northern varieties tending to have fewer distinctions than southern ones. Many have tone sandhi, with the most complex patterns in the area from Zhejiang to eastern Guangdong. Standard Chinese takes its phonology from the Beijing dialect, with vocabulary from the Mandarin group and it is the sole official language of both China and Taiwan, one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, a form of Chinese was spoken in an area around the lower Wei River. From there it expanded eastwards across the North China Plain to Shandong and then south into the valley of the Yangtze River, as the language spread, it replaced formerly dominant languages in those areas, and regional differences grew. Simultaneously, especially in periods of unity, there was a tendency to promote a central standard to facilitate communication between people from different regions. The first evidence of variation is found in texts from the Spring. At that time, the Zhou royal domain, though no longer politically powerful, the Fangyan is devoted to differences in vocabulary between regions. Commentaries from the Eastern Han period contain much discussion of local variations in pronunciation, the Qieyun rhyme book noted wide variation in pronunciation between regions, and set out to define a standard pronunciation for reading the classics. This standard, known as Middle Chinese, is believed to be a based on the reading traditions of northern and southern capitals. The North China Plain provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over an area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese languages, with great internal diversity, until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local language. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the using a common language based on Mandarin varieties. Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, in the early years of the Republic of China, Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s a standard language was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect
33.
Stinson Detroiter
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The Stinson Detroiter was a six-seat cabin airliner for passengers or freight designed and built by the Stinson Aircraft Syndicate, later the Stinson Aircraft Corporation. Two distinct designs used the Detroiter name, a biplane and a monoplane, the Harley Davidson brakes were demonstrated on a snowy maiden flight requiring wheel chains to be added to prevent skidding. This aircraft was developed into the six-seat Stinson SM-1D Detroiter. The aircraft was soon a success and it enabled Stinson to get $150,000 in public capital to incorporate the Stinson Aircraft Corporation on 4 May 1926, seventy-five of the Wright J-5 powered versions were built, followed by 30 Wright J-6 powered aircraft. From 1928, SM-1 aircraft were used on scheduled services by Paul Braniffs Braniff Air Lines, in 1930 a SM-1FS with a crew of three reached Bermuda from New York City, the first flight ever to the islands. Getting there the aircraft had to twice, once because of darkness. With a wing strut damaged, it was shipped back to New York, in 1928 Stinson developed the smaller SM-2 Junior model to appeal to private owners. SB-1 Detroiter Original biplane version with a 220hp Wright J-5 Whirlwind engine, prototype sold to Horace Elgin Dodge, first production model sold to John Duval Dodge of Dodgeson. SM-1D High-wing monoplane version with a 220hp Wright J-5 Whirlwind engine, sM-1DA As SM-1D with detailed improvements. SM-1DB As SM-1D with minor improvements SM-1DC As SM-1D with detailed improvements, sM-1DD Freighter variant with two seats and cargo-carrying interior, one built. SM-1DE Freighter variant with two seats and cargo-carrying interior, one built, SM-1F Variant from 1929 with a 300hp Wright J-6 engine. SM-1D300 SM-1Ds modified with a 300hp Wright J-6 engine, SM-1FS Floatplane variant of the SM-1F. SM-6B A larger capacity six-seat variant with a 450hp Pratt & Whitney Wasp C1 radial engine, two were built followed by eight more with eight-seat interiors
34.
Nanjing
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Nanjing has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having served as the capitals of various Chinese dynasties, kingdoms and republican governments dating from the 3rd century CE to 1949. When being the capital of a state, for instance, the ROC, Nanjing is particularly known as Jinling or Ginling and the old name has been used since the Warring States period in Zhou Dynasty. Located in Yangtze River Delta area and the center of east China and it has also been awarded the title of 2008 Habitat Scroll of Honour of China, Special UN Habitat Scroll of Honour Award and National Civilized City. Nanjing boasts many high-quality universities and research institutes, with the number of universities listed in 100 National Key Universities ranking third, the ratio of college students to total population ranks No.1 among large cities nationwide. Nanjing is one of the three Chinese top research centers according to Nature Index, Key cultural facilities include Nanjing Library, Nanjing Museum and Art Museum. Archaeological discovery shows that Nanjing Man lived in more than 500 thousand years ago, zun, a kind of wine vessel, was found to exist in Beiyinyangying culture of Nanjing in about 5000 years ago. According to a legend quoted by an artist in Ming dynasty, Chen Yi, Fuchai, King of the State of Wu, later in 473 BCE, the State of Yue conquered Wu and constructed the fort of Yuecheng on the outskirts of the present-day Zhonghua Gate. In 333 BCE, after eliminating the State of Yue, the State of Chu built Jinling Yi in the part of present-day Nanjing. It was renamed Moling during reign of Qin Shi Huang, since then, the city experienced destruction and renewal many times. Nanjing was later the city of Danyang Prefecture, and had been the capital city of Yangzhou for about 400 years from late Han to early Tang. This city would soon play a role in the following centuries. Shortly after the unification of the region, the Western Jin dynasty collapsed, First the rebellions by eight Jin princes for the throne and later rebellions and invasion from Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples that destroyed the rule of the Jin dynasty in the north. Its the first time that the capital of the moved to southern part. During the period of North–South division, Nanjing remained the capital of the Southern dynasties for more than two and a half centuries, during this time, Nanjing was the international hub of East Asia. Based on historical documents, the city had 280,000 registered households, assuming an average Nanjing household had about 5.1 people at that time, the city had more than 1.4 million residents. As the old capital of China, many legendary stories happened here, residents in Nanjing all have the warmest affection for this city. Throughout glory and darkness in past centuries, Nanjing becomes a low-key city, GDP growth rate significantly exceeds the average rate in China for decades, which also maintain a fast developing model. Possibly the best preserved of them is the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu, the period of division ended when the Sui Dynasty reunified China and almost destroyed the entire city, turning it into a small town
35.
Beijing
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Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the worlds third most populous city proper. It is also one of the worlds most populous capital cities, the city, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by population after Shanghai and is the nations political, cultural. It is home to the headquarters of most of Chinas largest state-owned companies, and is a hub for the national highway, expressway, railway. The citys history dates back three millennia, as the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political centre of the country for much of the past eight centuries. Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A. D, the city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Its art treasures and universities have made it centre of culture, encyclopædia Britannica notes that few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China. Siheyuans, the traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, many of Beijings 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China, of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities in the world. Beijings Zhongguancun area is known as Chinas Silicon Valley and Chinas center of innovation. According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey, Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory Personal Finance Index, expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east, or in suburban districts such as Shunyi. Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had other names. The name Beijing, which means Northern Capital, was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming Dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing, the English spelling is based on the pinyin romanisation of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng, the single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is BJ, the earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. Homo erectus fossils from the date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, the first walled city in Beijing was Ji, a city from the 11th to 7th century BC
36.
Punt (boat)
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This article concentrates on the history and development of punts and punting in England, for other usages see Norfolk punt and the general disambiguation pages at punt and punter. A punt is a boat with a square-cut bow, designed for use in small rivers or other shallow water. Punting refers to boating in a punt, the punter generally propels the punt by pushing against the river bed with a pole. A punt should not be confused with a gondola, a shallow draft vessel that is different. Punts were originally built as boats or platforms for fowling and angling. The term punt has also used to indicate a smaller version of a regional type of long shore working boat. This derives from the usage in coastal communities of the name punt for any small clinker-built open-stem general purpose boat. In Canada, the punt can also refer to any small flat-bottomed boat with a square-cut bow, regardless of purpose, building material. In Australia, cable ferries are commonly referred to as punts, a traditional river punt differs from many other types of wooden boat in that it has no keel, stem, or sternpost. Instead, it is rather like a ladder with the main structure being two side panels connected by a series of 4 in cross planks, known as treads. The first punts are traditionally associated with the River Thames in England and were built as cargo boats or platforms for fishermen. Pleasure punts – specifically built for recreation – became popular on the Thames between 1860 and 1880, since a punt has no keel, it draws only a few inches even when fully laden, this makes it very manoeuvrable and suitable for shallow water. A punt can be punted with equal facility in either direction, the square-cut bow gives greater carrying capacity for a given length than a boat of the same beam with a narrow or pointed bow, it also makes the boat very stable, and suitable for passengers. Punts are still made in England to supply the tourist trade in Oxford, the construction material of choice for most punts is wood. Fibreglass is used for very light and narrow racing punts. The sides, the ends, and the till are normally made of such as mahogany. The treads are made from teak. The bottom is made of softwood and may be replaced several times during the life of a particular boat, a traditional punt is about 24 feet long and 3 feet wide
37.
Lin Huiyin
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Lin Huiyin was a noted 20th-century Chinese architect and writer. Liang and Lin began restoration work on heritage sites of China in the post-imperial Republican Era of China. The American artist Maya Lin is her niece, Lin was born in Hangzhou though her family was from Minhou, Fujian. She was the daughter of Lin Changmin and He Xueyuan, in a time when women had limited access to formal education, Lin was able to receive a formal education due to being part of a wealthy family. Because of her familys affluence she was able to travel extensively with her father and she obtained her degrees both in England and the United States. Lin first studied in London where she attended St Marys College and it was there she became acquainted with the well known Chinese poet Xu Zhimo. Their relationship was a part of Lin Huiyins life and is referred to in romantic anecdotes. However, Lins works are highly regarded, Lin wrote free verse, novels and prose. Lins poems appeared in such as the Beijing Morning Post, Crescent Monthly, Poetry and the Dipper. In 1924, Lin and Liang Sicheng both enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania, where she worked as a part-time assistant in the architectural department. Although they both wanted to attend the School of Architecture, Lin was not admitted because she was a woman and she therefore enrolled in the School of Fine Arts. Later, she enrolled in stage design programs in Yale University as a graduate student, during her studies she pursued her passion for architecture by taking architectural classes. It was here that Lin along with Liang Sicheng, her husband whom she had known since childhood. In the wake of the September 18th Incident, Lin left for Beijing, upon her return, she helped to establish the Architectural Department in Northeastern University in Shenyang, where she then taught architecture briefly. Meanwhile, in 1928, she designed a station in Jilin. This was one of the few buildings Lin designed, throughout the 1930s, Lin and her husband lived in Beiping, as Beijing was then called, near both of their families. Close friends at the time were the Americans Wilma and John K, in 1937, she discovered the main hall of Foguang Temple near Doucun, Shanxi. The hall was the only remaining Tang dynasty timber structure known at the time and it was in Lizhuang where the bedridden Lin Huiyin, suffering from tuberculosis, was told of her younger brothers martyrdom while serving as a combat aviator in the air force in defense of Chengdu
38.
Carsun Chang
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Zhang Junmai, also known by his courtesy name Carsun Chang, was a prominent Chinese philosopher, public intellectual and political figure. Zhang Junmai was a democratic politician. A pioneering theorist of human rights in the Chinese context, Zhang established his own small Third Force democratic party during the Nationalist era, Zhang supported German-style social democracy while opposing capitalism, communism, and guild socialism. He supported socialization of major industries such as railroads and mines to be run by a combination of government officials, technicians, the development of a mixed economy in China, like that advocated by the Social Democratic Party of Germany under Philipp Scheidemann. In 1918 he accompanied Liang’s tour of post-war Europe, later going to Germany to study philosophy for a time at Berlin University. While in Germany he came under the influence of the teachings of Rudolf Eucken, with Hans Driesch, who was formerly Euckens student, Zhang travelled throughout China in the early 1920s, serving as Drieschs Chinese translator as he lectured on Euckens philosophical vision. Appointed a professor of philosophy at Beijing University, he instigated polemics over science, with Zhang Dongsun, he organized a National Socialist Party. In 1933 he and Huang Yanpei organized the China Democratic League, the political scientist Qian Duansheng criticized Zhang as neither an organizer himself nor a man able to pick capable men to organize for him. John Melby, an American diplomat who knew Zhang during the war, felt that Zhang was as unrealistic as his brother, as a scholar, Melby conceded, Zhang was highly intelligent and well educated, but as a politician he was utopian and ineffectual. After the war against Japan, Zhang became the chairman of the China Democratic Socialist Party, opposed to the Chinese communists, but also dissatisfied with Chiang Kai-sheks noncompliance with the constitution, Zhang Junmai went to the United States after 1949. Zhang Junmai reappeared in 1962 calling for the unity of the party, Zhang Junmai was the older brother of the prominent banker and politician Chang Kia-ngau. His sister, Zhang Youyi, was an educator, banker, johns University Press,1962 --, The Third Force in China -- et al. A Manifesto on the Reappraisal of Chinese Culture, Our Joint Understanding of the Sinological Study Relating to World Cultural Outlook,1958 Roger B. Democracy and Socialism in Republican China, The Politics of Zhang Junmai, 1906–1941, Lanham and Oxford, Rowman & Littlefield,1997 Fung, in Search of Chinese Democracy, Civil Opposition in Nationalist China, 1929-1949. Cambridge, New York, Cambridge University Press, xinzhong Yao, ed. RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism. London and New York, RoutledgeCurzon,2003, Vol.2, Zhang Junmai, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
39.
Liang Sicheng
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Liang Sicheng was a Chinese architect and scholar, often known as the father of modern Chinese architecture. His father, Liang Qichao, was one of the most prominent Chinese scholars of the early 20th century and his wife was the architect and poet Lin Huiyin. His younger brother, Liang Siyong, was one of Chinas first archaeologists, Liang authored the first modern history on Chinese architecture, and he was the founder of the Architecture Department of Northeastern University in 1928 and Tsinghua University in 1946. He was the Chinese representative of the Design Board which designed the United Nations headquarters in New York City. He is recognized as the “Father of Modern Chinese Architecture”. ”Liang Sicheng was born on 20 April 1901 in Tokyo, Japan, foreign powers soon divided China into spheres of influence, while the weak and corrupt Qing Dynasty could do little to stop them. In 1898 the Guangxu Emperor, led by his circle of advisers, attempted to introduce reforms to stem the decay. Liang Qichao, a well-educated and energetic man, was a leader of this movement, however, in the face of opposition from conservatives in the Qing court, the movement failed. The Empress Dowager Cixi, the adoptive mother and the power behind the throne, imprisoned the emperor. Liang Qichao took refuge in Japan, where his eldest son was born, after the Qing Dynasty was overthrown in 1911, Liang Qichao, Liang Sichengs father, returned to China from his exile in Japan. He briefly served in the government of the newly established Republic, Liang Qichao quit his government post and initiated a social and literary movement to introduce modern, Western thought to Chinese society. Liang Sicheng was educated by his father in this progressive environment, in 1915, Liang entered Tsinghua College, a preparatory school in Beijing. In 1924, he and Lin went to University of Pennsylvania funded by Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholarship to study architecture under Paul Cret, three years later, Liang received his masters degree in architecture. He greatly benefited from his education in America, which prepared him for his future career as a scholar. In 1928, Liang married Lin Huiyin, who was a renowned scholar in modern China. She was recognized as an artist, architect and poet, admired by and friend with famous scholars of her time, such as poet Xu Zhimo, philosopher Jin Yuelin. When the couple went back in 1928, they were invited by the Northeastern University in Shenyang, at that time Shenyang was under the control of Japanese troops, which was a big challenge to perform any professional practice. They went anyway, established the second School of Architecture in China and their effort was interrupted by Japan’s occupation in the following year, but after 18 years, in 1946, the Liangs were again able to practice their professorship in Tsinghua University in Beijing. This time a systematic and all-around curriculum was discreetly put forward, consisted of courses of fine arts, theory, history, science
40.
Pearl S. Buck
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Pearl Sydenstricker Buck was an American writer and novelist. As the daughter of missionaries, Buck spent most of her life before 1934 in Zhenjiang and her novel The Good Earth was the best-selling fiction book in the United States in 1931 and 1932 and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1932. In 1938, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for her rich and truly epic descriptions of peasant life in China and she was the first American woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature. Originally named Comfort by her parents, Pearl Sydenstricker was born in Hillsboro, West Virginia, to Caroline Stulting and her parents, Southern Presbyterian missionaries, traveled to China soon after their marriage on July 8,1880, but returned to the United States for Pearls birth. When Pearl was five months old, the arrived in China, first in Huaian and then in 1896 moved to Zhenjiang. The Boxer Uprising greatly affected the family, their Chinese friends deserted them and her father, convinced that no Chinese could wish him harm, stayed behind as the rest of the family went to Shanghai for safety. A few years later, Pearl was enrolled in Miss Jewells School there and she also read voraciously, especially, in spite of her fathers disapproval, the novels of Charles Dickens, which she later said she read through once a year for the rest of her life. In 1911, Pearl left China to attend Randolph-Macon Womans College in Lynchburg, Virginia, in the United States, graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1914 and a member of Kappa Delta Sorority. Although she had not intended to return to China, much less become a missionary, from 1914 to 1932, she served as a Presbyterian missionary, but her views later became highly controversial during the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy, leading to her resignation. In 1914, Pearl returned to China and she married an agricultural economist missionary, John Lossing Buck, on May 13,1917, and they moved to Suzhou, Anhui Province, a small town on the Huai River. This region she describes in her books The Good Earth and Sons, from 1920 to 1933, the Bucks made their home in Nanjing, on the campus of the University of Nanking, where they both had teaching positions. She taught English literature at the private, church-run University of Nanking, Ginling College, in 1920, the Bucks had a daughter, Carol, afflicted with phenylketonuria. In 1921, Bucks mother died of a disease, sprue. In 1924, they left China for John Bucks year of sabbatical and returned to the United States for a short time, in 1925, the Bucks adopted Janice. That autumn, they returned to China, the tragedies and dislocations that Buck suffered in the 1920s reached a climax in March 1927, during the Nanking Incident. In a confused battle involving elements of Chiang Kai-sheks Nationalist troops, Communist forces, since her father Absalom insisted, as he had in 1900 in the face of the Boxers, the family decided to stay in Nanjing until the battle reached the city. When violence broke out, a poor Chinese family invited them to hide in their hut while the house was looted. The family spent a day terrified and in hiding, after which they were rescued by American gunboats and they traveled to Shanghai and then sailed to Japan, where they stayed for a year, after which they moved back to Nanjing
41.
Agnes Smedley
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During World War I, she worked in the United States for the independence of India from the United Kingdom, receiving financial support from the government of Germany. Subsequently, she went to China, where she is suspected of acting as a spy for the Comintern, as the lover of Soviet super spy Richard Sorge in Shanghai in the early 1930s, she helped get him established for his final and greatest work as spymaster in Tokyo. She also worked on behalf of causes including womens rights, birth control. Agnes Smedley was born in Osgood, Missouri, on Feb 23,1892, in 1901, at the age of nine, she and her family moved to Trinidad, Colorado, where she witnessed many of the events in the 1903–04 coal miners strike. Her father worked for several of the companies in Colorado. At the age of 17, Smedley took the county teachers examination and she returned home when her mother, Sarah, became ill. Later that year, with the help of an aunt, Smedley enrolled in a school in Greeley, Colorado. Suffering from physical and emotional stress in 1911, Smedley checked into a sanatorium, a family friend in Arizona offered her a place to stay after she was discharged, and from 1911 to 1912 Smedley enrolled in Tempe Normal School. She published her first writings as editor and contributor to the school paper, at Tempe, she became friends with a woman named Thorberg Brundin and her brother Ernest Brundin. Both Brundins were members of the Socialist Party of America and gave Smedley her first exposure to socialist ideas, when the Brundins left Tempe for San Francisco, they invited Smedley to come stay with them, and in August 1912 Smedley married Ernest. The marriage did not last, however, by 1916, Smedley and her husband divorced and at the beginning of 1917, during her stay with them, Smedley came to know a number of Brundins acquaintances, including feminist Henrietta Rodman and birth control activist Margaret Sanger. During this same time, Smedley also became involved with a number of Bengali Indian revolutionaries working in the United States, including M. N. Roy and Sailendranath Ghose. The cooperation between the revolutionaries and Germany became known as the Hindu-German Conspiracy, and the United States government soon took action against the Indians, most of these activities continued to be funded by Germany. Both American and British military intelligence soon became interested in Smedleys activities, to avoid surveillance, Smedley changed addresses frequently, moving ten times in the period from May 1917 to March 1918, according to biographer Ruth Price. In March 1918, Smedley was finally arrested by the U. S. Naval Intelligence Bureau, Smedley spent the next year and a half fighting the indictments, the New York indictment was dismissed in late 1918, and the government dropped the San Francisco charges in November 1919. Smedley continued working for the year on behalf of the Indians who had been indicted in the Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial. She then moved to Germany, where she met an Indian communist, Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, in 1928, she finished her autobiographical novel Daughter of Earth. She then left Chattopadhyaya and moved to Shanghai, initially as a correspondent for a liberal German newspaper, Daughter of Earth was published in 1929 to general acclaim
42.
Chunghwa Post
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The Chunghwa Post Co. Ltd. is the official postal service of Taiwan or officially the Republic of China. It also provides a savings account service, Chunghwa Post was a government organization of Ministry of Transportation and Communications until 2003, when it was reorganized into a government-owned corporation. Chinese Taipei is a member of Fédération Internationale de Philatélie and Inter-Asian Philatelic Federation, Chunghwa Post delivers standard letters, registered mail, parcels, and express mail through the Taiwan Area. There are twenty-three large offices throughout the country which supervises some 1,300 smaller post offices, on 20 March 1896, the Customs Post Office became the Great Qing Post, which in 1911 became independent of the customs service. On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, the Great Qing Post changed its name to the Chunghwa Post Chunghwa is a transliteration of one of the names of China, which connotes the multi-ethnic nation under a unified culture of China. Alternatively spelled Zhonghua, this term is part of the Chinese language name of both the Republic of China and the Peoples Republic of China, in 1888, Liu Mingchuan, Qing Governor of Taiwan Province, established the Taiwan General Post Office of the Great Qing Postal service. However, in 1895, Taiwan was ceded to Japan following the first Sino-Japanese war, Taiwan was taken over by the Republic of China in 1945. In 1946, the Republic of China government incorporated the postal service in Taiwan into Chunghwa Post, in 1949, the Republic of China lost control of much of mainland China to the Peoples Republic of China. Media reports noted that Taiwan Post was more consistent with the name Governor Liu Ming-chuan used when he founded the Taiwan Post Administration in 1888, furthermore, Taiwan Post began printing Taiwan instead of Republic of China on postage stamps. On February 9, the board of directors resolved to change the name of the corporation to Taiwan Post Co. after a delay of several hours due to protests from unions, however, a bill to recognise the change of law was blocked by the KMT-dominated legislature. As a result, the law mandated the postal monopoly for Chunghwa Post despite the name change. In 2008, the Kuomintang took power in Taiwan following an election victory. Following his election, Ma Ying-jeou publicly stated that he did not wish his inauguration commemoration stamps to be marked Taiwan Post, the postal service marked the inauguration stamps with Chinese characters for the Republic of China, as well as Republic of China in English. On 1 August 2008, the company resolved to reverse the name change, Chunghwa Postal Museum Chinese Petroleum Corporation China Post List of postal services abroad Official website
