1.
National Science Foundation
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The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health, with an annual budget of about US$7.0 billion, the NSF funds approximately 24% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the current NSF director, confirmed in March 2014, is astronomer France A. Córdova, former president of Purdue University. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, the NSF also makes some contracts. Some proposals are solicited, and some are not, the NSF funds both kinds, the NSF does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being the NASA and the National Institutes of Health. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year and those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a merit review process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers, all proposal evaluations are confidential, the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. However, both already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act. The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for research centers, instruments. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the community as a whole. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering, Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. K-12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs, the NSFs workforce numbers about 1,700, nearly all working at its Arlington headquarters. In June 2013 it was announced that the NSF would relocate its headquarters to Alexandria, Virginia in 2017. S, examples include initiatives in, Nanotechnology The science of learning Digital libraries The ecology of infectious diseases The NSF was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is To promote the progress of science, to advance the health, prosperity, and welfare. Some historians of science have argued that the result was a compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government. The NSF was certainly not the government agency for the funding of basic science. By 1950, support for areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health
2.
Yamal Peninsula
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The Yamal Peninsula is located in the Yamal-Nenets autonomous district of northwest Siberia, Russia. It extends roughly 700 km and is bordered principally by the Kara Sea, Baydaratskaya Bay on the west, in the language of its indigenous inhabitants, the Nenets, Yamal means End of the Land. The peninsula consists mostly of permafrost ground and is geologically a very young place —some areas are less than ten years old. Yamal is inhabited by a multitude of bird species. The well-preserved remains of Lyuba, a 37, 000-year-old mammoth calf, were found by a reindeer herder on the peninsula in the summer of 2007, the animal was female and was determined to be one month old at the time of death. In 2016 a Russian Mi-8 helicopter carrying oil and gas workers crashed here, according to Sven Haakanson, within the Russian Federation, the Yamal peninsula is the place where traditional large-scale nomadic reindeer husbandry is best preserved. Nenets and Khanty reindeer herders hold about half a million domestic reindeer, the area is largely undeveloped, but work is ongoing with several large infrastructure projects including a gas pipeline, and several bridges. Yamal holds Russias biggest natural gas reserves, the 572 km Obskaya–Bovanenkovo railway, completed in 2011, is the northernmost railway in the world. Russian gas monopolist Gazprom had planned to develop the Yurkharovskoye gas field by 2011–2012, an estimate of the gas reserves here is 55 trillion cubic meters. Russias largest energy project in history, known as the Yamal project, in 2014, Yamal was the discovery site of a distinct sinkhole, or pingo, which quickly drew the attention of world media. A spokesperson for the Yamal branch of the Emergencies Ministry said, tests conducted by Plekhanovs team showed unusually high concentrations of methane near the bottom of the sinkhole. The destabilization of gas hydrates containing huge amounts of gas are believed to have caused the craters on the Yamal Peninsula. As of 2015, the Yamal peninsula had at least five similar craters, according to a CAGE researcher, Aleksei Portnov, The permafrost is thawing from two sides. He interior of the Earth is warm and is warming the permafrost from the bottom up and it is called geothermal heat flux and it is happening all the time, regardless of human influence. Methane is leaking in an area of at least 7500 m2, in some areas gas flares extend up to 25 m. Prior to their research it was proposed that methane was tightly sealed into the permafrost by water depths up to 100 m, close to the shore however, where the permafrost seal tapers to a depth of as little as 20 m, there are significant amounts of gas leakage. Yamal cuisine Gyda Peninsula Ялмал, статья ЭСБЕ Статья БСЭGreat Soviet Encyclopedia Yamal Culture Article on Nenets culture, religion and history
3.
FSUE Atomflot
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FSUE Atomflot or Rosatomflot is a Russian company and service base that maintains the worlds only fleet of nuclear-powered icebreakers. It is located two kilometres from the city of Murmansk, the company employs between 1000-2000 people. It has a ship to transport waste, and another to monitor radiation. It houses a museum ship, the N. S
4.
Murmansk
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The city is named for the Murman Coast, Murman is itself an older Russian term for Norwegians. Although Murmansks population is in decline—299,148,307, 257 ,336, 137 ,468, Murmansk was the last city founded in the Russian Empire. On June 29,1916, Russian Transport Minister Alexander Trepov petitioned to grant urban status to the railway settlement, on July 6,1916, the petition was approved and the town was named Romanov-on-Murman, after the imperial Russian dynasty of Romanovs. On September 21,1916, the ceremony was performed. After the February Revolution of 1917, on April 3,1917, in the winter of 1917 the British North Russia Squadron under Rear Admiral Thomas Kemp was established at Murmansk. From 1918 to 1920, during the Russian Civil War, the town was occupied by the Western powers, who had allied in World War I. On February 13,1926, local self-government was organized in Murmansk for the first time, during a session of the Murmansk City Soviet. Prior to this, the city was governed by the authorities of Alexandrovsky Uyezd, while this plan was not confirmed by the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee, in 1935–1937 several rural localities of Kolsky and Polyarny Districts were merged into Murmansk anyway. According to the Presidium of the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee resolution of February 26,1935, however, the provisions of the resolution were not fully implemented, and due to military construction in Polyarnoye, the administrative center was instead moved to Murmansk in the beginning of 1935. In addition to being the center of Murmansk Okrug, Murmansk also continued to serve as the administrative center of Polyarny District until September 11,1938. This status was retained when Murmansk Okrug was transformed into Murmansk Oblast on May 28,1938, the supplies were brought to the city in the Arctic convoys. For the rest of the war, Murmansk served as a point for weapons. This unyielding, stoic resistance was commemorated at the 40th anniversary of the victory over the Germans in the designation of Murmansk as a Hero City on May 6,1985. During the Cold War Murmansk was a center of Soviet submarine, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the nearby city and naval base of Severomorsk remains the headquarters of the Russian Northern Fleet. In 1974, a massive 35. 5-meter tall statue Alyosha, in 1984, the Hotel Arctic, now known as Azimut Hotel Murmansk, opened and became the tallest building above the Arctic Circle. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Murmansk—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Murmansk is incorporated as Murmansk Urban Okrug and they were abolished on June 2,1948. The same city districts were created for the time on June 23,1951
5.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
6.
Baltic Shipyard
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The Baltic Shipyard is one of the oldest shipyards in Russia. It is located in Saint Petersburg in the part of Vasilievsky Island. It is one of the three active in Saint Petersburg. Together with the Admiralty Shipyard it has been responsible for building a part of Imperial Russian battleships as well as Soviet nuclear-powered icebreakers. Currently it is specializing in merchant ships while the Admiralty yard specializes in diesel-electric submarines, part of United Shipbuilding Corporation The shipyard was founded in 1856 by the St. Petersburg merchant M. Carr and the Scotsman M. L. MacPherson. It subsequently became the Carr and MacPherson yard, in 1864 it built two monitors of the Uragan class. In 1874 the shipyard was sold to Prince Ochtomski, in 1934 the shipyard started work on the three prototypes for the S-class submarine, based on a German design produced by the Dutch company Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw. The Soviets renamed the shipyard Zavod 189 im, sergo Ordzhonikidze on 30 December 1936
7.
IMO number
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The International Maritime Organization number is a unique reference for ships and for registered ship owners and management companies. IMO numbers were introduced under the SOLAS Convention to improve safety and security. For ships, the IMO number remains linked to the hull for its lifetime, regardless of a change in name, flag, or owner. The ship number consists of the three letters IMO followed by a unique number assigned to sea-going merchant ships under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. In 1987 the IMO adopted Resolution A, in the SOLAS Convention cargo ships means ships which are not passenger ships. Passenger ships should carry the marking on a horizontal surface visible from the air. When introduced, the IMO adopted the existing unique ship numbers applied to ships listed by Lloyds Register since 1963, IMO ship identification numbers are assigned by IHS Fairplay. For new vessels the IMO number is assigned to a hull during construction, the IMO ship identification number is made of the three letters IMO followed by the seven-digit number. This consists of a six-digit sequential unique number followed by a check digit, the integrity of an IMO number can be verified using its check digit. This is done by multiplying each of the first six digits by a factor of 2 to 7 corresponding to their position from right to left, the rightmost digit of this sum is the check digit. For example, for IMO9074729, + + + + + =139, in May 2005, IMO adopted a new SOLAS regulation XI-1/3-1 on the mandatory company and registered owner identification number scheme, with entry into force on 1 January 2009. Like the IMO ship number, the identification number is a seven-digit number with the prefix IMO
8.
Arktika-class icebreaker
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The Arktika class is a Russian class of nuclear-powered icebreakers. Formerly known as Project 10520 nuclear-powered icebreaker, they were the largest and most powerful icebreakers until 2016, of the ten civilian nuclear-powered vessels built by Russia, six have been of this type. They are used for escorting merchant ships in the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia as well as for scientific, on July 3,1971, construction began on a conceptual design of a larger nuclear icebreaker, dubbed Arktika, in the Baltic Shipyard in then Leningrad. Four years later, on December 17,1975, Moscow, the newest and largest nuclear icebreaker at the time was ready for the Arctic. Arktika was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole, a new class of nuclear icebreakers, also called Arktika, was launched in 2016 in anticipation of decreasing ice and increased traffic. The Arktika is an icebreaker, the outer hull is 48 mm thick. At the strongest point, the cast steel prow is 50 cm thick and bow-shaped to aid in icebreaking, the maximum ice thickness it can break through is approximately 5 meters. Like many icebreakers, Arktika also has an Air Bubbling System which delivers 24 m3/s of steam from jets 9 m below the surface to aid in the breakup of ice. The ship is divided by eight bulkheads, providing nine watertight compartments in the event of disaster and it also comes equipped with a helicopter pad and hangar at the aft of the ship. Arktika and the entire Arktika-class icebreaker fleet are outfitted with two OK-900A reactors, which deliver 171 MW each, each reactor is contained in its own closed compartment and weighs 160 tonnes. They are shielded by water, steel, and high density concrete, the reactors were originally fueled by a 90% enriched, zirconium-clad, uranium fuel. Those reactors still in operation today now use a 20%-90% enriched with 60% average enrichment uranium dispersed in an aluminum matrix, the chain reaction can be stopped in 0.6 seconds by the full insertion of safety rods. Arktika consumes up to 200 grams of fuel a day when breaking ice, there are 500 kg of Uranium isotopes in each reactor, allowing for at least 13.7 years between changing reactor cores. The used cores are extracted and replaced in Murmansk, the spent fuel reprocessed, both the OK-150 and OK-900 are pressurized water reactors, meaning that cooling water is continually pumped under pressure through the reactor to remove heat, keeping the cores and the reactor cool. The heated water is pumped from the reactor to a boiler, each set of four boilers drives two steam turbines, which turn three dynamos. One kilovolt of direct current is delivered to three double-wound motors directly connected to the propeller, providing an average screw velocity of 120-180 rpm. Five auxiliary steam turbines are tied into the plant to provide electricity, three fixed-pitch propellers provide Arktika with its thrust, power, and maneuverability. The starboard and centerline propellers turn clockwise while the port turns counter clockwise to compensate
9.
Icebreaker
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An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice-covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although the term refers to ice-breaking ships, it may also refer to smaller vessels. For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack, a hull, an ice-clearing shape, and the power to push through sea ice. Icebreakers clear paths by pushing straight into ice pockets, the bending strength of sea ice is so low that usually the ice breaks without noticeable change in the vessels trim. In cases of very thick ice, an icebreaker can drive its bow onto the ice to break it under the weight of the ship, even in the earliest days of polar exploration, ice-strengthened ships were used. These were originally wooden and based on existing designs, but reinforced, particularly around the waterline with double planking to the hull, bands of iron were wrapped around the outside. Sometimes metal sheeting was placed at the bows, stern and along the keel, such strengthening was designed to help the ship push through ice and also to protect the ship in case it was nipped by the ice. Nipping occurs when ice floes around a ship are pushed against the ship, trapping it as if in a vise and this vise-like action is caused by the force of winds and tides on ice formations. Although such wind and tidal forces may be exerted many miles away, the first boats to be used in the polar waters were those of the indigenous Arctic people. Their kayaks are small human-powered boats with a deck, and one or more cockpits. Such boats, of course, have no icebreaking capabilities, but they are light, in the 9th and 10th centuries, the Viking expansion reached the North Atlantic, and eventually Greenland and Svalbard in the Arctic. Vikings, however, operated their ships in the waters that were ice-free for most of the year, in the 11th century, in North-Russia started settling the coasts of the White Sea, named so for being ice-covered for over half of a year. The mixed ethnic group of the Karelians and the Russians in the North-Russia that lived on the shores of the Arctic Ocean became known as Pomors. Gradually they developed a type of small one- or two-mast wooden sailing ships, used for voyages in the ice conditions of the Arctic seas. These earliest icebreakers were called kochi, the kochs hull was protected by a belt of ice-floe resistant flush skin-planking along the variable water-line, and had a false keel for on-ice portage. If a koch became squeezed by the ice-fields, its rounded bodylines below the water-line would allow for the ship to be pushed up out of the water, in the 19th century, similar protective measures were adopted to modern steam-powered icebreakers. Fram is said to be the ship to have sailed farthest north and farthest south. An early ship designed to operate in icy conditions was a 51-metre wooden paddle steamer,1, that was built for the city of Philadelphia by Vandusen & Birelyn in 1837
10.
Nuclear reactor
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This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor, formerly known as a pile, is a device used to initiate. Nuclear reactors are used at power plants for electricity generation. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a fluid, which runs through steam turbines. These either drive a ships propellers or turn electrical generators, Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial use, some are run only for research. As of April 2014, the IAEA reports there are 435 nuclear power reactors in operation, when a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more nuclei, releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons. This is known as a chain reaction. To control such a chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe conditions, commonly-used moderators include regular water, solid graphite and heavy water. Some experimental types of reactor have used beryllium, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility, the reactor core generates heat in a number of ways, The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms. The reactor absorbs some of the rays produced during fission. Heat is produced by the decay of fission products and materials that have been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat-source will remain for some even after the reactor is shut down. A kilogram of uranium-235 converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally. A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water but sometimes a gas or a metal or molten salt — is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates
11.
Mil Mi-2
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The Mil Mi-2 is a small, lightly armored turbine-powered transport helicopter that could also provide close air support when armed with 57 mm rockets and a 23 mm cannon. The Mi-2 was produced exclusively in Poland, in the WSK PZL-Świdnik factory in Świdnik, the first production helicopter in the Soviet Union was the Mil Mi-1, modelled along the lines of the S-51 and Bristol Sycamore and flown by Mikhail Mils bureau in September 1948. During the 1950s it became evident, and confirmed by American and French development, S. P. Isotov developed the GTD-350 engine and Mil used two of these in the far superior Mi-2. The twin shaft-turbine engines used in the Mi-2 develop 40% more power than the Mi-1s piston engines, for half the engine weight. The Mi-2 fuselage was altered from its predecessor, with the engines mounted overhead. However, the dimensions remained similar. The Mil-built prototype first flew in the Soviet Union on 22 September 1961, the first Świdnik-built example flew on 4 November 1965. PZL-Świdnik produced a total of 5,497 helicopters, about a third for military users, the factory also developed fiberglass rotor blades, and developed the wide-body Mi-2M seating 10 passengers instead of eight. Most typical kits include four stretchers for air ambulance usage, or aerospraying or cropdusting applications, the Mi-2 was first introduced into the Soviet Air Force in 1965. The Mi-2 is used by mainly former Soviet and Eastern Bloc countries, although it was purchased by Mexico. Most of the armed Mi-2 variants were used by Poland, some were also used by the former East Germany. North Korea still maintains an active fleet of Mi-2s. Mi-2A Mi-2B Upgraded export version for the Middle East, fitted with improved systems, mi-2Ch Chekla Chemical reconnaissance / smokescreen layer version. Mi-2D Przetacznik Aerial command post equipped with R-111 radio, mi-2P Passenger / cargo version, with accommodation for 6 passengers. Mi-2RM Sea rescue version equipped with winch for two people and dropped rafts. Mi-2Ro Reconnaissance version equipped with cameras, mi-2RS Padalec Chemical and biohazard reconnaissance version. Mi-2S Air ambulance version, equipped to carry four litters, plus an attendant, mi-2US Armed version fitted with a fixed 23mm NS-23 cannon,4 x 7, 62mm PKT machine gun pods and optional cabin PK machine gun. Mi-2URN Żmija Armed reconnaissance variant armed with a fixed 23mm NS-23 gun, optional 7, 62mm PK machine gun window-mounted
12.
Mil Mi-8
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The Mil Mi-8 is a medium twin-turbine helicopter, originally designed by the Soviet Union, and now produced by Russia. In addition to its most common role as a helicopter, the Mi-8 is also used as an airborne command post, armed gunship. Along with the related, more powerful Mil Mi-17, the Mi-8 is among the worlds most-produced helicopters, as of 2015, it is the third most common operational military aircraft in the world. Due to the position of the engine, this enabled Mikhail Mil to justify redesigning the front half of the aircraft around the single engine. The prototype, which was named V-8, was designed in 1958, powered by an AI-242,010 kW Soloviev turboshaft engine, the single engined V-8 prototype had its maiden flight in June 1961 and was first shown on Soviet Aviation Day parade in July 1961. During an official visit to the United States in September 1959, on Khrushchevs return, he ordered the creation of a similar helicopter, which was to be ready for the return visit by the American president, to save face. A luxury version of the Mi-4 was quickly created and Khrushchev took an inspection flight, however, it would be necessary to have a second engine for reliability. In May 1960, the order was given for Mikhail Mil to create his twin engine helicopter, the Sergei Isotov Design Bureau accepted the task of creating the engines. The second prototype flew in September 1961, the aircraft completed its factory based testing in February 1963. The fifth and final prototype was a production prototype for the passenger market. In November 1964, all joint testing had completed and the soviet government began mass production. Production started in the Kazan Production Plant, with the first aircraft completed by the end of 1965 and it was only then that the Soviet military rushed a troop-carrying variant of the Mil Mi-8 into production. By 1967, it had introduced into the Soviet Air Force as the Mi-8. There are numerous variants, including the Mi-8T, which, in addition to carrying 24 troops, is armed with rockets, the Mil Mi-17 export version is employed by around 20 countries, its equivalent in Russian service in the Mi-8M series. The only visible difference between the Mi-8 and Mi-17 is that the rotor is on the starboard side of the Mi-8. Also Mi-17 also has some improved armour plating for its crew, the naval Mil Mi-14 version is also derived from the Mi-8. The Mi-8 is constantly improving and the newest version still remains in production in 2016, the Mi-8 family of helicopters became the main Soviet and later Russian helicopter covering a large range of roles in both peace time and war time. Large fleets of Mi-8 and its derivatives are employed by military and civil operators
13.
Kamov Ka-27
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Variants include the Ka-29 assault transport, the Ka-28 downgraded export version, and the Ka-32 for civilian use. The helicopter was developed for ferrying and anti-submarine warfare, design work began in 1969 and the first prototype flew in 1973. It was intended to replace the decade-old Kamov Ka-25, and is similar in appearance to its due to the requirements of fitting in the same hangar space. Like other Kamov military helicopters it has coaxial rotors, removing the need for a tail rotor, Ka-32 variants, e. g. the Klimov-powered Ka-32A11BC, have been certified for commercial operations throughout the world, notably in Canada and Europe. A Russian Navy Ka-27 helicopter from the Russian Udaloy-class destroyer RS Severomorsk conducted interoperability deck landing training on board USS Mount Whitney on 22 July 2010, Ka-32A11BC multipurpose helicopters have been successfully operated in Portugal for over five years. In 2006, KAMOV JSC won the tender for the supply of Ka-32A11BC firefighting helicopters, to replace Aérospatiale SA-330 Pumas, the Ka-32A11BC features a high power-to-weight ratio and ease of handling, owing to its coaxial rotor design. The Ka-32A11BC may be equipped with the Bambi Bucket suspended fire-fighting system of up to five tons capacity, the service life has been extended to up to 32000 flight hours. Since the 1990s, China has purchased the Ka-28 export version, Ka-31 purchases were first revealed in 2010. It is believed that Chinese Ka-28s have been equipped with enhanced avionics compared to Ka-28s exported to other countries. In 2013, Russia tested the new Kamov Ka-27M with an electronically scanned array radar. The basis of the modernization of the Ka-27M is installed on the airborne radar with an active phased array antenna FH-A. This radar is part of the command and tactical system that combines several other systems, acoustic, magnetometric, signals intelligence. All the information on them is displayed on the display instrumentation, ka-32s are used for construction of transmission towers for overhead power lines, as it has somewhat higher lift capacity than the Vertol 107. In Canada, the Ka-32 is used for selective logging as it is able to lift selective species vertically, in August 2013, a Kamov Ka-32, C-GKHL operating in Bella Coola, Canada, experienced failure of one of its Klimov TV3-117BMA engines. Syrian Navy Ka-27s were used to bomb terrorist groups positions in Damascus during the ongoing Syrian War against terrorist groups, Ka-27PS Search and rescue helicopter, ASW equipment removed and winch fitted. Ka-27PV Armed version of the Ka-27PS, radar mounted under the fuselage and provides allround visibility in the search and detection of surface, air and ground targets. Serial upgrading to the level of combatant helicopters Ka-27M was planned to begin in 2014, until the end of 2016,46 Ka-27PLs planned to modernization, commissioned by the Russian Navy. The first 8 serial Ka-27M, transferred in December 2016, Ka-28 Export version of the Ka-27PL
14.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
15.
Nuclear-powered icebreaker
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A nuclear-powered icebreaker is a nuclear-powered ship purpose-built for use in waters covered with ice. The only country constructing nuclear-powered icebreakers is Russia, nuclear-powered icebreakers have been constructed by the USSR and later Russia primarily to aid shipping along the Northern Sea Route in the frozen Arctic waterways north of Siberia. During the winter, the ice along the Northern Sea Route varies in thickness from 1.2 to 2.0 metres, the ice in central parts of the Arctic Ocean is on average 2.5 metres thick. Nuclear-powered icebreakers can force through this ice at speeds up to 10 knots, in ice-free waters the maximum speed of the nuclear-powered icebreakers is as much as 21 knots. Other important ports include Dikson, Tiksi, and Pevek, of six Arktika-class icebreakers built in 1975–2007, four are currently in service. The icebreakers have also used for a number of scientific expeditions in the Arctic. On August 17,1977, Arktika was the first surface vessel in the world to reach the North Pole, since 1989, some icebreakers have been used for Arctic tourist cruises. In all, ten civilian nuclear-powered vessels have been built in the USSR, nine of these are icebreakers, and one is a container ship with an icebreaking bow. All six nuclear-powered icebreakers of the Arktika class have been built at the Baltic Shipyard in St. Petersburg, Vaigach and Taimyr were built at the Helsinki New Shipyard in Finland and then brought to Russia for installation of the reactors and turbogenerators. At its launch in 1957 the icebreaker NS Lenin was both the worlds first nuclear-powered surface ship and the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel, Lenin was put into ordinary operation in 1959. Lenin had two accidents, the first in 1965, and the second in 1967. The second accident resulted in one of the three OK-150 reactors being damaged beyond repair, all three reactors were removed, and replaced by two OK-900 reactors, the ship returned to service in 1970. The Lenin was taken out of operation in November 1989 and laid up at Atomflot, conversion to a museum ship was scheduled to be completed during 2005. Arktika class icebreakers are the bulk of the Russian nuclear icebreaker fleet, since they have been built over a period of thirty years, ships of different classes vary among one another, thus specifications are listed as a range of values. In general, the ships are larger, faster. There is water ballast between the inner and outer hulls which can be shifted to aid icebreaking, icebreaking is also assisted by an air bubbling system which can deliver 24 m³/s of air from jets 9 m below the surface. Some ships have polymer coated hulls to reduce friction, Arktika-class ships can break ice while making way either forwards or backwards. Although they have two reactors, normally only one is used to power, with the other being maintained in a standby mode
16.
Siberia
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Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century
17.
Keel laying
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Laying the keel or laying down is the formal recognition of the start of a ships construction. It is often marked with a ceremony attended by dignitaries from the shipbuilding company, keel laying is one of the four specially-celebrated events in the life of a ship, the others are launching, commissioning, and decommissioning. In earlier times, the event recognized as the keel laying was the placement of the central timber making up the backbone of a vessel. As steel ships replaced wooden ones, the central timber gave way to a steel beam. Modern ships are now built in a series of pre-fabricated. The event recognized as the keel laying is the first joining of modular components and it is now often called keel authentication, and is the ceremonial beginning of the ships life, although modules may have been started months before that stage of construction. Keel-related traditions from the times of wooden ships are said to bring luck to the ship during construction and to the captain, the first milestone in the history of a ship is the generally simple ceremony that marks the laying of the keel. Invitations to the ceremony are issued by officials, and the ceremony is conducted by them. The builder may be the commander of a shipyard or the president of a private company. The ships prospective name, without the USS, is mentioned in the invitation, if known, otherwise her type and number are given, e. g. DD2217
18.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
19.
Ceremonial ship launching
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Ceremonial ship launching is the process of transferring a vessel to the water. It is a tradition in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It has been observed as a celebration and a solemn blessing. The process also involves many traditions intended to invite good luck, such as christening by breaking a bottle of champagne over the bow as the ship is named aloud. There are three methods of conveying a new ship from building site to water, only two of which are called launching. The oldest, most familiar, and most widely used is the launch, in which the vessel slides down an inclined slipway. With the side launch, the ship enters the water broadside and this method came into use in the 19th-century on inland waters, rivers, and lakes, and was more widely adopted during World War II. The third method is float-out, used for ships that are built in basins or dry docks and then floated by admitting water into the dock. In all cases, heavy chains are attached to the ship, normally, ways are arranged perpendicular to the shore line and the ship is built with its stern facing the water. The barricades support the two launch ways, the vessel is built upon temporary cribbing that is arranged to give access to the hulls outer bottom and to allow the launchways to be erected under the complete hull. When it is time to prepare for launching, a pair of standing ways is erected under the hull, the surface of the ways is greased. A pair of sliding ways is placed on top, under the hull, the weight of the hull is then transferred from the build cribbing onto the launch cradle. On launching, the vessel slides backwards down the slipway on the ways until it floats by itself, some slipways are built so that the vessel is side-on to the water and is launched sideways. This is done where the limitations of the channel would not allow lengthwise launching. The Great Eastern designed by Brunel was built this way as were many landing craft during World War II and this method requires many more sets of ways to support the weight of the ship. Sometimes ships are launched using a series of inflated tubes underneath the hull and this procedure has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship and aid its launching motion into the water and these airbags are usually cylindrical in shape with hemispherical heads at both ends. The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20,1981, egyptians, Greeks, and Romans called on their gods to protect seamen
20.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
21.
Sea lane
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A sea lane, sea road or shipping lane is a regularly used route for vessels on oceans and large lakes. In the Age of Sail they were not only determined by the distribution of land masses but also the prevailing winds, Sea lanes are very important for trade by sea. Lieutenant M. F. Maury of the US Navy first published a section titled Steam Lanes Across the Atlantic in his 1855 Sailing Directions proposing sea lanes along the 42 degree latitude, shipping lanes came to be by analysing the prevailing winds. The trade winds allowed ships to sail towards the west quickly, as such, the sea lanes are mostly chosen to take full advantage of these winds. Currents are also followed as well, which also gives an advantage to the vessel. Some routes, such as that from Cape Town to Rio de Janeiro, main sea lanes may also attract pirates. Pax Britannica was the period from 1815–1914 during which the British Royal Navy controlled most of the key trade routes, and also suppressed piracy. During World War I, as German U-boats began hitting American and British shipping, although most ships no longer use sails, the wind still creates waves, and this can cause heeling. As such following the direction of the trade winds and westerlies is still very useful. However, any vessel that is not engaged in trading, or is smaller than a length, is best to avoid the lanes. Smaller ships can easily take courses that are nearer to the shore. Unlike with road traffic, there is no exact road a ship must follow, so this can easily be done. Shipping lanes are the busiest parts of the sea, thus being a place for stranded boaters whose boats are sinking or people on a liferaft to boat to. Although the shipping lanes are useful, they do pose threats to some people, small boats also do best to avoid the lanes, in risk of conflicts with bigger ships. As the shipping lanes are very large, sections of the lane exist which can be shallow or have some kind of obstruction, passing ships run the risk of being attacked and held for ransom. Age of sail Sea lines of communication Roadstead
22.
North Pole
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The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earths axis of rotation meets its surface. The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole and it defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south, all lines of longitude converge there, along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere, while the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole, however, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, the Russians have also established a base, Barneo. This operates for a few weeks during early spring, studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km away. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent variation of latitude, as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earths surface, the wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight-month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer and it is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates to fixed landforms. Of course, given plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System. As early as the 16th century, many eminent people correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea and it was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, one of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82°45′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, a US attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, another British Royal Navy attempt on the pole, part of the British Arctic Expedition, by Commander Albert H. Markham reached a then-record 83°2026 North in May 1876 before turning back. An 1879–1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George W. DeLong ended tragically when their ship, over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost
23.
Sea captain
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A sea captain is a high-grade licensed mariner in ultimate command of the merchant vessel. A ships captain commands and manages all ships personnel, and is typically in charge of the accounting, payrolls. The captain is responsible for responding to and reporting in case of accidents and incidents, the captain ensures that the ship complies with local and international laws and complies also with company policies. One of a particularly important duties is to ensure compliance with the vessels security plan. The security plan also covers such as refugees and asylum seekers, smuggling. On ships without a purser, the captain is in charge of the ships accounting and this includes ensuring an adequate amount of cash on board, coordinating the ships payroll, and managing the ships slop chest. On international voyages, the captain is responsible for satisfying requirements of the local immigration, customs requirements can include the master providing a cargo declaration, a ships stores declaration, a declaration of crewmembers personal effects, crew lists and passenger lists. The master acts as a liaison to local investigators and is responsible for providing complete and accurate logbooks, reports, statements, specific examples of the ship causing external damage include collisions with other ships or with fixed objects, grounding the vessel, and dragging anchor. Some common causes of damage include heavy weather, water damage, pilferage. There is a belief that ship captains have historically been. In most countries of ships registry, ship captains are not, the United States Navy defined a captain’s powers in its 1913 Code of Regulations, specifically stating, The commanding officer shall not perform a marriage ceremony on board his ship or aircraft. New Jerseys 1919 Bolmer v. Edsall said a shipboard marriage ceremony is governed by the laws of the nation where ownership of the vessel lies. In the United Kingdom, the captain of a merchant ship has never permitted to perform marriages. In other countries of ships registry, the situation varies. Most do not permit performance of a marriage by the master of a ship at sea, japan allows ship captains to perform a marriage ceremony at sea, but only for Japanese citizens. Malta and Bermuda permit captains of ships registered in their jurisdictions to perform marriages at sea, princess Cruises, whose ships are registered in Bermuda, has used this as a selling point for their cruises since 1998. In 2011, Cunard announced its intention to move the registration of “Queen Mary 2″, “Queen Victoria” and “Queen Elizabeth” from Southampton, in the United Kingdom, to Bermuda. Some captains obtain other credentials, which allow them to perform marriages in jurisdictions where they would otherwise not be permitted to do so
24.
Double hull
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The space between the two hulls is sometimes used for storage of fuel or ballast water. Double hulls are a more extensive safety measure than double bottoms, in low-energy collisions, double hulls can prevent flooding beyond the penetrated compartment. In high-energy collisions, however, the distance to the hull is not sufficient. Double hulls or double bottoms have been required in all ships for decades as part of the Safety Of Life At Sea or SOLAS Convention. Coulombi Egg Tanker Naval architecture Bulkhead Submarine Multihull
25.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
26.
Friction
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Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction, Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces, fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other. Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces, skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body. Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation. When surfaces in contact move relative to other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy. This property can have consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology, Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation. The complexity of interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis. Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent, in the presence of friction, some energy is always lost in the form of heat. Thus mechanical energy is not conserved, the Greeks, including Aristotle, Vitruvius, and Pliny the Elder, were interested in the cause and mitigation of friction. They were aware of differences between static and kinetic friction with Themistius stating in 350 A. D. that it is easier to further the motion of a moving body than to move a body at rest. The classic laws of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci in 1493, a pioneer in tribology and these laws were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons in 1699. Amontons presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities, the understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, the distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulombs friction law, although this distinction was already drawn by Johann Andreas von Segner in 1758. Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion proposed by Desaguliers, in Leslies view, friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening, pressing down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before
27.
Southern Hemisphere
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The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents, four oceans and its surface is 80. 9% water, compared with 60. 7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32. 7% of Earths land. Due to the tilt of Earths rotation relative to the Sun, September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region, Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much land, water heats up. In the Southern Hemisphere the sun passes from east to west through the north, sun-cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. Cyclones and tropical storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect, the southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic. Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique species or Nothofagus. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production and, increasingly. Approximately 800,000,000 humans live in the Southern Hemisphere and this is due to the fact that there is significantly less land in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa Antarctica Asia Australia South America Zealandia Media related to Southern Hemisphere at Wikimedia Commons
28.
Zodiac Nautic
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Zodiac Nautic is a French company best known for their widely used inflatable boats. Zodiac Nautic finds its orgins in the airships and aviation French company”. This change from air to sea brought worldwide recognition to Zodiac, in the 1960s, the company turned to the leisure industry to accommodate the “vacationers” and their growing interest in recreational boating. With a history of unrivalled experience, Zodiac Nautic’s origin is tied to all major innovations in the sector of inflatable boats. The Zodiac boat has an exceptional weight / area-below-water ratio, giving the boat a load-bearing capacity such that it can carry considerable loads, the buoyancy is distributed on the sides, the center of gravity is very low, this makes it much harder to capsize the vessel. The buoyancy tubes of Zodiac boats have several compartments, separated by waterproof partitions, thanks to its important air reserves, the boat keeps its ability to float and stays conceptually unsinkable when fully loaded, even with a deflated compartment. The Zodiac inflatable boats are used by the United States Military. Zodiac boats were brought into American popular culture in the late 1960s and they were ubiquitous in the popular television documentary series, The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau. The word ZODIAC is a trademark for rigid-hulled inflatable boats
29.
North Pole-36
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North Pole-36 was the 36th Russian manned drifting station, primarily used for arctic research from September 2008 until August 2009. The station was opened on September 7,2008, the primary objective of the station was to improve the quality of weather forecasts and to study global processes of climate change. Work was carried out on environment monitoring, and research in the fields of meteorology, oceanology, glaciology, the expedition consisted of 18 polar explorers, several dogs, and more than 150 tons of cargo. NP-36 station settled down on a piece of sea ice that was approximately 6 square kilometres across, at the moment of disembarkation the station was in so-called to the Hollow of submariners between Wrangel island and the North Pole. The vessel Akademik Fyodorov carried out the delivery of the expedition to the ice, the station was removed with the nuclear icebreaker NS Yamal in the Arctic ocean at the end of August 2009. The evacuation of the station from the ice floe took three days of continuous work. The chief of high-latitude arctic expeditions Vladimir Sokolov supervised the work
30.
Drifting ice station
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Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations are research stations built on the ice of the high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean. They are important contributors to exploration of the Arctic, the stations are named North Pole, followed by an ordinal number, North Pole-1. NP drift stations carry out the program of complex year-round research in the fields of oceanology, ice studies, meteorology, aerology, geophysics, hydrochemistry, hydrophysics, magnetic, ionosphere, ice and other observations are also carried out there. Regular measurements of the ice flow coordinates provide the data on the direction, the modern NP drifting ice station resembles a small settlement with housing for polar explorers and special buildings for the scientific equipment. Usually an NP station begins operations in April and continues for two or three years until the ice reaches the Greenland Sea. Since 1937 some 800 people were drifting at NP stations. There are two groups of NP stations, stations, drifting on the ice, NP-1 through NP-5, NP-7 through NP-17, NP-20, NP-21 stations, drifting on ice islands, NP-6, NP-18, NP-19. All NP stations are organized by the Russian Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, an idea to use the drift ice for the exploration of nature in the high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean belongs to Fridtjof Nansen, who fulfilled it on Fram between 1893 and 1896. North Pole-1 was established on May 21,1937 some 20 km from the North Pole by the expedition into the high latitudes Sever-1, NP-1 operated for 9 months, during which the ice floe travelled 2,850 kilometres. Since 1954 Soviet NP stations worked continuously, with one to three stations operating simultaneously each year. The total distance drifted between 1937 and 1973 was over 80,000 kilometres, North Pole-22 is particularly notable for its record drift, lasting nine years. On June 28,1972 the ice floe with North Pole-19 passed over the North Pole for the first time ever, the last Soviet NP station, North Pole-31, was closed in July 1991. In the post-Soviet era, Russian exploration of the Arctic by drifting ice stations was suspended for twelve years, the year 2003 was notable for Russias return into the Arctic. As of 2006, three NP stations had carried out scientific measurements and research since then, NP-32 through NP-34, the latter was closed on May 25,2006. NP-35 started operations on September 21,2007 at the point 81°26′N 103°30′E,22 scientists, led by A. A. Visnevsky are working on the ice floe. Establishment of the station was the stage of the Arktika 2007 expedition. The ice has since shrunk significantly, however, and the station is now being abandoned ahead of schedule. P
31.
Arctic
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The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
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MT Indiga
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MT Indiga is a Russian product tanker operated by Murmansk Shipping Company. After her modernization in 1994 she became the merchant ship, after her sister ship Varzuga, to be equipped with an electric azimuth thruster. The ships were given names after Finnish seabirds and the silhouettes of their namesake birds were painted on the side of the ships superstructure, Lunni and Sotka were delivered in 1976 and Tiira and Uikku in the following year. Until the 1990s the ships were used mainly to transport oil products in the Baltic Sea, in 1993 Lunni made three consecutive voyages from Arkhangelsk to the Yana River in Siberia along the Northern Sea Route. The tanker was assisted by nuclear-powered icebreakers in the Vilkitsky Strait, in 1994, a year after her sister Uikku, Lunni was also chartered to Arctic Shipping Services to ship petroleum products in the Arctic Ocean. After Uikku s successful refit her propulsion machinery was modernized for navigation in the harsh ice conditions of the Arctic Ocean in 1994. Her ice-strengthening was later increased as well, in the following years Lunni operated in the Baltic Sea in winter and in the Northern Sea Route during summer months. Fortum sold Lunni, mainly due to her age exceeding 25 years and she was renamed Indiga after the Indiga River. The ship has since used for oil transportation in the Arctic Ocean. On March 16,2009, Indiga collided with the Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker Yamal in Yenisei Gulf in the Kara Sea, the tanker, carrying only ballast at the time, suistained a 9. 5-meter crack on the main deck. No damage was reported to the Yamal, on 19 July 2010 Indiga collided again, this time with her sister ship Varzuga, while being assisted by two nuclear icebreakers in difficult ice conditions. The bow of Varzuga and the stern of Indiga were damaged, Lunni and her sister ships were designed to be able to navigate in the ice conditions of the Baltic Sea independently without icebreaker assistance and maintain a moderately high speed in ice. The highly raked stem, similar to those in traditional icebreakers, was designed to break the ice by bending it downwards under the ships weight, the ships were also equipped with an air bubbling system to reduce friction between the hull and ice. As with Uikku, upgrading the propulsion machinery dramatically improved Lunni s manoeuvering and icebreaking capabilities, even though the ships stern wasnt originally designed or shaped for icebreaking, ice resistance astern in level ice was only 40% of that of when running ahead despite the icebreaking bow. The refit also increased her speed from 14.5 to 17 knots despite the power remaining roughly the same
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Yenisei Gulf
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The Yenisei Gulf is a large and long estuary through which the lower Yenisei River flows into the Kara Sea. The whole region of the lower Yenisei is bleak and sparsely inhabited, there is no vegetation except for mosses, lichens and some grass. Coastal waters are habitats for beluga whales, the maximum depth of Yenisei Gulf is 63 m. The mouth of the Yenisei Gulf is roughly located at 72° 30′ N, in the area of Sibiryakov Island, the Yenisei has some flat, low-lying islands at its southern end, the Brekhovsky Islands 70°30′N 82°45′E. They stand where the flows into the estuary. Lakes and swamps surround this area, which features many arms through which rivers of the tundra flow across wetlands into the Yenisei basin. Further northwards the Yenisei widens and becomes a clear expanse, the water turns brackish at this point. There are three islands located almost in the middle of the gulf, the Bolshoi Korsakovsky Islands. The largest one is 4 km long and 1.2 km wide, burnyy Island is located right in the middle of the gulf. Chaishnyy is the closest to the shore, Krestovskiy or Krestovsky Island lies a further 9 km to the NNW, close to the eastern shore of the Yenisei Gulf. It is 7.5 km long and 1.8 km wide. 72°24′N 80°47′E and this island takes its name from the Russian writer Vsevolod Vladimirovich Krestovskiy. The weather pattern in this area is severe, with long and bitter winters and frequent blizzards. The Yenisei estuary is frozen for nine months in a year. During the winter the shipping lanes are open by icebreaker. Dissolved organic matter in the estuary of the Yenisei Salt intrusions in Siberian river estuaries Freight map Pictures German-Russian project on Siberian River Run-off
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Kara Sea
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The Kara Sea is part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia. It is separated from the Barents Sea to the west by the Kara Strait and Novaya Zemlya, and it is named for the Kara River, which is now relatively insignificant but which played an important role in the Russian conquest of northern Siberia. The word kara is derived from kara, which in several Turkic languages means black, the Kara Sea is roughly 1,450 kilometres long and 970 kilometres wide with an area of around 880,000 km2 and a mean depth of 110 metres. Compared to the Barents Sea, which receives relatively warm currents from the Atlantic, the Kara receives a large amount of fresh water from the Ob, Yenisei, Pyasina, and Taimyra rivers, so its salinity is variable. Its main ports are Novy Port and Dikson and it is important as a fishing ground although the sea is ice-bound for all but two months of the year. Significant discoveries of petroleum and natural gas, the East-Prinovozemelsky field, in 2014, US government sanctions resulted in Exxon having until September 26 to discontinue its operations in the Kara Sea. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Kara Sea as follows, the Eastern limit of Barentsz Sea. Komsomolets Island from Cape Molotov to South Eastern Cape, thence to Cape Vorochilov, then to Cape Unslicht on Bolshevik Island. Thence to Cape Pronchisthehev on the main land, there are many islands and island groups in the Kara Sea. The largest group in the Kara Sea is by far the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, with five large subgroups, other important islands in the Kara Sea are Bely Island, Dikson Island, Taymyr Island, the Kamennyye Islands and Oleni Island. Despite the high latitude all islands are unglaciated except for Ushakov Island at the northern limit of the Kara Sea. The Kara Sea was formerly known as Oceanus Scythicus or Mare Glaciale, since it is closed by ice most of the year it remained largely unexplored until the late nineteenth century. In 1556 Stephen Borough sailed in the Searchthrift to try to reach the Ob River, not until 1580 did another English expedition, under Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, attempt its passage. They too failed to penetrate it, and England lost interest in searching for the Northeast Passage, in 1736–1737 Russian Admiral Stepan Malygin undertook a voyage from Dolgy Island in the Barents Sea. The two ships in this expedition were the Perviy, under Malygins command and the Vtoroy under Captain A. Skuratov. After entering the little-explored Kara Sea, they sailed to the mouth of the Ob River, Malygin took careful observations of these hitherto almost unknown areas of the Russian Arctic coastline. With this knowledge he was able to draw the first somewhat accurate map of the Arctic shores between the Pechora River and the Ob River, frozen in for the winter in the Chukchi Sea, Nordenskiöld waited and bartered with the local Chukchi people. The following July, the Vega was freed from the ice and he became the first to force the Northeast Passage
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YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
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Arktika (1972 icebreaker)
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NS Arktika is a retired nuclear-powered icebreaker of the Soviet Arktika class. In service from 1975 to 2008, she was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole, Arktika required refuelling every three and a half years. Construction of the began in the Baltic Shipyard in Leningrad on July 3,1971. Sea trials completed successfully on December 17,1975, for further information on the ships design, construction and propulsion system, see Arktika class icebreaker. In 1986 the name reverted to Arktika, according to some accounts because the crew disliked the new name. Within a week of the strike, the name was changed back, Arktika was retired for several years, but was repaired in the late 1990s. The life extension was accomplished by means of replacing critical equipment to allow the safe, on May 17,2000, a conference of Russian engineers, scientists, and government officials took place on board Arktika after her first service extension. The extension cost only $4 million, compared to the $30–50 million cost of a new nuclear icebreaker, the conference concluded thus that the lifetimes of Russian nuclear icebreakers could be successfully extended to 175,000 hours, and possibly more. On April 9,2007 a fire out on Arktika. The fire caused damage to three cabins and knocked out an electricity-distribution panel. The nuclear reactor was not damaged, the icebreaker was in the Kara Sea when the blaze erupted, and was sent to Murmansk. She is docked at Atomflot, the base and dock in Murmansk,1 ½ km away from the main docks. In the meantime, she is a subject of important research, there have been calls for the ship to be converted to a museum, either in Murmansk or St. Petersburg. An earlier Soviet nuclear icebreaker, Lenin, is already a ship in Murmansk
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50 Let Pobedy
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NS50 Let Pobedy, translated as 50 Years of Victory or Fiftieth Anniversary of Victory, is a Russian Arktika-class nuclear-powered icebreaker. She was the worlds largest nuclear-powered icebreaker until surpassed by the LK-60Ya-class Arktika, construction on project no.10521 started on October 4,1989 at the Baltic Works in Leningrad, USSR. Originally the ship was named NS Ural, work was halted in 1994 for lack of funds, so that the actual fiftieth anniversary of Victory Day, in 1995, found the ship in an abandoned state. On 30 November 2004, a fire out on the ship. All workers aboard the vessel had to be evacuated while the fire crews battled the fire for some 20 hours before getting it under control and she was finally completed in the beginning of 2007, after the 60th Anniversary. The icebreaker sailed into the Gulf of Finland for two weeks of sea trials on February 1,2007, upon completing sea trials, the icebreaker returned to St. Petersburg Baltic shipyard and started preparations for her maiden voyage to Murmansk. The new ship showed superior characteristics for an icebreaker, such as exceptional maneuverability and she arrived at her homeport Murmansk on April 11,2007. The icebreaker is an upgrade of the Arktika class, the 159.60 m long and 30.0 m wide vessel, with a displacement of 25,840 metric tons, is designed to break through ice up to 5 metres thick. Fiftieth Anniversary of Victory is also a project, for the first time in the history of Russian icebreakers the design incorporated a spoon-shaped bow. As predicted by the designers, such a shape increases the efficiency of the ships efforts in breaking the ice. The icebreaker is equipped with an all-new digital automated control system, the biological shielding complex was heavily modernized and re-certified by the State Commission. A new ecological compartment was created, the ship has an athletic/exercise facility, a swimming pool, a library, a restaurant, a massage facility, and a music salon at the crews disposal. A group of eclipse chasers have used the vessel to observe the eclipse of August 1,2008 and they departed from Murmansk on July 21,2008 and reached the North Pole on July 25,2008, which set a speed record for the ship. Since 1989 the nuclear-powered icebreakers have also used for tourist purposes carrying passengers to the North Pole. Each participant pays up to US $25,000 for a cruise lasting three weeks, the Fiftieth Anniversary of Victory contains an accommodation deck customised for tourists. Quark Expeditions chartered the ship for expeditions to the North Pole in 2008, the vessels maiden voyage to the North Pole embarked in Murmansk, on June 24,2008. The ship carried 128 guests in 64 cabins in five categories,50 Years of Victory completed a total of three expeditions to the North Pole in 2008 for the polar adventure company. As of February 2013, Quark Expeditions was listing 50 Years of Victory in the company fleet, on July 30,201350 Years of Victory reached the North Pole for the 100th time in the history of icebreaker navigation during one of Poseidon Expeditions cruises
Russia
Media related to IMO 9077549 at Wikimedia Commons