1.
Religious text
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Religious texts are texts which religious traditions consider to be central to their religious practice or set of beliefs. It is not possible to create an exhaustive list of religious texts, one of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of Ancient Sumer, a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. For example, the content of a Protestant Bible may differ from the content of a Catholic Bible, the word canon comes from the Sumerian word meaning standard. Hierographology is the study of sacred texts, the following is an in-exhaustive list of links to specific religious texts which may be used for further, more in-depth study. The writings of Franklin Albert Jones a. k. a, some denominations also include the Apocrypha. For Protestantism, this is the 66-book canon - the Jewish Tanakh of 24 books divided differently, some denominations also include the 15 books of the Apocrypha between the Old Testament and the New Testament, for a total of 81 books. For Catholicism, this includes seven deuterocanonical books in the Old Testament for a total of 73 books, called the Canon of Trent. For the Eastern Orthodox Church, this includes the anagignoskomena, which consist of the Catholic deuterocanon, plus 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh,4 Maccabees is considered to be canonical by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Some Syriac churches accept the Letter of Baruch as scripture, christian Scientists The Bible Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy. This textbook, along with the Bible, serves as the permanent impersonal pastor of the church, the Community of Christ uses the Joseph Smith Translation, which it calls the Inspired Version, as well as updated modern translations. Seventh-day Adventists The Bible The writings of Ellen White are held to a status, though not equal with the Bible. Also known as the Gospel of Mani and The Living Gospel the Treasure of Life the Pragmateia the Book of Mysteries The Book of Giants the Epistles the Psalms, the Shabuhragan The Arzhang The Kephalaia, Discourses, found in Coptic translation. Odù Ifá Jaap Verduijns Odu Ifa Collection Primary religious texts, that is, the Avesta collection, The Yasna, the Visperad, a collection of supplements to the Yasna. The Yashts, hymns in honor of the divinities, the Vendidad, describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them. Shorter texts and prayers, the Yashts the five Nyaishes, the Sirozeh, there are some 60 secondary religious texts, none of which are considered scripture. The Khordeh Avesta, Zoroastrian prayer book for lay people from the Avesta, religious full text online library Ancient texts library Internet Sacred Text Archive
2.
Surah 37
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Sūrat aṣ-Ṣāffāt is the 37th sura of the Quran with 182 ayat or verses believed to be revealed in Mecca. According to Egyptian chronology, it was the 56th sura to be revealed to Muhammad, theodor Nöldeke presents a different classification putting it in the 50th position and most precisely revealed in the second Meccan period. Although named Al-Saffat, the theme of Sura 37 is the unity of God and His power to greatly reward. “The rangers” or “Ranged in Row” refers to the angel who will be lining up on the Day of Judgment, Sura 37 could be divided into three parts following one characteristic of Arabic Poetry widely known as tripartite division. The first part goes from verses 1 to 74, the part from 75 to 148. Verses 1 to 74 The first part goes from verse 1 to 74 with eschatological prophecy as central theme, from verse 1 to 10, we have a snapshot of the setting of the Day of Judgment. However comparing this two verses, we see that the last one has more details than the previous one and it almost seems that the latter is a continuation of the former. From 11 to 74, the reader is taken into a screening of the Day of Judgment including a depiction of its dynamic in its smallest details. At the beginning of this sub-part, we are exposed to a debate between the Prophet and the angels on one side, and the disbelievers on the other side, debates are mainly characteristics of middle Meccan suras. In this particular section, one could sense a two-way discussion between both parties, putting stress on the feelings of one party, the disbelievers. This section starts with how the use to refute the message of God. In addition, this puts the Prophet in an intermediate position where he is made to transmit God’s answers to them on that specific day, “Say, yes indeed. Finally, throughout verses 11 to 74 we see an interesting structure which is very visible. Had it not been for the grace of my Lord, I too would have taken to hell”. Finally we see again from verses 58 to 74 another description of the disbelievers’ experience, in Asbab al-nuzul, this tree is believed to be used to threaten the unbelievers among the Quraysh tribe. This section particularly tackles some biblical figures with a snapshot of specific actions they took that translated into great rewards. It starts with Noah with a snapshot of the Noahs Ark story in the Bible and we also have a mention of the story of Jonah, Yunus, describing his fall in the ocean and how God saved him by making him be swallowed by a big fish. We therefore see a different approach of the Quran from the Bible based on where the emphasis is put on in counting that story
3.
Quran
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
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Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
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Jahannam
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The duration of a residence in hell differs in Islam. According to some Sunni oppinions, the punishment of hell just ends for Muslims, a Hadith relates that a person who committed suicide will be punished over and over on the Day of Judgment and later in Jahannam by the very means he/she used to end his/her life. At least two verses in the Quran emphasise that consignment to hell is horrible and eternal, with the caveat except as God wills it, otherwise the part except as God wills it is considered as a possible end of the eternity of hell. Some Hadith point the release of all the inhabitants of Hell, Muhammad is quoted as saying Allah will bring out people from the Fire and admit them into Paradise. Also he is quoted as saying Surely a time will come over hell when its gates shall be blown by wind, there shall be none in it, and this shall be after they have remained therein for many years. In another Hadith, it is related that on or after Judgement Day Muhammad and these include any who sincerely professed the Shahada, and then anyone with even an atom’s measure of goodness in his or her heart. Exempt from intercession will be anyone who participated in shirk, according to some islamic philosophers, like Al Kindi, and views from Sufism, hell itself will cease to exist. When God may uncreate, the inhabits of hell, who will not be saved or the whole creation, with the end of hell, the whole creation goes back to oneness and even the devil, will return to Gods grace. Author Phil Parshall quotes other Hadith telling similar stories of sinning believers being taken out of hell and allowed into heaven, the remaining inhabitants of Hell will stay there eternally. The Quran describes Jahannam as having nineteen angels, the keeper named Maalik explains to hells inhabitants who appeal to him to be let out that they must remain in Hell because they abhorred the truth when the truth was brought to them. Hell is perceived to be so deep that if a stone were thrown into it, it would fall for 70 years before reaching the bottom. (According to one calculation this would make it over 190,000,000 km deep, the breadth of each of Hells walls is equivalent to a distance covered by a walking journey of 40 years. Malik in Hadith quotes Mohammed as saying that the fire of Jahannam was seventy times greater than fire on earth and he also described that fire as blacker than tar. I saw therein many people hanging upside down with iron chains, the Quran gives several names for hell, Jaheem, Hatamah, Haawiyah, Ladthaa, Sa’eer, Saqar. In an eschatological manual by Qadi Ayyad, these are names for the different gates of hell, the period of time between a persons death and the Day of Judgement, is known in Islam as barzakh. Although not yet in hell, it is believed that the sinners and unbelievers destined for it will suffer during this time. By the time corpse handlers are ready to wash the body, but then, before earth is piled upon the freshly dug grave, an unusual reunion takes place, The spirit returns to dwell within the body. These angels carry out a trial to probe the soundness of a Muslims faith, according to theologian Al-Ghazali, Afterlife will start with the Day of the Arising and a trumpet blast which will wake the dead from their graves
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Islamic studies
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Islamic studies is the academic study of Islam and Islamic culture. Islamic studies can be seen under at least two perspectives, From a secular or neutral point of view, Islamic studies do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture independent of faith. In this respect, Islamic studies neither engage in shaping Muslim faith by making Islamic theology, from a Muslim point of view, Islamic studies also do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture, but from a faithful perspective. Historically, both perspectives had been separated by the separation of the Western and Islamic worlds. They differed in their understanding of academia and were organized either in universities or madrasas, scholars of Islamic studies are called by their special field of study, as e. g. historian, sociologist, or political scientist, or in general a scholar of Islamic studies. The professional title Islamicist is dated, scholars of Islamic studies from a faithful point of view can be historians etc. too, yet they also can be called Muslim scholar, teacher of religion, cleric, or Ulama. In a Muslim context, Islamic studies is the term for the Islamic sciences. Specialists in the discipline apply methods adapted from several fields, ranging from Biblical studies and classical philology to modern history, legal history. Scholars in the field of academic Islamic studies are often referred to as Islamicists, in fact, some of the more traditional Western universities still confer degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies under the primary title of Oriental studies. This is the case, for example, at the University of Oxford, the first attempt to understand Islam as a topic of modern scholarship was within the context of 19th-century Christian European Oriental studies. Some orientalists praised the tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, philological and historical approaches were predominant, leading in the field were German researchers like Theodore Nöldeke s study on the history of the Quran, or Ignaz Goldziher s work on the prophetic tradition. Western orientalists and Muslim scholars alike preferred to interpret the history of Islam in a conservative way and they did not question the traditional account of the early time of Islam, of Muhammad and how the Quran was written. To understand the history of Islam provides the basis to understand all aspects of Islam. Themes of special interest are, Historiography of early Islam History of the Quran Historicity of Muhammad Early Muslim conquests Kalam is one of the sciences of Islam. In Arabic, the word means discussion and refers to the Islamic tradition of seeking theological principles through dialectic, a scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim. Islamic eschatology Sufism is a tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart. It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism, while other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love
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University of Jordan
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The University of Jordan, often abbreviated UJ, is a state-supported university located in Amman, Jordan. Founded in 1962, it is the largest and oldest institution of education in Jordan. The university has the highest admission averages in the country and is considered the university in Jordan. It is located in the Jubaiha area of the University District in Amman, the university currently employs about 1400 faculty staff and has more than 37,000 enrolled students. The university was established in 1962 by a decree in northern Amman at that time. The area surrounding the university is one of the districts of Amman and is called the University District. The University of Jordan offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in 20 colleges and institutes, Faculty of Medicine, see Also, Medical education in Jordan Faculty of Dentistry, established in 1982. The academic programs offered by the faculty are a degree of Dental Surgery. A three-year master program in Fixed and Removable Prosthodontics and Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, established in 1980. In 2010, there were 1585 undergraduate students and 82 graduate students, Faculty of Nursing, established in 1972. It offers graduate and undergraduate degrees in Clinical Nursing, Community Health Nursing, Maternal, Faculty of Science, established in 1965. As of academic year 2009–10, there were 3,489 undergraduate students,413 graduate students, Faculty of Science comprises five departments, Mathematics, Physics and Materials Sciences, Geology, Chemistry and Biological Sciences. In 2002, the Mathematics department added an Actuarial Science program, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, established in 1975. It offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in Architectural, Civil, Chemical, Computer, Electrical, Industrial, Mechanical, King Abdullah II School for Information Technology. Faculty of Foreign Languages, established in 2008, but many of its departments were established as early as 1962, there were 3,500 students enrolled in this college, of whom 85% are females. 14 languages other than Arabic are taught in the Faculty of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Arts, founded in 2008, but most of its departments date back to 1962 when the university itself was established. All departments offer B. A. and M. A, while the Ph. D. is awarded by the History, Geography, there are 106 Faculty members and 2926 students currently enrolled. Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences, the Jordan Academy of Arabic One of 10 academies in the world that regulate Arabic language and literature
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Ibn Arabi
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He is renowned by practitioners of Sufism as the greatest master and also as a genuine saint. Abū Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn Arabī was born in Murcia, Taifa of Murcia on Monday and he went by the names al-Shaykh al-Akbar and Muḥyiddin ibn Arabi. He was also known as Shaikh-e-Akbar Mohi-ud-Din Ibn-e-Arabi in the Subcontinent and his father, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad, served in the Army of Abu ʿAbd Allah. When Abu ʿAbd Allah died in 1172 AD, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad swiftly shifted his allegiance to the Almohad Sultan, Abū Ya’qūb Yūsuf I and his family then relocated from Murcia to Seville. His fathers family claimed descent from the legendary Arabian poet Hatim al-Tai and his mother came from a noble Berber family with strong ties to northern Africa. Ibn ‘Arabī’s intellectual training began in Seville in 578 AH, most of his teachers were the clergy of the Almohad era and some of them held the official posts of Qadi or Khatib. His spiritual mentor in Fes was Mohammed ibn Qasim al-Tamimi, in the year 597 AH, he was in Morocco and took his final leave from his master Yūsuf al-Kūmī, who was living in the village of Salé at that time. Ibn Arabi undertook Hajj in 598 AH and he lived in Mecca for three years. It was in Mecca that he started writing his work Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, after spending time in Mecca, he traveled throughout Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Anatolia. The year 600 AH witnessed a meeting between Ibn Arabi and Shaykh Majduddīn Isḥāq ibn Yūsuf, a native of Malatya and a man of standing at the Seljuk court. This time Ibn ‘Arabī was travelling north, first they visited Medina and this visit besides other benefits offered him a chance to meet the direct disciples of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qādir Jīlānī. Ibn Arabi stayed there only for 12 days because he wanted to visit Mosul to see his friend ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdallāh ibn Jāmi’, a disciple of Qaḍīb al-Bān. There he spent the month of Ramaḍan and composed Tanazzulāt al-Mawṣiliyya, Kitāb al-Jalāl wa’l-Jamāl and Kunh mā lā Budda lil-MurīdMinhu In the year 602 AH he visited Jerusalem, Mecca and it was his first time that he passed through Syria, visiting Aleppo and Damascus. Later in 604 AH he returned to Mecca where he continued to study and write, spending his time with his friend Abū Shujā bin Rustem and family, including the beautiful Niẓām. The next 4 to 5 years of Ibn ‘Arabī’s life were spent in these lands, on 22 Rabī‘ al-Thānī638 AH at the age of seventy-five, Ibn ‘Arabī died in Damascus. Al-Insān al-Kāmil or the perfect being was first deeply discussed in written form by Ibn Arabi in one of his most prolific works entitled Fusus al-Hikam. Taking an idea already common within Sufi culture, Ibn al-Arabi applied deep analysis and reflection on the issue of the Perfect Human, in developing his explanation of the perfect being al-Arabi first discusses the issue of oneness through the metaphor of the mirror. In this metaphor al-Arabi compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and his creatures, God’s essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and humans being the mirrors
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Nafs
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Nafs is an Arabic word occurring in the Quran and means self, psyche ego or soul. Much of the literature on nafs, however, is focused on the Sufi conceptions of the term. According to the Sufi philosophies, the nafs in its state is the ego. Nafs is an important concept in the Islamic tradition, especially within Sufism, the Quran affords much importance to the nafs of an individual, highlighting the agency of free will and intelligence, without which neither responsibility nor accountability can exist. Iqbal stated, It is probable that Nietzsche borrowed it from the literature of Islam or of the East and degraded it by his materialism. There are three stages of nafs in Sufi philosophy, just as there are three types of soul in Platos tripartite theory of soul from which the Sufis borrowed the basic concept. The Sufis call them stages in the process of development, refinement, in its primitive stage the nafs incites us to commit evil, this is the nafs as the lower self, the base instincts. In the eponymous Sura of the Quran, Yusuf says Yet I claim not that my nafs was innocent, Islam emphasizes the importance of fighting the inciting nafs in Quran as well as in hadith. One tradition holds that Muhammad said after returning from a war and his companions asked, O prophet of God, what is the big struggle. He replied, The struggle against nafs and this stage is generally divided into the levels al nafs al-hayawaniyya und al nafs al-iblissiyya. Al nafs al-hayawaniyya describes the self, which runs after material possessesion, sensual desires, al nafs al-iblissiyya is even lower than the animal state, because the self seeks to replace God in the love for itselves. The Quran enjoins the faithful to hinder the nafs from lust, rumi warns of the nafs in its guise of religious hypocrisy, saying the nafs has a rosary and a Koran in its right hand, and a scimitar and dagger in the sleeve. Animal imagery is used to describe the nafs. A popular image is a donkey or unruly horse that must be trained, rumi compares the nafs to a camel that the hero Majnun, representing the intellect, strains to turn in the direction of the dwelling-place of his beloved. In Sura al-Qiyama the Quran mentions the self-accusing nafs and this is the stage where the conscience is awakened and the self accuses one for listening to one’s ego. One repents and asks for forgiveness, here the nafs is inspired by your heart, sees the results of your actions, agrees with your brain, sees your weaknesses, and aspires to perfection. In Sura al-Fajr the Quran mentions the nafs at peace and this is the ideal stage of ego for Muslims. On this level one is firm in faith and leaves bad manners behind
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Eschatology
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Eschatology /ˌɛskəˈtɒlədʒi/ is a part of theology concerned with the final events of history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity. This concept is referred to as the end of the world or end time. The word arises from the Greek ἔσχατος eschatos meaning last and -logy meaning the study of, the Oxford English Dictionary defines eschatology as The part of theology concerned with death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul and of humankind. In the context of mysticism, the phrase refers metaphorically to the end of ordinary reality, in many religions it is taught as an existing future event prophesied in sacred texts or folklore. More broadly, eschatology may encompass related concepts such as the Messiah or Messianic Age, the end time, history is often divided into ages, which are time periods each with certain commonalities. One age comes to an end and a new age or world to come, where different realities are present, begins. When such transitions from one age to another are the subject of eschatological discussion, the phrase, end of the world, is replaced by end of the age, end of an era, or end of life as we know it. Much apocalyptic fiction does not deal with the end of time but rather with the end of a period of time, the end of life as it is now. It is usually a crisis that brings an end to current reality and ushers in a new way of living, thinking, or being. This crisis may take the form of the intervention of a deity in history, a war, eschatologies vary as to their degree of optimism or pessimism about the future. In some eschatologies, conditions are better for some and worse for others, e. g. heaven, in Baháí belief, creation has neither a beginning nor an end. Instead, the eschatology of other religions is viewed as symbolic, in Baháí belief, human time is marked by a series of progressive revelations in which successive messengers or prophets come from God. In this view, the heaven and hell are seen as symbolic terms for the persons spiritual progress. In Baháí belief, the coming of Baháulláh, the founder of the Baháí Faith, signals the fulfilment of previous eschatological expectations of Islam, Christianity and other major religions. Christian eschatology is concerned with death, a state, Heaven, hell, the return of Jesus. Eschatological passages are found in places, esp. Isaiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Matthew 24, The Sheep and the Goats, and the Book of Revelation, the Second Coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology. Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until Christs return, there are, however, various views concerning the order and significance of other eschatological events
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Maitreya
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Maitreya, Metteyya, Maithri, Jampa or Di-lặc, is regarded as a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, according to Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is a bodhisattva who will appear on Earth in the future, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma. According to scriptures, Maitreya will be a successor to the present Buddha, the prophecy of the arrival of Maitreya refers to a time in the future when the dharma will have been forgotten by most on the terrestrial world. Maitreya has also adopted for his millenarian role by many non-Buddhist religions in the past, such as the White Lotus, as well as by modern new religious movements. The name Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit word maitrī loving-kindness, the Pali form Metteyya is mentioned in the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta of the Pāli Canon, and also in chapter 28 of the Buddhavamsa. This leads scholar Richard Gombrich to conclude that either the whole sutta is apocryphal or that it has at least been tampered with. In the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, in the first centuries CE in northern India, in 4th to 6th-century China, Buddhist artisans used the names Shakyamuni and Maitreya interchangeably. Indicating both that the distinction between the two had not yet been drawn and that their respective iconographies had not yet been firmly set, an example is the stone sculpture found in the Qingzhou cache dedicated to Maitreya in 529 CE as recorded in the inscription. The religious belief of Maitreya apparently developed around the time as that of Amitābha. One mention of the prophecy of Maitreya is in the Maitreyavyākaraṇa, no longer will they regard anything as their own, they will have no possession, no gold or silver, no home, no relatives. But they will lead the life of oneness under Maitreyas guidance. They will have torn the net of the passions, they manage to enter into trances. Maitreya is typically pictured seated, with both feet on the ground or crossed at the ankles, on a throne, waiting for his time. He is dressed in the clothes of either a bhikṣu or Indian royalty, as a bodhisattva, he would usually be standing and dressed in jewels. A khata is always tied around his waist as a girdle, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, Maitreya is represented as a Central Asian or northern Indian nobleman, holding a kumbha in his left hand. Sometimes this is a wisdom urn and he is flanked by his two acolytes, the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu. The Maitreyasamiti was an extensive Buddhist play in pre-Islamic Central Asia, the Maitreyavyakarana in Central Asia and the Anagatavamsa of South India also mention him. Maitreya currently resides in the Tuṣita Heaven, said to be reachable through meditation, Gautama Buddha also lived here before he was born into the world as all bodhisattvas live in the Tuṣita Heaven before they descend to the human realm to become Buddhas
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Christian eschatology
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Christian eschatology is a major branch of study within Christian theology dealing with the last things. Broadly speaking, Christian eschatology is the study of the destiny of humankind as it is described in the Bible, eschatological passages are found in many places in the Bible, both in the Old and the New Testaments. There are also many examples of eschatological prophecy, as well as church traditions. Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of Tertullian, the word was used first by the Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius but only came into general usage in the 19th century. They are by no means exclusive and are often combined to form a more complete. Most interpretations fit into one, or a combination, of these approaches, Preterism is an approach which sees prophecy as chiefly being fulfilled in the past, especially during the first century. Prophecies in general, therefore, have already been fulfilled, other Preterists consider the Book of Revelation to be a symbolic prophetic presentation of the struggle of Christianity to survive the persecutions of the Roman Empire. There are two views within Preterism, that of Partial preterism and Full preterism. Preterist beliefs usually have an association with Amillennialism, the belief that the Millennial reign of Christ began during the establishment of the Early Church. Preterists usually consider events such as the Great Tribulation as having occurred during the siege, Early Preterist theologians included Eusebius and John Chrysostom. Historicism is an approach which sees prophecy as being fulfilled in the past, present and future, specifically, Historists consider the Book of Revelation to be a symbolic prophetic presentation of the struggle of Protestantism to survive the continuing persecutions of the Papacy. Historists usually consider events such as the Great Tribulation as having occurred during the period of papal supremacy from 538-1798. The subject of the Revelation to John the apostle was large, Elliott, the first six seals of the book of Revelation outline the temporary prosperity of the Empire of heathen Rome followed by its decline and fall which covers the time period A. D.96 –396. Most prophecies will be fulfilled during a time of chaos known as the Great Tribulation. Futurist beliefs usually have an association with Premillennialism and Dispensationalism. Futurist beliefs were presented in the Left Behind series, in Idealism, also known as spiritual or nonliteral approach, the Book of Revelation and other eschatological materials are interpreted symbolically. There were different schools of thought on the afterlife in Israel during the first century, the Sadducees, who recognized only the Torah as authoritative, did not believe in an afterlife or any resurrection of the dead. By soul, Seventh-day Adventists theologians mean the person
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Book of Revelation
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Its title is derived from the first word of the text, written in Koine Greek, apokalypsis, meaning unveiling or revelation. The Book of Revelation is the apocalyptic document in the New Testament canon. The author names himself in the text as John, but his identity remains a point of academic debate. Modern scholarship generally takes a different view, and many consider that nothing can be known about the author except that he was a Christian prophet, Some modern scholars characterise Revelations author as a putative figure whom they call John of Patmos. The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the emperor Domitian, the book spans three literary genres, the epistolary, the apocalyptic, and the prophetic. It begins with John, on the island of Patmos in the Aegean and he then describes a series of prophetic visions, including figures such as the Whore of Babylon and the Beast, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus. The title is taken from the first word of the book in Koine Greek, ἀποκάλυψις apokalypsis, the author names himself as John, but it is currently considered unlikely that the author of Revelation was also the author of the Gospel of John. All that is known is that this John was a Jewish Christian prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets and his precise identity remains unknown, and modern scholarship commonly refers to him as John of Patmos. 70 AD is the date of writing according to Martha Himmelfarb in the recently published Blackwell series. Revelation is an apocalyptic prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in the Roman province of Asia, Apocalypse means the revealing of divine mysteries, John is to write down what is revealed and send it to the seven churches. The entire book constitutes the letter—the letters to the seven churches are introductions to the rest of the book. While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author himself as a Christian prophet, Revelation uses the word in various forms twenty-one times. The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the Old Testament although it is difficult among scholars to agree on the number of allusions or the allusions themselves. Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, almost every verse alludes to or echoes older scriptures. Over half of the stem from Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms. He very frequently combines multiple references, and again the style makes it impossible to be certain to what extent he did so consciously. Revelation was the last book accepted into the Christian biblical canon and it was considered tainted because the heretical sect of the Montanists relied on it and doubts were raised over its Jewishness and authorship. Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, disciple of Origen wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by Cerinthus although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer and he regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle
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Book of Daniel
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The Book of Daniel is a biblical apocalypse, combining a prophecy of history with an eschatology which is both cosmic in scope and political in its focus. In more mundane language, it is an account of the activities and visions of Daniel, in the Hebrew Bible it is found in the Ketuvim, while in Christian Bibles it is grouped with the Major Prophets. Its message is that just as the God of Israel saved Daniel and his friends from their enemies, the book divides into two parts, a set of six court tales in chapters 1–6 followed by four apocalyptic visions in chapters 7–12. The literary structure of the book of Daniel is marked by three prominent features, the most fundamental is a genre division between the court tales of chapters 1–6 and the apocalyptic visions of 7–12. The second is a division between the Hebrew of chapters 1 and 8–12, and the Aramaic of chapters 2–7. This language division is reinforced by the arrangement of the Aramaic chapters. Various suggestions have been made by scholars to explain the fact that the division does not coincide with the other two. It should also be noted that the settings of chapters 1–6 show a progression from Babylonian to Median times. Among them are Daniel and his three companions, who refuse to touch the food and wine for fear of defilement. They are allowed to continue to refrain from eating the kings food, in the second year of his reign Nebuchadnezzar has a dream. When he wakes up, he realizes that he forgot the content of the dream and he then demands that his wise men tell him its content. When the wise men protest that this is beyond the power of any man, he sentences all, including Daniel and his friends, to death. Daniel explains the dream to the king, the statue symbolized four successive kingdoms, starting with Nebuchadnezzar, all of which would be crushed by Gods kingdom, which would endure forever. Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges the supremacy of Daniels god, raises him over all his wise men, Daniels companions Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego refuse to bow to King Nebuchadnezzars golden statue and are thrown into a fiery furnace. Nebuchadnezzar is astonished to see a figure in the furnace with the three, one with the appearance like a son of the gods. So the king called the three to come out of the fire, and blessed the God of Israel, and decreed that any who blasphemed against him should be torn limb from limb. Nebuchadnezzar recounts a dream of a tree that is suddenly cut down at the command of a heavenly messenger. Daniel is summoned and interprets the dream, the tree is Nebuchadnezzar himself, who for seven years will lose his mind and live like a wild beast
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Olivet Discourse
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The Olivet Discourse or Olivet prophecy is a biblical passage found in the Synoptic Gospels in Matthew 24, Mark 13, and Luke 21. The Olivet discourse is the last of the Five Discourses of Matthew, in all three Gospels, this episode includes the parable of The Budding Fig Tree. It is unclear whether the tribulation Jesus describes is a past, Some believe the passage largely refers to events surrounding the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and as such is used to date the Gospel of Mark around the year 70. Many evangelical Christian interpreters say the passages refer to what they call the Second Coming of Jesus and they disagree whether Jesus describes the signs that accompany his return. In the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, Jesus spoke this discourse to his disciples privately on the Mount of Olives, in Lukes Gospel, Jesus taught over a period of time in the Temple and stayed at night on the Mount of Olives. The discourse is widely believed by scholars to contain material delivered on a variety of occasions. The setting on the Mount of Olives echoes a passage in the Book of Zechariah which refers to the location as the place where a battle would occur between the Jewish Messiah and his opponents. Jesus responds that not one of those stones would remain intact in the building, the disciples asked Jesus for a sign, When will this happen, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age. The disciples, being Jewish, believed that the Messiah would come and they believed that the Temple played a large role in this, hence the disciple in the first part boasting to Jesus about the Temples construction. Jesus prophecy concerning the Temples destruction was contrary to their belief system, Jesus sought to correct that impression, first, by discussing the Roman invasion, and then by commenting on his final coming to render universal judgment. Jesus first warns them about things that would happen that should not be interpreted as signs, Some would claim to be Christ and it was a general belief that if the Jewish Messiah arrived in Jerusalem, it would mean that the Kingdom of Heaven was imminent. There would be wars and rumours of wars, then Jesus identifies the beginnings of birth pangs, a metaphor for false alarm, Nations rising up against nations, and kingdoms against kingdoms. The Gospels of Matthew and Mark add —let the reader understand— and this is generally considered to be a reference to two passages from the Book of Daniel. Some consider these declarations to be unlikely or implausible, however, there also are noted Christian theologians who believe that each of Jesus declarations were prophecies. One view is that the future Jesus predicted is the unfolding of events from trends that are already at work in human society. Another prophetic view is all of these predictions were fulfilled by the time Jerusalem fell in 70 AD. A key issue in Jesus discussion concerns the illustration of the fig tree and this is a juxtaposition, balancing the two parts of the discussion. The first part being the answer to the first question concerning the destruction of the Temple, hence, concerning the first he says that this Generation would see the fulfillment, whereas the second, No man knows, not even Jesus himself
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The Sheep and the Goats
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The Sheep and the Goats or the Judgment of the Nations is a pronouncement of Jesus recorded in chapter 25 of Matthews Gospel in the New Testament. It is sometimes characterised as a parable, although unlike most parables it does not purport to relate a story of events happening to other characters and this portion concludes the section of Matthews Gospel known as the Olivet Discourse and immediately precedes Matthews account of Jesus passion and resurrection. A very distinct scope of its own, Jesus asserts that he, the Son of Man, shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory. The form of the announcement is in part based, upon the vision of Daniel 7,13, Behold, One like the Son of Man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He came to the Ancient of Days, and they brought Him near before Him, then to Him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom. The text of the passage appears in Matthews Gospel, and is the portion of a section containing a series of parables. From Matthew 25, 31–46, But when the Son of Man comes in his glory, before him all the nations will be gathered, and he will separate them one from another, as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats. He will set the sheep on his hand, but the goats on the left. Then the King will tell those on his hand, ‘Come, blessed of my Father, inherit the Kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world, for I was hungry. I was thirsty, and you gave me drink, I was a stranger, and you took me in. I was naked, and you clothed me, I was sick, and you visited me. I was in prison, and you came to me. ’ “Then the righteous will answer him, saying, ‘Lord, when did we see you hungry, and feed you, or thirsty, and give you a drink. When did we see you as a stranger, and take you in, or naked, the division seems to be based on the acts of kindness and mercy done by people to their disadvantaged fellow people, Jesus identifies such kindness with kindness towards himself. An alternative interpretation, put forward by Calvinist theologian John Gill, is that the disadvantaged spoken of are actually fellow Christians, instead of the division between blessed and cursed being based on good works, it is based on ones response to the people and message of Christs Church. These are ‘the least. ’ These are truly ‘other. ’ Christian eschatology Matthew 25 Second Coming Sheep Go to Heaven by Cake Works of mercy John Gills commentary
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Jesus in Christianity
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Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah and believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. The choice Jesus made thus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and divine—the Son of God. Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, as fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the Bible, God raised him from the dead and he ascended to heaven to sit at the Right Hand of God, and he will return to earth again for the Last Judgment and the establishment of the Kingdom of God in the World to Come. Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize key elements of the shared beliefs among major denominations based on their catechetical or confessional texts. Christian views of Jesus are derived from biblical sources, particularly from the canonical Gospels. Christians predominantly hold that these works are historically true and those groups or denominations committed to what are considered biblically orthodox Christianity nearly all agree on the following points, Christians believe that the mother of Jesus was a virgin. Christians believe that Jesus was a human being who was also fully God, Christians believe that Jesus came into the world as the son of only one earthly parent, Mary. Christians believe that Jesus never sinned or did anything wrong, Christians believe that Jesus was eventually martyred, was buried in a tomb, and then on the third day came back to life. Christians believe that because he rose from the tomb on the third day, Christians believe that Jesus eventually ascended back to God the Father. Christians believe that Jesus will come back to earth a second time, the five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension. These are usually bracketed by two episodes, his Nativity at the beginning and the sending of the Paraclete at the end. The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his works and words, e. g. his ministry, Christians not only attach theological significance to the works of Jesus, but also to his name. Devotions to the name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity and these exist today both in Eastern and Western Christianity—both Catholic and Protestant. Christians predominantly profess that through Jesus life, death, and resurrection and his death on a cross is understood as a redemptive sacrifice, the source of humanitys salvation and the atonement for sin which had entered human history through the sin of Adam. But who do you say that I am, only Simon Peter answered him, You are the Christ, the Son of the living God — Matthew 16, 15-16 Jesus is mediator, but…the title means more that someone between God and man. He is not just a third party between God and humanity…, as true God he brings God to mankind. As true man he brings mankind to God, most Christians generally consider Jesus to be the Christ, the long awaited Messiah, as well as the one and only Son of God
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Two witnesses
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The two witnesses are two of Gods prophets who are seen in a vision by John of Patmos, who appear during the Second woe in the Book of Revelation 11, 1-14. The two witnesses have been identified by theologians as two individuals, as two groups of people, or as two concepts. John is told that the court of Gods temple would be trampled on by the nations for 42 months, during that period for 1,260 days, two witnesses would be granted authority to prophesy. They are described as two trees and two lampstands who stand before the Lord of the earth. Both are able to devour their enemies with fire that flows out of their mouths, also, they have power over the sky and waters and are able to strike the earth with plague. After their testimony, the Beast overcomes the two witnesses and kills them, for three and a half days, the people of the earth celebrate the two witnesses death and will not permit the witnesses a proper burial. After this time, God resurrects the two witnesses, their resurrection strikes fear on everyone witnessing their revival, and the two witnesses ascend to heaven. In the next hour, an earthquake occurs and kills 7000 men. According to the text, the two witnesses are symbolised as the two trees and the two lampstands that have the power to destroy their enemies, control the weather and cause plagues. Their description as two trees and two lampstands may be symbolism, allegory, or literal. The literalist typically has a dispensationalist or futurist interpretation that the two witnesses will be people who will appear in the Last days. However, there are varying views as to the identity of the two witnesses, others have proposed Moses as one of the witnesses, for his ability to turn water into blood and the power to plague the earth. By the identification of the two branches as two anointed ones or two sons of the oil, in Zechariah, this reinforces the literalist interpretation that the two witnesses are two people. The personification of the two witnesses in Revelation, is so prevalent that according to theologian William Barclay, the passage seems to refer to definite persons, the two witnesses have been interpreted as representing the Church or a similar concept. The 1599 Geneva Study Bible has asserted that the two witnesses are the purview of the church. Matthew Henrys Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible gives one church interpretation as consisting of believing Jews, John Wesley in his commentary on Revelation 11 suggests a more spiritual, almost ambiguous, application. John Gills Exposition of the Bible interprets the two witnesses as the true Church in counterdistinction to the antichrist system of Roman Catholicism, ross Taylors Verse by Verse Commentary on Revelation clearly defines the Church as the two olive trees and the two lampstands. Similarly, the two witnesses have been identified as Israel and the Christian Church, the number two has been associated with the witness of Israel to the Gentile nations during the 70th Week of Daniels prophecy
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Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
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The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are described in the last book of the New Testament of the Bible, called the Book of Revelation of Jesus Christ to John of Patmos, at 6, 1-8. The chapter tells of a book or scroll in Gods right hand that is sealed with seven seals, the Lamb of God opens the first four of the seven seals, which summons four beings that ride out on white, red, black, and pale horses. Though theologians and popular culture differ on the first horseman, the four riders are seen as symbolizing Conquest or Pestilence, War, Famine. The Christian apocalyptic vision is that the four horsemen are to set a divine apocalypse upon the world as harbingers of the Last Judgment, one reading ties the four horsemen to the history of the Roman Empire subsequent to the era in which the Book of Revelation was written. That is, they are a symbolic prophecy of the subsequent history of the empire, based on the above passage, a common translation into English, the white rider is generally referred to as Conquest. The name could also be construed as Victory, as in the found in the Jerusalem Bible. He carries a bow, and wears a victors crown, the rider has also been called Pestilence, particularly in popular culture. Irenaeus, an influential Christian theologian of the 2nd century, was among the first to interpret this horseman as Christ himself, his white horse representing the successful spread of the gospel. Various scholars have supported this notion, citing the later appearance, in Revelation 19, of Christ mounted on a white horse. Furthermore, earlier in the New Testament, the Book of Mark indicates that the advance of the gospel may indeed precede, the color white also tends to represent righteousness in the Bible, and Christ is in other instances portrayed as a conqueror. However, opposing interpretations argue that the first of the four horsemen is probably not the horseman of Revelation 19. They are described in different ways, and Christs role as the Lamb who opens the seven seals makes it unlikely that he would also be one of the forces released by the seals. Besides Christ, the horseman could represent the Holy Spirit, the Holy Spirit was understood to have come upon the Apostles at Pentecost after Jesus departure from Earth. Under another interpretation, the first horseman is called Pestilence, and is associated with infectious disease and it appears at least as early as 1906, when it is mentioned in the Jewish Encyclopedia. The interpretation is common in popular culture references to the Four Horsemen, the origin of this interpretation is unclear. Some translations of the Bible mention plague or pestilence in connection with the riders in the following the introduction of the fourth rider. They were given power over a fourth of the earth to kill by sword, famine, plague, however, it is a matter of debate as to whether this passage refers to the fourth rider, or to the four riders as a whole. While his horse continued galloping, he was bending his bow in order to spread pestilence abroad, at his back swung the brass quiver filled with poisoned arrows, containing the germs of all diseases
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Antichrist
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In Christianity, the Antichrist or False Messiah is generally regarded as a figure of evil that will falsely claim to be the Christ. The term Antichrist is found in the New Testament five times in 1 John and 2 John, once in plural form and four times in the singular. Jesus, whom Christians believe to be the Jewish Messiah, will appear in his Second Coming to Earth to face the Antichrist, who will be regarded as the greatest false messiah in Christianity. Just as Christ is the savior and the model for humanity, his opponent will be a single figure of concentrated evil. In Islamic eschatology, Masih ad-Dajjal is a figure, who will appear to deceive humanity before the second coming of Isa. The word antichrist combines two roots, αντί + Χριστός, Αντί can mean not only against and opposite of, but also in place of. Χριστός, translated Christ, is Greek for the Hebrew Messiah, both Christ and Messiah literally mean Anointed One, and refer to Jesus of Nazareth in Christian, Islamic and Messianic Jewish theology. Whether the New Testament contains an individual Antichrist is disputed, the Greek term antikhristos originates in 1 John. The similar term pseudokhristos is also first found in the New Testament, the concept of an antikhristos is not found in Jewish writings in the period 500 BC–50 AD. The five uses of the term antichrist or antichrists in the Epistles of John do not clearly present a single latter-day individual Antichrist, the articles the deceiver or the antichrist are usually seen as marking out a certain category of persons, rather than an individual. Little children, it is the last time, and as ye have heard that antichrist shall come, even now are there many antichrists, whereby we know that it is the last time. Many deceivers have gone out into the world, those who do not confess that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh, any person is the deceiver. Who is the liar but the one who denies that Jesus is the Christ and this is the antichrist, the one who denies the Father and the Son. By this you know the Spirit of God, every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God, and every spirit that does not confess Jesus is not from God. And this is the spirit of the antichrist, of which you have heard that it is coming, consequently, attention for an individual Antichrist figure focuses on the second chapter of 2 Thessalonians. Let no one deceive you in any way, for that day will not come unless the rebellion comes first and the one is revealed. He opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, for the mystery of lawlessness is already at work, but only until the one who now restrains it is removed. And then the one will be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus will destroy with the breath of his mouth
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Christian eschatological views
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Christian eschatology is the branch of theological study relating to last things, such as concerning death, the end of the world, the judgement of humanity, and the ultimate destiny of humanity. Eschatological passages are found in places in the Christian Bible, with many being found in the Old Testament prophets, especially in Isaiah. Many are also found in the New Testament books, such as Matthew 24, Matthew 25, the General epistles, the Pauline epistles, and this article is currently a general overview of the different Christian eschatological interpretations of the Book of Revelation. The differences are by no means monolithic as representing one group or another, Many differences exist within each group. Preterism, Many prophecies have already occurred in the past, This view denotes a 1st-century fulfillment concerning the literary text, some events may be symbolic of other fulfillments, thus taking a symbolic interpretation of the text. Partial preterism, Most prophecies of Revelation were fulfilled in the 1st century, the thousand years generally spans from the 1st century up to the second coming and last judgment, thus often applying an allegorical interpretation. Historicism, Interprets the text as currently being fulfilled during the span of Christian History, text is sometimes taken as symbolic of real events, rather than being literally true. Idealism, Present continual fulfillment of symbolical or literary text, spiritual events and this school of thought can be divided into three main interpretations, Dispensational, Mid-tribulation/Prewrath and Historic Premillennialism or Post-Tribulation viewpoint. Pre-tribulation Premillennialism or Dispensationalist View, The rapture of the church occurs just prior to the seven-year tribulation, prewrath/Mid-tribulation View, The rapture of the church occurs in the midst of the seven-year period. Postmillennialism, Christs Second coming is seen as occurring after the one-thousand years, after these efforts is the return of Christ foreseen. Therefore, another name for it is realized millennialism, because it emphasizes an inaugurated future in the first coming of Christ and the outpouring of the Spirit in the Pentecost. It is the held by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches as well as by a number of the older Protestant denominations, such as the Lutherans, Calvinists. The hermeneutic method held by an individual or church will greatly affect their interpretation of the book of Revelation, supersessionism is the belief that the New Covenant in Christ supersedes, or replaces, the Old Covenant with Israel. In Protestantism it comes in at least two forms, Reformed covenant theology and kingdom theology and it was the predominant teaching of these churches until the rise of dispensationalism in the 19th century. Hermeneutics, Usually Grammatical-Historical typologised and contextualised, there are three covenants - the Covenant of Works or Law, the Covenant of Redemption and the Covenant of Grace. This shares much in common with Kingdom theology but emphasizes the more than the Kingdom of God itself. Overview, Under the Covenant of Works humanity, represented ultimately in a covenantal sense under Adam beginning from the Garden of Eden, failed to live as God intended and stood condemned. The Covenant of Grace forms the basis of the later covenants with Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, adherents, Held by many evangelical Reformed Protestant Churches who take a Historical-grammatical and Typological interpretation of the Bible
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Millennialism
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Premillennialism, in Christian eschatology, is the belief that Jesus will physically return to the earth to gather His saints before the Millennium, a literal thousand-year golden age of peace. This return is referred to as the Second Coming, the doctrine is called premillennialism because it holds that Jesus physical return to earth will occur prior to the inauguration of the Millennium. For the last century, the belief has been common in Evangelicalism according to surveys on this topic, Premillennialism is based upon a literal interpretation of Revelation 20, 1–6 in the New Testament, which describes Jesus reign in a period of a thousand years. It views this future age as a time of fulfillment for the hope of Gods people as given in the Old Testament. Post-millennialism, for example, agrees with premillennialism about the future reign of Christ. Postmillennialists hold to the view that the second coming will happen after the millennium, historically Christian premillennialism has also been referred to as chiliasm or millenarianism. The current religious term premillennialism did not come into use until the mid-19th century, the concept of a temporary earthly messianic kingdom at the Messiahs coming was not an invention of Christianity. Instead it was an interpretation developed within the apocalyptic literature of early Judaism. In Judaism during the Christian intertestamental period, there was a distinction between the current age and the “age to come”. The “age to come” was commonly viewed as a nationalistic Golden Age in which the hopes of the prophets would become a reality for the nation of Israel, on the surface, the biblical prophets revealed an “age to come” which was monolithic. Seemingly the prophets did not write of a two-phase eschaton consisting of a messianic age followed by an eternal state. However, that was the concept that some Jewish interpreters did derive from their exegesis and their conclusions are found in some of the literature and theology of early Judaism within the centuries both before and during the development of the Christian New Testament. This work likely dates to the early 2nd century and shows a schematization of the divine history divided into ten periods of time called “weeks. ”In the apocalypse. However, after the week, the temporary earthly messianic age begins. After the temporary messianic kingdom, the creation of the new heavens, Second Esdras likely dates from soon after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD70. The apocryphal book was apparently an attempt to explain the difficulties associated with the destruction of Jerusalem, during one of the visions in the book, Ezra receives a revelation from the angel Uriel. The angel explains that prior to the last judgment, the Messiah will come, seven days after this cataclysmic event, the resurrection and the judgment will occur followed by the eternal state. The Jewish belief in a temporary messianic age continued during
23.
Premillennialism
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Premillennialism, in Christian eschatology, is the belief that Jesus will physically return to the earth to gather His saints before the Millennium, a literal thousand-year golden age of peace. This return is referred to as the Second Coming, the doctrine is called premillennialism because it holds that Jesus physical return to earth will occur prior to the inauguration of the Millennium. For the last century, the belief has been common in Evangelicalism according to surveys on this topic, Premillennialism is based upon a literal interpretation of Revelation 20, 1–6 in the New Testament, which describes Jesus reign in a period of a thousand years. It views this future age as a time of fulfillment for the hope of Gods people as given in the Old Testament. Post-millennialism, for example, agrees with premillennialism about the future reign of Christ. Postmillennialists hold to the view that the second coming will happen after the millennium, historically Christian premillennialism has also been referred to as chiliasm or millenarianism. The current religious term premillennialism did not come into use until the mid-19th century, the concept of a temporary earthly messianic kingdom at the Messiahs coming was not an invention of Christianity. Instead it was an interpretation developed within the apocalyptic literature of early Judaism. In Judaism during the Christian intertestamental period, there was a distinction between the current age and the “age to come”. The “age to come” was commonly viewed as a nationalistic Golden Age in which the hopes of the prophets would become a reality for the nation of Israel, on the surface, the biblical prophets revealed an “age to come” which was monolithic. Seemingly the prophets did not write of a two-phase eschaton consisting of a messianic age followed by an eternal state. However, that was the concept that some Jewish interpreters did derive from their exegesis and their conclusions are found in some of the literature and theology of early Judaism within the centuries both before and during the development of the Christian New Testament. This work likely dates to the early 2nd century and shows a schematization of the divine history divided into ten periods of time called “weeks. ”In the apocalypse. However, after the week, the temporary earthly messianic age begins. After the temporary messianic kingdom, the creation of the new heavens, Second Esdras likely dates from soon after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD70. The apocryphal book was apparently an attempt to explain the difficulties associated with the destruction of Jerusalem, during one of the visions in the book, Ezra receives a revelation from the angel Uriel. The angel explains that prior to the last judgment, the Messiah will come, seven days after this cataclysmic event, the resurrection and the judgment will occur followed by the eternal state. The Jewish belief in a temporary messianic age continued during
24.
Amillennialism
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Amillennialism, in Christian eschatology, involves the rejection of the belief that Jesus will have a literal, thousand-year-long, physical reign on the earth. This rejection contrasts with premillennial and some interpretations of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation. Many proponents dislike the name amillennialism because it emphasizes their differences with premillennialism rather than their beliefs about the millennium, amillennial was actually coined in a pejorative way by those who hold premillennial views. Some proponents also prefer alternate terms such as nunc-millennialism or realized millennialism, although other names have achieved only limited acceptance. Amillennialism also teaches that the binding of Satan, described in Revelation, has already occurred and this is the first binding he suffered in history after his fall from heaven. Nonetheless, good and evil will remain mixed in throughout history and even in the church, according to the amillennial understanding of the Parable of the Wheat. Amillennialism is sometimes associated with Idealism, as both schools teach a symbolic interpretation of many of the prophecies of the Bible and especially of the Book of Revelation. However, many amillennialists do believe in the fulfillment of Biblical prophecies. Though not much was written about this aspect of eschatology during the first century of Christianity, Church fathers of the second century that rejected the millennium were Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Cyprian. Certain amillennialists such as Albertus Pieters understand Pseudo-Barnabas to be amillennial, in the 2nd century, the Alogi were amillennial, as was Caius in the first quarter of the 3rd century. With the influence of Neo-Platonism and dualism, Clement of Alexandria, likewise, Dionysius of Alexandria argued that Revelation was not written by John and could not be interpreted literally, he was amillennial. Origens idealizing tendency to only the spiritual as real led him to combat the rude or crude Chiliasm of a physical and sensual beyond. Premillennialism appeared in the writings of the early church but it was evident that both views existed side by side. The premillennial beliefs of the church fathers, however, are quite different from the dominant form of modern-day premillennialism. Amillennialism gained ground after Christianity became a legal religion and it was systematized by St. Augustine in the 4th century, and this systematization carried amillennialism over as the dominant eschatology of the Medieval and Reformation periods. Augustine was originally a premillennialist, but he retracted that view, amillennialism was the dominant view of the Protestant Reformers. The Lutheran Church formally rejected chiliasm in The Augsburg Confession—Art, likewise, the Swiss Reformer, Heinrich Bullinger wrote up the Second Helvetic Confession which reads We also reject the Jewish dream of a millennium, or golden age on earth, before the last judgment. John Calvin wrote in Institutes that chiliasm is a fiction that is too childish either to need or to be worth a refutation and he interpreted the thousand-year period of Revelation 20 non-literally, applying it to the various disturbances that awaited the church, while still toiling on earth
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Postmillennialism
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The term subsumes several similar views of the end times, and it stands in contrast to premillennialism and, to a lesser extent, amillennialism. Postmillennialism expects that eventually the vast majority of men living will be saved, increasing gospel success will gradually produce a time in history prior to Christs return in which faith, righteousness, peace, and prosperity will prevail in the affairs of men and of nations. Postmillenialism was a dominant theological belief among American Protestants who promoted reform movements in the 19th and 20th century such as abolitionism, Postmillennialism has become one of the key tenets of a movement known as Christian Reconstructionism. It has been criticized by 20th century religious conservatives as an attempt to immanentize the eschaton, John Jefferson Davis notes that the postmillennial outlook was articulated by men like John Owen in the 17th century, Jonathan Edwards in the 18th century, and Charles Hodge in the 19th century. During the Second Great Awakening of the 1830s, some expected the millennium to arrive in a few years. Although some postmillennialists hold to a millennium of 1,000 years. Postmillennialism also teaches that the forces of Satan will gradually be defeated by the expansion of the Kingdom of God throughout history up until the coming of Christ. Many postmillennialists also adopt some form of preterism, which holds many of the end times prophecies in the Bible have already been fulfilled. Several key postmillennialists, however, did not adopt preterism with respect to the Book of Revelation, Warfield, Francis Nigel Lee, and Rousas John Rushdoony. Postmillennialists diverge on the extent of the gospels conquest, the majority of postmillennialists do not believe in an apostasy, and like B. B. Warfield, believe the apostasy refers to the Jewish peoples rejection of Christianity either during the first century or possibly until the return of Christ at the end of the millennium and this postmillennial perspective essentially dovetails with the thinking of amillennial and premillennial schools of eschatology. This minority school, promoted by B. B. Warfield, meyer, has started to gain more ground, even altering the thinking of some postmillennialists previously in the majority camp, such as Loraine Boettner and R. J. Rushdoony. Spurgeon delivered a sermon on Psalm 72 explicitly defending the form of absolute postmillennialism held by the minority camp today, postmillennialists also diverge on the means of the gospels conquest. In the United States, the most prominent and organized forms of postmillennialism are based on Christian Reconstructionism, Rushdoony, Gary North, Kenneth Gentry, and Greg Bahnsen. Calvinism and Neo-Calvinism Adventist Church of Promise Christian eschatology Disciples of Christ Progressive Christianity Summary of Christian eschatological differences Bahnsen, Victory in Jesus, The Bright Hope of Postmillennialism. Texarkana, AR, Covenant Media Press,1999, back to the Future, A Study in the Book of Revelation. Greenville, SC, Living Hope Press,2004, three Views of the Millennium and Beyond. Philipsburg, NJ, Presbyterian & Reformed,1984, the Victory of Christs Kingdom, An Introduction to Postmillennialism
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Events of Revelation
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The events of Revelation are the events that occur in the Book of Revelation of the New Testament. An outline follows below, by Chapter, in linear format, the Revelation of Jesus Christ is communicated, through an angel, to John the Apostle when he was on the island of Patmos. John records the vision, in written text, and is instructed to send the document to the seven churches of Asia. John addresses the church of Ephesus to repent from the ways of the Nicolaitans, John addresses the church of Smyrna to warn them of ten days of tribulation that may cost them their lives or imprisonment. John addresses the church of Pergamum to repent from the doctrines of Balaam, John addresses the church of Thyatira to repent from the teachings of the prophetess Jezebel. John addresses the church of Sardis for being dead or unaware of things to come, John addresses the church of Philadelphia to persevere with what little strength they have, to hold fast so that no one takes their crown. John addresses the church of Laodicea to repent from investing in material riches that make them miserable, rather, the heavenly throne with a rainbow around it, having the One seated in it, is revealed. Twenty-four surrounding thrones seated with twenty-four crowned elders appear, the four living creatures present themselves, each having six wings full of eyes, one having the face of a lion, another as a calf, the third as a man, and the last as an eagle. The first vision that the experiences is that of entering Heaven. In Revelation, God is described as having the appearance like that of jasper, around Gods throne are twenty four other thrones, on which sit elders in white robes. From the throne come thunder and lightning and, in front of the throne, the author sees seven torches, the author then sees four creatures which have six wings and are covered in eyes. The creatures are giving eternal thanks to God and, whenever one of them bows down to worship God, a book secured by seven seals is revealed in the right hand of Him who sits on the throne. It is made known only the Lion that is from the tribe of Judah is worthy to open this book. The Lamb, with seven horns and seven eyes, takes the book from Him who sits on the throne, all heavenly beings sing praise and honor the Lamb. The first seal is broken and the first of the four living creatures introduces a white horse whose crowned rider, equipped with a bow, the second seal is broken and the second of the four living creatures introduces a red horse, whose rider wields a great sword. The third seal is broken and the third of the four living creatures introduces a black horse, whose rider carries a pair of scales, goes out. The fourth seal is broken and the fourth of the four living creatures introduces an ashen horse comes out, whose rider has the name Death, the fifth seal is broken revealing the souls of those who had been slain for the Word of God. Mankind hides themselves in the caves and mountains acknowledging the presence of Him who sits on the throne, the servants of God are revealed, those who are to be sealed before the destruction of the Earth
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Rapture
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In Christian eschatology the rapture refers to the predicted end time event when all Christian believers—living and resurrected dead—will rise into the sky and join Christ for eternity. This event is predicted and described, without the term rapture and this is now the most common use of the term, especially among Christian theologians and fundamentalist Christians in the United States. Other, older uses of rapture were simply as a term for any mystical union with God or for life in Heaven with God. There are many views among Christians regarding the timing of Christs return and they do not believe that a group of people is left behind on earth for an extended Tribulation period after the events of 1 Thessalonians 4,17. Others, including Grant Jeffrey, maintain that a document called Ephraem or Pseudo-Ephraem already supported a pre-tribulation rapture. Rapture is derived from Middle French rapture, via the Medieval Latin raptura, the Koine Greek of 1 Thessalonians 4,17 uses the verb form ἁρπαγησόμεθα, which means we shall be caught up or taken away, with the connotation that this is a sudden event. The dictionary form of this Greek verb is harpazō and this use is also seen in such texts as Acts 8,39, 2Corinthians 12, 2-4 and Revelation 12,5. The Latin Vulgate translates the Greek ἁρπαγησόμεθα as rapiemur meaning we are caught up or we are taken away from the Latin verb rapio meaning to catch up or take away. English versions of the Bible have expressed the concept of rapiemur in various ways, The Wycliffe Bible, translated from the Latin Vulgate, the Tyndale New Testament, the Bishops Bible, the Geneva Bible and the King James Version use caught up. The on-line NET Bible translates the Greek of 1 Thessalonians 4,17 using the phrase suddenly caught up with this footnote, the Greek verb ἁρπάζω implies that the action is quick or forceful, so the translation supplied the adverb suddenly to make this implicit notion clear. In 1590, Francisco Ribera, a Catholic Jesuit, taught futurism and he also taught that the rapture would happen 45 days before the end of a 3. 5-year tribulation. The concept of the rapture, in connection with premillennialism, was expressed by the 17th-century American Puritans Increase and they held to the idea that believers would be caught up in the air, followed by judgments on earth, and then the millennium. Other 17th-century expressions of the rapture are found in the works of, Robert Maton, Nathaniel Homes, John Browne, Thomas Vincent, Henry Danvers, and William Sherwin. The term rapture was used by Philip Doddridge and John Gill in their New Testament commentaries, with the idea that believers would be caught up prior to judgment on earth and Jesus second coming. Manuel Lacunza, a Jesuit priest, wrote a work entitled La venida del Mesías en gloria y majestad. The book appeared first in 1811,10 years after his death, in 1827, it was translated into English by the Scottish minister Edward Irving. Dr. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, a prominent English theologian and biblical scholar, an 1828 edition of Matthew Henrys An Exposition of the Old and New Testament uses the word rapture in explicating 1 Thes. Although not using the term rapture, the idea was fully developed by Edward Irving
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Seven seals
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The Seven Seals is a phrase in the Book of Revelation that refers to seven symbolic seals that secure the book/scroll, that John of Patmos saw in his Revelation of Jesus Christ. The opening of the seals of the Apocalyptic document occurs in Revelation Chapters 5-8, in Johns vision, the only one worthy to open the book/scroll is referred to as both the Lion of Judah and the Lamb having seven horns and seven eyes. The 7 seals contained secret information known only to God until the Lamb/Lion was found worthy to open the book/scroll, important scrolls being secured with seals is mentioned in earlier Bible examples including Book of Daniel 12,4. But thou, O Daniel, shut up the words, and seal the book, even to the time of the end, many shall run to and fro, upon the Lamb opening a seal from the book, a judgment is released or an apocalyptic event occurs. The opening of the first four Seals release The Four Horsemen, the opening of the fifth seal releases the cries of martyrs for the word/Wrath of God. The sixth seal prompts earthquakes and other cataclysmic events, the seventh seal cues seven angelic trumpeters who in turn cue the seven bowl judgments and more cataclysmic events. Certain words and phrases used in Revelation had a meaning to ancient readers familiar with objects of their time. For example, important documents were sent written on a papyrus scroll sealed with wax seals. Wax seals were typically placed across the opening of a scroll, so only the proper person in the presence of witnesses. This type of seal is used in a figurative sense, in the book of Revelation. Idealism was also a major view that became realized since the time of Augustine. The preterist usually views that John was given a vision, of a course of events that would occur over the next several centuries. Johann Jakob Wettstein places the date of the Apocalypse as written before A. D.70 and he assumed that the first part of the Book was in respect to Judea and the Jews, and that the second part, about the Roman Empire. The “Sealed Book” is the book of divorcement sent to the Jewish nation from God. ”Traditionally, scholars such as Campegius Vitringa, Alexander Keith, and Christopher Wordsworth did not limit the timeframe to the 4th century. Some have even viewed the opening of the Seals right into the modern period. However, Contemporary-historicists view all of Revelation as it relates to John’s own time, Elliott, the first seal, as revealed to John by the angel, was to signify what was to happen soon after John seeing the visions in Patmos. The general subject of the first six seals is the decline and fall, after a prosperous era. The idealist view does not take the book of Revelation literally, the interpretation of Revelation’s symbolism and imagery is defined by the struggles between good and evil
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Second Coming
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The Second Coming is a Christian concept regarding the future return of Jesus to Earth after his first coming and ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The belief is based on messianic prophecies found in the gospels and is part of most Christian eschatologies. Views about the nature of Jesus Second Coming vary among Christian denominations, most English versions of the Nicene Creed include the following statements. he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead and we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Several different terms are used to refer to the Second Coming of Christ, In the New Testament, the Greek New Testament uses the Greek term parousia twenty-four times, seventeen of them concerning Christ. The word is used six times referring to individuals and one time referring to the coming of the lawless one. The etymology of the Greek word parousia is related to para beside ousia presence, in English parousia always has a special, Christian meaning. The Bauer-Danker Lexicon provides the definition. of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age. The Catholic Encyclopedia article on the General judgment states, In the New Testament the second Parousia, the Saviour Himself not only foretells the event but graphically portrays its circumstances. The Apostles give a most prominent place to this doctrine in their preaching, besides the name Parusia, or Advent, the second coming is also called Epiphany, epiphaneia, or Appearance and Apocalypse, or Revelation. The time of the second coming is spoken of as that Day the day of the Lord, the day of Christ, the day of the Son of Man, and the last day. Children, it is the last hour, and just as you heard that Antichrist is coming, even now many antichrists have appeared, from this we know that it is the last hour. The position associating the Second Coming with 1st century events such as the destruction of Jerusalem, some Preterists see this coming of the Son of Man in glory primarily fulfilled in Jesus death on the cross. They believe the signs are already fulfilled including the sun will be dark. Will be shaken, and then they will see, moreover, Jesus was reported to have told his disciples, Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. Some, such as Jerome, interpret the phrase this generation to mean in the lifetime of the Jewish race, however, other scholars believe that if Jesus meant race he would have used genos not genea. Most English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the statements about Jesus. he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead and we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come
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Islamic eschatology
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Islamic eschatology is the branch of Islamic scholarship that studies Yawm al-Qiyāmah or Yawm ad-Dīn. This is believed to be the final assessment of humanity by God, consisting of the annihilation of all life, resurrection, the time of the event is not specified, although there are major and minor signs which have been foretold to happen at al-Qiyamah. Many verses of the Quran contain the motif of the impending Last Judgment, surat al-Qiyama has as its main subject the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is also described in the hadith, and commentaries of the such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari. The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the hadith describe the end time with more specificity than the Quran, describing the events of al-Qiyamah through twelve major signs. At the time of judgment, terrible corruption and chaos will rule, the Mahdi will be sent and with the help of Jesus, will battle Masih ad-Dajjal. They will triumph, liberating Islam from cruelty, and this will be followed by a time of serenity with people living true to religious values, however, there is no mention of the advent of Mahdi and Isa in one era in any of the hadith. Some Muslim scholars translate the Arabic word Imam as Mahdi to prove the advent of Mahdi, like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches resurrection of the dead, a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, malāḥim, the righteous are rewarded with pleasures of Jannah Paradise, while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam Hell. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, is one of the six articles of faith in Islam. The tribulation associated with it is described in the Quran and hadith, and commentaries of ulama like al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, the Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Hour, and the Last Day. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, relates to one of the six articles in Sunni Islam and seven articles in Shia Islam. There are two sources in Islamic scripture that discuss the Last Judgment, the Quran, which is viewed in Islam as infallible. Hadith are viewed with more flexibility due to the compilation of the traditions in written form. The concept has also discussed in commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir. The Quran describes the Last Judgment with a number of interpretations of its verses, there are specific aspects, The time is known only to God. Those who have been dead will believe that a time has passed between birth and death. God will resurrect all, even if they have turned to stone or iron and those that have accepted false deities will suffer in the afterlife
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Hindu eschatology
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The current period is Kali Yuga, the last of four Yuga that make up the current age. Each period has seen a decline in morality, to the point that in Kali Yuga quarrel. In Hinduism, time is cyclic, consisting of cycles or kalpas, each kalpa lasts 4. 1–8.2 billion years, which is a period of one full day and night for Brahma, who in turn will live for 311 trillion,30 billion Years. The cycle of birth, growth, decay, and renewal at the individual level finds its echo in the cosmic order, some Shaivites hold the view that he is incessantly destroying and creating the world. After this larger cycle, all of creation will contract to a singularity and then again will expand from that single point, within the current kalpa, there are four yugas, or epochs, that encompass the evolution of this specific cycle. These ages encompass a beginning of complete purity to a descent into total decay, Satya Yuga lasts 1.728 million years. Treta Yuga lasts 1.296 million years, Kali Yuga, the last of the four ages, is the one in which we currently reside. This epoch has been foretold to be characterized by impiety, violence, puranas go on to write that kings in the fourth age will be godless, wanting in tranquility, quick to anger, and dishonest. They will inflict death on women, and children, and will rise, undisciplined barbarians will receive the support of rulers. From the four pillars of dharma—penance, charity, truthfulness, and compassion—charity will be all that remains, people will commit sin in mind, speech and action. Plague, famine, pestilence and natural calamities will appear, people will not believe one another, falsehoods will win disputes and brothers will become avaricious. As the each age progresses, the life span decreases. There will be many false religions, and many will profess false knowledge to earn their livelihood, life will be short and miserable. Marriage will be for pleasure alone, being dry of water will be the only definition of land, and any hard to reach water will define a pilgrimage destination. People will hide in valleys between mountains, and suffering from cold and exposure, people wear clothes of tree bark. People will live less than twenty-three years and the pretense of greatness will be the proof of it, at this time of evil, the final incarnation of Vishnu known as Kalki will appear on a white horse. He will amass an army of those few pious souls remaining and these, together with all the incarnations of the Godhead which have appeared throughout human history, will destroy all demons and sins in the world. As written in the Gita, Aditi is the mother of the eight Adityas or solar deities, at the end of creation these eight suns will shine together in the skies
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Kalki
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In Hinduism, Kalki is the tenth avatar of the god Vishnu in the current Mahayuga, foretold to appear at the end of Kali Yuga, the current epoch. The Purana scriptures foretell that Kalki will be atop a horse with a drawn blazing sword. He is the harbinger of the end time in Hindu eschatology, in Tibetan Buddhism Kalachakra tradition,25 rulers of the Shambhala Kingdom held the title of Kalki, Kulika or Kalki-king. During Vaishakha, the first fortnight in Shukla Paksha is dedicated to fifteen deities, in this tradition, the twelth day is Vaishakha Dwadashi and is dedicated to Madhava, another name for Kalki. The name Kalki is derived from the Sanskrit word kalā which means any practical art, the name Kalki may be a metaphor for eternity or time as kalā has the secondary meaning of a part including time or atoms. The name Kalki may also be derived from the Sanskrit word kalka which means filth, so, the name Kalki can also be meant destroyer of the filth. There are numerous interpretations of Vedic traditions, avatara means descent and refers to a descent of the divine into the material realm in the Avataris self same form. The Garuda Purana lists ten avatars, with Kalki being the tenth, one of the earliest mentions of Kalki is in the Vishnu Purana, dated to after the Gupta Empire. At village/community of Shmbhal, principally of great soul brahmins, on the 12th of the waxing moon in the month of Madhwa Lord Vishnu arrived. This amounts to just 12 days per any given year, furthermore as there is one day per year of Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. जातं ददृशतुः पुत्रं पितरौ हृष्ट-मानसौ।। जातं jatam + ददृशतुः dadastu + पुत्रं putram + पितरौ pitarau + हृष्ट hrshta + मानसौ manasau, then the parents were mentally overjoyed by their son being born. This points to the sun sign of Aries, in the month of Chaitra, the fifteen days in Shukla paksha are dedicated to fifteen gods or deities. Each day of the Chaitra month is dedicated to a different god, the 12th day of Chaitra Shukla Pakshaya is dedicated to Lord Sri Maha Vishnu. There is a description of his background in other sources of scripture, Vishnuyasha refers to the father of Kalki as a devotee of Vishnu while Sumati refers to His mother in Shambhala. Also it is written in Kalki Purana that he will have four brothers who are Sumanta, Prajna, the Agni Purana predicts that at the time of his birth, evil kings will feed on the pious. Kalki will be born son of Vishnuyasha in the mythic Shambhala and he will have Yajnavalkya as his spiritual guru. Parashurama, the avatar of Vishnu is a Chiranjivi and in scripture is believed to be alive. He will be a martial preceptor of Kalki, teaching him military science, warfare arts, the purana also relates that Hari, will then give up the form of Kalki, return to heaven and the Krita or Satya Yuga will return as before
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Kali Yuga
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Kali Yuga is the last of the four stages the world goes through as part of the cycle of yugas described in the Sanskrit scriptures, within the present Mahayuga. The other ages are called Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Kali Yuga is associated with the demon Kali. The Kali of Kali Yuga means strife, discord, quarrel or contention, according to Puranic sources, Krishnas departure marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to 17/18 February 3102 BCE. According to the Surya Siddhanta, Kali Yuga began at midnight on 18 February 3102 BCE and this is also considered the date on which Lord Krishna left the earth to return to his heavenly abode. This information is placed at the temple of Bhalka, the place of this incident, according to the astronomer and mathematician Aryabhatta the Kali Yuga started in 3102 BCE. He finished his book “Aryabhattiya” in 499 CE, in which he gives the year of the beginning of Kali Yuga. He writes that he wrote the book in the year 3600 of the Kali Age at the age of 23. As it was the 3600th year of the Kali Age when he was 23 years old, and given that Aryabhatta was born in 476 CE, according to KD Abhyankar, the starting point of Kaliyuga is an extremely rare planetary alignment, which is depicted in the Mohenjo-Daro seals. Going by this alignment the year 3102 BCE is slightly off, the actual date for this alignment is February 7 of 3104 BCE. There is also sufficient proof to believe that Vrdhha Garga knew of precession at least by 500 BCE, Garga had calculated the rate of precession to within 30% of what the modern scholars estimate. The Kali Yuga is thought by some authors to last 6480 years although other durations have been proposed, hindus believe that human civilization degenerates spiritually during the Kali Yuga, which is referred to as the Dark Age because in it people are as far away as possible from God. Hinduism often symbolically represents morality as an indian bull, in Satya Yuga, the first stage of development, the bull has four legs, but in each age morality is reduced by one quarter. By the age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age, the Mahabharata War and the decimation of Kauravas thus happened at the Yuga-Sandhi, the point of transition from one yuga to another. A discourse by Markandeya in the Mahabharata identifies some of the attributes of Kali Yuga, in relation to rulers, it lists, Rulers will become unreasonable, they will levy taxes unfairly. Rulers will no longer see it as their duty to promote spirituality, or to protect their subjects, people will start migrating, seeking countries where wheat and barley form the staple food source. (Srimad-Bhagavatam With regard to relationships, Markandeyas discourse says, Avarice. Humans will openly display animosity towards each other, people will have thoughts of murder with no justification and will see nothing wrong in that. Lust will be viewed as acceptable and sexual intercourse will be seen as the central requirement of life
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Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
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Dhul-Qarnayn
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In traditional scholarship the character is usually identified as Alexander the Great, who is ascribed similar adventures in the Alexander romance. The story of Dhul-Qarnayn is related in chapter 18 of the Quran, the rabbis told them to ask Muhammad about three things, one of them about a man who travelled and reached the east and the west of the earth, what was his story. If he tells you about these things, then he is a prophet, so follow him, Muslim and other commentators have identified Dhul Qarnayn with Alexander the Great. Alexander was already known as the one in these early legends. The reasons for this are somewhat obscure, the wall may have reflected a distant knowledge of the Great Wall of China, or of various Sassanid Persian walls built in the Caspian area against the northern barbarians, or a conflation of the two. Dhul-Qarnayn the traveller was a subject for later writers. Ghazalis version later made its way into the Thousand and One Nights, the Sufi poet Rumi, perhaps the most famous of medieval Persian poets, described Dhul Qarnayns eastern journey. The hero ascends Mount Qof, the mother of all other mountains, at Dhul Qarnayns request the mountain explains the origin of earthquakes, when God wills, the mountain causes one of its veins to throb, and thus an earthquake results. Elsewhere on the great mountain Dhul Qarnayn meets Esrafil, standing ready to blow the trumpet on the Day of Judgement, other candidates have been suggested, Cyrus the Great, the 6th century BCE Achaemenid Persian conqueror. Imrul-Qays, a prince of the Lakhmids of southern Mesopotamia, an ally first of Persia and then of Rome, messiah ben Joseph, a fabulous military saviour expected by Yemenite Jews, associated in folk-lore with Dhu Nawas, a semi-legendary 6th century Yemenite king. They are the people of the first Book, and they have knowledge of the Prophets than we do. So they set out and when they reached Al-Madinah, they asked the rabbis about the Messenger of Allah and they described him to them and told them some of what he had said. They said, You are the people of the Tawrah and we have come to you so that you can tell us about this companion of ours, ask him about some young men in ancient times, what was their story for theirs is a strange and wondrous tale. Ask him about a man who travelled a great deal and reached the east, what was his story And ask him about the Ruh – what is it. If he tells you about these things, then he is a Prophet, so follow him and these were, Who were the Sleepers of the Cave. What is the story of Khidr. and What do you know about Dhul-Qarnain. Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain Alexander the Great in legend Cyrus the Great in the Quran Oghuz Khagan Ball, Rome in the East, The Transformation of an Empire. Earthquakes and Coseismic Surface Faulting on the Iranian Plateau, bietenholz, Peter G. Historia and fabula, myths and legends in historical thought from antiquity to the modern age
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Jesus in Islam
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The Quran and most Hadith mention Jesus to have been born a pure boy to Mary as the result of virginal conception, similar to the event of the Annunciation in Christianity. Like all prophets in Islamic thought, Jesus is also called a Muslim, in Islam, Jesus is believed to have been the precursor to Muhammad, attributing the name Ahmad to someone who would follow Jesus. Muslim tradition believes Jesus will return to earth near the Day of Judgment to restore justice, the narrative has been recounted with variations and additions by Islamic historians over the centuries. Secluded in a church, she is joined by a man named Joseph. Mary is later described as a widow, without mention of a previous husband, the account of the birth of Jesus follows the Qurans narrative, adding that the birth occurred in Bethlehem beside a palm tree with a manger. The work The Meadows of Gold by Al-Masudi, an Arab historian and geographer, al-Athir writes about how Jesus as a young boy helped to detect a thief, and about bringing a boy back to life which Jesus was accused of having killed. Al-Athir makes a point believing Marys pregnancy to have lasted not nine or eight months and his basis is that this understanding is closer to where the Quran says Mary conceived him and retired with him to a distant place. The virgin birth of Jesus is announced to Mary by the angel Gabriel while Mary is being raised in the Temple after having been pledged to God by her mother. Gabriel states she is honored over all women of all nations and has brought her glad tidings of a holy son. A hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah, one of the earliest companions of Muhammad, quotes Muhammad, a baby who is touched like that gives a cry. The only exceptions are Mary and her son, the angel declares the son is to be named Jesus, the Messiah, proclaiming he will be called a great prophet, being the Spirit of God and Word of God, who will receive al-Injīl. The angel tells Mary that Jesus will speak in infancy and, Mary, responding how she could conceive and have a child when no man had touched her, was told by the angel that God can decree what He wills, and it shall come to pass. A spirit from none other than God, So that he raise the dead. Mary, overcome by the pains of childbirth, is provided a stream of water under her feet from which she could drink, as Mary carried baby Jesus back to the temple, she was asked by the temple elders about the child. Having been commanded by Gabriel to a vow of silence, she points to the infant Jesus and the infant proclaims. Peace be upon me, the day I was born, and the day I die, and the day I am raised up alive. Jesus speaking from the cradle is mentioned as one of six miracles in the Quran, the speaking infant narrative is also found in the Syriac Infancy Gospel, a pre-Islamic sixth century work. Many moral stories and miraculous events of Jesus youth are mentioned in Qisas al-anbiya, books composed over the centuries about pre-Islamic prophets and it is generally agreed that Jesus spoke Aramaic, the common language of Judea in the first century AD and the region at-large. Tradition believes Jesus mission was to the people of Israel, his status as a prophet confirmed by numerous miracles, from this basis reflected upon all previous prophets through the lens of Muslim identity, Jesus is no more than a messenger repeating the same message of the ages
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Messiah
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In Abrahamic religions, the Messiah, is the one chosen to lead the world and thereby save it. The term also appears in the forms Messias, Christ, or Al-Masih, the concepts of the Messiah, Messianism, and the Messianic Age grew from Isaiahs writings during the latter half of the 8th century BCE. The term comes from the Hebrew verb meaning to apply oil to, to anoint, in the Hebrew Bible, Israels kings were sometimes called Gods messiah -- Gods anointed one. A messiah could also be a high priest or prophet. Messiahs did not even need to descend from Jacob, as the Hebrew Bible refers to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, as a messiah for his decree to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple. In Judaism, the Jewish Messiah, often referred to as King Messiah, is expected to descend from King David, the Jerusalem Temples rebuilding will usher in a Messianic Age of global peace. In Christianity, the Messiah is called the Christ, from Ancient Greek, χριστός, the concept of the Messiah in Christianity originated from the Messiah in Judaism. However, unlike the concept of the Messiah in Judaism and Islam, in Chabad messianism, Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn, sixth Rebbe of Chabad Lubavitch, and Menachem Mendel Schneerson, seventh Rebbe of Chabad, are Messiah claimants. Resembling early Christianity, the deceased Menachem Mendel Schneerson is believed to be the Messiah among adherents of the Chabad movement, in Hebrew, the Messiah is often referred to as מלך המשיח (Meleḵ ha-Mašīaḥ in the Tiberian vocalization, pronounced, literally meaning the Anointed King. The Greek Septuagint version of the Old Testament renders all thirty-nine instances of the Hebrew word for anointed as Χριστός, the New Testament records the Greek transliteration Μεσσίας, Messias twice in John. Al-Masīḥ is the Arabic word for messiah, in modern Arabic, it is used as one of the many titles of Jesus. Masīḥ is used by Arab Christians as well as Muslims, and is written as Yasūʿ al-Masih by Arab Christians or ʿĪsā al-Masīḥ by Muslims, the word al-Masīḥ literally means the anointed, the traveller, or the one who cures by caressing. In Quranic scripture, Jesus is mentioned as having been sent down by Allah, strengthened by the spirit, and hence, anointed with the task of being a prophet. The Israelites, to whom Isa was sent, had a practice of anointing their kings with oil. An Imam Bukhari hadith describes Jesus as having wet hair that looked as if water was dripping from it, Muslims believe that this is just one of the many signs that proves that Jesus is the Messiah. The literal translation of the Hebrew word mashiach is anointed, which refers to a ritual of consecrating someone or something by putting holy oil upon it, in Judaism, the Messiah is not considered to be God or a pre-existent divine Son of God. He is considered to be a political leader that has descended from King David. That is why he is referred to as Messiah ben David, the messiah, in Judaism, is considered to be a great, charismatic leader that is well oriented with the laws that are followed in Judaism
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Mahdi
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In Islamic eschatology, the Mahdi is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will rule for five, seven, nine, or nineteen years before the Day of Judgement and will rid the world of evil. There is no reference to the Mahdi in the Quran. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdis tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, differences exist in the concept of the Mahdi between Shia Muslims and adherents of the Sunni tradition. For Sunnis, the Mahdi is the Muslims future leader who is yet to come, for most Shia Muslims, the Mahdi was born but disappeared and will remain hidden from humanity until he reappears to bring justice to the world, a doctrine known as the Occultation. For Twelver Shia, this hidden Imam is Muhammad al-Mahdi, the Twelfth Imam, throughout history, various individuals have claimed to be the Mahdi. The term mahdi does not occur in the Quran, but it is derived from the Arabic root h-d-y, the term al-Mahdi was employed from the beginning of Islam, but only as an honorific epithet and without any messianic significance. As an honorific it has used in some instances to describe Muhammad, as well as Abraham, al-Hussain. During the second war, after the death of Muʾawiya. In Kufa during the rebellion in 680s, Al-Mukhtar proclaimed Muhammad al-Hanafiyyah as the Mahdi in this heightened sense. Among the Umayyads, Sulayman encouraged the belief that he was the Mahdi, early discussions about the identity of al-Mahdi by religious scholars can be traced back to the time after the Second Fitna. These discussions developed in different directions and were influenced by traditions attributed to Muhammad, by the time of the Abbasid Revolution in the year 750, Mahdi was already a known concept. Evidence shows that the first Abbasid caliph As-Saffah assumed the title of the Mahdi for himself and they became known as Kaysanites, and introduced what later became two key aspects of the Shias concept of the Mahdi. The first was the notion of return of the dead, particularly of the Imams, the second was that after al-Hanafiyyahs death they believed he was, in fact, in hiding in the Razwa mountains near Medina. This later developed into the known as the Occultation. The Mahdi appeared in early Shi’ite narratives, spread widely among Shi’ite groups and became dissociated from its historical figure, during the 10th century, based on these earlier beliefs, the doctrine of Mahdism was extensively expanded by Al-Kulayni, Ibrahim al-Qummi and Ibn Babawayh. In particular, in the early 10th century, the doctrine of the Occultation, the Mahdi became synonymous with the Hidden Imam who was thought to be in occultation awaiting the time that God has ordered for his return. This return is envisaged as occurring shortly before the final Day of judgment, in fact, the concept of the hidden Imam was attributed to several Imams in turn. Some historians suggest that the term itself was introduced into Islam by southern Arabian tribes who had settled in Syria in the mid-7th century
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