1.
Religious text
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Religious texts are texts which religious traditions consider to be central to their religious practice or set of beliefs. It is not possible to create an exhaustive list of religious texts, one of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of Ancient Sumer, a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. For example, the content of a Protestant Bible may differ from the content of a Catholic Bible, the word canon comes from the Sumerian word meaning standard. Hierographology is the study of sacred texts, the following is an in-exhaustive list of links to specific religious texts which may be used for further, more in-depth study. The writings of Franklin Albert Jones a. k. a, some denominations also include the Apocrypha. For Protestantism, this is the 66-book canon - the Jewish Tanakh of 24 books divided differently, some denominations also include the 15 books of the Apocrypha between the Old Testament and the New Testament, for a total of 81 books. For Catholicism, this includes seven deuterocanonical books in the Old Testament for a total of 73 books, called the Canon of Trent. For the Eastern Orthodox Church, this includes the anagignoskomena, which consist of the Catholic deuterocanon, plus 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh,4 Maccabees is considered to be canonical by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Some Syriac churches accept the Letter of Baruch as scripture, christian Scientists The Bible Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy. This textbook, along with the Bible, serves as the permanent impersonal pastor of the church, the Community of Christ uses the Joseph Smith Translation, which it calls the Inspired Version, as well as updated modern translations. Seventh-day Adventists The Bible The writings of Ellen White are held to a status, though not equal with the Bible. Also known as the Gospel of Mani and The Living Gospel the Treasure of Life the Pragmateia the Book of Mysteries The Book of Giants the Epistles the Psalms, the Shabuhragan The Arzhang The Kephalaia, Discourses, found in Coptic translation. Odù Ifá Jaap Verduijns Odu Ifa Collection Primary religious texts, that is, the Avesta collection, The Yasna, the Visperad, a collection of supplements to the Yasna. The Yashts, hymns in honor of the divinities, the Vendidad, describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them. Shorter texts and prayers, the Yashts the five Nyaishes, the Sirozeh, there are some 60 secondary religious texts, none of which are considered scripture. The Khordeh Avesta, Zoroastrian prayer book for lay people from the Avesta, religious full text online library Ancient texts library Internet Sacred Text Archive
2.
Surah 37
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Sūrat aṣ-Ṣāffāt is the 37th sura of the Quran with 182 ayat or verses believed to be revealed in Mecca. According to Egyptian chronology, it was the 56th sura to be revealed to Muhammad, theodor Nöldeke presents a different classification putting it in the 50th position and most precisely revealed in the second Meccan period. Although named Al-Saffat, the theme of Sura 37 is the unity of God and His power to greatly reward. “The rangers” or “Ranged in Row” refers to the angel who will be lining up on the Day of Judgment, Sura 37 could be divided into three parts following one characteristic of Arabic Poetry widely known as tripartite division. The first part goes from verses 1 to 74, the part from 75 to 148. Verses 1 to 74 The first part goes from verse 1 to 74 with eschatological prophecy as central theme, from verse 1 to 10, we have a snapshot of the setting of the Day of Judgment. However comparing this two verses, we see that the last one has more details than the previous one and it almost seems that the latter is a continuation of the former. From 11 to 74, the reader is taken into a screening of the Day of Judgment including a depiction of its dynamic in its smallest details. At the beginning of this sub-part, we are exposed to a debate between the Prophet and the angels on one side, and the disbelievers on the other side, debates are mainly characteristics of middle Meccan suras. In this particular section, one could sense a two-way discussion between both parties, putting stress on the feelings of one party, the disbelievers. This section starts with how the use to refute the message of God. In addition, this puts the Prophet in an intermediate position where he is made to transmit God’s answers to them on that specific day, “Say, yes indeed. Finally, throughout verses 11 to 74 we see an interesting structure which is very visible. Had it not been for the grace of my Lord, I too would have taken to hell”. Finally we see again from verses 58 to 74 another description of the disbelievers’ experience, in Asbab al-nuzul, this tree is believed to be used to threaten the unbelievers among the Quraysh tribe. This section particularly tackles some biblical figures with a snapshot of specific actions they took that translated into great rewards. It starts with Noah with a snapshot of the Noahs Ark story in the Bible and we also have a mention of the story of Jonah, Yunus, describing his fall in the ocean and how God saved him by making him be swallowed by a big fish. We therefore see a different approach of the Quran from the Bible based on where the emphasis is put on in counting that story
3.
Quran
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
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Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
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Islamic studies
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Islamic studies is the academic study of Islam and Islamic culture. Islamic studies can be seen under at least two perspectives, From a secular or neutral point of view, Islamic studies do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture independent of faith. In this respect, Islamic studies neither engage in shaping Muslim faith by making Islamic theology, from a Muslim point of view, Islamic studies also do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture, but from a faithful perspective. Historically, both perspectives had been separated by the separation of the Western and Islamic worlds. They differed in their understanding of academia and were organized either in universities or madrasas, scholars of Islamic studies are called by their special field of study, as e. g. historian, sociologist, or political scientist, or in general a scholar of Islamic studies. The professional title Islamicist is dated, scholars of Islamic studies from a faithful point of view can be historians etc. too, yet they also can be called Muslim scholar, teacher of religion, cleric, or Ulama. In a Muslim context, Islamic studies is the term for the Islamic sciences. Specialists in the discipline apply methods adapted from several fields, ranging from Biblical studies and classical philology to modern history, legal history. Scholars in the field of academic Islamic studies are often referred to as Islamicists, in fact, some of the more traditional Western universities still confer degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies under the primary title of Oriental studies. This is the case, for example, at the University of Oxford, the first attempt to understand Islam as a topic of modern scholarship was within the context of 19th-century Christian European Oriental studies. Some orientalists praised the tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, philological and historical approaches were predominant, leading in the field were German researchers like Theodore Nöldeke s study on the history of the Quran, or Ignaz Goldziher s work on the prophetic tradition. Western orientalists and Muslim scholars alike preferred to interpret the history of Islam in a conservative way and they did not question the traditional account of the early time of Islam, of Muhammad and how the Quran was written. To understand the history of Islam provides the basis to understand all aspects of Islam. Themes of special interest are, Historiography of early Islam History of the Quran Historicity of Muhammad Early Muslim conquests Kalam is one of the sciences of Islam. In Arabic, the word means discussion and refers to the Islamic tradition of seeking theological principles through dialectic, a scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim. Islamic eschatology Sufism is a tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart. It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism, while other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love
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Jahannam
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The duration of a residence in hell differs in Islam. According to some Sunni oppinions, the punishment of hell just ends for Muslims, a Hadith relates that a person who committed suicide will be punished over and over on the Day of Judgment and later in Jahannam by the very means he/she used to end his/her life. At least two verses in the Quran emphasise that consignment to hell is horrible and eternal, with the caveat except as God wills it, otherwise the part except as God wills it is considered as a possible end of the eternity of hell. Some Hadith point the release of all the inhabitants of Hell, Muhammad is quoted as saying Allah will bring out people from the Fire and admit them into Paradise. Also he is quoted as saying Surely a time will come over hell when its gates shall be blown by wind, there shall be none in it, and this shall be after they have remained therein for many years. In another Hadith, it is related that on or after Judgement Day Muhammad and these include any who sincerely professed the Shahada, and then anyone with even an atom’s measure of goodness in his or her heart. Exempt from intercession will be anyone who participated in shirk, according to some islamic philosophers, like Al Kindi, and views from Sufism, hell itself will cease to exist. When God may uncreate, the inhabits of hell, who will not be saved or the whole creation, with the end of hell, the whole creation goes back to oneness and even the devil, will return to Gods grace. Author Phil Parshall quotes other Hadith telling similar stories of sinning believers being taken out of hell and allowed into heaven, the remaining inhabitants of Hell will stay there eternally. The Quran describes Jahannam as having nineteen angels, the keeper named Maalik explains to hells inhabitants who appeal to him to be let out that they must remain in Hell because they abhorred the truth when the truth was brought to them. Hell is perceived to be so deep that if a stone were thrown into it, it would fall for 70 years before reaching the bottom. (According to one calculation this would make it over 190,000,000 km deep, the breadth of each of Hells walls is equivalent to a distance covered by a walking journey of 40 years. Malik in Hadith quotes Mohammed as saying that the fire of Jahannam was seventy times greater than fire on earth and he also described that fire as blacker than tar. I saw therein many people hanging upside down with iron chains, the Quran gives several names for hell, Jaheem, Hatamah, Haawiyah, Ladthaa, Sa’eer, Saqar. In an eschatological manual by Qadi Ayyad, these are names for the different gates of hell, the period of time between a persons death and the Day of Judgement, is known in Islam as barzakh. Although not yet in hell, it is believed that the sinners and unbelievers destined for it will suffer during this time. By the time corpse handlers are ready to wash the body, but then, before earth is piled upon the freshly dug grave, an unusual reunion takes place, The spirit returns to dwell within the body. These angels carry out a trial to probe the soundness of a Muslims faith, according to theologian Al-Ghazali, Afterlife will start with the Day of the Arising and a trumpet blast which will wake the dead from their graves
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University of Jordan
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The University of Jordan, often abbreviated UJ, is a state-supported university located in Amman, Jordan. Founded in 1962, it is the largest and oldest institution of education in Jordan. The university has the highest admission averages in the country and is considered the university in Jordan. It is located in the Jubaiha area of the University District in Amman, the university currently employs about 1400 faculty staff and has more than 37,000 enrolled students. The university was established in 1962 by a decree in northern Amman at that time. The area surrounding the university is one of the districts of Amman and is called the University District. The University of Jordan offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in 20 colleges and institutes, Faculty of Medicine, see Also, Medical education in Jordan Faculty of Dentistry, established in 1982. The academic programs offered by the faculty are a degree of Dental Surgery. A three-year master program in Fixed and Removable Prosthodontics and Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, established in 1980. In 2010, there were 1585 undergraduate students and 82 graduate students, Faculty of Nursing, established in 1972. It offers graduate and undergraduate degrees in Clinical Nursing, Community Health Nursing, Maternal, Faculty of Science, established in 1965. As of academic year 2009–10, there were 3,489 undergraduate students,413 graduate students, Faculty of Science comprises five departments, Mathematics, Physics and Materials Sciences, Geology, Chemistry and Biological Sciences. In 2002, the Mathematics department added an Actuarial Science program, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, established in 1975. It offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in Architectural, Civil, Chemical, Computer, Electrical, Industrial, Mechanical, King Abdullah II School for Information Technology. Faculty of Foreign Languages, established in 2008, but many of its departments were established as early as 1962, there were 3,500 students enrolled in this college, of whom 85% are females. 14 languages other than Arabic are taught in the Faculty of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Arts, founded in 2008, but most of its departments date back to 1962 when the university itself was established. All departments offer B. A. and M. A, while the Ph. D. is awarded by the History, Geography, there are 106 Faculty members and 2926 students currently enrolled. Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences, the Jordan Academy of Arabic One of 10 academies in the world that regulate Arabic language and literature
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Ibn Arabi
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He is renowned by practitioners of Sufism as the greatest master and also as a genuine saint. Abū Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn Arabī was born in Murcia, Taifa of Murcia on Monday and he went by the names al-Shaykh al-Akbar and Muḥyiddin ibn Arabi. He was also known as Shaikh-e-Akbar Mohi-ud-Din Ibn-e-Arabi in the Subcontinent and his father, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad, served in the Army of Abu ʿAbd Allah. When Abu ʿAbd Allah died in 1172 AD, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad swiftly shifted his allegiance to the Almohad Sultan, Abū Ya’qūb Yūsuf I and his family then relocated from Murcia to Seville. His fathers family claimed descent from the legendary Arabian poet Hatim al-Tai and his mother came from a noble Berber family with strong ties to northern Africa. Ibn ‘Arabī’s intellectual training began in Seville in 578 AH, most of his teachers were the clergy of the Almohad era and some of them held the official posts of Qadi or Khatib. His spiritual mentor in Fes was Mohammed ibn Qasim al-Tamimi, in the year 597 AH, he was in Morocco and took his final leave from his master Yūsuf al-Kūmī, who was living in the village of Salé at that time. Ibn Arabi undertook Hajj in 598 AH and he lived in Mecca for three years. It was in Mecca that he started writing his work Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, after spending time in Mecca, he traveled throughout Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Anatolia. The year 600 AH witnessed a meeting between Ibn Arabi and Shaykh Majduddīn Isḥāq ibn Yūsuf, a native of Malatya and a man of standing at the Seljuk court. This time Ibn ‘Arabī was travelling north, first they visited Medina and this visit besides other benefits offered him a chance to meet the direct disciples of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qādir Jīlānī. Ibn Arabi stayed there only for 12 days because he wanted to visit Mosul to see his friend ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdallāh ibn Jāmi’, a disciple of Qaḍīb al-Bān. There he spent the month of Ramaḍan and composed Tanazzulāt al-Mawṣiliyya, Kitāb al-Jalāl wa’l-Jamāl and Kunh mā lā Budda lil-MurīdMinhu In the year 602 AH he visited Jerusalem, Mecca and it was his first time that he passed through Syria, visiting Aleppo and Damascus. Later in 604 AH he returned to Mecca where he continued to study and write, spending his time with his friend Abū Shujā bin Rustem and family, including the beautiful Niẓām. The next 4 to 5 years of Ibn ‘Arabī’s life were spent in these lands, on 22 Rabī‘ al-Thānī638 AH at the age of seventy-five, Ibn ‘Arabī died in Damascus. Al-Insān al-Kāmil or the perfect being was first deeply discussed in written form by Ibn Arabi in one of his most prolific works entitled Fusus al-Hikam. Taking an idea already common within Sufi culture, Ibn al-Arabi applied deep analysis and reflection on the issue of the Perfect Human, in developing his explanation of the perfect being al-Arabi first discusses the issue of oneness through the metaphor of the mirror. In this metaphor al-Arabi compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and his creatures, God’s essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and humans being the mirrors
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