1.
Flag of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
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The national flag of Zimbabwe consists of seven even horizontal stripes of green, gold, red and black with a white triangle containing a red 5-pointed star with a Zimbabwe Bird. The present design was adopted on 18 April 1980, when Zimbabwe won its independence from the United Kingdom, the soapstone bird featured on the flag represents a statuette of a bird found at the ruins of Great Zimbabwe. The design is based on the flag of Zimbabwes ruling party, Southern Rhodesia achieved responsible government in 1923, and thereby became a British self-governing colony following three decades of rule by the British South Africa Company. This basic design was used until 1968, although a blue ensign was introduced in April 1964 following the break-up of the Federation of Rhodesia. On 11 November 1968, three years after the white government unilaterally declared independence from Britain, a national flag based on a completely new design was adopted. This was a vertical triband, charged centrally with the national coat of arms. This was the first national flag to contain the Zimbabwe Bird, the flag of Zimbabwe Rhodesia was designed by Flight Lieutenant Cedric Herbert of the Rhodesian Air Force and a member of the Rhodesian Heraldry and Genealogy Society. The design incorporated the colours of yellow, black, green and red, with the black stripe symbolising majority rule in the country. The yellow and green represent the nations mineral wealth and its agricultural and natural resources. The thin vertical white stripe represented the white minority while the central white stripe represented peace. This flag was officially superseded in December 1979 when Britain took interim control of the following the Lancaster House Agreement which ended the Rhodesian Bush War. The British Union Jack was used as the flag of the country, although de facto the Zimbabwe Rhodesia flag continued to be flown. The initial design did not include the Zimbabwe Bird and this was added at the suggestion of Cederic Herbert, who pointed out its uniqueness and history. The final draft went through the approval of the then-Prime Minister-elect Robert Mugabe, the adoption of the new flag coincided with the swearing-in of Canaan Banana as the countrys new president. The Zimbabwe Bird, used on every flag since 1968, is based on a statue discovered from the ancient ruined city of Great Zimbabwe in the countrys south-east, there are certain guidelines for the use, display and disposal of the national flag of Zimbabwe. The flag should never be allowed to come into contact with the ground. Should the flag reach a stage where it is no longer deemed worthy of the eye, such as when it is torn and tattered, it should be destroyed in a dignified way with all due care. After which, the flag should be replaced with a new one
2.
Coat of arms of Zimbabwe
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The current coat of arms of Zimbabwe was adopted on September 21,1981, one year and five months after the national flag was adopted. Previously the coat of arms of Zimbabwe was identical to the former Coat of arms of Rhodesia. The coat of arms depicts two Kudus on the left and right, each standing on top of an earthly mound composed of stalks of wheat, a pile of cotton, at their feet there is also a banner emblazoned with the Zimbabwean national motto. Placed behind the shield are an agricultural hoe and an AK-47 assault rifle, the wreath is gold and green and the crest features the Zimbabwe Bird on a Red Star background. They also symbolise the transition from war to peace, strips of Silk of gold and green, the national financial enterprise and the protection of the economy Red Star, hope for the future of Zimbabwe. Conveys the Socialist revolutionary nature of the 1980 achievement of majority rule, Great Zimbabwe Bird, national identity Blue and White Wavy Lines, Victoria Falls, water which brings prosperity. Official authorisation by Royal Warrant for the coat of arms was granted on 11 August 1924. The shield features a red lion passant and two thistles, taken from the arms of Cecil Rhodes, after whom the colony was named. The pick, in gold on a field, represents mining. Also featured above the shield is the statuette of the Zimbabwe Bird found in the ruins of Great Zimbabwe. The shield of the arms was used on the flag of the colony by being placed in the fly of a British Blue Ensign and this design changed in 1964 when the field of the flag was changed to light blue. In November 1968, the coat of arms was placed in the centre of a new Rhodesian flag which was a green, white. After Rhodesia was declared a republic in 1970, the arms featured on the Presidents flag. In 1569, Sebastian of Portugal made a grant of arms to the Mwenemutapa and these were blazoned, Gules between two arrows Argent an African hoe barwise bladed Or handled Argent - The shield surmounted by a Crown Oriental. This was probably the first grant of arms to a native of southern Africa, Coat of arms of Rhodesia List of Rhodesian flags
3.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
4.
Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia
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Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia was the national anthem of the unrecognised state of Rhodesia between 1974 and 1979. The tune was that of Ode to Joy, the Fourth Movement from Ludwig van Beethovens Ninth Symphony, the music used in Rhodesia was an original sixteen-bar arrangement by Captain Ken MacDonald, the bandmaster of the Rhodesian African Rifles. A national competition was organised by the government to find a set of lyrics to match the chosen tune. With Rhodesias reconstitution in 1970 as a republic, however, the anthem was dropped along with many other references to the monarchy. The Republic of Rhodesia lacked a national anthem until it adopted Rise, the national anthem lost its legal status in December 1979, when the UK took interim control of the country pending its internationally recognised independence as Zimbabwe five months later. Rhodesias use of the well-known Beethoven tune has since caused the playing of Ode to Joy to be controversial in modern-day Zimbabwe. The royal anthem officially remained in place until the declaration of a republic in March 1970. With a tune now in place, the Rhodesian government organised a competition to write matching lyrics. It did announce, however, that should Rhodesia use the arrangement as the Council of Europe, then the author of that score, Herbert von Karajan. Such an incident was averted when Rhodesia adopted an original arrangement by Captain Ken MacDonald. The winning lyricist was confirmed on 24 September 1974 to be Mary Bloom, a director, music critic and poet from Gwelo. Bloom titled her work Voices of Rhodesia, but the full first line, Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia and he was eventually able to do so, but only after prolonged negotiations with the authorities. When Ode to Joy was included in an organ recital held by a Harare church at Christmas 1994. Notes Newspaper and journal articles Bibliography MP3 version
5.
Harare
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Harare is the capital and most populous city of Zimbabwe. Situated in the north-east of the country in the heart of historic Mashonaland, administratively, Harare is a metropolitan province, which also incorporates Chitungwiza town and Epworth. It is situated at an elevation of 1,483 metres above sea level, company administrators demarcated the city and ran it until Southern Rhodesia achieved responsible government in 1923. Salisbury was thereafter the seat of the Southern Rhodesian government and and it retained the name Salisbury until 1982, when it was renamed Harare on the second anniversary of Zimbabwean independence. Harare is Zimbabwes leading financial, commercial, and communications centre, and a centre for tobacco, maize, cotton. Manufactured goods include textiles, steel and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area, the University of Zimbabwe, the countrys oldest university, is situated in Mount Pleasant, about 6 km north of the city centre. Harare is home to the countrys main Test cricket ground, Harare Sports Club, the Pioneer Column, a military volunteer force of settlers organised by Cecil Rhodes, founded the city on 12 September 1890 as a fort. They originally named the city Fort Salisbury after The 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, then British Prime Minister, the Salisbury Polo Club was formed in 1896. It was declared to be a municipality in 1897 and it became a city in 1935. The area at the time of founding of the city was poorly drained, the first area to be fully drained was near the head of the stream and was named Causeway as a result. Salisbury was the capital of the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia from 1923, ian Smiths Rhodesian Front government declared Rhodesia independent from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965, and proclaimed the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970. Subsequently, the became the short-lived state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The capital city retained the name Salisbury until 1982, prior to independence, Harare was the name of the black residential area now known as Mbare. In May 2006 the Zimbabwean newspaper the Financial Gazette, described the city in an editorial as a sunshine city-turned-sewage farm, in 2009, Harare was voted to be the toughest city to live in according to the Economist Intelligence Units livability poll. The situation was unchanged in 2011, according to the poll, which is based on stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education. In May 2005 the Zimbabwean government demolished shanties and backyard cottages in Harare, the government claimed it was necessitated by a rise of criminality and disease. This was followed by Operation Garikayi/Hlalani Kuhle a year later which consisted of building housing of poor quality. In late March 2010, Harares Joina City Tower was finally opened after 14 years of on-off construction, initially, uptake of space in the tower was low, with office occupancy at only 3% in October 2011
6.
Shona language
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Shona /ˈʃoʊnə/, or chiShona, is the most widely first spoken Bantu language, native to the Shona people of Zimbabwe. The term is used to identify peoples who speak one of the Shona language dialects, Zezuru, Karanga, Manyika and Korekore. Some researchers include Kalanga, others recognise it as a language in its own right, desmond Dales basic English–Shona and Shona–English dictionaries comprise special vocabulary of the Karanga, Korekore, Manyika and Zezuru dialects, but no Ndau or Kalanga. Shona is a language of Zimbabwe, along with Ndebele. Shona is spoken by a percentage of the people in Zimbabwe. Shona is the most spoken Bantu language by the criterion of number of native speakers, according to Ethnologue, Shona, comprising the Karanga, Zezuru, and Korekore dialects, is spoken by about 10.8 million people. The Manyika and Ndau dialects of Shona are listed separately by Ethnologue, the total figure of Shona speakers is then about 14.2 million people. Zulu is the second most widely spoken Bantu language with 10.3 million speakers according to Ethnologue, Shona is a written standard language with an orthography and grammar that was codified during the early 20th century and fixed in the 1950s. The first novel in Shona, Solomon Mutswairos Feso, was published in 1957, Shona is taught in the schools but is not the general medium of instruction in other subjects. It has a literature and is described through monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, modern Shona is based on the dialect spoken by the Karanga people of Masvingo Province, the region around Great Zimbabwe, and Zezuru people of central and northern Zimbabwe. However, all Shona dialects are considered to be of equal significance and are taught in local schools. Shona is a member of the family of Bantu languages. Shona speakers most likely moved into present day Zimbabwe from the Mapungubwe and K2 communities in Limpopo, South Africa, before the influx of European, primarily British, settlers. A common misconception is that the speakers of the Karanga dialect were absorbed into the Ndebele culture and this misconception is a direct result of the political bias in the national curriculum framework of Zimbabwe. The Kalanga language is spoken in Botswana where the Ndebele were never present. The Kalanga language is thought to have been the used by the Mapungubweans. If this is accurate it follows that the Karanga dialect of Shona is a derivative of Kalanga, Karanga is closer to Kalanga than the rest of the aforementioned dialects. Karanga and Kalanga are both closer to Venda than the other Shona dialects, Shona is used to refer to a standardised language based on the central dialects of the Shona region
7.
Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants
8.
Parliamentary republic
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A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature. There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics, most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power, much like constitutional monarchies. Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems and this usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system, typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system, with the position of head of state given to a monarch. Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870, the President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940, following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. Additionally, the government proved unable to make decisions regarding decolonization. Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a Presidential one, since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations. In the case of republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General. This was the case in with South Africa, Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, in many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan, others became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence. List of countries by system of government Parliamentary system Republic Republicanism Semi-presidential system
9.
President of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
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The position of President of Zimbabwe Rhodesia was the head of state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Like the country itself, it was never internationally recognized, the only President of Zimbabwe Rhodesia was Josiah Zion Gumede. The position was established on 1 June 1979, under the terms of the Internal Settlement negotiated between the government of Rhodesia and moderate African nationalists. It existed until, under the terms of the Lancaster House Agreement, parties United African National Council Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia Government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia President of Rhodesia President of Zimbabwe
10.
Josiah Zion Gumede
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Josiah Gumede was born in Bembesi, in the Bubi District of Southern Rhodesia. He was educated at the David Livingstone Memorial Mission and Matopo Mission before matriculating in the Cape Province in 1946 and he taught at various mission and government schools and ended his teaching career as a headmaster. He was the assistant information and education attache for the Government of Rhodesia and he then joined the Ministry of External Affairs. He was also an elder of the Presbyterian Church of South Africa. Gumede is the grandfather of British television actress, Natalie Gumede
11.
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
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The position of Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia was the head of government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Like the country itself, it was never internationally recognized, the only Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia was Abel Muzorewa. The position was established on 1 June 1979, under the terms of the Internal Settlement negotiated between the government of Rhodesia and moderate African nationalists. It existed until, under the terms of the Lancaster House Agreement, parties United African National Council President of Zimbabwe Rhodesia Government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia Prime Minister of Rhodesia Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
12.
Abel Muzorewa
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Bishop Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia from the Internal Settlement to the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979. A United Methodist Church bishop and nationalist leader, he held office for only a few months, Muzorewa was the eldest of a lay preachers eight children and was educated at the United Methodist School, Old Umtali, near Mutare. He was a teacher at Mrewa between 1943 and 1947 before becoming a full-time lay preacher at Mtoko between 1947 and 1949. He then studied theology at Old Umtali Biblical College and was ordained as a Minister at Umtali in August 1953 and he was a pastor at Chiduku, near Rusape, from 1955 to 1958. Muzorewa attended Central College in Fayette, Missouri, later Central Methodist University, by then he had a wife and three sons, who lived with him in prefabricated student housing, while his sons attended a segregated school. His youngest son Wesley and playmate Mark Elrod attempted to integrate the ice cream counter of the drug store. When Elrod took Muzorewa to visit Scarritt College in Nashville Tennessee, they were turned away from an eating facility, however, he later graduated as a Master of Arts from Scarritt. In July 1963, Muzorewa became pastor of Old Umtali, a year later he was appointed National Director of the Christian Youth Movement and was seconded to the Christian Council. In 1966, he became Secretary of the Student Christian Movement, in 1968, at Masera in Botswana, he was consecrated as the United Methodist Churchs Bishop of Rhodesia. In 1971 the British government struck a deal with Ian Smith that provided for a transition to majority rule in exchange for an end to sanctions against the government. Muzorewa joined an inexperienced cleric, the Reverend Canaan Banana, to form the United African National Council to oppose the settlement, the proposed referendum was withdrawn and Muzorewa found himself a national leader and an international personality. After ZANU and ZAPU undertook guerrilla warfare, the UANC was the only legal black party and this Executive Council was to run the affairs of state prior to elections taking place. A new constitution was drafted reserving 10 seats in the Senate and 28 seats in the House of Assembly for the minority. The constitution was approved in a nearly Whites-only referendum that took place in January 1979, an overwhelming majority of 85% voted yes. Elections were held, and the UANC won, josiah Gumede was the first President, Muzorewa became prime minister and the countrys name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. However, the war that Smith hoped to stem as a result of the settlement continued unabated, Mugabe and Nkomo rejected the settlement, ending any realistic chance for Muzorewa to gain any international legitimacy. While ZANU and ZAPU could have part in the elections if they laid down their arms. The British government asked all parties to come to London for negotiations to find a solution to the Bush War
13.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
14.
Lancaster House Agreement
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The negotiations which led to the Lancaster House Agreement brought recognised independence to Rhodesia following Ian Smiths Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965. The Agreement covered the Independence Constitution, pre-independence arrangements, and a ceasefire and it was signed on 21 December 1979. Lord Carrington, Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary of the United Kingdom, the conference took place from 10 September-15 December 1979 with 47 plenary sessions. Under the Independence Constitution agreed,20 per cent of the seats in the parliament were to be reserved for whites. This provision remained in the constitution until 1987, in terms of the ceasefire, ZAPU and ZANU guerillas were to gather at designated Assembly Points under British supervision, following which elections were to be held to elect a new government. These elections were held in February 1980 and were won by the Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front led by Robert Mugabe, Independence in terms of the Constitution agreed to at Lancaster House was granted to Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980 with Robert Mugabe as the first Prime Minister. In addition to the terms cited above, Robert Mugabe and his supporters were pressured into agreeing to wait ten years before instituting land reform, the three-month-long conference almost failed to reach an accord due to disagreements on land reform. Mugabe was pressured to sign and land was the key stumbling block, both the British and American governments offered to compensate white citizens for any land sold so as to aid reconciliation and a fund was established, to operate from 1980 to 1990. Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington Sir Ian Gilmour Sir Michael Havers David Ormsby-Gore and he also emerged as a vocal critic of the massacre of civilians in Matabeleland after government launched a crackdown against so-called dissidents in the region. He formed his own party, Zimbabwe Unity Movement in 1989 ahead of elections in 1990. Flamboyant and often controversial, he clashed with the Mugabe administration and was thrown out of the government, welcomed back in. He died in 1995 and was buried in Zimbabwes national cemetery and he was declared a national hero. Dzingai Mutumbuka – future minister of education Josiah Tungamirai – future Air force chief, edson Zvobgo – lawyer, Harvard graduate, future Government minister, clashed with Mugabe around press freedom, buried a national hero. John Nkomo – Future Vice-President L Baron S K Sibanda E Mlambo C Ndlovu E Siziba K Ndoro Prime Minister Bishop Abel Muzorewa S C Mundawarara E L Bulle F. In 1981 the British assisted in setting up a Zimbabwe conference on reconstruction and development, in 1997 War veterans began receiving individual personal payments of ZW$50,000 each for their service in the war, costing the nations tax payers billions of dollars and depleting government coffers. In the time since independence, the Lancaster House Agreement was modified and changed more than 27 times according to a Zimbabwe independent newspaper, land reform in Zimbabwe Read the full Agreement on UN Peacemaker Database
15.
Rhodesian dollar
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The dollar was the currency of Rhodesia between 1970 and 1980. It was subdivided into 100 cents, the dollar was introduced on 17 February 1970, less than a month before the declaration of a republic on 2 March 1970. It replaced the pound at a rate of 2 dollars to 1 pound, the dollar proved to be a strong currency, at parity with the pound sterling right up to the very end of Rhodesia in 1980, when it was replaced by the Zimbabwean dollar at par. However, the Rhodesian dollar was never a fully convertible currency, the choice of the name dollar was favoured by the then Minister of Finance, John Wrathall, who regarded it as having international substance. New 5 cent coins were introduced in 1973, followed by 10,20 and 25 cents in 1975, on 17 February 1970, the Reserve bank of Rhodesia introduced notes in denominations of 1,2 and 10 dollars. 5 dollar notes were added in 1972 and this table shows the historical value of one Rhodesian dollar. Rhodesian Currency Page, with a description of each note
16.
Rhodesia
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Rhodesia, commonly known from 1970 onwards as the Republic of Rhodesia, was an unrecognised state in southern Africa from 1965 to 1979, equivalent in territorial terms to modern Zimbabwe. With its capital in Salisbury, Rhodesia was considered a de facto successor state to the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia, the UDI administration initially sought recognition as an autonomous realm within the Commonwealth of Nations, but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970. Following a brutal guerrilla war fought with two African nationalist organisations, Rhodesian premier Ian Smith conceded to bi-racial democracy in 1978, however, a provisional government subsequently headed by Smith and his moderate colleague Abel Muzorewa failed in appeasing international critics or halting the bloodshed. It finally achieved internationally recognised independence in April 1980, the nation was renamed the Republic of Zimbabwe. A wholly landlocked area, Rhodesia was bordered by South Africa to the south, Bechuanaland to the southwest, Zambia to the northwest, the state was named after Cecil Rhodes, whose British South Africa Company acquired the land in the late 19th century. The official name of the country, according to the constitution adopted concurrently with the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965, was Rhodesia and this naming dispute dated back to October 1964, when Northern Rhodesia became independent from Britain and concurrently changed its name to Zambia. The Southern Rhodesian colonial government in Salisbury felt that in the absence of a Northern Rhodesia, Salisbury went on using the shortened name in an official manner nevertheless, while the British government continued referring to the country as Southern Rhodesia. This situation continued throughout the UDI period, the shortened name was used by many people including the British government in the House of Commons. Southern Rhodesia subsequently gained international recognition of its independence in April 1980, in 1922, faced with the decision to join the Union of South Africa as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration. In view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923, shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. By colonial standards, public services were well-organised and praised for their efficiency, as it began to appear that decolonisation was inevitable and indigenous black populations were pressing heavily for change, the federation was dissolved in 1963. Rhodesian colonials initially balked at the suggestion, some felt they had a right to political control, at least for the time being. The authorities were also disturbed by the chaos which was plaguing other African nations at the time. Harold Wilson and his incoming Labour government took a harder line on demanding that these points be legitimately addressed before an independence agenda could be set. By 1964, growing dissatisfaction with the ongoing negotiations ousted Salisburys incumbent Winston Field, replacing him with Ian Smith, Smith, the colonys first Rhodesian-born leader, soon came to personify resistance to liberals in British government and those agitating for change at home. Emboldened by the results of referendum and the subsequent general election. Harold Wilson countered by warning that such a procedure would be considered treasonous, although he specifically rejected using armed force against the English kith. Wilsons refusal to consider a military option encouraged Smith to proceed with his plans, on 11 November 1965, following a brief but solemn consensus, Rhodesias leading statesmen issued their countrys unilateral declaration of independence
17.
Southern Rhodesia
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The Colony of Southern Rhodesia was a self-governing British Crown colony in southern Africa from 1923 to 1980, the predecessor state of modern Zimbabwe. After a period of interim British control following the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979, initially, the territory was referred to as South Zambezia, a reference to the River Zambezi, until the name Rhodesia came into use in 1895. This was in honour of Cecil Rhodes, the British empire-builder, Southern was first used in 1898 and dropped from normal usage in 1964, on the break-up of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Rhodesia then remained the name of the country until the creation of Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979, legally, from the British perspective, the name Southern Rhodesia continued to be used until 18 April 1980, when the Republic of Zimbabwe was promulgated. The British government agreed that Rhodes company, the British South Africa Company, queen Victoria signed the charter in 1889. A Legislative Council was created in 1899 to manage the companys affairs, with a minority of elected seats. Prior to about 1918, the opinion among the electorate supported continued BSAC rule but opinion changed because of the development of the country and increased settlement. In addition, a decision in the British courts that land not in private ownership belonged to the British Crown rather than the BSAC gave great impetus to the campaign for self-government. In the resulting treaty government self-government, Crown lands which were sold to settlers allowed those settlers the right to vote in the self-governing colony, the territory north of the Zambezi was the subject of separate treaties with African chiefs, today, it forms the country of Zambia. The first BSAC Administrator for the part was appointed for Barotseland in 1897. The first BSAC Administrator for the part, North-Eastern Rhodesia, was appointed in 1895. The whites in the south of the river paid it scant regard though. This resulted in the formation of new movements for expanding the self-government of the Rhodesian people which saw BSAC rule as an impediment to further expansion, in view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923. Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force, under this constitution Sir Charles Coghlan became the first Premier of Southern Rhodesia and upon his death in 1927 he was succeeded by Howard Unwin Moffat. During World War II, Southern Rhodesian military units participated on the side of the United Kingdom, Southern Rhodesian forces were involved on many fronts including the East and North African Campaigns, Italy, Madagascar and Burma. Southern Rhodesian forces had the highest loss ratio of any constituent element, colony, additionally, the Rhodesian pilots earned the highest number of decorations and ace appellations of any group within the Empire. This resulted in the Royal Family paying a state visit to the colony at the end of the war to thank the Rhodesian people. Economically, Southern Rhodesia developed an economy that was based on production of a few primary products, notably, chrome
18.
Zimbabwe
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Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, although it does not border Namibia, less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates it from that country. The capital and largest city is Harare, a country of roughly 13 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used. Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a route for migration. The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the present territory during the 1890s, in 1965, the conservative white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia. Zimbabwe then rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations—which it withdrew from in 2003 and it is a member of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his ZANU-PF party won the following the end of white minority rule. Under Mugabes authoritarian regime, the security apparatus has dominated the country. Mugabe has maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric from the Cold War era, the name Zimbabwe stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, an ancient ruined city in the countrys south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the word, many sources hold that Zimbabwe derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as large houses of stone. The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the province of Masvingo. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia, a further alternative, put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland, had been Matopos, referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo. In a 2001 interview, black nationalist Edson Zvobgo recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a rally, and it caught hold. The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name the during the Second Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War of 1964-1979, major factions in this camp included the Zimbabwe African National Union, and the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union. Proto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands, the Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, the main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal and they traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe and this Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwes stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdoms capital of Great Zimbabwe
19.
Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence
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Britain, the Commonwealth and the United Nations all deemed Rhodesias UDI illegal, and economic sanctions, the first in the UNs history, were imposed on the breakaway colony. Amid near-complete international isolation, Rhodesia continued as a state with the assistance of South Africa. Most white Rhodesians felt that they were due independence following four decades self-government, stalemate developed between the British and Rhodesian Prime Ministers, Harold Wilson and Ian Smith respectively, between 1964 and 1965. While no country recognised UDI, the Rhodesian High Court deemed the post-UDI government legal, the Smith administration initially professed continued loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II, but abandoned this in 1970 when it declared a republic in an unsuccessful attempt to win foreign recognition. Under these terms the country was reconstituted under black rule as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979, but this new order was rejected by the guerrillas, the Bush War continued until Zimbabwe Rhodesia revoked UDI as part of the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979. Following a brief period of direct British rule, the country was granted internationally recognised independence under the name Zimbabwe in 1980 and it was empowered to run its own affairs in almost all respects, including defence. In the event, they were never exercised, a generally co-operative relationship developed between Whitehall and the colonial government and civil service in Salisbury, and dispute was rare. The 1923 constitution was drawn up in terms, and the electoral system it devised was similarly open. Everyday life was marked by discrimination ranging from job reservation for whites to petty segregation of trains, post office queues, in the wider Imperial context, Southern Rhodesia occupied a category unto itself because of the special quasi-independent status it held. This unique arrangement continued following the advent of Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conferences in 1944, Southern Rhodesians of all races fought for Britain in the Second World War, and the colonial government gradually received more autonomy regarding external affairs. Post-war immigration to Southern Rhodesia, mainly from Britain, Ireland and South Africa, the black population grew from 1,400,000 to 3,550,000 over the same period. He hoped that this set in motion the creation of one united dominion in south-central Africa. Britain, France and Belgium vastly accelerated their withdrawal from Africa during this period, the idea of no independence before majority rule, commonly abbreviated to NIBMAR, gained considerable ground in British political circles. When Huggins asked Britain to make the Federation a dominion in 1956, the opposition Dominion Party responded by repeatedly calling for a Federal unilateral declaration of independence over the next few years. Following Lord Malverns retirement in late 1956, his successor Sir Roy Welensky pondered such a move on at least three occasions, a referendum of the mostly white electorate approved the new constitution by a majority of 65% on 26 July 1961. This effectively negated the relinquishment of British powers described elsewhere in the document, Field became Prime Minister, with Smith as his deputy. In February 1962, the British Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, Duncan Sandys, a few days later, he horrified Welensky by telling him that we British have lost the will to govern. But we havent, retorted Julian Greenfield, Welenskys Law Minister, macmillans Deputy Prime Minister and First Secretary of State, R A Butler, who headed British oversight of the Federation, officially announced Nyasalands right to secede in December 1962
20.
Ian Smith
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Ian Douglas Smith, GCLM, ID was a politician, farmer, and fighter pilot who served as Prime Minister of Rhodesia from 1964 to 1979. Smith was born to British immigrants in Selukwe, a town in the Southern Rhodesian Midlands. He set up a farm in his town in 1948 and, the same year, became Member of Parliament for Selukwe—at 29 years old. Originally a Liberal, he moved to the United Federal Party in 1953, Smith became Deputy Prime Minister following the RFs December 1962 election victory, and stepped up to the premiership after Field resigned in April 1964. His government endured in the face of United Nations economic sanctions with the assistance of South Africa and, until 1974, talks with Britain in 1966,1968 and 1971 came to nothing. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970 and led the RF to three more decisive election victories over the seven years. After the Bush War began in earnest in 1972, he negotiated with the non-militant nationalist leader Bishop Abel Muzorewa, in 1978, Smith and non-militant nationalists including Muzorewa signed the Internal Settlement, under which the country became Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979. Mugabe and Nkomo continued fighting, no country recognised the settlement, as Mugabes reputation thereafter plummeted amid Zimbabwes economic ruin, reckoning of Smith and his legacy improved. Zimbabwean opposition supporters lauded the elderly Smith as an symbol of resistance. He remained in Zimbabwe until 2005, when he moved to Cape Town, South Africa, after his death two years later at the age of 88, his ashes were repatriated and scattered at his farm. Ian Douglas Smith was born on 8 April 1919 in Selukwe and he had two elder sisters, Phyllis and Joan. Jock and his English wife, Agnes, had met in 1907, when she was 16 and they married in Frizington, then returned together to Rhodesia, where Jock, an accomplished horseman, won the 1911 Coronation Derby at Salisbury. The Smiths involved themselves heavily in local affairs, Agnes, who became informally known as Mrs Jock, established and ran the Selukwe Womens Institute. Both won the MBE for their services to the community and my parents strove to instil principles and moral virtues, the sense of right and wrong, of integrity, in their children, Ian Smith wrote in his memoirs. They set wonderful examples to live up to and he considered his father a man of extremely strong principles—one of the fairest men I have ever met and that is the way he brought me up. He always told me that were entitled to our half of the country, Ian Smith showed sporting promise from an early age. After attending the Selukwe primary school, he boarded at Chaplin School in Gwelo, about 30 km away. In his final year at Chaplin, he was head prefect, captain of the teams in cricket, rugby and tennis, recipient of the Victor Ludorum in athletics
21.
Rhodesian Bush War
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The Rhodesian Bush War—also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe War of Liberation—was a civil war that took place from July 1964 to December 1979 in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia. However, this new order failed to win recognition and the war continued. The country returned temporarily to British control and new elections were held under British, ZANU won the election and Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980, when the country achieved internationally recognised independence. Rhodesia was settled by Britons and South Africans beginning in the 1890s and while it was never accorded full dominion status, many white Rhodesians were concerned that decolonisation and majority rule would bring chaos as had resulted in the former Belgian Congo after its independence in 1960. Britains unwillingness to compromise on its policy of No independence before majority rule led to Rhodesias unilateral declaration of independence on 11 November 1965, though Rhodesia had the unofficial support of neighbouring South Africa and Portugal, which governed Mozambique, it never gained formal diplomatic recognition from any country. Many white Rhodesians viewed the war as one of survival in the context of atrocities committed against the population during the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. Many whites viewed their lifestyle as being under attack, which both had considered safer and with a standard of living than many other African countries. Although the vote in Rhodesia was technically open to all, regardless of race, the 1969 constitution provided for Non-Europeans to elect representatives for eight of the seats in the 66 seat parliament. A further eight seats were reserved for tribal chiefs, amidst this backdrop, African nationalists advocated armed struggle to bring about independence in Rhodesia under black majority rule. Resistance also stemmed from the economic inequality between blacks and whites. In Rhodesia, whites owned most of the land whilst many blacks were crowded on barren land. ZANU and its military wing ZANLA were headed initially by the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, ZAPU and its military wing ZIPRA consisted mainly of Ndebele ethnic groups under Joshua Nkomo. Cold War politics played into the conflict also, with the Soviet Union supporting ZIPRA, each group subsequently fought a separate war against the Rhodesian security forces, and the two groups sometimes fought against each other as well. In June 1979, the governments of Cuba and Mozambique offered direct military assistance to the Patriotic Front, other foreign nations also contributed to the conflict, for instance North Korean military officials taught Zimbabwean militants how to use explosives and arms in a camp near Pyongyang. By April 197912,000 ZANLA guerrillas were training in Tanzania, Ethiopia, on the other side of the conflict South Africa clandestinely provided both material and military support to the Rhodesian government. Inevitably the Bush War occurred within the context of regional Cold War in Africa, the conflict was seen by the nationalist groups and the British government of the time as a war of national and racial liberation. The Nationalists saw their country as having been occupied and dominated by a power, namely Britain. Ian Smiths Rhodesian Front party was elected to power in 1962, however, unsatisfied with this and spurred on by Britains refusal to recognise the new order, the nationalist forces persisted
22.
Education in Zimbabwe
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Both are regulated by the Cabinet of Zimbabwe. The education system in Zimbabwe encompasses 13 years of primary and secondary school, the school year is a total of 40 weeks with three terms and a month break in-between each term. The country is currently workings toward the Sustainable Development Goal of providing universal, due to large investments in education since independence Zimbabwe has the highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in 2010 was 92 %. The British South Africa Company arrived in the 1890s to Rhodesia, the Company administration of Rhodesia created Christian missionary schools to serve local communities. Missionary schools provided an education for the population that focused on agricultural production and industrial development including carpentry. N. J. Atkinson claims that in order to control the local population, furthermore, he argues that the eurocentric education system was a structural institution that reinforced the superiority of white settlers even though they were the minority of the population. Missionary schools perpetuated social and economic repression of the population by reducing their chances of earning well-paying jobs or positions of power. Rugare Mapako claims education to Africans offered limited academic and foundational skills in order to promote labor exploitation, limited access to a quality education kept Africans subordinate to white colonists in order to advance British political and economic gains. Funding secondary school was also offered to Europeans rather than Africans. In the 1970s, only 43.5 percent of African children attended school, in 1979, a new Zimbabwe-Rhodesia government called for an education reform that created a three-tier school system. The Education Act of 1979 regulated access to each type of school through a system based on residency. Before the act, Zimbabwes education system was divided between African and European schools, after the shift in policy and leadership the education system split into government schools, community schools and private schools. Government schools were split into three divisions called Group A, B and C. White students historically attended Group A schools that offered highly trained teachers and these schools were located in white suburbs that denied housing opportunities for Africans, reinforcing segregation based on ethnicity and race. Group B schools required a payment and C schools did not require a fee beyond educational materials. Both were only available for African students, Group B and C schools had less resources, funding and qualified faculty compared to Group A schools. The Rhodesian Bush War from 1964 to 1979, a 15-year guerrilla war, the ZANU party, Zimbabwe African National Union, won the national election in 1980 and took over the historic white minority government in Rhodesia. The ZANU party democratized education by promising free and compulsory primary and secondary education to all children in Zimbabwe, the partys claims were backed by the national constitution, which recognizes education as a basic human right
23.
Great Zimbabwe
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Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the countrys Late Iron Age, construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The most widely-accepted modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona, the stone city spans an area of 722 hectares which, at its peak, could have housed up to 18,000 people. It is recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have used as the seat of political power. Among the edifices most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high, eventually, the city was abandoned and fell into ruin. The earliest known mention of the Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala. The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, Great Zimbabwe has since been adopted as a national monument by the Zimbabwean government, and the modern independent state was named for it. The word great distinguishes the site from the hundreds of small ruins, now known as zimbabwes. There are 200 such sites in southern Africa, such as Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique, with monumental, mortarless walls, Zimbabwe is the Shona name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala. Pegado noted that The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, the name contains dzimba, the Shona term for houses. There are two theories for the etymology of the name, the first proposes that the word is derived from Dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as large houses of stone. A second suggests that Zimbabwe is a form of dzimba-hwe. The majority of scholars believe that it was built by members of the Gokomere culture, a few believe that the ancestors of the Lemba or Venda were responsible, or cooperated with the Gokomere in the construction. The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the century of the common era. Between the fourth and the centuries, communities of the Gokomere or Ziwa cultures farmed the valley, and mined and worked iron. These are the earliest Iron Age settlements in the area identified from archaeological diggings, construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa, and are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa
24.
Natal Province
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The Province of Natal, commonly called the Natal Province, was a province of South Africa from 1910 until 1994. The Natal Province included the bantustan of KwaZulu, the majority of the white population were English-speaking, causing Natal to become the only province to vote no to the creation of a republic in the referendum of 1960. In the latter part of the 1980s, Natal was in a state of violence that only ended with the first multiracial election in 1994, in 1994, the KwaZulu bantustan was reincorporated into the territory of Natal and the province redesignated KwaZulu-Natal. Districts of the province and population at the time of the 1991 census, coat of arms of Natal Mtetwa Empire Zululand Natalia Republic Colony of Natal KwaZulu-Natal
25.
KwaZulu-Natal
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KwaZulu-Natal is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and its capital is Pietermaritzburg and its largest city is Durban. It is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa, with fewer residents than Gauteng. Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, at around 92,100 km2 in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas, the areas largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province. The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines, steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest, the midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland, the province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats, the former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made changes to the southern border of the province. The northwesterly line of latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene to northeast Lesotho. KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography, generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches 30 °C in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, one of these, eThekwini, is a metropolitan municipality and the other ten are district municipalities. The local seat of district municipality is given in parentheses. In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal and this amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust, the coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs
26.
Portmanteau
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In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
27.
Robert Mugabe
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Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he has led the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front party since 1975. Mugabe was born to a poor Shona family in Kutama, Southern Rhodesia, following an education at Kutama College and the University of Fort Hare, he worked as a teacher in Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Ghana. Angered that Southern Rhodesia was a British colony governed by an elite, Mugabe embraced Marxism. After making anti-government comments he was convicted of sedition and imprisoned between 1964 and 1974, on release he fled to Mozambique, established his leadership of the Zimbabwe African National Union, and oversaw ZANUs role in the Rhodesian Bush War, fighting Ian Smiths white-minority government. He reluctantly took part in the peace negotiations brokered by the United Kingdom that resulted in the Lancaster House Agreement, the agreement dismantled white-minority rule and resulted in the 1980 general election, at which Mugabe led ZANU-PF to victory and became Prime Minister of the newly renamed Zimbabwe. Mugabes administration expanded healthcare and education, and—despite his Marxist rhetoric, Mugabes initial calls for racial reconciliation failed to stem deteriorating race relations and growing white flight. Mugabes government emphasised the redistribution of land controlled by farmers to landless blacks. Frustrated at the rate of redistribution, from 2000 Mugabe encouraged the violent seizure of white-owned land. The unrest severely impacted food production and brought international sanctions, heavily damaging Zimbabwes economy, having dominated Zimbabwes politics for nearly four decades, Mugabe has been a controversial and divisive figure. He has been praised as a hero of the African liberation struggle who helped to free Zimbabwe from British colonialism, imperialism. Robert Gabriel Mugabe was born on 21 February 1924 at the Kutama Mission village in Southern Rhodesias Zvimba District and his father, Gabriel, was a carpenter, while his mother Bona taught Christian catechism to the village children. They had been trained in their professions by the Jesuits, the Roman Catholic apostolic order which had established the mission, Bona and Gabriel had six children, Miteri, Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe, Sabina, and Bridgette. They belonged to the Zezuru clan, one of the smallest branches of the Shona tribe, the Jesuits were strict disciplinarians and under their influence Mugabe developed an intense self-discipline, while also becoming a devout Catholic. Mugabe excelled at school, where he was a secretive and solitary child and he was taunted by many of the other children, who regarded him as a coward and a mothers boy. Circa 1930, Gabriel had an argument with one of the Jesuits, around the same time, Roberts older brother Raphael died, likely of diarrhoea. In early 1934, Roberts other older brother, Michael, also died, later that year, Gabriel left his family in search of employment at Bulawayo. He subsequently abandoned Bona and their six children and established a relationship with another woman, Loubiere died shortly after and was replaced by an Irishman, Father Jerome OHea, who welcomed the Mugabe family to return to Kutama. In contrast to the racism that permeated Southern Rhodesian society, under OHeas leadership the Kutama Mission preached an ethos of racial equality, OHea nurtured the young Mugabe, shortly before his death in 1970 he described the latter as having an exceptional mind and an exceptional heart
28.
Zimbabwe Bird
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The stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird is the national emblem of Zimbabwe, appearing on the national flags and coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia, as well as on banknotes and coins. It probably represents the eagle or the African fish eagle. The birds design is derived from a number of sculptures found in the ruins of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe. The original carved birds are from the city of Great Zimbabwe. The ruins, after which modern Zimbabwe was named, cover some 730 hectares and are the largest ancient stone construction in sub-Saharan Africa and they are unique to Great Zimbabwe, nothing like them has been discovered elsewhere. Various explanations have been advanced to explain the meaning of the birds. One suggestion is that each bird was erected in turn to represent a new king, in 1889 a European hunter, Willi Posselt, travelled to Great Zimbabwe after hearing about it from another European explorer, Karl Mauch. He later wrote, Each one, including its plinth, had been out of a solid block of stone and measured 4 feet 6 inches in height. There was also a stone shaped like a millstone and about 18 inches in diameter, I selected the best specimen of the bird stones, the beaks of the remainder being damaged, and decided to dig it out. But while doing so, Andizibi and his followers became very excited and rushed around with their guns, I fully expected them to attack us. However, I went on with my work but told Klass, Posselt compensated Andizibi with a payment of blankets and some other articles. As the bird on its pedestal was too heavy for him to carry, he hacked it off and he subsequently sold his bird to Cecil Rhodes, who mounted it in the library of his Cape Town house, Groote Schuur, and decorated the houses stairway with wooden replicas. Rhodes also had stone replicas made, three times the size of the original, to decorate the gates of his house in England near Cambridge, a German missionary came to own the pedestal of one bird, which he sold to the Ethnological Museum in Berlin in 1907. Bent attributed the birds, wholly erroneously, to the Phoenicians, in 2003, the German museum returned its portion of the birds pedestal to Zimbabwe. The birds were displayed for a while in the Natural History Museum in Bulawayo and the Museum of Human Sciences in Harare, the Zimbabwe bird has been a symbol of Zimbabwe and its predecessor states since 1924. The crest of Southern Rhodesias coat of arms incorporated the Zimbabwe bird, the paper money and coins of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, issued by the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland also displayed the bird, as did the post-federation flag of Rhodesia. The flag and state symbols of modern Zimbabwe continue to feature the Zimbabwe bird
29.
Maputo
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Maputo, known as Lourenço Marques before independence, is the capital and largest city of Mozambique. It is known as the City of Acacias, in reference to acacia trees commonly found along its avenues, today, it is a port city, with its economy centered on the harbour. According to the 2007 census, the population is 1,766,184, cotton, sugar, chromite, sisal, copra, and hardwood are the chief exports. The city manufactures cement, pottery, furniture, shoes, the city is surrounded by Maputo Province, but is administered as its own province. They explored the lower courses of the rivers emptying their waters into Delagoa Bay, the forts and trading stations that the Portuguese established, abandoned and reoccupied on the north bank of the river, were all called Lourenço Marques. The existing town dates from about 1850, the settlement having been entirely destroyed by the natives. The town developed around a Portuguese fortress completed in 1787, on the 9th of December 1876, Lourenço Marques was elevated to the category of village and on the 10th of November 1887 it became a city. The Luso-British conflict for the possession of Lourenço Marques ends on the 24th of July 1875 with the ruling by the French President Patrice Mac-Mahon in favor of Portugal. The growing importance of the Transvaal led, however, to greater interest being taken back in Portugal in the development of a port. A commission was sent by the Portuguese government in 1876 to drain the land near the settlement, to plant the blue gum tree, and to build a hospital. A city since 1887, it superseded the Island of Mozambique as the capital of Mozambique in 1898, in 1895, construction of a railroad to Pretoria, South Africa, caused the citys population to grow. It was served by British, Portuguese, and German liners, and the majority of its goods were shipped at Southampton, Lisbon. Portuguese, Islamic, Indian and Chinese communities managed to achieve great prosperity —, before Mozambiques independence in 1975, thousands of tourists from South Africa and Rhodesia frequented the city and its scenic beaches, high-quality hotels, restaurants, casinos, and brothels. The Mozambique Liberation Front, or FRELIMO, formed in Tanzania in 1962 and led by Eduardo Mondlane, the Mozambican War of Independence lasted over 10 years, ending only in 1974 when the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in Lisbon by a leftist military coup — the Carnation Revolution. The new government of Portugal granted independence to all Portuguese overseas territories, the words Aqui é Portugal were once inscribed on the walkway of its municipal building. The Peoples Republic of Mozambique was proclaimed on 25 June 1975 in accordance with the Lusaka Accord signed in September 1974, however, after independence, the citys name was changed to Maputo. After the independence, the statues to Portuguese heroes in the city were removed. Black soldiers carrying Russian rifles replaced Portuguese Army soldiers with arms in city barracks
30.
Mozambique
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It is separated from Madagascar by the Mozambique Channel to the east. The capital and largest city is Maputo, between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from farther north and west. Swahili commercial ports existed along the coasts until the arrival of Europeans, the area was explored by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and colonised by Portugal from 1505. The country was an important place where Somali merchants enslaved the local population, after over four centuries of Portuguese rule, Mozambique gained independence in 1975, becoming the Peoples Republic of Mozambique shortly thereafter. After only two years of independence, the country descended into an intense and protracted civil war lasting from 1977 to 1992, in 1994, Mozambique held its first multiparty elections and has remained a relatively stable presidential republic. However, since 2013, following more than 20 years of peace, Mozambique is one of the poorest and most underdeveloped countries in the world. Mozambique is endowed with rich and extensive natural resources, the countrys economy is based largely on agriculture, but industry is growing, mainly food and beverages, chemical manufacturing, and aluminium and petroleum production. The countrys tourism sector is also growing, South Africa is Mozambiques main trading partner and source of foreign direct investment. Belgium, Brazil, Portugal, and Spain are also among the countrys most important economic partners, since 2001, Mozambiques annual average GDP growth has been among the worlds highest. However, the ranks among the lowest in GDP per capita, human development, measures of inequality. The only official language of Mozambique is Portuguese, which is mostly as a second language by about half of the population. Common native languages include Makhuwa, Sena, and Swahili, the countrys population of around 24 million is composed overwhelmingly of Bantu people. The largest religion in Mozambique is Christianity, with significant minorities following Islam, the island-town was the capital of the Portuguese colony until 1898, when it was moved south to Lourenço Marques. Between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking people migrated from the west and north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and they established agricultural communities or societies based on herding cattle. They brought with them the technology for smelting and smithing iron, from the late first millennium AD, vast Indian Ocean trade networks extended as far south into Mozambique as the ancient port town of Chibuene. Connections are evident at sites including Manyikeni for 11–14th century ties with the inland Great Zimbabwe kingdoms, from about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts displaced the Arabic commercial and military hegemony, becoming regular ports of call on the new European sea route to the east. The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, the Portuguese attempted to legitimise and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation of prazos tied to Portuguese settlement and administration. Historically within Mozambique there was slavery, Human beings were bought and sold by African tribal chiefs, Arab Muslim traders and Portuguese and other European traders as well
31.
Air Rhodesia
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Air Rhodesia was the national airline of Rhodesia. Its head office was located on the property of Salisbury Airport in Salisbury and it was formed as a subsidiary of Central African Airways in June 1964, but became an independent corporation on 1 September 1967. Air Rhodesia flew internal routes to Buffalo Range, Bulawayo, Fort Victoria, Kariba, during the 1970s the airline had international flights to Johannesburg and Durban in South Africa, Beira, Vilanculos and Lourenço Marques in Mozambique, and Blantyre in Malawi. Following the renaming of the country, it known as Air Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979. CAA started operating with a mixture of former Southern Rhodesia Air Services aircraft, Services were steadily expanded to cover a route network extending as far north as Nairobi and as far south as Johannesburg, as far east as Blantyre and as far west as Maun in Bechuanaland. In August 1948 CAA inaugurated the first air service in Africa. By 1954 CAA had expanded to cover routes as far afield as London, while Malawi and Zambia expressed their wish to operate their own airlines this would prove troublesome. In December 1963 an accord was reached that provided at least a temporary solution to the problem, CAA would remain in existence but be responsible to a higher authority consisting of transport ministers from the three governments. Separate subsidiaries of CAA were formed to operate in country, Air Malawi Ltd, Zambia Airways Ltd. The administrative arrangements that existed between the three proved to be profitable and efficient for all three companies. On 11 November 1965, the Rhodesian Government made formal the Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain, relations between the three sister companies became strained and in 1967 a split was agreed. Air Rhodesia Corporation came into being on 1 September 1967 while Rhodesia was under international isolation, unlike Zambia, Malawi maintained cool relations with Air Rhodesia Corporation. As a result, flights between Salisbury and Blantyre were maintained and soon increased, in its first year of operation Air Rhodesia posted a profit and it increased its profits between 1969–1970, introduced services to Kariba, and upgraded the Dakota services to Wankie to the Viscount. Additional revenue was earned by loaning surplus aircrew to other airlines, as competition from jet airplanes of its competitors started to affect the performance of Air Rhodesia, it became obvious that jet aircraft were needed for international services. The airline clandestinely acquired its first jets and they arrived on the evening of 14 April 1973 during the Easter holiday under a shroud of secrecy. The aircraft were three Boeing 720-025 jetliners which had initially been purchased new by the original Eastern Air Lines, a U. S. air carrier based in Miami, and had then been acquired by Calair. They began service in November 1973 as fuel prices increased by 35 percent because of the Yom Kippur War in the Middle East, soon the Bush War was escalating sharply, and staff shortages resulting from military call-ups were adding to the airlines difficulties. Until 1979, the only external services would be to Johannesburg
32.
Air Zimbabwe
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Air Zimbabwe Ltd is the flag carrier airline of Zimbabwe, headquartered on the property of Harare International Airport, in Harare. From its hub at Harare International Airport, the used to operate a network within southern Africa that also included Asia. Following financial difficulties, Air Zimbabwe ceased operations in late February 2012, serving a reduced domestic network, the carrier resumed operations for a short period between May and early July 2012, when flights were again discontinued. Some flights were restarted on a basis in November that year. The airline resumed operating some routes as well as the regional service to Johannesburg on a daily basis in April 2013. The company has been a member of the International Air Transport Association, as of July 2014, it is owned by the Government of Zimbabwe. Following the dissolution of CAAC at the end of 1967, Air Rhodesia inherited CAAC operations, as well as a fleet of Boeing, DC-3 and it became the short-lived Air Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1978, and finally Air Zimbabwe in April 1980 when the Republic of Zimbabwe was formed. Services connecting Harare with South Africa had been operated before the country gained its independence, scheduled services began on 1980-4-2 to London-Gatwick. The company had leased a Boeing 707 from South African Airways until May 1981 and that year, flights to Frankfurt were inaugurated. The airline recorded a ZWL330,000 profit for the year ended on 1980-6-30. During 1982, a service to Perth and Sydney commenced, it was run in cooperation with Qantas, the cargo carrier continued its operations under the Affretair brand. During 1983, Air Zimbabwe became a IATA member, it extended its regional routes to Gaborone, Lilongwe, Lusaka. By March 1985, Air Zimbabwe had 1,443 employees, the additional capacity permitted route extensions to Dar es Salaam, Manzini, Maputo and Mauritius. A BAe 146-200 was bought in 1987 for domestic routes, in 2003, it was reported that the carrier was struggling financially and at the mercy of local and international banks. In February 2004, it was revealed that the company had been suspended by International Air Transport Association over unpaid debts. A foreign exchange crisis in the led to the cancellation of the carriers operations in late 2005. It was disclosed in 2006 that passenger numbers had fallen from 1 million in 1999 to 23,000 in 2005, in May 2011, the airline was suspended from the international financial and booking system by IATA over unpaid booking fees. It was announced in early November 2011 that the government would absorb a US$140 million debt in order to make the more attractive to foreign investors
33.
Zimbabwe Rhodesia general election, 1979
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Under the agreement of 1978, the new Zimbabwe Rhodesia House of Assembly was to consist of 100 members. 72 seats were elected by the Common Roll which every adult in the country had a vote, owing to the lack of an electoral roll, voters were instead marked with ink on their fingers to stop multiple voting. Once the 92 members had been elected, they assembled to vote for eight White non-constituency members, all the candidates for these posts were members of the Rhodesian Front. The 20 White Roll members were elected from new constituencies made up of combinations of the previous constituencies, the Common Roll members were elected by province using a closed list system. It was intended to set up an electoral register and institute single-member constituencies for future elections. The main question in the campaign was how many Africans would vote in the common roll election. The Patriotic Front parties, Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front and Zimbabwe African Peoples Union, pledged to disrupt the election, in the event the turnout was quite respectable in Mashonaland, although somewhat depressed in Manicaland and Victoria. In Matabeleland South, where ZIPRA was strongest, the turnout was lowest, polling day was 21 April 1979. It was ruled that their candidatures stood, polling day was 7 May 1979. Eight seats were up for election, John Moses Chirimbani was elected as the Speaker of the House of Assembly on 8 May 1979, and therefore an ex officio member. On 25 May, John Zwenhamo Ruredzo was appointed to replace him, robert Siyoka resigned, and was replaced by Sami Thomani Siyoka on 28 June 1979. On 25 June 1979 James Chikerema led a group of eight elected UANC members in resigning from the party, actor Mupinyuri rejoined the UANC shortly after resigning from it. The seven who joined are denoted by asterisks in the lists above, hilary Gwyn Squires resigned in June 1979, moving to South Africa to take up a legal career. David Colville Smith was returned unopposed as Rhodesian Front candidate for Borrowdale constituency on 24 July 1979, terrence Mashambanhaka was murdered on 16 September 1979 after being lured to an ambush at peace talks with ZANLA forces. Abel Muringazuwa Madombwe was appointed to the Assembly to replace him on 27 November 1979, theunis Christian de Klerk was killed in a rocket attack on his home on 20 September 1979. Donald Galbraith Goddard was returned unopposed to follow him on 30 November 1979, in these resolutions, the UN declared the results of the election null and void
34.
Rhodesian Front
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The Rhodesian Front was a right-wing political party in Rhodesia when the country was under white minority rule. The RF was formed in March 1962 by whites opposed to any change to black majority rule. It won power in the election that December. In successive elections between 1964 and 1979, the RF was returned to office, with a large majority, on June 6,1981, the party changed its name to the Republican Front, and on July 21,1984 it became the Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe. Eleven of its twenty parliamentarians defected over the four years. In 1986, the CAZ opened its membership to Zimbabweans of all races, in 1987 the ruling government abolished all reserved seats for whites. When these were abolished many white MPs became independents or joined the ruling ZANU party, security Force Auxiliaries Rhodesians Never Die, Godwin, P. & Hancock, I. A Career of Defiance, The Life of Ian Smith, Agusan River Publishing Co.1992, Ian Smith and the Future of Zimbabwe, The National Review, October 30,1981, pp. 2168–70. Ian Smith Invites Blacks to Join His Party, The New York Times, July 23,1984, facts on File,1984 ed. p.574
35.
Zimbabwe African National Union
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The Zimbabwe African National Union was a militant organization that fought against the white minority government in Rhodesia, formed as a split from the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union. ZANU won the 1980 elections under the leadership of Robert Mugabe, the founders were dissatisfied with the militant tactics of Nkomo. In contrast to future developments, both drew from both the Shona and the Ndebele, the two major tribes of the country. Most of ZANUs operations were planned from exile, where the party leadership was based throughout the 1970s, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army was ZANUs military wing. Before 1980, it was heavily dependent on China and other communist countries for finance, arms supplies. For this reason, ZANU made itself amenable to Maoist and other communist ideology, there were two splits within ZANU prior to independence. The first was with Nathan Shamuyarira and others leaving to join the Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe in 1973 after Shamuyariras bid for the party leadership was defeated by Chitepo, both groups continued to use the name ZANU. Sithole joined a government of whites and blacks in 1979. When sanctions remained in place, he joined Muzorewa for the Lancaster House Agreement in London, in the independence elections Mugabe and ZANU-PF were swept to power but Sitholes group failed to win any seats. Politics of Zimbabwe Rhodesian propaganda war Zimbabwe African Peoples Union
36.
Prime Minister of Rhodesia
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The Prime Minister of Rhodesia was the head of government in Rhodesia. Rhodesia, which became a colony of Britain in 1923, unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965. In December 1979, the country came under temporary British control, the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia—simply Rhodesia from October 1964—was created on 1 October 1923, from land previously governed by the British South Africa Company. The British government annexed the land, then sold it to the newly formed responsible government of Southern Rhodesia for £2 million. Sir Godfrey Huggins served as Federal Prime Minister from 1953 to 1956, when Northern Rhodesia gained independence as Zambia on 24 October 1964, Southern Rhodesia began to refer to itself simply as Rhodesia. Prime Minister Ian Smiths government issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain in 1965, under the Internal Settlement in 1979, after a long period of conflict, the country became known as Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, with Abel Muzorewa as its first black Prime Minister. The office of Prime Minister of Zimbabwe was abolished in 1987, however, in 2009, it was restored through political negotiations, resulting in Morgan Tsvangirai becoming the first prime minister of the country in over 21 years
37.
Minister without portfolio
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A minister without portfolio is either a government minister with no specific responsibilities or a minister who does not head a particular ministry. Stanley Bruce was given the title of Minister without Portfolio when he took up his position in 1932 as the Commonwealth Minister in London and he was given the title by Lyons Cabinet so that he could better represent the PM and his colleagues free from the limitations of a portfolio. In this case the title was a promotion and carried considerable responsibilities, bangladesh appoints ministers without portfolio during cabinet reshuffles or fresh appointments. Ministers are not usually appointed without portfolio as a coalition negotiation – all long run ministers end up with a portfolio, suranjit Sengupta was a minister without portfolio in Sheikh Hasinas second government. Notable Conservatives who filled the role include R. B, bennett, and Arthur Meighen, however, Meighen served this role after he had been prime minister. The practice has continued under the guise of ministers of state without responsibilities in the ministers titles, three control ministers served as ministers without portfolio during World War I. After the Liberation of Denmark in May 1945, the first Danish cabinet included four ministers without portfolio, kauffmann served in this capacity from 12 May to 7 November 1945. The three other holders of this title had joined the cabinet a few days before – Aksel Larsen, lise Østergaard held a position as minister without portfolio with special attention to foreign policy issues in Anker Jørgensens cabinet from 26 February 1977 to 28 February 1980. Anders Fogh Rasmussen appointed Bertel Haarder to Minister without Portfolio, Haarder served in this capacity from 27 November 2001 to 18 February 2005. The reason for appointing a minister without a ministry was the Danish European Union Presidency of 2002, Haarder was considered the most experienced Danish politician on European affairs. Tamás Fellegi Kunwar Natwar Singh Since the inception of the state, Indonesia had ministers without portfolio, the number was not fixed, entirely depended on the behest of the President. Below is the list of Ministers without Portfolio in each Cabinet, Mohammad Amir Abdul Wahid Hasyim Sartono Alexander Andries Maramis Mohammad Amir Oto Iskandar di Nata Rasjidi Wikana Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX Abdul Wahid Hasyim Wikana Dr. Such a minister may nevertheless be given a specific title, the only substantive minister without portfolio has been Frank Aiken, the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures during World War II. By the Emergency Powers Act 1939 then in force, the Minister for Defence was able to delegate some competences to him, such delegation is now done instead with Ministers of State, junior ministers who are not members of the government. Junior ministers can be given a right to sit at cabinet and this allows the Government to circumvent the Constitutional limit on the number of Senior Ministers. On several occasions a minister has been appointed to a government with the title of a new Department of State. Between the date of appointment and the date of creation of the department, examples include, It is common practice in Israel to appoint ministers without portfolio as part of the coalition negotiations. All cabinets in recent years have had at least some such appointment, departments on equalities, European affairs and relations with regions, for example, are usually led by ministers without portfolio
38.
Southern Rhodesian general election, 1980
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The election was won by the Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front and its leader Robert Mugabe therefore became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe. Agreement at Lancaster House on the fundamentals of the constitution was relatively easy, the new House of Assembly was to comprise 100 members, of whom 80 would be elected on a common roll by every adult citizen. Voters had their fingers marked with an ink that showed up under Ultraviolet light to detect attempts to vote twice. To qualify for seats in a province, a party needed to achieve a threshold of 10% of the vote, the remaining 20 members of the House of Assembly were to be elected by the white roll comprising those people who had previously qualified to vote. This election was conducted in 20 single member constituencies which had drawn up by a Delimitation Commission in 1978 and were the same as those used in the 1979 internal settlement election. Voters who were registered on the roll were ineligible to participate in the common roll election. Rebellion came to an end and the colony of Southern Rhodesia returned to legality under British law, the United Kingdom Parliament then passed the Zimbabwe Act to put in place the countrys independence constitution. British Army forces then set up 16 assembly points throughout Southern Rhodesia where Patriotic Front guerillas could disarm, while the Rhodesian authorities were in charge of administration on the ground, the formal Returning Officer was Sir John Boynton who had just retired as chief executive of Cheshire County Council. Over Christmas 1979, many former Patriotic Front soldiers returned to their homes to prepare for the election. Tragically for ZANU-PF, its military leader Josiah Tongogara was killed in a car crash in Mozambique. On 13 January, Joshua Nkomo, leader of ZAPU, returned to Southern Rhodesia after three years exile and addressed a rally of between 100,000 and 150,000 at Highfield township in Salisbury. He was followed on 27 January by Robert Mugabe of ZANU-PF, abel Muzorewa, who had led the unity government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, campaigned vigorously on behalf of his United African National Council which had won the most votes the previous year. However, attendance at his rallies was reported to be poor, the party complained bitterly to Lord Soames about official bias against it. The Registrar-General of Elections refused to put the partys intended logo on ballot papers because it contained an image of an AK47 rifle, ZANU-PF posters were confiscated if they were considered inflammatory, and many party activists and some candidates were arrested. Soames responded by accusing ZANU-PF of intimidating voters in 23 out of the 56 districts of the colony, ZAPU caused something of a stir by deciding to fight the elections under the name Patriotic Front. They campaigned most heavily in the Ndebele areas, where the ZAPU army ZIPRA made particular strides in trying to integrate with the Southern Rhodesian forces. Fourteen out of the twenty seats were filled unopposed, and only two candidates in the seats could put up a reasonable challenge to the Rhodesian Front candidate. One was Dr Timothy Stamps, a newcomer to politics, in the Kopje constituency covering the centre of Salisbury, Stamps advocated co-operation with the new black-led government
39.
Christopher Soames
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Arthur Christopher John Soames, Baron Soames GCMG GCVO CH CBE PC was a British politician belonging to the Conservative Party and the son-in-law of Winston Churchill. A European Commissioner and the last Governor of Southern Rhodesia, he had previously been the Member of Parliament for Bedford from 1950 to 1966 and he held several government posts and attained Cabinet rank. Soames was born in Penn, Buckinghamshire, England, the son of Captain Arthur Granville Soames by his marriage to Hope Mary Woodbine Parish. His parents divorced while he was a boy, and his mother married as her husband the 8th Baron Dynevor, by whom she had further children including Richard Rhys. Soames was educated at West Downs School, Eton College, after military service in the Second World War, Soames served as the Assistant Military Attaché in Paris. In the 1955 Birthday Honours he was invested as Commander of the Order of the British Empire, in 1958 he was admitted to the Privy Council. Home had promised to him to Foreign Secretary if the Conservatives won the 1964 election. Between 1965 and 1966 Soames was Shadow Foreign Secretary under Edward Heath and he lost his seat in Parliament in the 1966 General Election. In 1968 Harold Wilson appointed him Ambassador to France, where he served until 1972 and he was then a Vice-President of the European Commission from 1973 to 1976. He was created a peer on 19 April 1978 as Baron Soames. From 1979 to 1981 he was Lord President of the Council, in 1980 he was invested as a Companion of Honour. Lord Soames married Mary Churchill, the youngest child of Winston Churchill and Clementine Hozier and they had five children, The Rt Hon. Lord Soames died from pancreatitis, aged 66 and his ashes were buried within the Churchill plot at St Martins Church, Bladon, near Woodstock, Oxfordshire. The Lord Soames GCMG GCVO CBE PC 1979–1980, HE The Rt Hon, the Lord Soames GCMG GCVO CBE PC1980, The Rt Hon. The Lord Soames GCMG GCVO CBE PC 1980–1987, The Rt Hon, the Lord Soames GCMG GCVO CH CBE PC Jago, Michael Rab Butler, The Best Prime Minister We Never Had. Biteback Publishing 2015 ISBN 978-1849549202 Stevan Pavlowitch, Apologising for the Empire, Oxford University Press, England Claire Sanderson, l’affaire Soames et les arcanes de la diplomatie britannique, Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne,2011. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Christopher Soames Time, Festive Birth of a Nation Maximilian Genealogy Master Database 2000 Nicholas Soames – MP for Mid Sussex
40.
Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation
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The Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation is the state-controlled broadcaster in Zimbabwe. It was established as the Rhodesian Broadcasting Corporation, taking its current name in 1980, like the RBC before it, the ZBC has been accused of being a government mouthpiece with no editorial independence. The ZBC operates six radio networks, providing a mix of news, current affairs, educational programming and music, in English, Shona, local radio stations run hourly news bulletins which range from two minutes to the longest being a ten-minute bulletin on weekends and holidays. Presenters include, Admire Mhungu, Innocent Manyenga, Memory Chamisa, on the national languages desk readers include Nqobile Malinga, Patience Machokoto, Taboka Ncube, Faith Nare, Lucy Ngosolo and Caroline Sithole. Bulletins come out live on SFM at 7 am,8 am,1 pm,6 pm and 8 pm, the anchors are Nomalanga Vuma, Theophilus Chuma, Ian Zvoma, Butler Nhepure and Jonathan Marerwa. Television was introduced in Southern Rhodesia on 14 November 1960, first in Salisbury and it was only the second such service in sub-Saharan Africa after Nigeria, and the first such service in southern Africa, as South Africa did not introduce television until 1976. It was initially operated by a company, Rhodesian Television on behalf of the then Federal Broadcasting Corporation. However, following the dissolution of the Federation in 1963, RTV was taken over by the government, the RBC initially acquired a 51 per cent stake in the service, which became part of the RBC in 1976. RBC TV was funded by advertising and a licence fee. Television reception was confined mainly to the cities, and most viewers were whites. Following independence, colour television was introduced in 1984, with a channel, available only in Harare. This channel was discontinued in 1997 and replaced by the first independent channel in Zimbabwe known as Joy TV and this channel lasted until 2002, when it was controversially taken off the air for allegedly violating the Broadcasting Services Act. The ZBC re-established a second TV channel of its own, Channel 2, however this station was decommissioned in August 2015 ZBC TV news bulletins include the morning Good Morning ZimbabweProduced by Admire mhungu, lunchtime news, Nhau Indaba and News Hour. Rumbidzai Takawira, the anchor, is usually the host of News Hour, media of Zimbabwe Communications in Zimbabwe ZBC
41.
Colonial history of Southern Rhodesia
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The territory of Southern Rhodesia was originally referred to as South Zambezia but the name Rhodesia came into use in 1895. Legally, from the British perspective, the name Southern Rhodesia continued to be used until 18 April 1980, the British government agreed that Rhodes company, the British South Africa Company, would be granted exclusive mineral rights stretching from the Limpopo to Lake Tanganyika. Queen Victoria signed the charter in 1889, in 1899, a Legislative Council was created with a minority of elected seats, through which the BSAC had to pass government measures. The electorate was almost exclusively white settlers, and the proportion of elected seats increased steadily over time, prior to about 1918, the opinion among the electorate supported continued BSAC rule but opinion changed because of the development of the country and increased settlement. In addition, a decision in the British courts that land not in private ownership belonged to the British crown rather than the BSAC gave great impetus to the campaign for self-government. Rhodesia retained the Cape Colony system, which voting rights to blacks. Both means tests were accompanied by a language test in English. These voting qualifications that ensured de jure equality amongst the races were maintained until 1951, the Southern Rhodesia general election of 29 April 1924, was the first election to the Legislative Assembly of Southern Rhodesia following the grant of responsible government to the colony. It saw a victory for the Rhodesia Party, which had been formed by the supporters of responsible government. From September 1953 to 1963, Southern Rhodesia was part of the multiracial Central African Federation, also known as the Federation of Rhodesia, the federation was set up in an effort to pool resources and markets. The economy was prosperous at the due to a post-World War II boom. The African population opposed it because they feared that they would not be able to achieve self-government with the structure dominated by white Southern Rhodesians. The federation fell apart in 1963 after much crisis and turmoil, Southern Rhodesia reverted to its status as a Crown colony of Britain but was now known as Rhodesia. From 1957 to 1960, the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress, todd, however, was forced from power when he attempted to expand the number of blacks eligible to vote from 2% to 16%. Plans were made to dispense with some of the apartheid regulations, black discontent had been growing in the rural areas largely because of the disruptive impact of the 1951 Land Husbandry Act. It was designed to enforce private ownership of land and improve the economy in the African reserves. However, its provisions violated traditional practices, implementation of the act meant the depletion of highly valued herds, reduction of the land under cultivation, and the forced uprooting of families and entire villages. Discontent with socioeconomic conditions was growing among urban Africans as well, a recession in 1957–1958 hit blacks hard, rising unemployment and inadequate township housing contributed to their sense of deprivation and provided ready-made issues for ANC organizers
42.
History of Zimbabwe
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Economic instability led several members of Military of Zimbabwe the military to try to overthrow the government in a coup détat in 2007. Prior to its independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names, Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia. These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, more substantial in numbers in Zimbabwe were the makers of the Ziwa and Gokomere ceramic wares, of the fourth century A. D. Their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream, imports of beads have been found at Gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast. A later phase of the Gokomere culture was the Zhizo in southern Zimbabwe, Zhizo communities settled in the Shashe-Limpopo area in the tenth century. Many fragments of figurines have been recovered from there, figures of animals and birds. The inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods, imported beads found there and at other Zhizo sites, are evidence of trade, probably of ivory and skins, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast. Pottery belonging to a stream of Bantu expansion has been found at sites in northeastern Zimbabwe. The terms eastern and western streams represent the expansion of the Bantu speaking peoples in terms of their culture, another question is the branches of the Bantu languages which they spoke. Their language, whatever it was, was superseded by the ancestral Shona languages, the Ziwa/Gokomere and Zhizo traditions were superseded by Leopards Kopje and Gumanye wares of the Kalundu tradition from the tenth century. After the Shona speaking people moved into the present day Zimbabwe many different dialects developed over time in the different parts of the country and it is believed that Kalanga speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Kalanga states, the Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory and copper for cloth and glass, from about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. This Kalanga state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwes stone architecture, from circa 1450–1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the Kingdom of Mutapa. This Kalanga state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today and it is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as Mwenemutapa was known for its gold trade routes with Arabs and the Portuguese. However, Portuguese settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century. As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga state emerged called the Rozwi Empire, relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms. Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King Shaka and created his own clan, the Ndebele fought their way northwards into the Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane
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Zimbabwe
