1.
Philadelphia
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
Philadelphia
–
From top left, the Philadelphia skyline, a statue of Benjamin Franklin, the Liberty Bell, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia City Hall, and Independence Hall
Philadelphia
–
An 18th century map of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia
–
Penn's Treaty with the Indians by Benjamin West
Philadelphia
–
Benjamin Franklin, 1777
2.
Pennsylvania
–
Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
Pennsylvania
–
World's End State Park, Sullivan County
Pennsylvania
–
Flag
Pennsylvania
–
Autumn in North Branch Township, Wyoming County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
–
Penn's Treaty with the Indians, by Edward Hicks
3.
University of Pennsylvania
–
The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
University of Pennsylvania
–
"House intended for the President of the United States" (if Philadelphia remained the National Capital of the United States) from " Birch's Views of Philadelphia " (1800). Home of the College of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania. from 1801 to 1829.
University of Pennsylvania
–
Arms of the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
–
Benjamin Franklin, (1705/06-1790), was the primary founder, President of the Board of Trustees, and a trustee of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, which merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to form the University of Pennsylvania in 1791. (Charles Willson Peale, 1785)
University of Pennsylvania
–
Ninth Street Campus (above Chestnut Street): Medical Hall (left) and College Hall (right), both built 1829-1830.
4.
Physician
–
Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
Physician
–
"The Doctor" by Luke Fildes (detail).
Physician
–
The Italian Francesco Redi, considered to be the founder of experimental biology, he was the first to recognize and correctly describe details of many important parasites.
Physician
–
Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female physician to receive a medical degree in the United States
5.
Chemist
–
A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties, chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties, the word chemist is also used to address Pharmacists in Commonwealth English. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry, materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning, fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses, after gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy, the word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista. Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry, Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists usually require at least a degree, but many positions, especially those in research. At the Masters level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field, postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, there are also degrees specific to become a Chemical Technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional Chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and they are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of quality control. The higher the level achieved in the field of Chemistry, the higher the responsibility given to that chemist. Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks/objectives can be given to workers/scientists with these different levels of education and/or experience
Chemist
–
The Apothecary or The Chemist by Gabriël Metsu (c. 1651–67)
Chemist
–
Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev - author of the first modern periodic table of elements
Chemist
–
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94) is considered the " Father of Modern Chemistry ".
Chemist
–
A chemist prepares a new fuel cell for testing.
6.
Barnes Foundation
–
The Barnes Foundation is an American educational art and horticultural institution with locations in Lower Merion, Pennsylvania, a suburb of Philadelphia, and Logan Square, Philadelphia. It was founded in 1922 by Albert C, today, the foundation owns more than 4,000 objects, including over 900 paintings, estimated to be worth about $25 billion. In the 1990s, the declining finances led its leaders to various controversial moves, including sending artworks on world tours. A2009 documentary, The Art of the Steal, argued that the foundation had been taken over by other non-profit institutions, after numerous court challenges, the new Barnes building opened on Benjamin Franklin Parkway on May 19,2012. The foundations current president and executive director, Thomas “Thom” Collins, was appointed on January 7,2015, from 1912, Barnes, who derived his fortune from his development of the antiseptic drug Argyrol and a business to sell it, began to study and collect art. He was assisted at first by the painter William Glackens, a schoolmate, in 1912 in Paris, Barnes visited the home of Gertrude and Leo Stein, where he became familiar with the work of such Modernist artists as Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso. Commissioned by Barnes, Glackens selected the first 20 works he purchased from modern painters in Paris, in the 1920s, Barnes became acquainted with the work of Amedeo Modigliani and Giorgio de Chirico, thanks to the dealer Paul Guillaume. In 1922, Barnes began to transform his collection into a cultural institution and he chartered the Barnes Foundation as an educational institution in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. He selected the location on land in Merion that he bought from the American Civil War veteran and horticulturist Captain Joseph Lapsley Wilson and he commissioned architect Paul Cret to design a complex of buildings. Soon afterward, a dispute was filed in the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. The main building features several unusual cubist bas-reliefs, commissioned by Barnes from the sculptor Jacques Lipchitz, Barnes built his home next to the gallery, and it now serves as the administration building of the foundation. His wife, Laura, developed the Arboretum of the Barnes Foundation, Barness conception of his foundation as a school rather than a typical museum was shaped through his collaboration with the philosopher John Dewey, who helped draw up its mandate. To help with the educational programs, Barnes hired Thomas Munro, one of Deweys students at Columbia University, and Lawrence Buermeyer. Buermeyer and Munro each served as Associate Director of Education for several years and she accompanied him on buying trips from the 1920s through the 1940s. She continued to express his philosophy after his death, Barnes created detailed terms of operation in an indenture of trust to be honored in perpetuity after his death. Matisse is said to have hailed the school as the only place in America to view art. Artist Harriet Zeitlin is among those who studied at the Foundation, in 1941 and 1942, Bertrand Russell gave a series of lectures on the history of philosophy at the gallery, these would later become his landmark A History of Western Philosophy. After a decade of legal challenges, the public was allowed access to the collection in 1961
Barnes Foundation
–
The Barnes Foundation building on Franklin Parkway in Philadelphia
Barnes Foundation
–
Amedeo Modigliani, Jeanne Hébuterne Sitting in Profile, (1918)
Barnes Foundation
–
Barnes Foundation, Logan Square, Philadelphia. Photographed in April 2012, as the May opening neared
Barnes Foundation
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, After The Bath, 1910
7.
Lower Merion, Pennsylvania
–
Lower Merion Township is a township in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania and part of the Pennsylvania Main Line. As of the 2010 U. S. Census, the township had a population of 57,825. Lower Merion has the 5th highest per-capita income and the 12th highest median income in the country with a population of 50,000 or more. The name Merion originates with the county of Merioneth in north Wales, Merioneth is an English-language translation of the Welsh Meirionnydd. Lower Merion, along with Upper Darby, Haverford, Cheltenham together form as the inner ring suburbs of Philadelphia. Lower Merion Township was first settled in 1682 by Welsh Quakers who were granted a tract of land by William Penn, in 1713, Lower Merion was established as an independent Township with about 52 landholders and tenants. In 1900, the Township was incorporated as a Township of the First Class, Lower Merion is home to the oldest continuously used place of worship in the United States, the Merion Friends Meeting House, used continuously since 1695. The Mill Creek Historic District, and Seville Theatre are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, green Hill Farms was added in 2011. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 23.9 square miles. The Borough of Narberth, a political entity of one-half square mile, is completely surrounded by the Township. Forming the Townships southern border is City Avenue separating it from the City of Philadelphia, in back of these buildings are the One-Ninety-One Condominiums and the Bala Cynwyd Plazas. The famed Mid-County Interchange is located just outside the Township, other highways serving the Township are U. S. Route 30 and Pennsylvania Routes 23 and 320. Before European settlement, Lower Merions dense forest was home to bears, cougars, wolves, rattlesnakes, otters, beavers, weasels, turkeys, grouses, woodland bison, trout, when Europeans arrived, they began cutting down the forests, chasing away much of the wildlife. After World War Two, Lower Merion transformed from a township to a suburban one. Today, red foxes, white-footed mice, horned owls, skunks, raccoons, crayfish, songbirds, butterflies,3. 0% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry. As of the census of 2000, there were 59,850 people,22,868 households, the population density was 2,526.1 people per square mile. There were 23,699 housing units at a density of 1,000. 3/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 90. 30% White,4. 50% African American,0. 08% Native American,3. 42% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,0. 50% from other races and 1. 12% from two or more races
Lower Merion, Pennsylvania
–
Map of Lower Merion Township.
Lower Merion, Pennsylvania
–
Location of Lower Merion Township in Montgomery County
Lower Merion, Pennsylvania
–
Lower Merion High School, pre-renovation building
Lower Merion, Pennsylvania
–
Rosemont College 's Main Building
8.
Battle of Cold Harbor
–
The Battle of Cold Harbor was fought from May 31 to June 12,1864, with the most significant fighting occurring on June 3. It was one of the battles of Union Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grants Overland Campaign during the American Civil War. Thousands of Union soldiers were killed or wounded in a frontal assault against the fortified positions of Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lees army. Both Grant and Lee, whose armies had suffered casualties in the Overland Campaign. On the evening of June 1, the Union VI Corps, on June 2, the remainder of both armies arrived and the Confederates built an elaborate series of fortifications 7 miles long. At dawn on June 3, three Union corps attacked the Confederate works on the end of the line and were easily repulsed with heavy casualties. Attempts to assault the northern end of the line and to resume the assaults on the southern were unsuccessful, Grant said of the battle in his memoirs, I have always regretted that the last assault at Cold Harbor was ever made. No advantage whatever was gained to compensate for the loss we sustained. The armies confronted each other on these lines until the night of June 12 and it was an impressive defensive victory for Lee, but it was his last in the war. In the final stage, he alternated between digging into the trenches at Petersburg and fleeing westward across Virginia, Grants Overland Campaign was one of a series of simultaneous offensives the newly appointed general in chief launched against the Confederacy. Grants campaign objective was not the Confederate capital of Richmond, President Abraham Lincoln had long advocated this strategy for his generals, recognizing that the city would certainly fall after the loss of its principal defensive army. Grant ordered Meade, Wherever Lee goes, there you will go also, although he hoped for a quick, decisive battle, Grant was prepared to fight a war of attrition. Both Union and Confederate casualties could be high, but the Union had greater resources to replace lost soldiers, on May 5, after Grants army crossed the Rapidan River and entered the Wilderness of Spotsylvania, it was attacked by Lees Army of Northern Virginia. Although Lee was outnumbered, about 60,000 to 100,000, his men fought fiercely, after two days of fighting and almost 29,000 casualties, the results were inconclusive and neither army was able to obtain an advantage. Lee had stopped Grant, but had not turned him back, elements of Lees army beat the Union army to the critical crossroads of Spotsylvania Court House and began entrenching, a tactic that became increasingly essential for the outnumbered defenders. Near Spotsylvania Court House, fighting occurred on and off from May 8 through May 21, on May 8, Union Maj. Gens. On May 10, Grant ordered attacks across the Confederate line of earthworks, although the Union troops failed again at Laurel Hill, an innovative assault attempt by Col. Emory Upton against the Mule Shoe showed promise. Grant used Uptons assault technique on a larger scale on May 12 when he ordered the 15,000 men of Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancocks corps to assault the Mule Shoe
Battle of Cold Harbor
–
Opposing commanders: Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, USA, at Cold Harbor, photographed by Edgar Guy Fawx in 1864; Gen. Robert E. Lee, CSA, photographed by Mathew Brady in 1865.
Battle of Cold Harbor
–
Battle of Cold Harbor by Kurz and Allison, 1888.
Battle of Cold Harbor
–
The Burnett Inn at Old Cold Harbor. Photographed by Timothy H. O'Sullivan, June 4, 1864.
Battle of Cold Harbor
–
7th New York Heavy Artillery (serving as infantry) preparing to leave the trenches and charge the Confederate line, sketched by Alfred Waud.
9.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
–
New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
–
Clockwise from top: Battle of Gettysburg, Union Captain John Tidball's artillery, Confederate prisoners, ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of Richmond, Virginia, Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
–
Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860 Crittenden Compromise
10.
Methodist
–
Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
Methodist
–
Wesley's Chapel in London, with a statue of John Wesley in the foreground.
Methodist
–
John Wesley
Methodist
–
Charles Wesley
Methodist
–
George Whitefield
11.
Central High School (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
–
Central High School is a public high school in the Logan section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Central, the second-oldest continuously public high school in the United States, was founded in 1836 and is a university preparatory magnet school. About 2,400 students attend grades 9 through 12 and it consistently ranks among the top schools in the city and state. Central is regarded as one of the top schools in the nation due to its high academic standards. This school requires exceptional grades for enrollment. This practice is still in effect, and graduates who meet the requirements are granted the Bachelor of Arts degree, Central also confers high school diplomas upon graduates who do not meet the requirement for a bachelors degree. Due to its authority to grant academic degrees, Central traditionally refers to the principal of the school as the President of Central High School, the current president is Timothy J. McKenna. Central, rather using a general class year to identify its classes, uses the class graduating number system. This tradition started shortly after the founding, when it was common to have two graduating classes per year – one in January and one in June. In June 1965, semiannual graduations were replaced by annual graduations, as of the 2016–2017 school year, the current senior class is the 276th graduating class of Central High School. Because city voters only reluctantly had been convinced of the need for a high school, Centrals founders made an especially concerted effort to avoid educating students in the manner of private academies of the day, where classical languages and literature were of paramount importance. Central High School is the second oldest continuously public high school in the United States, the school was chartered by an Act of Assembly and approved on June 13,1836. A site was purchased on the east side of Juniper Street below Market Street and on September 19,1837, the school opened on October 26,1838 with four professors and sixty-three students. President Bache resigned in 1842 to return to his professorship at the University of Pennsylvania, and was succeeded by John Seely Hart, who had been a Professor of Languages at Princeton University. In 1845, two distinguished English members of the Society of Friends, James H. Tuke and Joseph Corosfield, spent several months in America investigating the school system of the United States. They devoted more than one-third of the text of their report to Central High School, in accordance with this Act, the Board of Controllers on September 11,1849, authorized the conferring of appropriate degrees upon graduates of Central High. On June 24,1847, the President of the United States, James K. Polk, with Vice-President George M. Dallas and Attorney General Nathan Clifford paid a visit to the school and addressed the students. In September 1854, the transferred to a new building, located at the southeast corner of Broad. In 1858, President Hart resigned and was succeeded by Nicholas Harper Maguire, in September 1900, the school moved to its third location in a newer and larger building located at Broad, Green, Fifteenth, and Brandywine Streets
Central High School (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
–
Central High School of Philadelphia
Central High School (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
–
A postcard of the Boys Central High School (1904)
Central High School (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
–
A portrait of John Seely Hart by Thomas Eakins
12.
William Glackens
–
William James Glackens was an American realist painter and one of the founders of the Ashcan School of American art. He is also known for his work in helping Albert C. Barnes to acquire the European paintings that form the nucleus of the famed Barnes Foundation in Philadelphia. His dark-hued, vibrantly painted street scenes and depictions of life in pre-WW I New York. His later work was brighter in tone and showed the influence of Renoir. During much of his career as a painter, Glackens also worked as an illustrator for newspapers and magazines in Philadelphia, Glackens was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where his family had lived for many generations. William had two siblings, a sister, Ada, and an older brother, cartoonist and illustrator Louis Glackens. He graduated from the prestigious Central High School in 1890, throughout his school years, he showed a great interest in and aptitude for drawing and drafting. After graduation, Glackens became an artist-reporter for The Philadelphia Record, in 1892, he left that newspaper and began illustrating for the Philadelphia Press. He enrolled in evening classes at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, john Sloan also attended the Academy, and he introduced Glackens to Robert Henri, a talented painter and charismatic figure in Philadelphia art circles. Henri played host to regular gatherings at his studio, occasions to socialize, drink, sketch, talk about art. In 1895, Glackens traveled to Europe with several painters, including Henri, to paint. He first visited Holland where he studied the Dutch masters and he then moved to Paris, where he rented a studio for a year with Henri and enjoyed his first exposure to the art of the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists. While in Paris, Glackens painted independently, but did not attend any classes, later in life, a confirmed Francophile, Glackens returned periodically to paint in Paris and the south of France. Glackens later became a sketch artist for the New York Herald and he also worked as an illustrator for various magazines, including McClures Magazine, which sent him to Cuba to cover the Spanish–American War. At this time, Glackens was making a living as a magazine illustrator, in 1901, he exhibited at the Allen Gallery with Henri and Sloan and thereafter gained favorable notice as an up-and-coming artist. In 1904, Glackens married Edith Dimock, the daughter of a wealthy Connecticut family and she was also an artist, and they lived together in a Greenwich Village townhouse, where they raised two children, Lenna and Ira. If many of their artist friends lived a life by the standards of the day, such was not the case with William. In 1957, Ira Glackens published a book about his father
William Glackens
–
William Glackens, circa 1915
William Glackens
–
William Glackens. East River Park, ca. 1902. Oil on canvas. Brooklyn Museum
William Glackens
–
Italo-American Celebration, Washington Square, 1912, Boston Museum of Fine Arts
William Glackens
–
'My dear,' he instructed her patiently under the girl's approving eyes, 'you will find it always pays to get the best', Brooklyn Museum.
13.
Antiseptic
–
Antiseptic are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction. Disinfectants do not kill bacterial spores e. g. on surgical instruments, even sterilization may not destroy prions. Some antibiotics are true germicides, capable of destroying microbes, while others are bacteriostatic, antibacterials are antiseptics that have the proven ability to act against bacteria. Microbicides which destroy virus particles are called viricides or antivirals, antisepsis was recommended by Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis in 1847 but, tragically, he was ignored. In this paper, Lister advocated the use of acid as a method of ensuring that any germs present were killed. Some of this work was anticipated by, Ancient Greek physicians Galen and Hippocrates and their theories were bitterly opposed by Galenist Guy de Chauliac and others trained in the classical tradition. Joseph Smith alluded to the use of alcohol as an antiseptic in February 1833, specifically, verse 7 states, And, again, strong drinks are not for the belly, but for the washing of your bodies. More commonly, 3% solutions of hydrogen peroxide have been used in household first aid for scrapes, however, the strong oxidization causes scar formation and increases healing time during fetal development. Iodine is usually used in a solution or as Lugols iodine solution as a pre-. Some people do not recommend disinfecting minor wounds with iodine because of concern that it may induce scar tissue formation, however, concentrations of 1% iodine or less have not been shown to increase healing time and are not otherwise distinguishable from treatment with saline. Polyhexanide is a compound suitable for clinical use in critically colonized or infected acute. The physicochemical action on the bacterial envelope prevents or impedes the development of resistant bacterial strains, balsam of Peru is a mild antiseptic. By continued exposure to antibiotics, bacteria may evolve to the point where they are no longer harmed by these compounds, bacteria can also develop a resistance to antiseptics, but the effect is generally less pronounced. The mechanism by which bacteria evolve may vary in response to different antiseptics, low concentrations of an antiseptic may encourage growth of a bacterial strain that is resistant to the antiseptic, where a higher concentration of the antiseptic would simply kill the bacteria. In addition, use of a high concentration of an antiseptic may cause tissue damage or slow the process of wound healing
Antiseptic
–
Joseph Lister
Antiseptic
–
A bottle of ethanol (95%) – an antiseptic
14.
1929 stock market crash
–
The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchanges crash of September, signaled the beginning of the 12-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I and led to the crash, was a time of wealth, while the American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash, despite the dangers of speculation, many believed that the stock market would continue to rise forever. On March 25,1929, after the Federal Reserve warned of excessive speculation, two days later, banker Charles E. Mitchell announced his company the National City Bank would provide $25 million in credit to stop the markets slide. Mitchells move brought a halt to the financial crisis and call money declined from 20 to 8 percent. Despite all these economic trouble signs and the breaks in March and May 1929, stocks resumed their advance in June. The market had been on a run that saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average increase in value tenfold. Shortly before the crash, economist Irving Fisher famously proclaimed, Stock prices have reached what looks like a high plateau. The optimism and financial gains of the bull market were shaken after a well publicized early September prediction from financial expert Roger Babson that a crash was coming. The initial September decline was thus called the Babson Break in the press and this was the start of the Great Crash, although until the severe phase of the crash in October, many investors regarded the September Babson Break as a healthy correction and buying opportunity. On September 20, the London Stock Exchange crashed when top British investor Clarence Hatry and many of his associates were jailed for fraud, the London crash greatly weakened the optimism of American investment in markets overseas. In the days leading up to the crash, the market was severely unstable, periods of selling and high volumes were interspersed with brief periods of rising prices and recovery. On October 24, the market lost 11 percent of its value at the bell on very heavy trading. Several leading Wall Street bankers met to find a solution to the panic and chaos on the trading floor. The meeting included Thomas W. Lamont, acting head of Morgan Bank, Albert Wiggin, head of the Chase National Bank and they chose Richard Whitney, vice president of the Exchange, to act on their behalf. With the bankers financial resources behind him, Whitney placed a bid to purchase a block of shares in U. S. Steel at a price well above the current market. As traders watched, Whitney then placed similar bids on other blue chip stocks and this tactic was similar to one that ended the Panic of 1907. It succeeded in halting the slide, the Dow Jones Industrial Average recovered, closing with it down only 6.38 points for the day
1929 stock market crash
–
Crowd gathering on Wall Street after the 1929 crash
1929 stock market crash
–
Sir George Paish
1929 stock market crash
–
Unemployed men march in Toronto
15.
Brooklyn Museum of Art
–
The Brooklyn Museum is an art museum located in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. At 560,000 square feet, the museum is New York Citys third largest in physical size, the museum initially struggled to maintain its building and collection, only to be revitalized in the late 20th century, thanks to major renovations. Significant areas of the collection include antiquities, specifically their collection of Egyptian antiquities spanning over 3,000 years, African, Oceanic, and Japanese art make for notable antiquities collections as well. American art is represented, starting at the Colonial period. Artists represented in the collection include Mark Rothko, Edward Hopper, Norman Rockwell, Winslow Homer, Edgar Degas, Georgia OKeeffe, the museum also has a Memorial Sculpture Garden which features salvaged architectural elements from throughout New York City. The roots of the Brooklyn Museum extend back to the 1823 founding by Augustus Graham of the Brooklyn Apprentices’ Library in Brooklyn Heights, in 1890, under its director Franklin Hooper, Institute leaders reorganized as the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and began planning the Brooklyn Museum. The initial design for the Brooklyn Museum was four times as large as the actualized version, Daniel Chester French, the noted sculptor of the Lincoln Memorial, was the principal designer of the pediment sculptures and the monolithic 12. 5-foot figures along the cornice. The figures were created by 11 sculptors and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, by 1920, the New York City Subway reached the museum with a subway station, this greatly improved access to the once-isolated museum from Manhattan and other outer boroughs. The Brooklyn Institutes director Franklin Hooper was the museums first director and he was followed by Philip Newell Youtz, Laurance Page Roberts, Isabel Spaulding Roberts, Charles Nagel, Jr. and Edgar Craig Schenck. Thomas S. Buechner became the director in 1960, making him one of the youngest directors in the country. Buechner oversaw a major transformation in the way the museum displayed art and brought some one thousand works that had languished in the museums archives and put them on display. Buechner played a role in rescuing the Daniel Chester French sculptures from destruction due to an expansion project at the Manhattan Bridge in the 1960s. The Brooklyn Museum changed its name to Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1997, on March 12,2004, the museum announced that it would revert to its previous name. In April 2004, the museum opened the James Polshek-designed entrance pavilion on the Eastern Parkway façade, in September 2014, Lehman announced that he was planning to retire around June 2015. In May 2015, Creative Time president and artistic director Anne Pasternak was named the Museums next director, member institutions occupy land or buildings owned by the City of New York and derive part of their yearly funding from the City. The Brooklyn Museum also supplements its earned income with funding from Federal and State governments, as well as donations by individuals. Major benefactors include Frank Lusk Babbott, the museum is the site of the annual Brooklyn Artists Ball which has included celebrity hosts such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Liv Tyler. The Brooklyn Museum exhibits collections that seek to embody the rich heritage of world cultures
Brooklyn Museum of Art
–
Brooklyn Museum
Brooklyn Museum of Art
–
Replica of the Statue of Liberty in back lot.
Brooklyn Museum of Art
–
Book of the Dead of the Goldworker of Amun, Sobekmose, 31.1777e
Brooklyn Museum of Art
–
Brooklyn Papyrus 664-332 BCE
16.
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society
–
The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society is a nonprofit organization that promotes horticulture-related events and community activities. It is headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Society was founded in 1827 to establish a Horticultural Society in the City of Philadelphia for the promotion of this interesting and highly influential branch of Science. The Society hosts the annual Philadelphia Flower Show, the worlds largest indoor flower show, Philadelphia Green is an urban greening program which promotes improvements in the urban landscape. The Community Greening Award is given annually to caretakers throughout the state in recognition of their beautification efforts, the Horticultural Society has occupied several homes since its 1827 founding. It held its first meetings at the Franklin Institute, the American Philosophical Society, the Athenaeum, in 1867, PHS built its first Horticultural Hall, whose location was described as Broad and Lardner Streets or Broad Street below Locust. The society held flower and horticultural shows here until 1881, when the building was destroyed in a fire, the structure was rebuilt, but again destroyed by fire in 1893. From 1895 to 1898, the Society was led by banker Clarence H. Clark, during Clarks term as president, the PHS built a new horticultural hall on Broad below Locust, which opened in 1895. In 1917, poor finances forced PHS to sell its building, from 1923 to 1946, PHS occupied office space in the new Insurance Company of North America Building at 1600 Arch Street. From 1946 to 1964, it rented space above Suburban Station, in 1964, PHS joined with the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture and moved into a historical row house in the Society Hill neighborhood, on Walnut Street between 3rd and 4th Streets. Today, the PHS headquarters is at 100 North 20th Street, in 2003, a former PHS president, J. Lyddon Pennock, Jr. donated to the Society his 25-acre estate in Abington, Pennsylvania north of Philadelphia. Dubbed Meadowbrook Farm, it sells plants at a retail shop, as of 2014, the Society has more than 23,000 members. In recent years, PHS has been able to reach new audiences with the addition of its annual PHS Pop-Up Gardens, official website PHS archives at University of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Horticultural Society YouTube channel An illustrated chronology of the various Horticultural Halls can be found here
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society
–
PHS building, with library on the ground floor.
17.
St. Joseph's University
–
The University was founded in 1851 as Saint Josephs College by the Society of Jesus. Saint Josephs is the seventh oldest Jesuit university in the United States and it has 17 centers and institutes, including the prestigious Kinney Center for Autism Education & Support and Pedro Arrupe Center for Business Ethics. Saint Josephs has grown in size and scope since 2001 with the addition of the Maguire Campus, construction of new campus buildings. For the 2014 U. S. News and World Report rankings, in the Masters Universities category, the Saint Josephs University athletics teams are called the Hawks. The Hawks are a NCAA Division I program that compete in the Atlantic-10 Conference, the official colors of the University are crimson and grey. The school mascot is the famous Hawk, which never stops flapping its wings while in costume, approximately,100 Jesuits live on campus with 18 serving as faculty. The universitys Jesuit Community lives in the Loyola Center, directly across the street from Barbelin Hall, the Loyola Center joins Manresa Hall, which is the home of the infirm Jesuits, and features a Carriage House. Other Jesuit residences include St. Alphonsus House and Faber Hall, a few Jesuits also live in residence halls, the university president maintains an apartment in the Merion Gardens Apartment building. The university also uses its Jesuit identity in its branding. The university began The Magis campaign in 2013 to highlight this commitment to living greater, the Magis is taken from the motto of the society of Jesus Ad maiorem Dei gloriam, meaning for For the greater glory of God. The university also promotes the Jesuit principle of cura personalis or Care for the whole person, the university requires undergraduates to complete a rigorous general education program that focuses heavily on traditional liberal arts disciplines. Every general education class is titled 154, which stands for the year 1540 AD when the Society of Jesus was accepted by the Pope, on September 27,2015, Pope Francis, himself a Jesuit, made a stop at the University during his two-day visit to Philadelphia. The Seal of Saint Josephs University signifies many things that show the history, many of the symbols are not unique to Saint Josephs and appear on the seals of other Jesuit educational institutions. The wolves are over a pot to show the generosity of the Loyola family towards the poor. Tradition claims that the Loyolas provided so much food for their soldiers that even the wolves had enough to eat, IHM are the letters JES in Greek, which stands for Jesus. This symbol regularly represents the Jesuits, the stripes signify the 7 sons of the House of Loyola, who died defending their home from the Moors. The lily is used to represent Saint Joseph, wherever he is present. The seal is the graphical representation of Saint Josephs and its uniquely Jesuit identity
St. Joseph's University
–
The Seal of Saint Joseph's College, now University, at The Burns Library at Boston College
St. Joseph's University
–
Saint Joseph's University
St. Joseph's University
–
Haub School of Business in Mandeville Hall
St. Joseph's University
–
Barbelin Tower
18.
Henri Matisse
–
Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is primarily as a painter. Although he was labelled a Fauve, by the 1920s he was increasingly hailed as an upholder of the classical tradition in French painting. His mastery of the language of colour and drawing, displayed in a body of work spanning over a half-century. Matisse was born in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, in the Nord department in northern France and he grew up in Bohain-en-Vermandois, Picardie, France. In 1887 he went to Paris to study law, working as an administrator in Le Cateau-Cambrésis after gaining his qualification. He first started to paint in 1889, after his mother brought him art supplies during a period of following an attack of appendicitis. He discovered a kind of paradise as he described it. In 1891 he returned to Paris to study art at the Académie Julian and became a student of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, initially he painted still lifes and landscapes in a traditional style, at which he achieved reasonable proficiency. Chardin was one of the painters Matisse most admired, as an art student he made copies of four of Chardins paintings in the Louvre, in 1896 and 1897, Matisse visited the Australian painter John Peter Russell on the island Belle Île off the coast of Brittany. Russell introduced him to Impressionism and to the work of van Gogh and he later said Russell was my teacher, and Russell explained colour theory to me. In 1896 Matisse exhibited five paintings in the salon of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, with the model Caroline Joblau, he had a daughter, Marguerite, born in 1894. In 1898 he married Amélie Noellie Parayre, the two raised Marguerite together and had two sons, Jean and Pierre, Marguerite and Amélie often served as models for Matisse. In 1898, on the advice of Camille Pissarro, he went to London to study the paintings of J. M. W. Turner and then went on a trip to Corsica. Upon his return to Paris in February 1899, he worked beside Albert Marquet and met André Derain, Jean Puy, Matisse immersed himself in the work of others and went into debt from buying work from painters he admired. The work he hung and displayed in his home included a plaster bust by Rodin, a painting by Gauguin, a drawing by van Gogh, in Cézannes sense of pictorial structure and colour, Matisse found his main inspiration. Many of Matisses paintings from 1898 to 1901 make use of a Divisionist technique he adopted after reading Paul Signacs essay and his paintings of 1902–03, a period of material hardship for the artist, are comparatively somber and reveal a preoccupation with form. Having made his first attempt at sculpture, a copy after Antoine-Louis Barye, in 1899, he devoted much of his energy to working in clay, fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910
Henri Matisse
–
Henri Matisse, 1913, by Alvin Langdon Coburn
Henri Matisse
–
Henri and Amélie Matisse, 1898
Henri Matisse
–
Woman Reading, 1894, Museum of Modern Art, Paris
Henri Matisse
–
Blue Pot and Lemon (1897), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia
19.
Le bonheur de vivre
–
Le bonheur de vivre is a painting by Henri Matisse. Along with Picassos Les Demoiselles dAvignon, Le bonheur de vivre is regarded as one of the pillars of early modernism, the monumental canvas was first exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants of 1906, where its cadmium colors and spatial distortions caused a public expression of protest and outrage. In the central background of the piece is a group of figures that is similar to the group depicted in his painting The Dance, in the picture, there are several nude bodies of women and men in a landscape drenched with vivid color. Le bonheur de vivre features a large amount of cadmium sulfide-based yellow, portions of the painting containing cadmium sulfide are turning white or brown, degrading the work. University of Delaware Prof. Robert L, “It is a very disheartening phenomenon, considering the painting’s position in history, ” says Opila, professor of materials science at UD. Also, the presence of chloride in the paint appears to be acting as a catalyst for the deterioration, Opila and his research team theorize that the binder, an oil similar to linseed oil, may be turning brown. Barnes Foundation, Le Bonheur de vivre Photo-oxidative degradation of yellow pigments in Matisse’s Le Bonheur de Vivre, a comparison of XANES, XPS, Raman, and FTIR methodologies. Cadmium yellow degradation mechanisms in Henri Matisse’s Le Bonheur de vivre compared to the Munch Museum’s The Scream using chemical speciation as a function of depth, Jennifer L. Mass, et al
Le bonheur de vivre
–
Le bonheur de vivre
20.
Fauvist
–
While Fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910, the movement as such lasted only a few years, 1904–1908, and had three exhibitions. The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain, the paintings of the Fauves were characterized by seemingly wild brush work and strident colors, while their subject matter had a high degree of simplification and abstraction. Fauvism can be classified as a development of Van Goghs Post-Impressionism fused with the pointillism of Seurat and other Neo-Impressionist painters. Other key influences were Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin, whose employment of areas of saturated color—notably in paintings from Tahiti—strongly influenced Derains work at Collioure in 1905, in 1888 Gauguin had said to Paul Sérusier, How do you see these trees. So, put in yellow, this shadow, rather blue, paint it with pure ultramarine, Fauvism can also be seen as a mode of Expressionism. Moreaus broad-mindedness, originality and affirmation of the potency of pure color was inspirational for his students. Matisse said of him, He did not set us on the right roads and this source of empathy was taken away with Moreaus death in 1898, but the artists discovered other catalysts for their development. In 1896, Matisse, then an art student, visited the artist John Peter Russell on the island of Belle Île off the coast of Brittany. The next year he returned as Russells student and abandoned his earth-colored palette for bright Impressionist colors, later stating, Russell was my teacher, Russell had been a close friend of Vincent van Gogh and gave Matisse a Van Gogh drawing. In parallel with the discovery of contemporary avant-garde art came an appreciation of pre-Renaissance French art. Another aesthetic influence was African sculpture, of which Vlaminck, Derain, many of the Fauve characteristics first cohered in Matisses painting, Luxe, Calme et Volupté, which he painted in the summer of 1904, whilst in Saint-Tropez with Paul Signac and Henri-Edmond Cross. The artists shared their first exhibition at the 1905 Salon dAutomne, Henri Rousseau was not a Fauve, but his large jungle scene The Hungry Lion Throws Itself on the Antelope was exhibited near Matisses work and may have had an influence on the pejorative used. Vauxcelles comment was printed on 17 October 1905 in Gil Blas, a daily newspaper, the pictures gained considerable condemnation—A pot of paint has been flung in the face of the public, wrote the critic Camille Mauclair —but also some favorable attention. Matisses Neo-Impressionist landscape, Luxe, Calme et Volupté, had already exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in the spring of 1905. Art history History of painting Neo-Fauvism Visual arts Western painting Gerdts, the Color of Modernism, The American Fauves. Spivey, Virginia, Fauvism, Smarthistory at Khan Academy Whitfield, Fauve Painting from the Permanent Collection at the National Gallery of Art Fauvism, The Wild Beasts of Early Twentieth Century Art Rewald, Sabine. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Gelett Burgess, The Wild Men of Paris, Matisse, Picasso and Les Fauves,1910
Fauvist
–
Henri Matisse, Portrait of Madame Matisse (The Green Stripe), 1906, Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen, Denmark
Fauvist
–
Press clipping, Les Fauves: Exhibition at the Salon d'Automne, in L'Illustration, 4 November 1905
Fauvist
–
Henri Matisse. Woman with a Hat, 1905. San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.
Fauvist
–
Henri Matisse, Luxe, Calme et Volupté, 1904, oil on canvas, 98 x 118.5 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris, France
21.
Gertrude Stein
–
Gertrude Stein was an American novelist, poet, playwright, and art collector. Born in the Allegheny West neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and raised in Oakland, California, Stein moved to Paris in 1903, in 1933, Stein published a quasi-memoir of her Paris years, The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, written in the voice of her partner, Alice B. Toklas, an American-born member of the Parisian avant-garde, the book became a literary bestseller and vaulted Stein from the relative obscurity of the cult-literature scene into the limelight of mainstream attention. Her books include Q. E. D. about a romantic affair involving several of Steins female friends, Fernhurst, a fictional story about a romantic affair, Three Lives. In Tender Buttons, Stein commented on lesbian sexuality and her activities during World War II have been the subject of analysis and commentary. After the war ended, Stein expressed admiration for another Nazi collaborator, some have argued that certain accounts of Steins wartime activities have amounted to a witch hunt. Stein, the youngest of a family of five children, was born on February 3,1874, in Allegheny, Pennsylvania to upper-middle-class Jewish parents, Daniel and her father was a wealthy businessman with real estate holdings. German and English were spoken in their home, when Stein was three years old, she and her family moved to Vienna, and then Paris. Accompanied by governesses and tutors, the Steins endeavored to imbue their children with the sensibilities of European history. Stein attended First Hebrew Congregation of Oaklands Sabbath school, during their residence in Oakland, they lived for four years on a ten-acre lot, and Stein built many memories of California there. She would often go on excursions with her brother, Leo, Stein found formal schooling in Oakland unstimulating, but she read often, Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Scott, Burns, Smollett, Fielding, and more. When Stein was 14 years old, her mother died, Three years later, her father died as well. Steins eldest brother, Michael Stein, then took over the family holdings and in 1892 arranged for Gertrude and another sister, Bertha. Here she lived with her uncle David Bachrach, who in 1877 had married Gertrudes maternal aunt, in Baltimore, Stein met Claribel and Etta Cone, who held Saturday evening salons that she would later emulate in Paris. The Cones shared an appreciation for art and conversation about it, Stein attended Radcliffe College, then an annex of Harvard University, from 1893 to 1897 and was a student of psychologist William James. In 1934, behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner interpreted Steins difficult poem Tender Buttons as an example of normal motor automatism. In a letter Stein wrote during the 1930s, she explained that she never accepted the theory of writing, here can be automatic movements
Gertrude Stein
–
Stein in 1935 photographed by Carl Van Vechten
Gertrude Stein
–
Gertrude Stein's birthplace and childhood home in Allegheny West
Gertrude Stein
–
Gertrude Stein, age 3
Gertrude Stein
–
Henri Matisse, Woman with a Hat, 1905. San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
22.
Leo Stein
–
Leo Stein was an American art collector and critic. He was born in Allegheny City, the brother of Gertrude Stein. He became a promoter of 20th-century paintings. Beginning in 1892, he studied at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the following year, he traveled the world with his cousin, Fred. In 1897, he transferred to Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Stein spent a number of years living in Paris with his sister. In 1914, the two due to Leos resentment of Gertrudes infatuation with Alice B. Toklas, whom he described as a kind of abnormal vampire, Stein returned to America to work as a journalist but eventually settled near Florence, Italy, with his long-time love interest, Nina Auzias. Stein died of cancer in 1947 in Florence, Auzias committed suicide two years later. New York, Boni & Liveright,1927, sister Brother, Gertrude and Leo Stein. Four Americans in Paris, The Collections of Gertrude Stein and Her Family, new York, Museum of Modern Art,1970
Leo Stein
–
Leo Stein (1872-1947), elder brother of Gertrude Stein. Photo by Carl Van Vechten, November 9, 1937
23.
Pablo Picasso
–
Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, Picassos work is often categorized into periods. Much of Picassos work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in a neoclassical style and his later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco and María Picasso y López. His mother was of one quarter Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa, though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picassos family was of middle-class background and his father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts, Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were piz, piz, a shortening of lápiz, from the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was an academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork, the family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his sketch of a pigeon. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his sister, Conchita. After her death, the moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home, Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, the student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day. Picassos father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrids Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, at age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment
Pablo Picasso
–
Picasso in 1908
Pablo Picasso
–
Pablo Picasso with his sister Lola, 1889
Pablo Picasso
–
Pablo Picasso, 1901, Old Woman (Woman with Gloves), oil on cardboard, 67 x 52.1 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Pablo Picasso
–
Pablo Picasso, 1901-02, Femme au café (Absinthe Drinker), oil on canvas, 73 x 54 cm, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia
24.
Paul Guillaume
–
Paul Guillaume was a French art dealer. Dealer of Chaim Soutine and Amedeo Modigliani, he was one of the first to organize African art exhibitions and he also bought and sold many works from cutting edge artists of the time, such as Henri Matisse, Constantin Brâncuși, Pablo Picasso, and Giorgio de Chirico. Being from modest origins, Paul Guillaume worked in a garage and he found African sculptures which he displayed. This aroused the attention of Guillaume Apollinaire, who in turn introduced him to many of the artists of the beginning of the century in France. He soon organized important exhibitions, such as the Première Exposition d’Art Nègre et d’Art Océanien, on 13–19 May 1919, with a catalogue by Henri Clouzot, Apollinaire, who died the previous year, had also collaborated with Paul Guillaume on the pioneering study Sculptures Nègres in 1917. This exhibition – drawn from Guillaumes private collection – placed African art at the heart of Modernism, after his death, his wife Domenica married architect Jean Walter and continued Guillaumes collection, selling his most extreme paintings and acquiring impressionist paintings. After her own death, this collection of 20th-century paintings became part of the Musée de lOrangerie in Paris, Domenica was once accused of the murder of Paul Guillaume, who died early and suspiciously. Some speculate that she was cleared of all charges in exchange for giving the collection to the French state after her death
Paul Guillaume
–
Amedeo Modigliani, Paul Guillaume – Novo Pilota, 1915
25.
Giorgio de Chirico
–
Giorgio de Chirico was an Italian artist and writer. In the years before World War I, he founded the scuola metafisica art movement, after 1919, he became interested in traditional painting techniques, and worked in a neoclassical or neo-Baroque style, while frequently revisiting the metaphysical themes of his earlier work. De Chirico was born in Volos, Greece, to a Genoan mother and he entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, where he studied under Max Klinger and read the writings of the philosophers Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer and Otto Weininger. There, he studied the works of Arnold Böcklin. He returned to Italy in the summer of 1909 and spent six months in Milan and he also painted The Enigma of the Oracle while in Florence. In July 1911 he spent a few days in Turin on his way to Paris, De Chirico was profoundly moved by what he called the metaphysical aspect of Turin, especially the architecture of its archways and piazzas. De Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea. Through his brother he met Pierre Laprade, a member of the jury at the Salon dAutomne, where he exhibited three of his works, Enigma of the Oracle, Enigma of an Afternoon and Self-Portrait. During 1913 he exhibited paintings at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d’Automne, his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso and Guillaume Apollinaire, in 1914, through Apollinaire, he met the art dealer Paul Guillaume, with whom he signed a contract for his artistic output. At the outbreak of World War I, he returned to Italy, upon his arrival in May 1915, he enlisted in the army, but he was considered unfit for work and assigned to the hospital at Ferrara. Here he met with Carlo Carrà and together founded the pittura metafisica movement. He continued to paint, and in 1918, he transferred to Rome, starting from 1918, his work was exhibited extensively in Europe. De Chirico is best known for the paintings he produced between 1909 and 1919, his period, which are characterized by haunted, brooding moods evoked by their images. In autumn,1919, De Chirico published an article in Valori Plastici entitled The Return of Craftsmanship, in which he advocated a return to traditional methods and iconography. In the early 1920s, the Surrealist writer André Breton discovered one of De Chiricos metaphysical paintings on display in Guillaumes Paris gallery, numerous young artists who were similarly affected by De Chiricos imagery became the core of the Paris Surrealist group centered around Breton. In 1924 De Chirico visited Paris and was accepted into the group, De Chirico met and married his first wife, the Russian ballerina Raissa Gurievich in 1925, and together they moved to Paris. His relationship with the Surrealists grew increasingly contentious, as they publicly disparaged his new work, by 1926 he had come to them as cretinous. They soon parted ways in acrimony, in 1928 he held his first exhibition in New York City and shortly afterwards, London
Giorgio de Chirico
–
In 1936, photographed by Carl Van Vechten
Giorgio de Chirico
–
The Song of Love, 1914, oil on canvas, 73 × 59.1 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York
Giorgio de Chirico
–
Le mauvais génie d’un roi (The Evil Genius of a King), 1914-15, oil on canvas, 61 × 50.2 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York
Giorgio de Chirico
–
The Seer, 1914-15, oil on canvas, 89.6 x 70.1 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York
26.
Chaim Soutine
–
Chaïm Soutine was a Russian painter of Belarusian Jewish origin. Soutine made a contribution to the expressionist movement while living in Paris. Soutine was born Chaim Sutin, in Smilavichy near Minsk, Belarus and he was the tenth of eleven children. From 1910 to 1913 he studied in Vilnius at the Vilna Academy of Fine Arts, in 1913, with his friends Pinchus Kremegne and Michel Kikoine, he emigrated to Paris, where he studied at the École des Beaux-Arts under Fernand Cormon. He soon developed a personal vision and painting technique. For a time, he and his friends lived at La Ruche, Modigliani painted Soutines portrait several times, most famously in 1917, on a door of an apartment belonging to Léopold Zborowski, who was their art dealer. Zborowski supported Soutine through World War I, taking the struggling artist with him to Nice to escape the possible German invasion of Paris, after the war Paul Guillaume, a highly influential art dealer, began to champion Soutines work. In 1923, in a showing arranged by Guillaume, the prominent American collector Albert C, barnes, bought 60 of Soutines paintings on the spot. Soutine once horrified his neighbours by keeping an animal carcass in his studio so that he could paint it, the stench drove them to send for the police, whom Soutine promptly lectured on the relative importance of art over hygiene. Theres a story that Marc Chagall saw the blood from the leak out onto the corridor outside Soutines room. Soutine painted 10 works in series, which have since become his most well-known. His carcass paintings were inspired by Rembrandts still life of the subject, Slaughtered Ox. Soutine produced the majority of his works from 1920 to 1929, soon afterwards France was invaded by German troops. As a Jew, Soutine had to escape from the French capital and he moved from one place to another and was sometimes forced to seek shelter in forests, sleeping outdoors. Suffering from an ulcer and bleeding badly, he left a safe hiding place for Paris in order to undergo emergency surgery. On August 9,1943, Chaim Soutine died of a perforated ulcer and he was interred in Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris. In February 2007, a 1921 portrait of a man with a red scarf by Chaim Soutine sold for $17.2 million—a new record—at Sothebys London auction house. In May 2015, Le Bœuf, circa 1923, oil on canvas, some years after Soutines death, Roald Dahl placed him as a character in his short story Skin
Chaim Soutine
–
Chaim Soutine (with signature)
Chaim Soutine
–
Self Portrait, 1918, Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection, on long-term loan to the Princeton University Art Museum
Chaim Soutine
–
Amedeo Modigliani, Portrait of Soutine, 1916
Chaim Soutine
–
Chemin de la Fontaine des Tins at Céret, ca. 1920, Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection on long-term loan to the Princeton University Art Museum
27.
Great Depression
–
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
Great Depression
–
Dorothea Lange 's Migrant Mother depicts destitute pea pickers in California, centering on Florence Owens Thompson, age 32, a mother of seven children, in Nipomo, California, March 1936
Great Depression
–
USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
Great Depression
–
Crowd gathering at the intersection of Wall Street and Broad Street after the 1929 crash
Great Depression
–
Crowds outside the Bank of United States in New York after its failure in 1931
28.
Ambroise Vollard
–
Ambroise Vollard was a French art dealer who is regarded as one of the most important dealers in French contemporary art at the beginning of the twentieth century. He was also an art collector and publisher. Born in Saint-Denis, Réunion, he was raised in the French Indian Ocean colony. After his matura in La Réunion, he went to study jurisprudence in France from 1885, for a while in Montpellier, then at the École de droit in Paris, where he received his degree in 1888. There Vollard mounted his first major exhibitions, buying almost the entire output of Cézanne and this was followed by exhibitions of Manet, Gauguin and Van Gogh, for Gabriel Mourey, French correspondent of The Studio in Paris, this was simply a matter of Scylla and Charybdis. These were then was followed by a second Cézanne exhibition, the first Picasso exhibition, much has been made of his physical appearance and countenance, however, he was also a very shrewd businessman who made a fortune with the buy low, sell high mantra. Barnes, Henry Osborne Havemeyer, Gertrude Stein and her brother, having put on the first Picasso exhibition, in 1930 Vollard commissioned Picasso to produce a suite of 100 etchings which became known as the Vollard Suite. Vollard would later write biographies of Cézanne, Degas, and Renoir, in 1937 he published his autobiography, Recollections of a Picture Dealer. With war approaching, Vollard set out in July 1939 from his cottage in Le Tremblay-sur-Mauldre to travel to his mansion on the Rue Martignac, nearing the junction to Pontchartrain, on a very wet road, his chauffeur-driven Talbot skidded and then somersaulted twice. Having fractured his vertebrae, there he lay with his chauffeur until found dead, aged 73. After his death, Vollards executor was fellow dealer Martin Fabiani, due to the Nazi invasion of France, which started on 10 May 1940, Fabiani hurriedly shipped 560 paintings to the United States. Leaving on the SS Excalibur from Lisbon, Portugal, the ship was intercepted by the Royal Navy in Bermuda on 25 September 1940, designated enemy property, the paintings were stored at the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa during World War II. Post-war, on 19 April 1949, the London prize court agreed release of the pieces to Fabiani, in gratitude, the sisters donated all of the lithographs by Rouault and Chagall, and a single painting by Gauguin to the National Gallery of Canada. The remaining works soon started appearing on the New York City commercial art gallery market, Vollards former secretary and protegé, Erich Šlomović, a young Serb with Jewish origins, had connections with Vollard, Fabiani as well as Lucien Vollard since about 1938. He had often stated his wish to create a museum of French art collected by him in Yugoslavia. Šlomović had amassed a collection of about 600 works, most of them prints or drawings, with a few important oil paintings, by a combination of exchange, gift, purchase and donation. Vollard had put him in contact with the most prominent artists of the day. Beginning of 1940, Šlomović put about 200 works in storage in a Societe Generale bank branch vault in Paris, returning home with about 450 of these works, he exhibited them in Zagreb, Croatia, in 1940
Ambroise Vollard
–
Ambroise Vollard, standing in front of Picasso's Evocación. El entierro de Casagemas
Ambroise Vollard
–
Paul Cézanne, Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, 1899. Musée des Beaux-Arts
Ambroise Vollard
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, 1908, 82 x 65 cm, Courtauld Institute Galleries, London
29.
Cezanne
–
Cézannes often repetitive, exploratory brushstrokes are highly characteristic and clearly recognizable. He used planes of colour and small brushstrokes that build up to form complex fields, the paintings convey Cézannes intense study of his subjects. Cézanne is said to have formed the bridge between late 19th-century Impressionism and the early 20th centurys new line of enquiry, Cubism. Both Matisse and Picasso are said to have remarked that Cézanne is the father of us all, the Cézannes came from the town of Saint-Sauveur. Paul Cézanne was born on 19 January 1839 in Aix-en-Provence, on 22 February, he was baptized in the Église de la Madeleine, with his grandmother and uncle Louis as godparents, and became a devout Catholic later in life. His mother, Anne Elisabeth Honorine Aubert, was vivacious and romantic and it was from her that Cézanne got his conception and vision of life. He also had two sisters, Marie and Rose, with whom he went to a primary school every day. At the age of ten Cézanne entered the Saint Joseph school in Aix and he stayed there for six years, though in the last two years he was a day scholar. In 1857 he began attending the Free Municipal School of Drawing in Aix, where he studied drawing under Joseph Gibert, from 1858 to 1861, complying with his fathers wishes, Cézanne attended the law school of the University of Aix, while also receiving drawing lessons. Going against the objections of his father, he committed himself to pursuing his artistic development. He was strongly encouraged to make decision by Zola, who was already living in the capital at the time. Eventually, his father reconciled with Cézanne and supported his choice of career, Cézanne later received an inheritance of 400,000 francs from his father, which rid him of all financial worries. In Paris, Cézanne met the Impressionist Camille Pissarro, initially the friendship formed in the mid-1860s between Pissarro and Cézanne was that of master and disciple, in which Pissarro exerted a formative influence on the younger artist. Over the course of the decade their landscape painting excursions together, in Louveciennes and Pontoise. Cézannes early work is concerned with the figure in the landscape and includes many paintings of groups of large, heavy figures in the landscape. Later in his career, he became interested in working from direct observation and gradually developed a light. Nevertheless, in Cézannes mature work there is the development of a solidified, throughout his life he struggled to develop an authentic observation of the seen world by the most accurate method of representing it in paint that he could find. To this end, he structurally ordered whatever he perceived into simple forms, Cézanne was interested in the simplification of naturally occurring forms to their geometric essentials, he wanted to treat nature by the cylinder, the sphere, the cone
Cezanne
–
Paul Cézanne, c. 1861
Cezanne
–
Femme au Chapeau Vert (Woman in a Green Hat. Madame Cézanne.) 1894–1895
Cezanne
–
Les joueurs de cartes (The Card Players), 1892-95, oil on canvas, 60 x 73 cm, Courtauld Institute of Art, London
Cezanne
–
Les Grandes Baigneuses, 1898–1905: the triumph of Poussinesque stability and geometric balance
30.
Renoir
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, commonly known as Auguste Renoir, was a French artist who was a leading painter in the development of the Impressionist style. As a celebrator of beauty and especially feminine sensuality, it has said that Renoir is the final representative of a tradition which runs directly from Rubens to Watteau. He was the father of actor Pierre Renoir, filmmaker Jean Renoir and he was the grandfather of the filmmaker Claude Renoir, son of Pierre. Pierre-Auguste Renoir was born in Limoges, Haute-Vienne, France, in 1841 and his father, Léonard Renoir, was a tailor of modest means, so in 1844, Renoirs family moved to Paris in search of more favorable prospects. The location of their home, in rue d’Argenteuil in central Paris, although the young Renoir had a natural proclivity for drawing, he exhibited a greater talent for singing. His talent was encouraged by his teacher, Charles Gounod, who was the choir-master at the Church of St Roch at the time. However, due to the financial circumstances, Renoir had to discontinue his music lessons. Although Renoir displayed a talent for his work, he tired of the subject matter. The owner of the factory recognized his apprentice’s talent and communicated this to Renoir’s family, following this, Renoir started taking lessons to prepare for entry into Ecole des Beaux Arts. When the porcelain factory adopted mechanical reproduction processes in 1858, Renoir was forced to other means to support his learning. Before he enrolled in art school, he also painted hangings for overseas missionaries, in 1862, he began studying art under Charles Gleyre in Paris. There he met Alfred Sisley, Frédéric Bazille, and Claude Monet, at times, during the 1860s, he did not have enough money to buy paint. Renoir had his first success at the Salon of 1868 with his painting Lise with a Parasol, although Renoir first started exhibiting paintings at the Paris Salon in 1864, recognition was slow in coming, partly as a result of the turmoil of the Franco-Prussian War. This loss of a favorite painting location resulted in a change of subjects. Renoir was inspired by the style and subject matter of modern painters Camille Pissarro. Although the critical response to the exhibition was largely unfavorable, Renoirs work was well received. That same year, two of his works were shown with Durand-Ruel in London, hoping to secure a livelihood by attracting portrait commissions, Renoir displayed mostly portraits at the second Impressionist exhibition in 1876. He contributed a diverse range of paintings the next year when the group presented its third exhibition, they included Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette
Renoir
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir
Renoir
–
The Theater Box, 1874, Courtauld Institute Galleries, London
Renoir
–
Lise Sewing, 1866, Dallas Museum of Art
Renoir
–
The Swing (La Balançoire), 1876, oil on canvas, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
31.
Henri Rousseau
–
Henri Julien Félix Rousseau was a French post-impressionist painter in the Naïve or Primitive manner. He was also known as Le Douanier, a description of his occupation as a toll collector. Ridiculed during his lifetime by critics, he came to be recognized as a genius whose works are of high artistic quality. Rousseaus work exerted an influence on several generations of avant-garde artists. Rousseau was born in Laval, France, in 1844 into the family of a plumber, he was forced to work there as a small boy. He attended Laval High School as a day student, and then as a boarder after his father became a debtor, though mediocre in some of his high school subjects, Rousseau won prizes for drawing and music. After high school, he worked for a lawyer and studied law and he served four years, starting in 1863. With his fathers death, Rousseau moved to Paris in 1868 to support his mother as a government employee. In 1868, he married Clémence Boitard, his landlords 15-year-old daughter, in 1871, he was appointed as a collector of the octroi of Paris, collecting taxes on goods entering Paris. His wife died in 1888 and he married Josephine Noury in 1898 and he started painting seriously in his early forties, by age 49, he retired from his job to work on his art full-time. Rousseau claimed he had no other than nature, although he admitted he had received some advice from two established Academic painters, Félix Auguste Clément and Jean-Léon Gérôme. Essentially, he was self-taught and is considered to be a naïve or primitive painter and his best-known paintings depict jungle scenes, even though he never left France or saw a jungle. Stories spread by admirers that his service included the French expeditionary force to Mexico are unfounded. His inspiration came from illustrations in books and the botanical gardens in Paris. He had also met soldiers during his term of service who had survived the French expedition to Mexico, along with his exotic scenes there was a concurrent output of smaller topographical images of the city and its suburbs. Rousseaus flat, seemingly childish style was disparaged by many critics and his ingenuousness was extreme, and he always aspired, in vain, to conventional acceptance. Many observers commented that he painted like a child, but the work shows sophistication with his particular technique, from 1886, he exhibited regularly in the Salon des Indépendants, and, although his work was not placed prominently, it drew an increasing following over the years. Yet it was more than a decade before Rousseau returned to depicting his vision of jungles, in 1893, Rousseau moved to a studio in Montparnasse where he lived and worked until his death in 1910
Henri Rousseau
–
Portrait of Henri (Le Douanier) Rousseau, 1910, photograph: Pablo Picasso
Henri Rousseau
–
Self-portrait of the Artist with a Lamp
Henri Rousseau
–
Tiger in a Tropical Storm (Surprised!) (1891) was the first of many jungle scenes for which Rousseau is best known.
Henri Rousseau
–
The Hungry Lion Throws Itself on the Antelope, 1905
32.
Georges Seurat
–
Georges-Pierre Seurat was a French post-Impressionist painter and draftsman. He is noted for his use of drawing media and for devising the painting techniques known as chromoluminarism and pointillism. His large-scale work, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, altered the direction of art by initiating Neo-impressionism. Seurat was born 2 December 1859 in Paris, at 60 rue de Bondy, the Seurat family moved to 136 boulevard de Magenta in 1862 or 1863. His father, Antoine Chrysostome Seurat, originally from Champagne, was a legal official who had become wealthy from speculating in property. Georges had a brother, Émile Augustin, and a sister, Marie-Berthe and his father lived in Le Raincy and visited his wife and children once a week at boulevard de Magenta. Georges Seurat first studied art at the École Municipale de Sculpture et Dessin, near his familys home in the boulevard Magenta, Seurats studies resulted in a well-considered and fertile theory of contrasts, a theory to which all his work was thereafter subjected. His formal artistic education came to an end in November 1879, after a year at the Brest Military Academy, he returned to Paris where he shared a studio with his friend Aman-Jean, while also renting a small apartment at 16 rue de Chabrol. For the next two years, he worked at mastering the art of monochrome drawing and his first exhibited work, shown at the Salon, of 1883, was a Conté crayon drawing of Aman-Jean. He also studied the works of Eugène Delacroix carefully, making notes on his use of color and he spent 1883 working on his first major painting—a large canvas titled Bathers at Asnières, a monumental work showing young men relaxing by the Seine in a working-class suburb of Paris. Seurat also departed from the Impressionist ideal by preparing for the work with a number of drawings, Bathers at Asnières was rejected by the Paris Salon, and instead he showed it at the Groupe des Artistes Indépendants in May 1884. Seurats new ideas on pointillism were to have a strong influence on Signac. In the summer of 1884, Seurat began work on A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, the painting shows members of each of the social classes participating in various park activities. The tiny juxtaposed dots of multi-colored paint allow the eye to blend colors optically. It took Seurat two years to complete this 10-foot-wide painting, much of which he spent in the park sketching in preparation for the work and it is now in the permanent collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The painting was the inspiration for James Lapine and Stephen Sondheims musical, Seurat concealed his relationship with Madeleine Knobloch, an artists model whom he portrayed in his painting Jeune femme se poudrant. In 1889 she moved in with Seurat in his studio on the 7th floor of 128bis Boulevard de Clichy, when Madeleine became pregnant, the couple moved to a studio at 39 passage de lÉlysée-des-Beaux-Arts. There she gave birth to their son, who was named Pierre-Georges,16 February 1890, Seurat died in Paris in his parents home on 29 March 1891 at the age of 31
Georges Seurat
–
Georges Seurat, 1888
Georges Seurat
–
Georges Seurat, 1889-90, Le Chahut, oil on canvas, 170 x 141 cm, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo
Georges Seurat
–
Jeune femme se poudrant (Young Woman Powdering Herself), 1888-90, oil on canvas, 95.5 x 79.5 cm, Courtauld Institute of Art
Georges Seurat
–
Detail from Circus Sideshow (Parade de Cirque) (1889) showing pointillism and color theory
33.
Vincent van Gogh
–
Vincent Willem van Gogh was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings and his suicide at 37 followed years of mental illness and poverty. Born into a family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet. As a young man he worked as an art dealer, often travelling and he turned to religion, and spent time as a Protestant missionary in southern Belgium. He drifted in ill health and solitude before taking up painting in 1881 and his younger brother Theo supported him financially, and the two kept up a long correspondence by letter. His early works, mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant labourers, in 1886 he moved to Paris, where he met members of the avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were reacting against the Impressionist sensibility. As his work developed he created a new approach to still lifes and his paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in the south of France in 1888. During this period he broadened his subject matter to include trees, cypresses, wheat fields. Van Gogh suffered from episodes and delusions and though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor and he spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris and his depression continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver. He died from his injuries two days later, Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime, and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius. His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his style came to be incorporated by the Fauves. The most comprehensive source on Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother, Theo. Their lifelong friendship, and most of what is known of Vincents thoughts, Theo van Gogh was an art dealer and provided his brother with financial and emotional support, and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene. Theo kept all of Vincents letters to him, Vincent kept few of the letters he received, after both had died, Theos widow Johanna arranged for the publication of some of their letters. A few appeared in 1906 and 1913, the majority were published in 1914, Vincents letters are eloquent and expressive and have been described as having a diary-like intimacy, and read in parts like autobiography
Vincent van Gogh
–
Self-Portrait, Spring 1887, Oil on pasteboard, 42 × 33.7 cm., Art Institute of Chicago (F 345)
Vincent van Gogh
–
Vincent c. 1871-1872 aged 18. This photograph was taken at the time when he was working at the branch of Goupil & Cie 's gallery in The Hague.
Vincent van Gogh
–
Vincent c. 1866, approx. age 13
Vincent van Gogh
–
Van Gogh's drawing of 87 Hackford Road
34.
John Dewey
–
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey is one of the figures associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the fathers of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Dewey as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century, a well-known public intellectual, he was also a major voice of progressive education and liberalism. Although Dewey is known best for his publications about education, he wrote about many other topics, including epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art, logic, social theory. He was an educational reformer for the 20th century. The overriding theme of Deweys works was his belief in democracy, be it in politics, education or communication. As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, Democracy, John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, to a family of modest means. Dewey was one of four born to Archibald Sprague Dewey. The second born son and first John born to Archibald and Lucina died in an accident on January 17,1859. On October 20,1859 John Dewey was born, forty weeks after the death of his older brother. Like his older, surviving brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, where he was initiated into Delta Psi, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1879. A significant professor of Deweys at the University of Vermont was Henry A. P. Torrey, Dewey studied privately with Torrey between his graduation from Vermont and his enrollment at Johns Hopkins University. After studying with George Sylvester Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, Herbert Baxter Adams, in 1884, he accepted a faculty position at the University of Michigan with the help of George Sylvester Morris. His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled The Psychology of Kant, in 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago where he developed his belief in Rational Empiricism, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy. Disagreements with the administration ultimately caused his resignation from the University, in 1899, Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association. From 1904 until his retirement in 1930 he was professor of philosophy at both Columbia University and Columbia Universitys Teachers College, in 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. He was a member of the American Federation of Teachers. Along with the historians Charles A, beard and James Harvey Robinson, and the economist Thorstein Veblen, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School
John Dewey
–
John Dewey
John Dewey
–
Photograph of John Dewey and Hu Shih, from 1938-1942.
John Dewey
–
John Dewey's USA Stamp
John Dewey
–
Grave of Dewey and his wife in an alcove on the north side of the Ira Allen Chapel in Burlington, Vermont. The only grave on the University of Vermont campus
35.
Paul Philippe Cret
–
Paul Philippe Cret was a French-born Philadelphia architect and industrial designer. For more than thirty years, he taught a studio in the Department of Architecture at the University of Pennsylvania. Born in Lyon, France, Cret was educated at that citys École des Beaux-Arts, then in Paris and he came to the United States in 1903 to teach at the University of Pennsylvania. Although settled in America, he happened to be in France at the outbreak of World War I and he enlisted and remained in the French army for the duration, for which he was awarded the Croix de Guerre and made an officer in the Legion of Honor. Crets practice in America began in 1907, some of Crets work is remarkably streamlined and forward-thinking, and includes collaborations with sculptors such as Alfred Bottiau and Leon Hermant. In the late 1920s the architect was brought in as consultant on Fellheimer and Wagners Cincinnati Union Terminal. He became an American citizen in 1927, in 1931, the regents of The University of Texas at Austin commissioned Cret to design a master plan for the campus, and build the Beaux-Art Main Building, the universitys signature tower. Cret would go on to collaborate on about twenty buildings on the campus, in 1935, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1938. Crets contributions to the industry also included the design of the side fluting on the Burlingtons Pioneer Zephyr. Cret won the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects in 1938, ill health forced his resignation from teaching in 1937. Commission of Fine Arts from 1940 to 1945, after years of limited activity, Cret died in Philadelphia of heart disease. Crets work was displayed in the exhibit, From the Bastille to Broad Street, The Influence of France on Philadelphia Architecture, an exhibit of his train designs, All Aboard. Paul P. Crets Train Designs, was at the Athenaeum of Philadelphia from July 5,2012 to August 24,2012. With a collection of 17,000 drawings and more than 3,000 photographs, louis Kahn studied at the University of Pennsylvania under Cret, and worked in Crets architectural office in 1929 and 1930. Other notable architects who studied under Cret include Alfred Easton Poor, barber, William Ward Watkin, and Chinese architect Lin Huiyin. On the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated Crets Eternal Light Peace Memorial. Following Crets death in 1945, his four partners assumed the practice under the partnership Harbeson, Hough, Livingston & Larson, the firm officially adopted this nickname as its formal title in 1976. H2L2 celebrated 100 years in 2007, 1908–10 – Organization of American States Building, Washington, D. C. C
Paul Philippe Cret
–
Eccles Building, headquarters of the Federal Reserve in Washington, DC (1935-37).
Paul Philippe Cret
–
Main Building, University of Texas (foreground), Austin, TX (1934-37). One of twenty campus buildings designed by Cret.
Paul Philippe Cret
–
Eternal Light Peace Memorial, Gettysburg Battlefield, Gettysburg, PA (1938), Lee Lawrie, sculptor.
Paul Philippe Cret
–
Pan-American Union (now Organization of American States), Washington, DC (1908–10), (with Albert Kelsey)
36.
Impressionist
–
Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
Impressionist
–
Claude Monet, Haystacks, (sunset), 1890–1891, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Impressionist
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (Bal du moulin de la Galette), Musée d'Orsay, 1876
Impressionist
–
Édouard Manet, The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe), 1863
Impressionist
–
Alfred Sisley, View of the Saint-Martin Canal, Paris, 1870, Musée d'Orsay
37.
Post-Impressionist
–
Post-Impressionism is a predominantly French art movement that developed roughly between 1886 and 1905, from the last Impressionist exhibition to the birth of Fauvism. Post-Impressionism emerged as a reaction against Impressionists concern for the depiction of light. The movement was led by Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, the term Post-Impressionism was first used by art critic Roger Fry in 1906. Three weeks later, Roger Fry used the term again when he organized the 1910 exhibition, Manet, the Post-Impressionists were dissatisfied with what they felt was the triviality of subject matter and the loss of structure in Impressionist paintings, though they did not agree on the way forward. Georges Seurat and his followers concerned themselves with Pointillism, the use of tiny dots of colour. Paul Cézanne set out to restore a sense of order and structure to painting, to make of Impressionism something solid and durable and he achieved this by reducing objects to their basic shapes while retaining the saturated colours of Impressionism. The Impressionist Camille Pissarro experimented with Neo-Impressionist ideas between the mid-1880s and the early 1890s, Vincent van Gogh used colour and vibrant swirling brush strokes to convey his feelings and his state of mind. Although they often exhibited together, Post-Impressionist artists were not in agreement concerning a cohesive movement, yet, the abstract concerns of harmony and structural arrangement, in the work of all these artists, took precedence over naturalism. Artists such as Seurat adopted a scientific approach to colour. Younger painters during the early 20th century worked in geographically disparate regions and in various categories, such as Fauvism and Cubism. Most of the artists in Frys exhibition were younger than the Impressionists, Fry later explained, For purposes of convenience, it was necessary to give these artists a name, and I chose, as being the vaguest and most non-committal, the name of Post-Impressionism. This merely stated their position in time relatively to the Impressionist movement, john Rewald limited the scope to the years between 1886 and 1892 in his pioneering publication on Post-Impressionism, From Van Gogh to Gauguin. This volume would extend the period covered to other artistic movements derived from Impressionism, though confined to the late 19th, Rewald focused on such outstanding early Post-Impressionists active in France as van Gogh, Gauguin, Seurat, and Redon. Pont-Aven School, implying more than that the artists involved had been working for a while in Pont-Aven or elsewhere in Brittany. Symbolism, a highly welcomed by vanguard critics in 1891. Rewald wrote that the term Post-Impressionism is not a precise one. Convenient, when the term is by definition limited to French visual arts derived from Impressionism since 1886, rewalds approach to historical data was narrative rather than analytic, and beyond this point he believed it would be sufficient to let the sources speak for themselves. Rival terms like Modernism or Symbolism were never as easy to handle, for they covered literature, architecture and other arts as well, Symbolism, however, is considered to be a concept which emerged a century later in France, and implied an individual approach
Post-Impressionist
–
Henri Rousseau, The Centenary of Independence, 1892, Getty Center, Los Angeles
Post-Impressionist
–
Poster of the 1889 Exhibition of Paintings by the Impressionist and Synthetist Group, at Café des Arts, known as the The Volpini Exhibition, 1889
Post-Impressionist
–
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Portrait of Émile Bernard, 1886, Tate Gallery London
Post-Impressionist
–
Camille Pissarro, Haying at Eragny, 1889, Private Collection
38.
Modernist
–
Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
Modernist
Modernist
–
Eugène Delacroix 's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a Romantic work of art
Modernist
–
A Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck
Modernist
–
Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, The Art Institute of Chicago
39.
James A. Michener
–
Michener was known for the popularity of his works, he had numerous bestsellers and works selected for Book of the Month Club. He was also known for his meticulous research behind the books and his non-fiction works include Iberia, about his travels in Spain and Portugal, his memoir titled The World Is My Home, and Sports in America. Return to Paradise combines fictional short stories with Micheners factual descriptions of the Pacific areas where they take place. His first book was adapted as the popular Broadway musical South Pacific by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein and he also wrote an analysis of the Electoral College system of the United States in a book which condemned it, entitled Presidential Lottery, The Reckless Gamble in Our Electoral System. It was published in 1969, and republished in 2014 and 2016, Michener wrote that he did not know who his biological parents were or exactly when or where he was born. He said he was raised a Quaker by a mother, Mabel Michener, in Doylestown, Bucks County. Michener graduated from Doylestown High School in 1925 and he attended Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, where he played basketball and was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. After graduating summa cum laude in 1929 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English and History, Michener took a job as a high school English teacher at The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. From 1933 to 1936, he taught English at George School in Newtown and he attended Colorado State College of Education in Greeley, Colorado, in 1970 renamed the University of Northern Colorado, where he earned a Master of Arts degree in Education. After graduation, he taught at the university, and at College High School for several years, the library at the University of Northern Colorado was later named after him in October 1972. In 1935, Michener married Patti Koon and he accepted a Guest Lecturer position at Harvard, from 1939 to 1940, but left to join Macmillan Publishers as their social studies education editor. Michener was called to duty during World War II in the United States Navy. He traveled throughout the South Pacific Ocean on various assignments which he gained because his base commanders mistakenly thought his father was Admiral Marc Mitscher and his experiences during these travels inspired his stories published in his breakout work Tales of the South Pacific. In 1960, Michener was chairman of the Bucks County committee to elect John F. Kennedy, in 1962, he unsuccessfully ran as a Democratic candidate for a seat in the U. S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania, a decision he later considered a misstep. My mistake was to run in 1962 as a Democratic candidate for Congress, kept saying, Dont do it, dont do it. I lost and went back to writing books, in 1968, Michener served as the campaign manager for twice-elected US senator Joseph S. Clarks third-term run. Michener was later Secretary for the 1967–68 Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, also that year, Michener was a member of the Electoral College, serving as a Pennsylvania Democrat. He wrote about that experience in Presidential Lottery, The Reckless Gamble in Our Electoral System, in it, he suggested alternate systems, including a direct popular vote
James A. Michener
–
Author James A. Michener in 1991
James A. Michener
–
Michener's typewriter at the James A. Michener Art Museum in Doylestown, Pennsylvania
40.
Philadelphia Museum of Art
–
The Philadelphia Museum of Art is an art museum originally chartered in 1876 for the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The main museum building was completed in 1928 on Fairmount, a located at the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway at Eakins Oval. The museum administers collections containing over 240,000 objects including major holdings of European, American and Asian origin, the various classes of artwork include sculpture, paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, armor and decorative arts. The attendance figure for the museum was 751,797 in 2015, the museum is also one of the largest art museums in the world based on gallery space. The museum also administers the historic houses of Mount Pleasant and Cedar Grove. The museum and its annexes are owned by the City of Philadelphia, as of 2017, the standard adult admission price is $20 which allows entrance to the main building and all annexes for two consecutive days. The museum is closed on Mondays except on some holidays, several special exhibitions are held in the museum every year, including touring exhibitions arranged with other museums in the United States and abroad. Special exhibitions may have a charge for entrance. Philadelphia celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence with the 1876 Centennial Exposition and its art building, Memorial Hall, was intended to outlast the Exhibition and house a permanent museum. The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art opened on May 10,1877 and its permanent collection began with objects from the Exhibition and gifts from the public impressed with the Exhibitions ideals of good design and craftsmanship. European and Japanese fine and decorative art objects and books for the Museums library were among the first donations, the location outside of Center City, however, was fairly distant from many of the citys inhabitants. Admission was charged until 1881, then was dropped until 1962, starting in 1882, Clara Jessup Moore donated a remarkable collection of antique furniture, enamels, carved ivory, jewelry, metalwork, glass, ceramics, books, textiles and paintings. The Countess de Brazzas lace collection was acquired in 1894 forming the nucleus of the lace collection, in 1893 Anna H. Wilstach bequeathed a large painting collection, including many American paintings, and an endowment of half a million dollars for additional purchases. Works by James Abbott McNeill Whistler and George Inness were purchased within a few years, in the early 1900s, the Museum started an education program for the general public, as well as a membership program. Fiske Kimball was the director during the rapid growth of the 1920s. After World War II the collections grew with gifts, such as the John D. McIlhenny, early modern art dominated the growth of the collections in the 1950s, with acquisitions of the Louise and Walter Arensberg and the A. E. Gallatin collections. The gift of Philadelphian Grace Kellys wedding dress is perhaps the best known gift of the 1950s, extensive renovation of the building lasted from the 1960s through 1976. Major acquisitions included the Carroll S. Tyson, Jr. and Samuel S. White III and Vera White collections,71 objects from designer Elsa Schiaparelli, in 1976 there were celebrations and special exhibitions for the centennial of the Museum and the bicentennial of the nation
Philadelphia Museum of Art
–
East entrance
Philadelphia Museum of Art
–
"Plan for the Fairmount Parkway" (1917), by Jacques Gréber.
Philadelphia Museum of Art
–
The western pediment features polychrome sculpture by Jennewein
Philadelphia Museum of Art
–
Henry Ossawa Tanner 's Annunciation, acquired in 1899
41.
Art history
–
Art history is the study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts, i. e. genre, design, format, and style. This includes the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the minor arts of ceramics, furniture. As a term, art history encompasses several methods of studying the arts, in common usage referring to works of art. One branch of this area of study is aesthetics, which includes investigating the enigma of the sublime, technically, art history is not these things, because the art historian uses historical method to answer the questions, How did the artist come to create the work. Who were his or her teachers, who were his or her disciples. What historical forces shaped the artists oeuvre, and How did he or she and the creation, in turn, affect the course of artistic, political, and social events. It is, however, questionable whether many questions of this kind can be answered satisfactorily without also considering basic questions about the nature of art, unfortunately the current disciplinary gap between art history and the philosophy of art often hinders this inquiry. Art history is not only a biographical endeavor, Art historians often root their studies in the scrutiny of individual objects. They thus attempt to answer in historically specific ways, questions such as, what meaning did this object convey. Did the artist meet their goals well, the historical backbone of the discipline is a celebratory chronology of beautiful creations commissioned by public or religious bodies or wealthy individuals in western Europe. Such a canon remains prominent, as indicated by the selection of objects present in art history textbooks, nonetheless, since the 20th century there has been an effort to re-define the discipline to be more inclusive of non-Western art, art made by women, and vernacular creativity. Art history as we know it in the 21st century began in the 19th century but has precedents that date to the ancient world, advances in photographic reproduction and printing techniques after World War II increased the ability of reproductions of artworks. Such technologies have helped to advance the discipline in profound ways, the study of visual art thus described, can be a practice that involves understanding context, form, and social significance. Art historians employ a number of methods in their research into the ontology, Art historians often examine work in the context of its time. In short, this approach examines the work of art in the context of the world within which it was created, Art historians also often examine work through an analysis of form, that is, the creators use of line, shape, color, texture, and composition. This approach examines how the artist uses a picture plane or the three dimensions of sculptural or architectural space to create his or her art. The way these individual elements are employed results in representational or non-representational art, is the artist imitating an object or image found in nature. The closer the art hews to perfect imitation, the more the art is realistic, is the artist not imitating, but instead relying on symbolism, or in an important way striving to capture natures essence, rather than copy it directly
Art history
–
Venus de Milo on display at the Louvre.
Art history
–
History of art
Art history
–
Giorgio Vasari, Self-portrait c.1567
Art history
–
Anton von Maron, Portrait of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, 1768
42.
Avant-garde
–
The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
Avant-garde
–
The Love of Zero, a 1927 film by Robert Florey
Avant-garde
–
Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917. Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz
43.
Philadelphia Public Ledger
–
The Public Ledger was a daily newspaper in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania published from March 25,1836 to January 1942. Its motto was Virtue Liberty and Independence, for a time, it was Philadelphias most popular newspaper, but circulation declined in the mid-1930s. Founded by William Moseley Swain, Arunah S. Abell, and Azariah H. Simmons, and edited by Swain, at that time most papers sold for five cents or more, a relatively high price which limited their appeal to only the reasonably well-off. Swain and Abell drew on the success of the New York Herald, one of the first penny papers and they mimicked the Heralds use of bold headlines to draw sales. The formula was a success and the Ledger posted a circulation of 15,000 in 1840, to put this into perspective, the entire circulation of all newspapers in Philadelphia was estimated at only 8,000 when the Ledger was founded. The Ledger was an innovator as well. It was the first daily to use of a pony express. From 1846, it was printed on the first rotary printing press, by the early 1860s, The Ledger was a money-losing operation, squeezed by rising paper and printing costs. It had lost circulation by supporting the Copperhead Policy of opposing the American Civil War, in the face of declining circulation, publishers were reluctant to increase the one-cent subscription cost, although it was needed to cover the costs of production. In December 1864, the paper was sold to George William Childs, upon buying the paper, Childs completely changed its policy and methods. He changed the policy to the Loyalist line, raised advertising rates. After an initial drop, circulation rebounded and the paper resumed profitability, Childs was closely involved in all operations of the paper, from the press room to the composing room. He intentionally upgraded the quality of advertisements appearing in the publication to suit a higher-end readership, childss efforts bore fruit and the Ledger became one of the most influential journals in the country. Circulation growth led the firm to outgrow its facilities, in 1866 Childs bought property at Sixth and Chestnut Streets in Philadelphia, where the Public Ledger Building was constructed. Designed by architect John McArthur, Jr. the building had at its corner a larger-than-life-sized statue of Benjamin Franklin by Joseph A. Bailly, the quality and profitability of the Ledger improved dramatically. By 1894, The New York Times described it as. the finest newspaper office in the country, toward the end of Childs leadership, the Ledger was estimated to generate profits of approximately $500,000 per year. In 1902, Adolph Ochs, owner of The New York Times and he merged it with the Philadelphia Times, and installed his brother George as editor. Oakes served as editor until 1914, two years after Curtis bought the publication, in 1913, Cyrus H. K. Curtis purchased the paper from Ochs for $2 million and hired his step son-in-law John Charles Martin as editor
Philadelphia Public Ledger
–
The Public Ledger Building, on the southwest corner of 6th & Chestnut Sts. in Philadelphia, PA (1867, demolished in 1920, John McArthur, Jr., architect)
Philadelphia Public Ledger
–
First edition, March 25, 1836
Philadelphia Public Ledger
–
The press room of the Public Ledger, 1867
Philadelphia Public Ledger
–
Public Ledger Building (1924, Horace Trumbauer, architect)
44.
Survey Graphic
–
Survey Graphic was a United States magazine launched in 1921. From 1921 to 1932, it was published as a supplement to The Survey, SG focused on sociological and political research and analysis of national and international issues. Article topics included fascism, anti-Semitism, poverty, unions and the working class, the magazine ceased publication in 1952. Much of the material appears in his 1925 anthology The New Negro, there are a few online sources of reprints and other SG related materials. New Deal Network contains reprints of Survey Graphic and Survey articles, the University of Virginias Electronic Text Center had the complete Harlem issue online until 2008
Survey Graphic
–
Survey Graphic published Lewis Hine 's series of "work portraits" in the 1920s
Survey Graphic
–
"Harlem, Mecca of the New Negro", article in Survey Graphic, 1925
45.
Harlem
–
Harlem is a large neighborhood in the northern section of the New York City borough of Manhattan. Since the 1920s, Harlem has been known as a major African-American residential, cultural, originally a Dutch village, formally organized in 1658, it is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands. Harlems history has been defined by a series of economic boom-and-bust cycles, African-American residents began to arrive by a lot in 1905, with numbers fed by the Great Migration. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem were the focus of the Harlem Renaissance, however, with job losses in the time of the Great Depression and the deindustrialization of New York City after World War II, rates of crime and poverty increased significantly. Harlems African-American population peaked in the 1950s, in the second half of the 20th century, Harlem became a major hub of African-American businesses. In 2008, the United States Census found that for the first time since the 1930s, less than half of residents were black, since New York Citys revival in the late 20th century, long-time residents of Harlem have been experiencing the effects of gentrification and new wealth. Harlem is located in Upper Manhattan, often referred to as Uptown by locals. Central Harlem is bounded by Fifth Avenue on the east, Central Park on the south, Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Avenue and Edgecombe Avenue on the west, and the Harlem River on the north. A chain of three large linear parks—Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Park and Jackie Robinson Park—are situated on steeply rising banks, on the east, Fifth Avenue and Marcus Garvey Park, also known as Mount Morris Park, separate this area from East Harlem. The bulk of the falls under Manhattan Community Board No.10. In the late 2000s, South Harlem, emerged from area redevelopment, the West Harlem neighborhoods of Manhattanville and Hamilton Heights comprise part of Manhattan Community Board No.9. The two neighborhoods area is bounded by Cathedral Parkway on the South, 155th Street on the North, nicholas/Bradhurst/Edgecome Avenues on the East, and Riverside Park/the Hudson River on the west. Morningside Heights is located in the southern most section of West Harlem, Manhattanville begins at roughly 123rd Street and extends northward to 135th Street. The northern most section of West Harlem is Hamilton Heights, the New York City Police Department patrols six precincts located within Harlem. The New York City Fire Department operates 9 firehouses in Harlem, as many as several hundred farmed the Harlem flatlands. Between 1637 and 1639, a few settlements were established, during the American Revolution, the British burned Harlem to the ground. It took a time to rebuild, as Harlem grew more slowly than the rest of Manhattan during the late 18th century. After the American Civil War, Harlem experienced an economic boom starting in 1868, the neighborhood continued to serve as a refuge for New Yorkers, but increasingly those coming north were poor and Jewish or Italian
Harlem
–
Stately Harlem apartment buildings adjacent to Morningside Park
Harlem
–
The Apollo Theater on 125th Street, in November 2006.
Harlem
–
Rowhouse built for the African-American population of Harlem in the 1930s
Harlem
–
A condemned building in Harlem after the 1970s
46.
Alain Locke
–
Alain Leroy Locke was an American writer, philosopher, educator, and patron of the arts. Distinguished as the first African American Rhodes Scholar in 1907, Locke was the philosophical architect —the acknowledged Dean— of the Harlem Renaissance, as a result, popular listings of influential African-Americans have repeatedly included him. On March 19,1968, the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. proclaimed, Were going to let our children know that the philosophers that lived were not Plato and Aristotle. Du Bois and Alain Locke came through the universe, Alain Locke was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on September 13,1885 to Pliny Ishmael Locke and Mary Hawkins Locke. He has been the child of a well-to-do family with significant pedigree. His mother Mary, who was a teacher, incited in him his passion for education, in 1902, he graduated from Central High School in Philadelphia, second in his class. He also attended Philadelphia School of Pedagogy, in 1907, Locke graduated from Harvard University with degrees in English and philosophy, and was honored as a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society and recipient of the prestigious Bowdoin Prize. After graduation, he was the first African-American selected as a Rhodes Scholar, at that time, Rhodes selectors did not meet candidates in person, but there is evidence that at least some selectors knew he was African-American. On arriving at Oxford, Locke was denied admission to several colleges and he was finally admitted to Hertford College, where he studied literature, philosophy, Greek, and Latin, from 1907–1910. In 1910, he attended the University of Berlin, where he studied philosophy, if once more it should prove impossible for nations to understand one another as nations, then, as Goethe said, they must learn to tolerate each other as individuals. Locke received an assistant professorship in English at Howard University in 1912, while at Howard, he became a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity. Locke returned to Harvard in 1916 to work on his doctoral dissertation, in his thesis, he discusses the causes of opinions and social biases, and that these are not objectively true or false, and therefore not universal. Locke received his PhD in philosophy in 1918, Locke returned to Howard University as the chair of the department of philosophy. During this period, he began teaching the first classes on race relations, after being reinstated in 1928, Locke remained at Howard until his retirement in 1953. Locke Hall, on the Howard campus, is named after him, Locke promoted African-American artists, writers, and musicians, encouraging them to look to Africa as an inspiration for their works. He encouraged them to depict African and African-American subjects, and to draw on their history for subject material. In December of that year, he expanded the issue into The New Negro, a collection of writings by African Americans, a landmark in black literature, it was an instant success. Locke contributed five essays, the Foreword, The New Negro, Negro Youth Speaks, The Negro Spirituals, Lockes philosophy of the New Negro was grounded in the concept of race-building
Alain Locke
–
Locke circa 1946
Alain Locke
–
Painting by Betsy Graves Reyneau
47.
West Pikeland Township, Pennsylvania
–
West Pikeland Township is a township in Chester County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 4,024 at the 2010 census, the Chester Springs Historic District, Clinger-Moses Mill Complex, Fagley House, Ker-Feal, Lightfoot Mill, and Rice-Pennebecker Farm are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 10.0 square miles, of which 0.04 square miles. At the 2010 census, the township was 93. 2% non-Hispanic White,0. 8% Black or African American,0. 1% Native American,2. 7% Asian,2. 3% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,551 people,1,214 households, the population density was 356.3 people per square mile. There were 1,240 housing units at a density of 124. 4/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 96. 11% White,1. 24% African American,0. 03% Native American,1. 89% Asian,0. 37% from other races, Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 01% of the population. 12. 7% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.22. In the township the population was out, with 30. 7% under the age of 18,3. 2% from 18 to 24,29. 5% from 25 to 44,29. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 97.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.7 males, the median income for a household in the township was $105,322, and the median income for a family was $111,760. Males had an income of $80,611 versus $41,765 for females. The per capita income for the township was $48,616, about 0. 5% of families and 0. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 2. 3% of those age 65 or over. While Chester County is becoming more liberal and Democratic as a whole and this was significantly better than the 37% showing of John Kerry in 2004, however, and the township local government is currently chaired by a Democrat. In 2012, Mitt Romney carried Chester County by a 0. 2% margin over President Obama, kimberton Fire Company West Pikeland official website
West Pikeland Township, Pennsylvania
–
Lightfoot Mill, National Historic Landmark
48.
Ker-Feal
–
Ker-Feal, built in 1775, is a historic fieldstone dwelling located in West Pikeland Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 7,2003, the property was purchased by Albert C. Barnes and his wife Laura in 1940 and expanded with two additions. The name Ker-Feal means Fidèles House in Breton and was named after Barnes favorite dog, the property is now owned by the Barnes Foundation. Ker-Feal received an upgraded climate-control system in 2001 paid for several grants. Another grant in 2006 allowed for grounds assessment, National Register of Historic Places listings in Northern Chester County, Pennsylvania
Ker-Feal
–
Ker-Feal
49.
Breton language
–
Breton /ˈbrɛtən/ is a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language spoken in Brittany. Breton is most closely related to Cornish, both being Southwestern Brittonic languages, Welsh and the extinct Cumbric are the more distantly related Brittonic languages. The other regional language of Brittany, Gallo, is a langue doïl, Gallo is consequently close to French, although not mutually intelligible, and a Romance language descended from Latin. However, the number of children attending bilingual classes has risen 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709, Breton is spoken in West Brittany, roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha and La Roche-Bernard. It comes from a Brittonic language community that extended from Great Britain to Armorica and had even established a toehold in Galicia. Old Breton is attested from the 9th century and it was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the bourgeoisie, adopted French, the written language of the Duchy of Brittany was Latin, switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a tradition of Breton literature. Some Old Breton vocabulary remains in the present day as philosophical, during the French Revolution, the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as patois. The revolutionaries assumed that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages to try to keep the peasant masses underinformed, in 1794, Bertrand Barère submitted his report on the patois to the Committee of Public Safety in which he said that federalism and superstition speak Breton. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s, the majority of todays speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an endangered language. At the beginning of the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton, by 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton. In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded the Breton-language review Gwalarn, during its 19-year run, Gwalarn tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language. Its publication encouraged the creation of literature in all genres. In 1946, Al Liamm replaced Gwalarn, other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language. In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion and they taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school. See the education section for more information, the Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton
Breton language
–
Bilingual sign Huelgoat, Brittany
Breton language
–
Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the use of Breton
Breton language
–
Bilingual sign in Vannes (Gwened)
Breton language
–
Sign in French and Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classes
50.
Horace Mann Bond
–
Horace Mann Bond was an American historian, college administrator, social science researcher and the father of civil-rights leader Julian Bond. He earned a masters and doctorate from University of Chicago, at a time only a small percentage of any young adults attended any college. In 1945 he became the first African-American president of Lincoln University, Horace was born 8 November 1904 in Nashville, Tennessee, the grandson of slaves. Both had graduated from Oberlin College in Ohio, one of the first colleges that was interracial and they were among the black elite and encouraged their children in academic achievement. Horace was the sixth of seven children – one brother was prominent educator J. Max Bond, Sr. Bond excelled in school, Bond graduated with honors from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania at age 19 in 1923. He also obtained membership in Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity, at Penn State, Bond realized that he was able to compete with white classmates, earning competitive grades above the 90th percentile. Later he returned to Lincoln University as an instructor, Bond then suffered the only setback to his success, he was dismissed from the college for tolerating a gambling ring in a dormitory which he was supervising. Despite his embarrassment at Lincoln, Bond achieved a reputation as a fine scholar, Bond earned the M. A. and Ph. D degrees from the University of Chicago, where his dissertation on black education in Alabama won the Rosenberger Prize in 1936. As was customary in those years, Bond taught at a variety of academic institutions before completing his doctorate, Bond married Julia Agnes Washington in 1929. She was a student he met while teaching at Fisk University in Nashville, Julia Washington was from a wealthy and prominent African-American family of mixed race in Nashville. She and Horace had three children, Jane Margaret, born 1939, Horace Julian, born in 1940, and James, Bond and his wife had high expectations for all three of their children. Jane Bond Moore is a lawyer specializing in employment discrimination. She formerly represented the Oakland Unified School District and the Federal Trade Commission, ms. Moore currently teaches Employment Law and Civil Rights Law at John F. Kennedy University College of Law. James Bond is a member of the Georgia legislature, Julian Bond was chairman of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People from 1998 to 2010. In the 1960s, Julian Bond became a leader in the Civil Rights Movement, founding the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Julian Bond was elected to both houses of the state legislature in Georgia, where he served a total of 20 years. In his social activism and long career, the younger Bond achieved a national renown beyond his fathers. Bond taught at universities while completing his doctorate, including Langston University in Langston, Oklahoma, Fisk University and Dillard University in New Orleans. Bond was the first president of Fort Valley State College, in Fort Valley, Georgia, during his tenure he managed the expansion of the college to a four-year institution
Horace Mann Bond
–
Horace Mann Bond
51.
Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)
–
Lincoln University is the United States first degree-granting historically black university. Founded as a university in 1854, it has been a public institution since 1972. Its main campus is located on 422 acres near the town of Oxford in southern Chester County, the university has two satellite locations, in University City, Philadelphia and Coatesville, Pennsylvania. Lincoln University provides undergraduate and graduate coursework to approximately 2,000 students, the University is a member-school of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund. While a majority of Lincoln University students are African Americans, the university has a history of accepting students of other races and nationalities. Women have been permitted to receive degrees since 1953, and made up 60% of undergraduate enrollment in 2015, in 1854 Rev. John Miller Dickey, a Presbyterian minister, and his wife, Sarah Emlen Cresson, a Quaker, founded Ashmun Institute, later named Lincoln University. They named it after Jehudi Ashmun, a leader and social reformer. They founded the school for the education of African Americans, who had few opportunities for higher education, John Miller Dickey was the first president of the college. Each of the men became ordained ministers, in 1866, Ashmun Institute was renamed Lincoln University after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln the previous year. The college attracted highly talented students from numerous states, especially during the decades of legal segregation in the South. As may be seen on the list of alumni, many went on to achievements in careers in academia, public service. In 1945 Dr. Horace Mann Bond, an alumnus of Lincoln, was selected as the first African-American president of the university. During his 12-year tenure, he continued to do social science research and he established an important relationship with the collector Albert C. Barnes, who ensured Lincoln University had a role in the management of his art collection, from 1854 to 1954, Lincoln University graduates accounted for 20 percent of Black physicians and over 10 percent of Black lawyers in the United States. In 1972 Lincoln University formally associated with the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as a state-related institution, in November 2014, Dr Jennings resigned under pressure from faculty, students and alumni after comments relating to a sexual assault. Jennings was also the subject of a couple of votes by faculty. According to U. S. News & World Report, Lincoln University ranks number 20th out of 81 in the 2013 magazine’s first ranking of undergraduate education at HBCUs and it is ranked as a Tier One school on the list. 20th ranking with Alabama A&M University, in 2012 the US News & World Best Colleges Report rated Lincoln as a Tier Two University overall
Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)
–
Student Union at Lincoln University
52.
Chester County, Pennsylvania
–
Chester County is a county in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 498,886, the county seat is West Chester. Chester County was one of the three original Pennsylvania counties created by William Penn in 1682 and it was named for Chester, England. Chester County is part of the Philadelphia-Camden-Wilmington, PA-NJ-DE-MD Metropolitan Statistical Area, Chester County is the highest-income county in Pennsylvania and 24th highest in the nation as measured by median household income. Philadelphia, Bucks, and Chester were the three Pennsylvania counties initially created by William Penn on August 24,1682, much of the Welsh Tract was in eastern Chester County, and Welsh place names, given by early settlers, continue to predominate there. The fourth county in the state, Lancaster County, was formed from Chester County on May 10,1729, on March 11,1752, Berks County was formed from the northern section of Chester County, as well as parts of Lancaster and Philadelphia counties. The original Chester County seat was the city of Chester, a center of naval shipbuilding, apparently, this did not work, the eastern portion of the county separated from Chester County on September 26,1789, becoming Delaware County. West Chester remained the seat of the reduced Chester County, much of the history of Chester County arises from its location between Philadelphia and the Susquehanna River. The first road to the West passed through the part of Chester County, following the Great Valley westward, with some re-alignments, it became the Lincoln Highway. This road is still named Lancaster Avenue in most of the Chester county towns it runs through, the first railroad followed much the same route, and the Reading Railroad progressed up the Schuylkill River to Reading. Industry tended to concentrate along the rail lines, easy transportation allowed workers to commute to urban jobs, and the rise of the suburbs followed. To this day, the areas form fingers extending along major lines of transportation. During the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Brandywine was fought at what is now the southeastern fringe of the county, the Valley Forge encampment was at the northeastern edge. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 759 square miles. The topography consists of rolling hills and valleys and it is part of the known as the Piedmont. Watersheds that serve Chester County include the Octoraro, the Brandywine, and Chester creeks, many of the soils are fertile, rich loam as much as twenty-four inches thick, together with the temperate climate, this was long a major agricultural area. Because of its proximity to Philadelphia, Chester County has seen waves of development over the past half-century due to suburbanization. Although development in Chester County has increased, agriculture is still a part of the countys economy
Chester County, Pennsylvania
–
Chester County Courthouse
Chester County, Pennsylvania
–
Chester County, Pennsylvania sign
53.
Bertrand Russell
–
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic, political activist and Nobel laureate. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist and he was born in Monmouthshire into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in the United Kingdom. In the early 20th century, Russell led the British revolt against idealism and he is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague G. E. Moore, and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held to be one of the 20th centurys premier logicians, with A. N. Whitehead he wrote Principia Mathematica, an attempt to create a logical basis for mathematics. His philosophical essay On Denoting has been considered a paradigm of philosophy, Russell mostly was a prominent anti-war activist, he championed anti-imperialism. Occasionally, he advocated preventive nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the monopoly is gone. He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I, in 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought. Bertrand Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire and his parents, Viscount and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their times. Lord Amberley consented to his wifes affair with their childrens tutor, both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. Lord Amberley was an atheist and his atheism was evident when he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russells secular godfather, Mill died the year after Russells birth, but his writings had a great effect on Russells life. His paternal grandfather, the Earl Russell, had asked twice by Queen Victoria to form a government. The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power, Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley. Russell often feared the ridicule of his grandmother, one of the campaigners for education of women. Russell had two siblings, brother Frank, and sister Rachel, in June 1874 Russells mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachels death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis following a period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly Victorian paternal grandparents and his grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the Countess Russell, was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russells childhood, the countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a provision in Amberleys will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Her favourite Bible verse, Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression, and formality, Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings
Bertrand Russell
–
Russell as a four year-old
Bertrand Russell
–
Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell
–
Childhood home, Pembroke Lodge
Bertrand Russell
–
Russell in 1907
54.
Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
–
The Sierra Nevada is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Basin and Range Province. The vast majority of the lies in the state of California. The Sierra runs 400 miles north-to-south, and is approximately 70 miles across east-to-west, the Sierra is home to three national parks, twenty wilderness areas, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon National Parks, the character of the range is shaped by its geology and ecology. More than one hundred years ago during the Nevadan orogeny. The range started to uplift four M. A. ago, the uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones. Uplift continues due to faulting caused by forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra. The Sierra Nevada has a significant history, the California Gold Rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912, the Sierra Nevada lies in Central and Eastern California, with a very small but historically important spur extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevadas elevation increases gradually from 1,000 feet in the Central Valley to an height of about 10,500 feet at its crest only 50–75 miles to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment, unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift. The Sierra Nevada stretches from the Susan River and Fredonyer Pass in the north to Tehachapi Pass in the south and it is bounded on the west by Californias Central Valley and on the east by the Basin and Range Province. The geographical boundary between the Sierra and the Cascades is virtually indistinguishable, with the Fredonyer Pass designation being traditional, physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade-Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, the northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed, and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River. The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower, its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada. Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California, the height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the range from 5,000 feet to more than 9,000 feet. The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet high, farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell
Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
–
The Sierra's Mills Creek cirque (center) is on the west side of the Sierra Crest, south of Mono Lake (top, blue).
Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
–
Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the range and the contiguous United States
Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
–
The Sierra hosts many waterways, such as the Tuolumne River.
Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
–
Mount Tallac above Lake Tahoe
55.
The Establishment
–
The Establishment generally denotes a dominant group or elite that holds power or authority in a nation or organization. The Establishment may be a social group which selects its own members or specific entrenched elite structures. The American Sociological Association states that the term is used by those protesting a small group that dominates a larger organization. The positions against it are antiestablishmentarianism, and populism, for example, candidates for political office are often said to have to impress the party establishment in order to win endorsement. The exercise of power in the United Kingdom cannot be understood unless it is recognized that it is exercised socially, following that, the term, the Establishment, was quickly picked up in newspapers and magazines all over London, making Fairlie famous. However, the term The Establishment, had used by Ralph Waldo Emerson in a similar fashion. Nevertheless, the Oxford English Dictionary would cite Fairlies column as its locus classicus, however, author and professor Carroll Quigley of Georgetown University, in his book The Anglo-American Establishment, used the term much more specifically than did Fairlie. In that book, Quigley exposes the secret societys established in London in 1891, Quigley explains how these men worked in union to begin their society to control the world. He explains how all the wars from that time were deliberately created to control the economies of all the nations, much more generally, this use of the word, Establishment, may have been influenced by the British term, established church, for the official church of England. The term was found useful in discussing the power elites in many other countries. The English word is now used as a loanword in other languages. The term, establishment is often used in Australia to refer both to the political parties and also to the powers behind those parties. In the book, Anti-political Establishment Parties, A Comparative Analysis by Amir Abedi, Amir Abedi refers to the Labor Party and it is communally thought that the Coalition parties are more closely aligned to the American and particularly the British political establishment than is the Labor Party. This would seem to be out by the fact that many more former members of the Coalition parties have been honoured by the monarchy for services to the Commonwealth. The original Canadian Establishment began as a mix between the British and U. S. models, combining political appointments and business acumen, the Family Compact is the first identifiable Canadian Establishment in Anglophone Canada. In francophone Canada, the leaders of the Catholic Church also played a major role. Newman defined the modern Canadian Establishment in his 1975 book The Canadian Establishment and it catalogued the richest individuals and families living in Canada at the time. All of the people he identified were prominent business leaders, especially in the media
The Establishment
–
Eton College in England has educated nineteen British prime ministers.
56.
Lake Tahoe
–
Lake Tahoe is a large freshwater lake in the Sierra Nevada of the United States. Lying at 6,225 ft, it straddles the border between California and Nevada, west of Carson City. Lake Tahoe is the largest alpine lake in North America, and its depth is 1,645 ft, making it the second deepest in the United States after Crater Lake in Oregon. The lake was formed about 2 million years ago as part of the Lake Tahoe Basin and it is known for the clarity of its water and the panorama of surrounding mountains on all sides. The area surrounding the lake is referred to as Lake Tahoe. More than 75% of the watershed is national forest land. Lake Tahoe is a major tourist attraction in both Nevada and California and it is home to winter sports, summer outdoor recreation, and scenery enjoyed throughout the year. Snow and ski resorts are a significant part of the areas economy, the Nevada side also offers large casinos, with highways providing year-round access to the entire area. It is about 22 mi long and 12 mi wide and has 72 mi of shoreline, approximately two-thirds of the shoreline is in California. Although highways run within sight of the shore for much of Tahoes perimeter. The Lake Tahoe Watershed of 505 sq mi includes the area that drains to the lake. Lake Tahoe is fed by 63 tributaries and these drain an area about the same size as the lake and produce half its water, with the balance entering as rain or snow falling directly on it. The Truckee River is the only outlet, flowing northeast through Reno, Nevada. It accounts for one third of the water leaves the lake. The flow of the Truckee River and the height of the lake are controlled by the Lake Tahoe Dam at the outlet, the natural rim is at 6,223 ft above sea level, with a spillway at the dam controlling overflow. The maximum legal limit, to which the lake can be allowed to rise in order to water, is at 6,229.1 ft. Around New Year 1996/1997 a Pineapple Express atmospheric river melted snow and caused the lake and river to overflow, inundating Reno, the Lake Tahoe Basin was formed by vertical motion faulting. Uplifted blocks created the Carson Range on the east and the main Sierra Nevada crest on the west, down-dropped blocks created the Lake Tahoe Basin in between
Lake Tahoe
–
The north shore in California as seen from Chimney Bay on the Nevada side
Lake Tahoe
–
North Lake Tahoe Aerial photo
Lake Tahoe
–
Lake Tahoe from space
Lake Tahoe
–
Fallen Leaf Lake and Lake Tahoe in background from Angora Ridge Rd. to the Angora Lakes Resort
57.
History of Western Philosophy (Russell)
–
A History of Western Philosophy is a 1945 book by philosopher Bertrand Russell. When Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950 and its success provided Russell with financial security for the last part of his life. Much of the research was done by Russells third wife Patricia. In 1943, Russell received an advance of $3000 from the publishers, the book was published in 1945 in the United States and a year later in the UK. It was re-set as a new edition in 1961, but no new material was added, corrections and minor revisions were made to printings of the British first edition and for 1961s new edition, no corrections seem to have been transferred to the American edition. The work is divided into three books, each of which is subdivided into chapters, each chapter generally deals with a philosopher, school of philosophy. A History of Western Philosophy received a reception, especially from academic reviewers. Russell was somewhat dismayed at the reaction, Russell himself described the text as a work of social history, asking that it be treated in such a manner. I did my best, but I am not at all sure that I succeeded, I was sometimes accused by reviewers of writing not a true history but a biased account of the events that I arbitrarily chose to write of. But to my mind, a man without bias cannot write interesting history — if, indeed, in the Journal of the History of Ideas, George Boas wrote that, A History of Western Philosophy errs consistently in this respect. Its author never seems to be able to make up his mind whether he is writing history or polemic, confers on philosophers who are dead and gone a kind of false contemporaneity which may make them seem important to the uninitiate. But nevertheless it is a misreading of history, in Isis, Leo Roberts wrote that while Russell was a deft and witty writer, A History of Western Philosophy was perhaps the worst of Russells books. In his view, Russell was at his best when dealing with philosophy. A History of Western Philosophy was praised by physicists Albert Einstein, literary critic George Steiner described A History of Western Philosophy as vulgar, noting that Russell omits any mention of Martin Heidegger. In Jon Stewarts anthology The Hegel Myths and Legends, Russells work is listed as a book that has propagated myths about Hegel, stephen Houlgate writes that Russells claim that Hegels doctrine of the state justifies any form of tyranny is ignorant. Russell enjoyed writing it, and the enjoyment shows, his remarks about it equally show that he was conscious of its shortcomings. A History of Philosophy by Frederick Copleston Ray Monk, quotations related to A History of Western Philosophy at Wikiquote History of Western Philosophy
History of Western Philosophy (Russell)
–
A History of Western Philosophy
58.
Rand School of Social Science
–
The Rand School of Social Science was formed in 1906 in New York City by adherents of the Socialist Party of America. The school changed its name to the Tamiment Institute and Library in 1935 and its collection became a key component of todays Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives at New York University in 1963. The Rand School of Social Science had no connection to the RAND Corporation, another similarly short-lived institution called the Karl Marx School was established in that same city at around that same time. Neither managed to leave much of a mark upon the historical record, a more successful effort at worker education was made in England with the establishment of Ruskin College in Oxford, England, also in 1899. Three Americans were instrumental in the formation of this entity, Mr. and Mrs. Walter Vrooman and Charles A. Beard, the latter a young graduate student at Oxford University. Shortly after the establishment of the Socialist Party of America in August 1901 an effort was made to establish an institution called the Workmens Educational League in New York City. Established through the initiative of party founders Morris Hillquit and Henry L. Slobodin, party newspaper editor Algernon Lee, Chase, the training school conducted evening courses in history, economics, and philosophy over a 21-week period, offering lectures one night per week. Secretary of this Board of Instructors was prominent socialist writer John Spargo, the school was established in 1906, made possible by a $200,000 endowment by Mrs. Rand at the time of her sudden death in 1905. The fund was administered by Rands daughter, Carrie Rand Herron, a total of about 250 students were enrolled for courses during the schools first year. But when she became aware that it would be impossible to establish such foundation, especially following my enforced resignation, formal direction of the school was conducted by a Secretary, originally author and publicist W. J. Ghent. Ghent was succeeded late in 1909 by Algernon Lee, a reorganization in about 1911 replaced the position of Secretary with an Education Director and an Executive Secretary, both responsible to the Board of Directors. Lee was retained in the role, while Cornell University graduate Bertha H. Mailly was employed in the latter position. In its early years, the school conducted regular lectures and night courses, the first location of the school was at 112 East 19th Street — a one family house converted to use as a school. To help reduce overhead costs some of the rooms of this dwelling were rented out to tenants, the school remained in this brownstone for six years, before losing the lease and being forced to move to a similar building down the block at 140 East 19th Street in 1912. During the first four years of the existence of the course,38 men and 8 women completed the program. Starting in 1913, the Rand School established a Correspondence Department, conducting coursework by mail with socialists, some 5,000 people took courses by mail from the Rand School by 1916. In addition to classes and public lectures, the Rand School also maintained a reading library, in the fall of 1917, with the assistance of a significant financial gift from international gem merchant A. A. Heller, the Rand School moved into a new facility located a 7 East 15th Street in Manhattans Union Square neighborhood — a building which it purchased from the YWCA
Rand School of Social Science
–
Advertisement for the Rand School Restaurant from the debut issue of The Masses magazine, January 1911.
Rand School of Social Science
–
The Lusk Committee raided the Rand School in the summer of 1919 and seized documents to fuel its investigations.
Rand School of Social Science
–
Full page magazine ad published in August 1919 soliciting funds for the legal defense of the Rand School of Social Science following the Lusk Committee raid.
59.
Benjamin Franklin Parkway
–
Benjamin Franklin Parkway is a scenic boulevard that runs through the cultural heart of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Named for favorite son Benjamin Franklin, the mile-long Parkway cuts diagonally across the grid pattern of Center Citys Northwest quadrant. It starts at Philadelphia City Hall, curves around Logan Circle, the Parkway is the spine of Philadelphias Museum District. From its northern end, the Parkway provides access to Fairmount Park through Kelly Drive, Martin Luther King Drive, the Schuylkill River Trail, the Parkway also is an outdoor sculpture garden. In a city famous for its planning, the Parkway represents one of the earliest examples of urban renewal in the United States. The road was constructed to ease heavy industrial congestion in Center City and to restore Philadelphias natural and artistic beauty, as part of the City Beautiful movement. The Association commissioned architects Horace Trumbauer, Clarence Zantzinger, and Paul Philippe Cret, construction on the Parkway did not begin until 1917, when French landscape architect Jacques Gréber submitted a revised plan to the Commissioners of Fairmount Park. Gréber designed the Parkway in 1917 to emulate the Champs-Élysées in Paris, the route was determined by an axis drawn from City Hall Tower to a fixed point on the hill that William Penn called Fairmount, now the site of the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The Champs-Élysées terminates at the Arc de Triomphe, and the Parkways terminating at the Art Museum gives the notion of a slice of Paris in Philadelphia, the Parkway also has an international flavor by being lined with flags of countries from around the world. The traffic rotary on the end of the Parkway, at the foot of the Art Museums Rocky Steps, is named Eakins Oval after Philadelphia painter Thomas Eakins. Because of its location, the Parkway is the site for many concerts. On July 2,2005, the steps of the museum played host to the Philadelphia venue of Live 8, the Parkway was also the site of Jay-Zs Made in America Festival on September 1-2,2012 featuring Jay-Z, Pearl Jam, Skrillex and Calvin Harris, among others. Traffic along the Parkway has decreased considerably because of the completion of Interstate 676, in response, the roadway has been narrowed somewhat and the sidewalks expanded around Logan Circle. A new museum for the Barnes Foundation collection of Impressionist art on the site between the Free Library and the Rodin Museum opened in Spring 2012, Rocky Steps Cradle of Liberty Council Academy of Natural Sciences Jacques Gréber Kyriakodis, Harry. The Benjamin Franklin Parkway, Arcadia Publishing, Parkway Museums District Ben Franklin Parkway rehabilitation project The Philadelphia Museum of Art Center City Parks District - supports parks along the Parkway
Benjamin Franklin Parkway
–
"Plan for the Fairmount Parkway" (1917) by Jacques Gréber.
Benjamin Franklin Parkway
–
Benjamin Franklin Parkway, with Franklin Institute in the foreground.
Benjamin Franklin Parkway
–
Benjamin Franklin Parkway, from the top of the steps of the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
Benjamin Franklin Parkway
–
LOVE by Robert Indiana, in LOVE Park.
60.
Andrew Carnegie
–
He built a leadership role as a philanthropist for the United States and the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away to charities, foundations and his 1889 article proclaiming The Gospel of Wealth called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, and it stimulated a wave of philanthropy. Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated in 1848 to the United States with his parents, Carnegie started work as a telegrapher and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman raising money for American enterprise in Europe and he built Pittsburghs Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for $480 million. It became the U. S. Steel Corporation, after selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American for the next couple of years. Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to philanthropy, with special emphasis on local libraries, world peace, education. Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, in a typical weavers cottage with only one main room, the main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his legal grandfather, in 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street, following the demand for more heavy damask from which his father, William Carnegie, benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, which had been a gift to the town by the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask, Lauders son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Andrew and would become his business partner. When Carnegie was thirteen, his father had fallen on hard times as a handloom weaver. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother who was a cobbler and she eventually became the primary breadwinner by the 1840s. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to move with his family to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, Andrews family had to borrow money from the Lauders in order to migrate. Allegheny was an industrial area that produced many products including wool. The Made in Allegheny label used on these and other diversified products was becoming more and more popular. His first job at age 13 in 1848 was as a bobbin boy and his starting wage was $1.20 per week. Andrews father, William Carnegie, started off working in a cotton mill and his mother, Margaret Morrison Carnegie, earned money by binding shoes. In 1849, Carnegie became a messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburghs businesses
Andrew Carnegie
–
Carnegie in 1913
Andrew Carnegie
–
Carnegie as he appears in the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C.
Andrew Carnegie
–
Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in Dunfermline, Scotland
Andrew Carnegie
–
Carnegie age 16, with brother Thomas
61.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code
62.
The Art of the Steal (2009 film)
–
The move was disputed because Dr. Albert C. Barnes, who died in 1951, had specifically selected Lower Merion Township for its location, the collection was moved in 2012 to downtown Philadelphia. The people who supported the move argued that the collection should instead become a major tourist-attraction for Philadelphia, the supporters of Merion claimed that the Philadelphians were less interested in Dr. Barness will than in enhancing their power by taking over the control of a $25+ billion asset. The collection was located in a residential neighborhood about five miles from Philadelphia, but little went to the upkeep of the facility, because the funds were drained away by the legal contest of the will. The 9, 000-piece collection of mostly late-19th- and early-20th-century art includes 181 Renoirs,69 Cézannes,60 Matisses,44 Picassos, and 14 Modiglianis. What makes the extraordinary is not just the artists. The extraordinarily high quality of the works is the chief special attribute of the collection. While the film includes journalists, art historians and public figures on sides of the long debate, many of the figures discussed in it, such as Rebecca Rimel, Raymond G. Perelman. Watson, declined to be interviewed for the documentary, Argott defends the style, saying, We were trying to tell a compelling story, using all the tools at our disposal. We didn’t want to make a boring talking-heads documentary and we wanted to make a work that would resonate with audiences, and these are the kinds of works that do. He added, Whether or not you agree with the will, it represents Barnes’s point of view, director Dan Argott described the Q&A session that followed the film, People were yelling, screaming at each other. These issues bring out these emotions, but for some reason the Barnes stirs something up in people. Executive Producer Lenny Feinberg said no idea we would ever be where we are today, everywhere we go, theres lines of people. Weve not had a Q&A session where they havent had to throw us out, ten days after its premiere at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival, the film was acquired by Rainbow Media, now AMC Networks, and owner of IFC Films. The film was distributed to more than 100 theaters in North America. In addition to the New York Film Festival and Toronto International Film Festival, in response to the films release, Bernard C. Derek Gillman, president and executive director of the foundation, said, The film was full of unsubstantiated allegations and it was made by people who were hostile to the move and very angry about it. Thats why we didnt cooperate with the filmmakers and it was not in our interests to do so
The Art of the Steal (2009 film)
–
The Art of the Steal
63.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
–
GND screenshot
64.
Union List of Artist Names
–
The Union List of Artist Names is an online database using a controlled vocabulary currently containing around 293,000 names and other information about artists. Names in ULAN may include names, pseudonyms, variant spellings, names in multiple languages. Among these names, one is flagged as the preferred name, the focus of each ULAN record is an artist. Currently there are around 120,000 artists in the ULAN, in the database, each artist record is identified by a unique numeric ID. Linked to each artist record are names, related artists, sources for the data, the temporal coverage of the ULAN ranges from Antiquity to the present and the scope is global. The ULAN includes proper names and associated information about artists, artists may be either individuals or groups of individuals working together. Artists in the ULAN generally represent creators involved in the conception or production of visual arts, repositories and some donors are included as well. Work on the ULAN began in 1984, when the Getty decided to merge, in 1987 the Getty created a department dedicated to compiling and distributing terminology. The ULAN grows and changes via contributions from the user community, although originally intended only for use by Getty projects, the broader art information community outside the Getty expressed a need to use ULAN for cataloging and retrieval. Its scope was broadened to include corporate bodies such as firms and repositories of art. The ULAN was founded under the management of Eleanor Fink, the ULAN has been constructed over the years by numerous members of the user community and an army of dedicated editors, under the supervision of several managers. The ULAN was published in 1994 in hardcopy and machine-readable files, given the growing size and frequency of changes and additions to the ULAN, by 1997 it had become evident that hard-copy publication was impractical. It is now published in automated formats only, in both a searchable online Web interface and in data files available for licensing, final editorial control of the ULAN is maintained by the Getty Vocabulary Program, using well-established editorial rules. The current managers of the ULAN are Patricia Harpring, Managing Editor, entities in the Person facet typically have no children. Entities in the Corporate Body facet may branch into trees, there may be multiple broader contexts, making the ULAN structure polyhierarchical. In addition to the relationships, the ULAN also has equivalent. Contributors to the Getty Vocabularies and implementers of the licensed vocabulary data may consult these guidelines as well
Union List of Artist Names
–
Contents
65.
National Library of Australia
–
In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
National Library of Australia
National Library of Australia
–
National Library of Australia as viewed from Lake Burley Griffin, Canberra
National Library of Australia
–
The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building.
National Library of Australia
–
The library seen from Lake Burley Griffin in autumn.
66.
National Diet Library
–
The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
National Diet Library
–
Tokyo Main Library of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
–
Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
–
The National Diet Library
National Diet Library
–
Main building in Tokyo
67.
Netherlands Institute for Art History
–
The Netherlands Institute for Art History or RKD is located in The Hague and is home to the largest art history center in the world. The center specializes in documentation, archives, and books on Western art from the late Middle Ages until modern times, all of this is open to the public, and much of it has been digitized and is available on their website. The main goal of the bureau is to collect, categorize, via the available databases, the visitor can gain insight into archival evidence on the lives of many artists of past centuries. The library owns approximately 450,000 titles, of which ca.150,000 are auction catalogs, there are ca.3,000 magazines, of which 600 are currently running subscriptions. Though most of the text is in Dutch, the record format includes a link to library entries and images of known works. The RKD also manages the Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, the original version is an initiative of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Their bequest formed the basis for both the art collection and the library, which is now housed in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Though not all of the holdings have been digitised, much of its metadata is accessible online. The website itself is available in both a Dutch and an English user interface, in the artist database RKDartists, each artist is assigned a record number. To reference an artist page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, for example, the artist record number for Salvador Dalí is 19752, so his RKD artist page can be referenced. In the images database RKDimages, each artwork is assigned a record number, to reference an artwork page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, //rkd. nl/en/explore/images/ followed by the artworks record number. For example, the record number for The Night Watch is 3063. The Art and Architecture Thesaurus also assigns a record for each term, rather, they are used in the databases and the databases can be searched for terms. For example, the painting called The Night Watch is a militia painting, the thesaurus is a set of general terms, but the RKD also contains a database for an alternate form of describing artworks, that today is mostly filled with biblical references. To see all images that depict Miriams dance, the associated iconclass code 71E1232 can be used as a search term. Official website Direct link to the databases The Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus
Netherlands Institute for Art History
–
As the logos on the window show, the RKD shares the same building located at Den Haag Centraal with the National Archives, the Nederlands Letterkundig Museum (nl) (LM), the Huygens ING, the Netherlands Music Institute (NMI) and the Koninklijke Bibliotheek.
