1.
Palais-Royal
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The Palais-Royal, originally called the Palais-Cardinal, is a palace located in the 1st arrondissement of Paris. The screened entrance court faces the Place du Palais-Royal, opposite the Louvre, the larger inner courtyard, the Cour dHonneur, has since 1986 contained Daniel Burens site-specific art piece Les Deux Plateaux, known as Les Colonnes de Buren. In 1830 the Cour dHonneur was enclosed to the north by what was probably the most famous of Pariss covered arcades, demolished in the 1930s, its flanking rows of columns still stand between the Cour dHonneur and the popular Palais-Royal Gardens. Originally called the Palais-Cardinal, the palace was the residence of Cardinal Richelieu. The architect Jacques Lemercier began his design in 1629, construction commenced in 1633 and was completed in 1639, upon Richelieus death in 1642 the palace became the property of the King and acquired the new name Palais-Royal. After Louis XIII died the year, it became the home of the Queen Mother Anne of Austria and her young sons Louis XIV and Philippe, duc dAnjou. From 1649, the palace was the residence of the exiled Henrietta Maria and Henrietta Anne Stuart, wife, the two had escaped England in the midst of the English Civil War and were sheltered by Henrietta Marias nephew, King Louis XIV. Henrietta Anne was later married to Louis younger brother, Philippe de France, the following year the new duchesse dOrléans gave birth to a daughter, Marie Louise dOrléans, inside the palace. After their marriage, the became the main residence of the House of Orléans. The Duchess created the gardens of the palace, which were said to be among the most beautiful in Paris. Under the new couple, the Palais-Royal would become the social center of the capital. The court gatherings at the Palais-Royal were famed all around the capital as well as all of France and it was at these parties that the crème de la crème of French society came to see and be seen. Guests included the members of the royal family like the Queen Mother, Anne of Austria, the duchesse de Montpensier, the Princes de Condé. Philippes favourites were also frequent visitors, the palace was redecorated and new apartments were created for the maids and staff of the Duchess. After Henrietta Anne died in 1670 the Duke took a wife, the Princess Palatine. Saint-Cloud thus became the residence of her eldest son and the heir to the House of Orléans. For the convenience of the bride, new apartments were built and it was at this time that Philippe commissioned the gallery for his famous Orleans Collection of paintings, which was easily accessible to the public. The architect was Jules Hardouin-Mansart, and the cost of reconstruction was totaled to be 400,000 livres
Palais-Royal
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Entrance front of the Palais-Royal on the rue Saint-Honoré
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Garden-side view with the columns of the former Galerie d'Orléans
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The Palais-Cardinal (c. 1641)
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Philippe de France, duc d'Orléans the younger brother of Louis XIV.
2.
Montparnasse Quarter
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Montparnasse was absorbed into the capitals 14th arrondissement in 1669. Beneath the ground are tunnels of the Catacombs of Paris, students in the 17th century who came to recite poetry in the hilly neighbourhood nicknamed it after Mount Parnassus, home to the nine Muses of arts and sciences in Greek mythology. The hill was levelled to construct the Boulevard Montparnasse in the 18th century, during the French Revolution many dance halls and cabarets opened their doors. The area is known for cafes and bars, such as the Breton restaurants specialising in crêpes located a few blocks from the Gare Montparnasse. Montparnasse became famous in the 1920s, referred to as les Années Folles, virtually penniless painters, sculptors, writers, poets and composers came from around the world to thrive in the creative atmosphere and for the cheap rent at artist communes such as La Ruche. Living without running water, in damp, unheated studios, seldom free of rats, Jean Cocteau once said that poverty was a luxury in Montparnasse. First promoted by art dealers such as Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, today works by those artists sell for millions of euros, in post-World War I Paris, Montparnasse was a euphoric meeting ground for the artistic world. Fernand Léger wrote of that period, “man…relaxes and recaptures his taste for life, his frenzy to dance, manuel Ortiz de Zárate, Camilo Mori and others made their way from Chile where the profound innovations in art spawned the formation of the Grupo Montparnasse in Santiago. Montparnasse was a community where creativity was embraced with all its oddities and they became good friends, Hamnett later recounting how she once borrowed a jersey and corduroy trousers from Modigliani, then went to La Rotonde and danced in the street all night. Between 1921 and 1924, the number of Americans in Paris swelled from 6,000 to 30,000, Robert McAlmon, and Maria and Eugene Jolas came to Paris and published their literary magazine Transition. As well, Bill Bird published through his Three Mountains Press until British heiress Nancy Cunard took it over, the cafés and bars of Montparnasse were a meeting place where ideas were hatched and mulled over. The cafés at the centre of Montparnasses night-life were in the Carrefour Vavin, if they fell asleep, the waiters were instructed not to wake them. Arguments were common, some fuelled by intellect, others by alcohol, and if there were fights, and there often were, the police were never summoned. If you couldnt pay your bill, people such as La Rotondes proprietor, Victor Libion, as such, there were times when the cafés walls were littered with a collection of artworks, that today would make the curators of the worlds greatest museums drool with envy. There were many areas where the great artists congregated, one of them being near Le Dôme at no.10 rue Delambre called the Dingo Bar. When Man Rays friend and Dadaist, Marcel Duchamp, left for New York and this is where his career as a photographer began, and where James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Jean Cocteau and the others filed in and posed in black and white. The rue de la Gaité in Montparnasse was the site of many of the great music-hall theatres, on their stages, using then-popular single name pseudonyms or one birth name only, Damia, Kiki, Mayol and Georgius, sang and performed to packed houses. And here too, Les Six was formed, creating music based on the ideas of Erik Satie and that could not be seen in my town
Montparnasse Quarter
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Le Dôme at night 2002
Montparnasse Quarter
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Rue de Rennes, in the background the Tour Montparnasse
Montparnasse Quarter
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La Rotonde at night 2002
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Cafés rented tables to poor artists for hours at a stretch. Several, including La Closerie des Lilas, remain in business today.
3.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
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In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
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The Palais de la Cité and Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
4.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
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One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
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Flag
France
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The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire.
France
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With Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right.
5.
Brasserie
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In France and the Francophone world, a brasserie is a type of French restaurant with a relaxed setting, which serves single dishes and other meals. The word brasserie is also French for brewery and, by extension, a brasserie can be expected to have professional service, printed menus, and, traditionally, white linen—unlike a bistro which may have none of these. Typically, a brasserie is open day of the week. A classic brasserie dish is steak frites, brasserie is French, literally, brewery, from Middle French brasser to brew, from Old French bracier, from Vulgar Latin braciare, of Celtic origin. Its first usage in English was in 1864, in 1901 Chamberss Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language defined brasserie as in France, any beer-garden or saloon. In 2000 The New Penguin English Dictionary included this definition of brasserie, the term is often used in the United Kingdom applied to small restaurants, usually in city centres, however, it generally has no connection with brewing. La Mère Catherine Café French cuisine
Brasserie
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The front of Brasserie Lipp in Paris
Brasserie
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A riverside brasserie in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England
6.
Artist
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An artist is a person engaged in one or more of any of a broad spectrum of activities related to creating art, practicing the arts or demonstrating an art. The common usage in everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians. Artiste is a variant used in English only in this context, use of the term to describe writers, for example, is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism. Wiktionary defines the noun artist as follows, A person who creates art, a person who makes and creates art as an occupation. A person who is skilled at some activity, a person whose trade or profession requires a knowledge of design, drawing, painting, etc. The adjectival Latin form of the word, technicus, became the source of the English words technique, technology, in ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour. The word art derives from the Latin ars, which, although literally defined, means skill method or technique, and conveys a connotation of beauty. During the Middle Ages the word artist already existed in countries such as Italy. An artist was able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined. In this period some artisanal products were more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures. With the Academies in Europe the gap between fine and applied arts was definitely set, Artist is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art. An artist also may be defined unofficially as a person who expresses him- or herself through a medium, the word is also used in a qualitative sense of, a person creative in, innovative in, or adept at, an artistic practice. Art historians and critics define artists as those who produce art within a recognized or recognizable discipline, contrasting terms for highly skilled workers in media in the applied arts or decorative arts include artisan, craftsman, and specialized terms such as potter, goldsmith or glassblower. The term may also be used loosely or metaphorically to denote highly skilled people in any activities, as well— law, medicine, mechanics, or mathematics. Often, discussions on the focus on the differences among artist and technician, entertainer and artisan, fine art and applied art, or what constitutes art. The French word artiste has been imported into the English language where it means a performer, use of the word artiste can also be a pejorative term. The English word artiste has thus a range of meaning than the word artiste in French
Artist
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German artist known for his works of poetry, drama, prose, philosophy, visual arts, and science.
7.
Writer
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A writer is a person who uses written words in various styles and techniques to communicate their ideas. Writers texts are published across a range of media, skilled writers who are able to use language to express ideas well often contribute significantly to the cultural content of a society. The word is used elsewhere in the arts – such as songwriter – but as a standalone term. Some writers work from an oral tradition, Writers can produce material across a number of genres, fictional or non-fictional. Other writers use multiple media – for example, graphics or illustration – to enhance the communication of their ideas, some writers may use images or multimedia to augment their writing. In rare instances, creative writers are able to communicate their ideas via music as well as words, as well as producing their own written works, writers often write on how they write, why they write, and also comment on the work of other writers. Writers work professionally or non-professionally, that is, for payment or without payment and may be either in advance. Payment is only one of the motivations of writers and many are never paid for their work, Writers choose from a range of literary genres to express their ideas. Most writing can be adapted for use in another medium, for example, a writers work may be read privately or recited or performed in a play or film. Satire for example, may be written as a poem, an essay, a film, the writer of a letter may include elements of criticism, biography, or journalism. The genre sets the parameters but all kinds of creative adaptation have been attempted, novel to film, poem to play, Writers may begin their career in one genre and change to another. For example, historian William Dalrymple began in the genre of travel literature, many writers have produced both fiction and non-fiction works and others write in a genre that crosses the two. For example, writers of romances, such as Georgette Heyer, invent characters. In this genre, the accuracy of the history and the level of detail in the work both tend to be debated. Some writers write both fiction and serious analysis, sometimes using different names to separate their work. Dorothy Sayers, for example, wrote crime fiction but was also a playwright, essayist, translator, poets make maximum use of the language to achieve an emotional and sensory effect as well as a cognitive one. To create these effects, they use rhyme and rhythm and they also exploit the properties of words with a range of techniques such as alliteration. A common theme is love and its vicissitudes, Shakespeares famous love story Romeo and Juliet, for example, written in a variety of poetic forms, has been performed in innumerable theatres and made into at least eight cinematic versions
Writer
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Sculpture of Anonymus in Budapest.
Writer
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Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, a Spanish writer depicted with the tools of the trade.
Writer
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin recites his poem before Gavrila Derzhavin (1815)
Writer
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Composer Richard Wagner, who also wrote the libretti for his works
8.
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, Picassos work is often categorized into periods. Much of Picassos work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in a neoclassical style and his later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco and María Picasso y López. His mother was of one quarter Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa, though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picassos family was of middle-class background and his father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts, Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were piz, piz, a shortening of lápiz, from the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was an academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork, the family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his sketch of a pigeon. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his sister, Conchita. After her death, the moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home, Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, the student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day. Picassos father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrids Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, at age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment
Pablo Picasso
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Picasso in 1908
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Picasso with his sister Lola, 1889
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Pablo Picasso, 1901, Old Woman (Woman with Gloves), oil on cardboard, 67 x 52.1 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Picasso, 1901-02, Femme au café (Absinthe Drinker), oil on canvas, 73 x 54 cm, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia
9.
Nina Hamnett
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Nina Hamnett was a Welsh artist and writer, and an expert on sailors chanteys, who became known as the Queen of Bohemia. Hamnett was born in the coastal town of Tenby, Pembrokeshire, Wales. From 1906 to 1907 she studied at the Pelham Art School, in 1914 she went to Montparnasse, Paris to study at Marie Vassilieffs Academy. While studying in London she met and posed for Henri Gaudier-Brzeska who sculpted a series of nude bronzes, during this period she became friendly with Olivia Shakespear and Ezra Pound. She went on to have an affair with Brzeska, and later with Modigliani. On her first night in the Bohemian community she went to the café La Rotonde where the man at the next table introduced himself as Modigliani, painter, in Montparnasse she also met her future husband, the Norwegian artist Roald Kristian. Flamboyantly unconventional, and openly bisexual, Hamnett once danced nude on a Montparnasse café table just for the hell of it and she drank heavily, was sexually promiscuous, and kept numerous lovers and close associations within the artistic community. Very quickly, she became a well-known bohemian personality throughout Paris and her artistic creations were widely exhibited during World War I, including at the Royal Academy in London as well as the Salon dAutomne in Paris. Back in England, she taught at the Westminster Technical Institute from 1917 to 1918, after divorcing Kristian, she took up with another free spirit, composer E. J. Moeran. From the mid-1920s until the end of World War II, the known as Fitzrovia was Londons main Bohemian artistic centre. The place took its name from the popular Fitzroy Tavern on the corner of Charlotte and Windmill Streets that formed the areas centre. Home of the life in Fitzrovia, it was Hamnetts favourite hangout as well as that of her friend from her home town, Augustus John, and later another Welshman. In 1932 Hamnett published Laughing Torso, a tale of her bohemian life, the notorious occultist Aleister Crowley unsuccessfully sued her and the publisher for libel over allegations of black magic made in her book. Although she won the case, the situation profoundly affected her for the remainder of her life. Alcoholism would soon overtake her many talents and the tragic Queen of the Fitzroy spent a part of the last few decades of her life at the bar. Twenty-three years after her first book Laughing Torso was published, Hamnett, in health, released a follow up book aptly titled. Hamnett died in 1956 from complications after falling out of her apartment window, the great debate has always been whether or not it was a suicide attempt or merely a drunken accident. Her last words were, Why dont they let me die, a biography, Nina Hamnett, Queen of Bohemia, by Denise Hooker was published in 1986
Nina Hamnett
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1917 portrait of Nina Hamnett painted by Roger Fry (Courtauld Gallery, London)
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Hamnett was born at No.3, Lexden Terrace, Tenby, Wales
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Nina Hamnett painted by Roger Fry, 1917, in a dress designed by Vanessa Bell and made at the Omega Workshops
10.
Amedeo Modigliani
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Amedeo Clemente Modigliani was an Italian Jewish painter and sculptor who worked mainly in France. He is known for portraits and nudes in a style characterized by elongation of faces and figures, that were not received well during his lifetime. Modigliani spent his youth in Italy, where he studied the art of antiquity, there he came into contact with prominent artists such as Pablo Picasso and Constantin Brâncuși. Modiglianis œuvre includes paintings and drawings, from 1909 to 1914, however, he devoted himself mainly to sculpture. His main subject was portraits and full figures of humans, both in the images and in the sculptures, during his life, Amedeo Modigliani had little success, but after his death he achieved greater popularity and his works of art achieved high prices. He died at age 35 in Paris of tubercular meningitis, Modigliani was born into a Sephardic Jewish family in Livorno, Italy. A port city, Livorno had long served as a refuge for those persecuted for their religion and his maternal great-great-grandfather, Solomon Garsin, had immigrated to Livorno in the 18th century as a refugee. Fluent in many languages, her ancestors were authorities on sacred Jewish texts and had founded a school of Talmudic studies, family legend traced the family lineage to the 17th-century Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The family business was an agency with branches in Livorno, Marseille, Tunis. Modigliani’s father, Flaminio, was a member of an Italian Jewish family of successful businessmen, while not as culturally sophisticated as the Garsins, they knew how to invest in and develop thriving business endeavors. When the Garsin and Modigliani families announced the engagement of their children and he managed the mine in Sardinia and also managed the almost 30,000 acres of timberland the family owned. A reversal in fortune occurred to this family in 1883. An economic downturn in the price of metal plunged the Modiglianis into bankruptcy, ever resourceful, Modigliani’s mother used her social contacts to establish a school and, along with her two sisters, made the school into a successful enterprise. Modigliani was the child, whose birth coincided with the disastrous financial collapse of his fathers business interests. Amedeos birth saved the family from ruin, according to an ancient law, the bailiffs entered the familys home just as Eugenia went into labour, the family protected their most valuable assets by piling them on top of her. Modigliani had a relationship with his mother, who taught him at home until he was 10. Beset with health problems after an attack of pleurisy when he was about 11, when he was 16 he was taken ill again and contracted the tuberculosis which would later claim his life. After Modigliani recovered from the bout of pleurisy, his mother took him on a tour of southern Italy, Naples, Capri, Rome and Amalfi
Amedeo Modigliani
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Amedeo Modigliani
Amedeo Modigliani
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Modigliani's birthplace in Livorno
Amedeo Modigliani
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Portrait of Pablo Picasso, 1915
Amedeo Modigliani
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His home in Venice.
11.
Diego Rivera
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Diego María de la Concepción Juan Nepomuceno Estanislao de la Rivera y Barrientos Acosta y Rodríguez, known as Diego Rivera was a prominent Mexican painter. His large frescoes helped establish the Mexican mural movement in Mexican art, between 1922 and 1953, Rivera painted murals among others in Mexico City, Chapingo, Cuernavaca, San Francisco, Detroit, and New York City. In 1931, a exhibition of his works was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Rivera had a marriage with fellow Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. Rivera was born in Guanajuato, Mexico, to a well-to-do family, Diego had a twin brother named Carlos, who died two years after they were born. Rivera was said to have Converso ancestry, Rivera wrote in 1935, My Jewishness is the dominant element in my life. Rivera began drawing at the age of three, a year after his brothers death. He had been drawing on the walls. His parents, rather than punishing him, installed chalkboards and canvas on the walls, as an adult, he married Angelina Beloff in 1911, and she gave birth to a son, Diego. Maria Vorobieff-Stebelska gave birth to a daughter named Marika in 1918 or 1919 when Rivera was married to Angelina and he married his second wife, Guadalupe Marín, in June 1922, with whom he had two daughters, Ruth and Guadalupe. He was still married when he met art student Frida Kahlo and they married on August 21,1929 when he was 42 and she was 22. Their mutual infidelities and his violent temper led to divorce in 1939, Rivera later married Emma Hurtado, his agent since 1946, on July 29,1955, one year after Kahlos death. His mural Dreams of a Sunday in the Alameda depicted Ignacio Ramírez holding a sign which read and this work caused a furor, but Rivera refused to remove the inscription. The painting was not shown for nine years – until Rivera agreed to remove the inscription. He stated, To affirm God does not exist, I do not have to hide behind Don Ignacio Ramírez, I am an atheist, from the age of ten, Rivera studied art at the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City. He was sponsored to study in Europe by Teodoro A. Dehesa Méndez. In those years, Paris was witnessing the beginning of Cubism in paintings by such eminent painters as Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, from 1913 to 1917, Rivera enthusiastically embraced this new school of art. Around 1917, inspired by Paul Cézannes paintings, Rivera shifted toward Post-Impressionism with simple forms and his paintings began to attract attention, and he was able to display them at several exhibitions
Diego Rivera
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Diego Rivera with a xoloitzcuintle, photo taken at the Casa Azul
Diego Rivera
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Diego Rivera, Maternidad, Angelina y el niño Diego (Motherhood, Angelina and the Child Diego), circa August 1916, oil on canvas, 134.5 x 88.5 cm, Museo de Arte Carrillo Gil. This work forms part of Rivera's Crystal Cubist period
Diego Rivera
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Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera in 1932, Photo by: Carl Van Vechten.
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Diego Rivera's mural depicting Mexico's history at the National Palace in Mexico City
12.
Ilya Ehrenburg
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Ilya Grigoryevich Ehrenburg was a Soviet writer, journalist, translator, and cultural figure. Ehrenburg is among the most prolific and notable authors of the Soviet Union and he became known first and foremost as a novelist and a journalist – in particular, as a reporter in three wars. His articles on the Second World War have provoked intense controversies in West Germany, the novel The Thaw gave its name to an entire era of Soviet politics, namely, the liberalization after the death of Joseph Stalin. Ehrenburgs travel writing also had great resonance, as did to a greater extent his memoir People, Years, Life. In addition, Ehrenburg wrote a succession of works of poetry, ilya Ehrenburg was born in Kiev, Russian Empire to a Lithuanian Jewish family, his father was an engineer. Ehrenburgs family was not religiously affiliated, he came into contact with the practices of Judaism only through his maternal grandfather. Ehrenburg never joined any religious denomination and he learned no Yiddish, although he edited the Black Book, which was written in Yiddish. He considered himself Russian and, later, a Soviet citizen and he took strong public positions against antisemitism. He wrote in Russian even during his years abroad. When Ehrenburg was four years old, the moved to Moscow. At school, he met Nikolai Bukharin, who was two grades above him, the two remained friends until Bukharins death in 1938 during the Great Purge. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1905, both Ehrenburg and Bukharin got involved in activities of the Bolshevik organisation. In 1908, when Ehrenburg was seventeen years old, the tsarist secret police arrested him for five months and he was beaten up and lost some teeth. Finally he was allowed to go abroad and chose Paris for his exile, in Paris, he started to work in the Bolshevik organisation, meeting Vladimir Lenin and other prominent exiles. But soon he left these circles and the Communist Party, Ehrenburg became attached to the bohemian life in the Paris quarter of Montparnasse. He began to write poems, regularly visited the cafés of Montparnasse and got acquainted with a lot of artists, especially Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Jules Pascin, Foreign writers whose works Ehrenburg translated included those of Francis Jammes. During World War I, Ehrenburg became a war correspondent for a St. Petersburg newspaper and he wrote a series of articles about the mechanized war that later on were also published as a book. His poetry now also concentrated on subjects of war and destruction, as in On the Eve, Nikolai Gumilev, a famous symbolistic poet, wrote favourably about Ehrenburgs progress in poetry
Ilya Ehrenburg
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Ilya Ehrenburg in the 1960s
Ilya Ehrenburg
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Ilya Ehrenburg in 1943
Ilya Ehrenburg
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Ilya Ehrenburg's grave with a wire reproduction of his portrait by Picasso
13.
Tsuguharu Foujita
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Léonard Tsuguharu Foujita was a Japanese–French painter and printmaker born in Tokyo, Japan, who applied Japanese ink techniques to Western style paintings. He has been called the most important Japanese artist working in the West during the 20th century, immediately after graduating secondary school, Foujita wished to study in France, but on the advice of Mori Ōgai he decided to study western art in Japan first. In 1910, when he was years old Foujita graduated from what is now the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts. His paintings during the period before he moved to France were often signed Fujita, three years later he went to Montparnasse in Paris, France. When he arrived there, knowing nobody, he met Amedeo Modigliani, Pascin, Chaim Soutine and he also took dance lessons from the legendary Isadora Duncan. Foujita had his first studio at no.5 rue Delambre in Montparnasse where he became the envy of everyone when he made enough money to install a bathtub with hot running water. Many models came over to Foujitas place to enjoy this luxury, among them Man Rays very liberated lover, Kiki, another portrait of Kiki titled Reclining Nude with Toile de Jouy, shows her lying naked against an ivory-white background. It was the sensation of Paris at the Salon dAutomne in 1922, in 2013, the painting sold at Christies in New York for $1,205,000. His life in Montparnasse is documented in several of his works, including the etching A la Rotonde or Café de la Rotonde of 1925/7, Foujitas first marriage was to Tomiko Tokita, a school teacher in a girls school in Chiba Prefecture. They were married in 1912, the year before Foujita left for Paris, in March 1917 in the Café de la Rotonde, Foujita met a young lady by the name of Fernande Barrey. At first, she totally ignored Foujitas efforts to engage her in conversation, however, early the next morning, Foujita showed up at Fernandes place with a blue corsage he had made overnight. Intrigued, she offered him a pot of tea and they were married 13 days later, within a few years, particularly after his 1918 exposition, he achieved great fame as a painter of beautiful women and cats in a very original technique. He is one of the few Montparnasse artists who made a deal of money in his early years. By 1925, Tsuguharu Foujita had received the Belgian Order of Leopold, in 1918, a trip to the south of France was organized by the Polish poet Léopold Zborowski, who had the idea that his artist-friends could sell pictures there to rich tourists. Foujita and his wife went along as did Soutine, Modigliani with his lover, the trip was not, however, a success and the group had to survive on the advances that Foujita had obtained from his Paris dealer. By the time the final reckoning arrived even those funds had run out, in 1921, he became involved with Lucie Badoul, whom he called Oyuki, or Rose Snow. She would become his third wife, the relationship ended when she became the lover, then the wife of the surrealist poet Robert Desnos. After the breakup of his marriage, and his flight to Brazil in 1931, Foujita traveled and painted all over Latin America
Tsuguharu Foujita
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Portrait of Foujita by Ismael Nery (1930s).
Tsuguharu Foujita
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Tsuguharu Foujita - Poppies in a Yellow Jug
Tsuguharu Foujita
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Tsuguharu Foujita in his studio
Tsuguharu Foujita
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Ink and watercolor portrait on paper by Tsuguharu Foujita
14.
Picasso
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Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, Picassos work is often categorized into periods. Much of Picassos work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in a neoclassical style and his later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco and María Picasso y López. His mother was of one quarter Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa, though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picassos family was of middle-class background and his father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts, Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were piz, piz, a shortening of lápiz, from the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was an academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork, the family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his sketch of a pigeon. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his sister, Conchita. After her death, the moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home, Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, the student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day. Picassos father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrids Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, at age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment
Picasso
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Picasso in 1908
Picasso
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Pablo Picasso with his sister Lola, 1889
Picasso
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Pablo Picasso, 1901, Old Woman (Woman with Gloves), oil on cardboard, 67 x 52.1 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Picasso
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Pablo Picasso, 1901-02, Femme au café (Absinthe Drinker), oil on canvas, 73 x 54 cm, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia
15.
Alexandre Jacovleff
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Alexandre Yevgenievich Jacovleff was a Russian neoclassicist painter, draughtsman, designer and etcher. Alexandre was the son of an officer from Saint Petersburg. Between 1905 and 1913 he studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts under Kardovsky, while a student he enjoyed drawing and worked for the art magazines Apollon, Satiricon, Niva, New Satiricon. After 1912, Jacovleff was a member of Mir Iskusstva, jacovleffs large group portrait On Academic Dacha was exhibited at the Baltic Exhibition in Malmö in 1912, and received praise from the critics present, including Alexandre Benois. During his student days he befriended another Academy student, Vasiliy Shukhaev and they were almost inseparable, and received the nickname of The Twins. In 1913, Jackovleff received the rank of an Artist and a scholarship to study abroad for his paintings Bathing and he also composed his famous In The Day Shining painting the same year. He later went to Italy and Spain together with Shukhaev, there they painted their double self-portrait as Harlequin and Pierrot. Another important work of that period was Violinist painted in 1915, at that time Jacovleff attempted to integrate Renaissance art with Primitivism, particularly the Russian Lubok. In 1915, Jacovleff returned to Petrograd, the same year his works were shown at a Mir Iskusstva exhibition and caused mixed reactions. While some critics praised them, the Academy of Arts rejected them, Jackovleff painted a lot of Sanguine drawings including the Shalyapin portrait. He frescoed Firsanovs mansion in Moscow, and the artistic cabaret Prival Komediantov in Petrograd and he also lectured on Womens Architect Courses and organized his own artistic movement, St. Luke Guild of Painters. In the summer of 1917, Jacovleff received a scholarship to study in the Far East and he traveled to Mongolia, China and Japan. For example the end of the First World War he celebrated at the Italian Legation in Beijing together with the Italian chargé daffaires Daniele Varè, subsequently he settled in Paris and obtained French Citizenship. Between 1924 and 1925 he took part in an expedition to the Sahara desert and his African paintings were a big success and as a result Jacovleff was awarded the Legion of Honor by the French government in 1926. In 1928, Jacovleff organized a personal exhibition in Moscow. Between 1931 and 1932, he was the Artistic Adviser of another Citroën expedition and he travelled through Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia and China, and created a number of orientalist paintings. From 1934 to 1937, Jackovleff was the Director of the Painting Department of the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and he spent the last months of his life in Paris and Capri. He died in Paris in 1938, after an unsuccessful surgery and she has performed in the imperial troops in St
Alexandre Jacovleff
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Alexandre Jacovleff
Alexandre Jacovleff
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Violinist, 1915
Alexandre Jacovleff
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Feodor Chaliapin as Don Quichotte, 1916
Alexandre Jacovleff
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Aeolus
16.
Alexander Yevgenievich Yakovlev
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Alexandre Yevgenievich Jacovleff was a Russian neoclassicist painter, draughtsman, designer and etcher. Alexandre was the son of an officer from Saint Petersburg. Between 1905 and 1913 he studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts under Kardovsky, while a student he enjoyed drawing and worked for the art magazines Apollon, Satiricon, Niva, New Satiricon. After 1912, Jacovleff was a member of Mir Iskusstva, jacovleffs large group portrait On Academic Dacha was exhibited at the Baltic Exhibition in Malmö in 1912, and received praise from the critics present, including Alexandre Benois. During his student days he befriended another Academy student, Vasiliy Shukhaev and they were almost inseparable, and received the nickname of The Twins. In 1913, Jackovleff received the rank of an Artist and a scholarship to study abroad for his paintings Bathing and he also composed his famous In The Day Shining painting the same year. He later went to Italy and Spain together with Shukhaev, there they painted their double self-portrait as Harlequin and Pierrot. Another important work of that period was Violinist painted in 1915, at that time Jacovleff attempted to integrate Renaissance art with Primitivism, particularly the Russian Lubok. In 1915, Jacovleff returned to Petrograd, the same year his works were shown at a Mir Iskusstva exhibition and caused mixed reactions. While some critics praised them, the Academy of Arts rejected them, Jackovleff painted a lot of Sanguine drawings including the Shalyapin portrait. He frescoed Firsanovs mansion in Moscow, and the artistic cabaret Prival Komediantov in Petrograd and he also lectured on Womens Architect Courses and organized his own artistic movement, St. Luke Guild of Painters. In the summer of 1917, Jacovleff received a scholarship to study in the Far East and he traveled to Mongolia, China and Japan. For example the end of the First World War he celebrated at the Italian Legation in Beijing together with the Italian chargé daffaires Daniele Varè, subsequently he settled in Paris and obtained French Citizenship. Between 1924 and 1925 he took part in an expedition to the Sahara desert and his African paintings were a big success and as a result Jacovleff was awarded the Legion of Honor by the French government in 1926. In 1928, Jacovleff organized a personal exhibition in Moscow. Between 1931 and 1932, he was the Artistic Adviser of another Citroën expedition and he travelled through Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia and China, and created a number of orientalist paintings. From 1934 to 1937, Jackovleff was the Director of the Painting Department of the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and he spent the last months of his life in Paris and Capri. He died in Paris in 1938, after an unsuccessful surgery and she has performed in the imperial troops in St
Alexander Yevgenievich Yakovlev
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Alexandre Jacovleff
Alexander Yevgenievich Yakovlev
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Violinist, 1915
Alexander Yevgenievich Yakovlev
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Feodor Chaliapin as Don Quichotte, 1916
Alexander Yevgenievich Yakovlev
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Aeolus
17.
French presidential election, 2017
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The first round of the 2017 French presidential election is set to be held on 23 April 2017. Should no candidate win a majority, an election between the top two candidates will be held on 7 May 2017. Incumbent president François Hollande of the Socialist Party is eligible to run for a second term and he is the first incumbent president of the Fifth Republic not to run for a second term. This is also the first French presidential election in which nominees of both the main centre-left and centre-right parties were selected through open primaries, a total of 11 candidates will contest the first round. The presidential election will be followed by an election to elect members of the National Assembly on 11 and 18 June. François Fillon of the Republicans and Marine Le Pen of the National Front led in opinion polls between November 2016 and mid-January 2017. Macron overtook Fillon to be placed second in first-round polling and. Polls for the second round of voting further suggest that either Fillon or Macron would beat Le Pen. In 2017, the first and second rounds are planned for 23 April and 7 May, the official signature collection period followed the publication of the Journal officiel on 25 February to 17 March. French prefectures mailed sponsorship forms to the 42,000 elected officials eligible to give their signature to a candidate, the end of the signature collection period also marked the deadline for the declaration of personal assets required of prospective candidates. The final list of candidates was proclaimed on 21 March, the Conseil supérieur de laudiovisuel ensures that all candidates receive equal time in broadcast media under comparable programming conditions from 19 March onward. The CSA warned on 8 March that the amount of speaking time broadcasters had given Fillon and his supporters was unusually high, after the official start of the campaign on 10 April, the CSA will strictly enforce equal time in broadcast media. Campaigning for the first round of the ends at midnight on 21 April. The new President of the French Republic will be proclaimed on 11 May, on 18 March 2017, the Constitutional Council published the names of the 11 candidates who received 500 valid sponsorships, with the order of the list determined by drawing lots. The presidential race featured two prominent potential candidates who declined to run, an online vote among EELV primary voters from 24 and 26 February was required to confirm the agreement, an earlier vote to open talks with Hamon and Mélenchon was approved by 89. 7% of those electors. This marks the first election since 1969 without a green candidate, on 9 July 2016, Europe Ecology – The Greens announced that it would hold a primary election before the 2017 presidential election. Those wishing to be nominated required the support of 36 of its federal councilors out of 240, the vote was open to both party members as well as sympathizers who could register to vote in the primary. The announcement came just days after prominent environmentalist Nicolas Hulots surprise declaration that he would not offer himself as a candidate on 5 July
French presidential election, 2017
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France
18.
Emmanuel Macron
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Emmanuel Macron is a French politician, senior civil servant, and former investment banker. Born in Amiens, he studied Philosophy at Paris Nanterre University and he went on to become an Inspector of Finances in the Inspectorate General of Finances before becoming an investment banker at Rothschild & Cie Banque. He resigned in August 2016 in order to launch a bid in the 2017 presidential election, in November 2016, Macron declared that he would run in the election under the banner of En Marche. A centrist movement he founded in April 2016, born in Amiens, Emmanuel Jean-Michel Frédéric Macron is the son of Jean-Michel Macron, Professor of Neurology at the University of Picardy, and Françoise Macron-Noguès, a physician. He was educated mostly at the Jésuites de la Providence lycée in Amiens before his parents sent him to finish his last year of school at the high school Lycée Henri-IV in Paris. He studied Philosophy at the University of Paris-Ouest Nanterre La Défense and he obtained a Masters degree in Public Affairs at Sciences Po, before training for a senior civil service career at the École nationale dadministration, graduating in 2004. Macron worked as an Inspector of Finances in the French Ministry of Economy between 2004 and 2008, in 2007, he served as deputy rapporteur for the Commission to improve French growth headed by Jacques Attali. While an investment banker, Macron closed a deal between Nestlé and Pfizer, which in part allowed him to amass a small fortune reportedly in the region of €2,800,000. Macron was a member of the Socialist Party from 2006 to 2009, in 2015, he stated that he was no longer a member of the PS and was now an Independent. From 2012 to 2014, he served as deputy secretary-general of the Élysée and he was appointed Minister of Economy, Industry and Digital Data in the second Valls Cabinet on 26 August 2014, replacing Arnaud Montebourg. As Minister of the Economy, Macron was at the forefront of pushing through business-friendly reforms, in February 2015, he pledged that the government would force through reforms despite opposition from the parliament. On 30 August 2016, Macron resigned from the government ahead of the 2017 presidential election and this came shortly after he founded his own progressive political movement, En Marche. An independent political party, for which he was reprimanded by President Hollande, Macron founded En Marche. in Amiens, the city of his birth. On 16 November 2016, Macron formally declared his candidacy for the French presidency after months of speculation, in his announcement speech, Macron called for a democratic revolution and promised to unblock France. He eventually laid out his 150-page formal program on 2 March, publishing it online, as well as numerous others – many of them from the Socialist Party, but also a significant number of centrist and centre-right politicians. Macron has been described by observers as a social liberal. Macron has notably advocated in favor of the market and reducing the public-finances deficit. He first publicly used the term liberal to describe himself in a 2015 interview with Le Monde and he added that he is neither right nor left and that he advocates a collective solidarity
Emmanuel Macron
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Emmanuel Macron in 2015
19.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code
20.
MIT Press
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The MIT Press is a university press affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Six years later, MITs publishing operations were first formally instituted by the creation of an imprint called Technology Press in 1932 and this imprint was founded by James R. Killian, Jr. at the time editor of MITs alumni magazine and later to become MIT president. Technology Press published eight titles independently, then in 1937 entered into an arrangement with John Wiley & Sons in which Wiley took over marketing, in 1962 the association with Wiley came to an end after a further 125 titles had been published. The press acquired its name after this separation, and has since functioned as an independent publishing house. A European marketing office was opened in 1969, and a Journals division was added in 1972, other areas, such as technology and design, have been added since. A recent addition is environmental science, in January 2010 the MIT Press published its 9000th title, and published about 200 books and 30 journals. In 2012 the Press celebrated its 50th anniversary, including publishing a booklet on paper. The MIT Press is a distributor for such publishers as Zone Books, in 2000, the MIT Press created CogNet, an online resource for the study of the brain and the cognitive sciences. In 1981 the MIT Press published its first book under the Bradford Books imprint, Brainstorms, Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology by Daniel C. The MIT Press also operates the MIT Press Bookstore showcasing both its front and backlist titles, along with a selection of complementary works from other academic. Once extensive construction around its location is completed, the Bookstore is planned to be returned to a site adjacent to the subway entrance. The Bookstore offers customized selections from the MIT Press at many conferences and symposia in the Boston area, the Press uses a colophon or logo designed by its longtime design director, Muriel Cooper, in 1962. It later served as an important reference point for the 2015 redesign of the MIT Media Lab logo by Pentagram, the Arts and Humanities Economics International Affairs, History, and Political Science Science and Technology Official Website MIT Press Journals Homepage The MIT PressLog
MIT Press
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2008 conference booth
MIT Press
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MIT Press
21.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
