1.
Metropolitan France
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Metropolitan France, also known as European France, is the part of France in Europe. It comprises mainland France and nearby islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, Overseas France is the collective name for the part of France outside Europe, French overseas regions, territories, collectivities, and the sui generis collectivity of New Caledonia. Metropolitan France and Overseas France together form the French Republic, Metropolitan France accounts for 82. 2% of the land territory,3. 3% of the exclusive economic zone, and 95. 9% of the population of the French Republic. The five overseas regions—Martinique, Guadeloupe, Réunion, French Guiana, in overseas France, a person from metropolitan France is often called a métro, short for métropolitain. Similar terms existed to describe other European colonial powers and this usage of the words metropolis and metropolitan itself came from Ancient Greek metropolis, which was the name for a city-state from which originated colonies across the Mediterranean. By extension metropolis and metropolitan came to mean motherland, a nation or country as opposed to its colonies overseas, today there are some people in overseas France who object to the use of the term la France métropolitaine due to its colonial origins. They prefer to call it the European territory of France, as the Treaties of the European Union do, likewise, they oppose treating overseas France and metropolitan France as separate entities. As a result, since the end of the 1990s INSEE has included the five departments in its figures for France. Other branches of the French administration may have different definitions of what la France entière is, the World Bank refers to this as France only, and not the whole of France as INSEE does. According to the French government,64,860,000 people lived in metropolitan France as of January 2017, Metropolitan France covers a land area of 551,695 km². At sea, the economic zone of metropolitan France covers 334,604 km², while the EEZ of overseas France covers 9,821,231 km². In the second round of the 2007 French presidential election,37,342,004 French people cast a ballot. 35,907,015 of these cast their ballots in metropolitan France,1,088,679 cast their ballots in overseas France, and 346,310 cast their ballots in foreign countries. The French National Assembly is made up of 577 deputies,539 of whom are elected in metropolitan France,27 in overseas France, and 11 by French citizens living in foreign countries. Mainland France, or just the mainland, does not include the French islands in the Atlantic Ocean, English Channel or Mediterranean Sea, in Corsica, people from the mainland part of Metropolitan France are referred to as les continentaux. A casual synonym for the part of Metropolitan France is lHexagone, for its approximate shape. French colonial empire Mainland Wildlife of Metropolitan France
Metropolitan France
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Metropolitan France
2.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
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Reconstruction of Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
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A medieval T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of Noah — Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to Iafeth (Japheth), and Africa to Cham (Ham)
Europe
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Early modern depiction of Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical Europa of the 8th century BC.
3.
Compulsory sterilization
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Compulsory sterilization, also known as forced or coerced sterilization, programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical or other sterilization. The reasons governments implement sterilization programs vary in purpose and intent, the last is counted as an act of genocide under the Statute of Rome. Compulsory sterilization has been proposed as a means of population planning. The report references the involuntary sterilization of a number of population groups. They include, Women, especially in relation to population control policies. Indigenous and ethnic minority women often face wrongful stereotyping based on gender, race, funding of welfare mothers by HEW covers roughy 90% of cost and doctors are likely to concur with the compulsory sterilization of welfare mothers. Threats to cease welfare occur when women do are hesitant to consent, disabled people, often perceived as asexual. Women with intellectual disabilities are treated as if they have no control, or should have no control, over their sexual. Transgender persons, as a prerequisite to receiving treatment and gender-marker changes. The report recommends a range of guiding principles for medical treatment, including ensuring patient autonomy in decision-making, ensuring non-discrimination, accountability, Human population planning is the practice of artificially altering the rate of growth of a human population. While population planning can involve measures that improve peoples lives by giving greater control of their reproduction. This included the possibly of compulsory sterilization, a government might utilize sortition to select those to be sterilized in order to avoid accusations of bias or having any other adverse agenda. In Ecoscience, in the chapter entitled The Humam Predicament, Finding A Way Out, some partial fulfillments of these predictions are the birth control drugs in Norplant and Depo-Provera. One can further speculate about pharmaceuticals designed to permanently sterilize the human fetus in utero. Widespread or systematic forced sterilization has been recognized as a Crime against Humanity by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court in the explanatory memorandum and this memorandum defines the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court. Lee wrote that requiring sterilization is a human rights violation and LGBT specific international treaties may need to be developed in order to protect LGBT human rights, two Canadian provinces performed compulsory sterilization programs in the 20th century with eugenic aims. Canadian compulsory sterilization operated via the same mechanisms of institutionalization, judgment. However, one difference is in the treatment of non-insane criminals
Compulsory sterilization
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A map from a 1929 Swedish royal commission report displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilization legislation by then
Compulsory sterilization
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"We do not stand alone": Nazi poster from 1936 with flags of other countries with compulsory sterilization legislation
4.
Yogyakarta Principles
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The issue is further articulated by the struggles of indigenous peoples, gender and religious identity communities worldwide. The principles are named after Yogyakarta, the city where the conference was held and these principles have not been adopted by States in a treaty, and are thus not by themselves a legally binding part of international human rights law. However the Principles are intended to serve as an aid to the human rights treaties. In alignment with the movement towards establishing basic human rights for all people, the Principles were developed in response to patterns of abuse reported from around the world. These are estimated to affect millions of people who are, or have been, the website promoting the Principles notes that concerns have been voiced about a trend of peoples human rights being violated because of their sexual orientation or gender identity. The Principles aim to provide a consistent understanding about application of human rights law in relation to sexual orientation. From 6 to 9 November 2006, a seminar of legal experts on human rights took place at Yogyakarta. The seminar clarified the nature, scope and implementation of human rights obligations under existing human rights treaties and law, in relation to sexual orientation. The Irish human rights expert Michael OFlaherty was rapporteur responsible for drafting, vitit Muntarbhorn and Sonia Onufer Corrêa were the co-chairpersons. They maintain that people are recognised as being born free and equal in dignity and rights. The Principles are based on the recognition of the right to non-discrimination, for example, it also addressed the situation in Kyrgyzstan and recommended that, ‘lesbianism be reconceptualised as a sexual orientation and that penalties for its practice be abolished’. The finalised Yogyakarta Principles was launched as a charter for gay rights on 26 March 2007 at the United Nations Human Rights Council in Geneva. Michael O’Flaherty, spoke at the International Lesbian and Gay Association Conference in Lithuania on 27 October 2007, the Yogyakarta Principles were presented at a United Nations event in New York City on 7 November 2007, co-sponsored by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. Human rights and LGBT-rights groups took up the principles, and discussion has featured in the gay press, as well as academic papers, in the ensuing discussion, the majority of General Assembly Third Committee members recommended against adopting the principles. She expressed alarm at the reinterpretation of existing human rights instruments, principles, such a right did not exist under any internationally agreed human rights instrument or law and his attempts to create one far exceeded his mandate and that of the Human Rights Council. In particular, he referred to the Yogyarkarta Principles and also to the International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education, implementation of various provisions and recommendations of the latter document would result in criminal prosecution for such criminal offences as corrupting youth. Meanwhile, the Council of Europe states in Human Rights and Gender Identity that Principle 3 of the Yogyakarta Principles is of particular relevance, such enforced divorces may have a negative impact on the children of the marriage. A US-based Christian think tank, the Catholic Family and Human Rights Institute, claimed that the Principles could devalue the concept of the family, the Principles themselves are a lengthy document addressing legal matters
Yogyakarta Principles
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LGBT history
5.
Children's rights
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Childrens rights are the human rights of children with particular attention to the rights of special protection and care afforded to minors. The Convention on the Rights of the Child of 1989 defines a child as any person who has not reached the age of eighteen years. Other definitions include the rights to care and nurturing, a child is any human being below the age of eighteen years, unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. The field of childrens rights spans the fields of law, politics, religion, is a mass of human rights law, both treaty and soft law, both general and child-specific, which recognises the distinct status and particular requirements of children. As minors by law children do not have autonomy or the right to decisions on their own for themselves in any known jurisdiction of the world. Instead their adult caregivers, including parents, social workers, teachers, youth workers, some believe that this state of affairs gives children insufficient control over their own lives and causes them to be vulnerable. Louis Althusser has gone so far as to describe this legal machinery, as it applies to children, on this view, children are to be regarded as a minority group towards whom society needs to reconsider the way it behaves. Researchers have identified children as needing to be recognized as participants in society whose rights, sir William Blackstone recognized three parental duties to the child, maintenance, protection, and education. In modern language, the child has a right to receive these from the parent, consensus on defining childrens rights has become clearer in the last fifty years. A1973 publication by Hillary Clinton stated that childrens rights were a slogan in need of a definition, children’s rights law is defined as the point where the law intersects with a childs life. Children have two types of rights under international human rights law. General rights operative in childhood include the right to security of the person, to freedom from inhuman, cruel, or degrading treatment, Childrens rights are defined in numerous ways, including a wide spectrum of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. These have been labeled as the right of empowerment and as the right to protection, United Nations educational guides for children classify the rights outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child as the 3 Ps, Provision, Protection, and Participation. They may be elaborated as follows, Provision, Children have the right to a standard of living, health care, education and services. These include a diet, a warm bed to sleep in. Protection, Children have the right to protection from abuse, neglect and this includes the right to safe places for children to play, constructive child rearing behavior, and acknowledgment of the evolving capacities of children. Participation, Children have the right to participate in communities and have programs and this includes childrens involvement in libraries and community programs, youth voice activities, and involving children as decision-makers. Human Rights Watch, an advocacy organization, includes child labor, juvenile justice, orphans and abandoned children, refugees, street children
Children's rights
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A boy working as a "clock boy" on the streets of Merida, Mexico.
6.
Disability
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Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or some combination of these. It substantially affects a persons activities and may be present from birth or occur during a persons lifetime. Disabilities is a term, covering impairments, activity limitations. Disability is thus not just a health problem and it is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives. Disability is a concept, with different meanings for different communities. It may be used to refer to physical or mental attributes that some institutions, particularly medicine and it may refer to limitations imposed on people by the constraints of an ableist society. Or the term may serve to refer to the identity of people with disabilities, debates about proper terminology and their implied politics continue in disability communities and the academic field of disability studies. In some countries, the law requires that disabilities are documented by a provider in order to assess qualifications for disability benefits. During the Middle Ages, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons and they were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Plague, which wrought impairments throughout the general population. Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments, foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization. The concept of the norm developed in time period, and is signaled in the work of the French statistician Alphonse Quetelet. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all attributes in a given population and find their average. Disability, as well as other concepts including, abnormal, non-normal, the circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the part of the nineteenth century. With disability viewed as part of a persons biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, various metrics for assessing a persons genetic fitness, which were then used to deport, sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. In the early 1970s, disability activists began to challenge how society treated people with disabilities, due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the model of disability emerged
Disability
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A man with an above the knee amputation exercises while wearing a prosthetic leg
Disability
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International Symbol of Access
Disability
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Museum of disABILITY History, Buffalo, New York.
Disability
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Die Krüppel (The Cripples), Pieter Bruegel, 1568
7.
Medical ethics
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Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of clinical medicine and in scientific research. Medical ethics allow for people, regardless of race, gender, or religion to be guaranteed quality and it creates an obvious guideline to follow. Medical Ethics is based on a set of values that professionals can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict and these values include the respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. With the help of these values it allows doctors, care providers and it is important to note that these four values are of equal worth. The Code of Ethics was then adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival’s words, over the years in 1903,1912, and 1947 revisions have been made to the original document. The practice of Medical Ethics is widely accepted and practiced throughout the world, both The Declaration of Helsinki and The Nuremberg Code are two well-known and well respected documents contributing to medical ethics. Other important markings in the history of Medical Ethics include Roe v. Wade in 1973, Medical Ethics continues to develop and change throughout history, yet always keeping the focus on fair, balanced, and moral thinking. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, and sociology. Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early Christian teachings. The first code of ethics, Formula Comitis Archiatrorum, was published in the 5th century. These intellectual traditions continue in Catholic, Islamic and Jewish medical ethics, by the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more self-conscious discourse. In England, Thomas Percival, a physician and author, crafted the first modern code of medical ethics and he drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, in which he coined the expressions medical ethics and medical jurisprudence. However, there are some who see Percivals guidelines that relate to physician consultations as being protective of the home physicians reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one critic who considers Percivals codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anti-competitive. In 1815, the Apothecaries Act was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom and it introduced compulsory apprenticeship and formal qualifications for the apothecaries of the day under the license of the Society of Apothecaries. This was the beginning of regulation of the profession in the UK. In 1847, the American Medical Association adopted its first code of ethics, while the secularized field borrowed largely from Catholic medical ethics, in the 20th century a distinctively liberal Protestant approach was articulated by thinkers such as Joseph Fletcher. In the 1960s and 1970s, building upon liberal theory and procedural justice, much of the discourse of medical ethics went through a dramatic shift and largely reconfigured itself into bioethics
Medical ethics
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A 12th-century Byzantine manuscript of the Hippocratic Oath
8.
Herculine Barbin
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Herculine Barbin was a French intersex person who was treated as a female at birth but was later redesignated a male after an affair and physical examination. Most of what we know about Barbin comes from her later memoirs, Herculine Adélaîde Barbin was born in Saint-Jean-dAngély in France in 1838. She was regarded as a girl and raised as such, her family referred to her as Alexina and her family was poor but she gained a charity scholarship to study in the school of an Ursuline convent. According to her account, she had a crush on a female friend in school. She regarded herself as unattractive but sometimes slipped into her friends room at night and was punished for that. However, her studies were successful and in 1856, at the age of seventeen she was sent to Le Chateau to study to become a teacher, there she fell in love with one of the teachers. Although Barbin was in puberty, she had not begun to menstruate, the hairs on her upper lip and cheeks were noticeable. In 1857 Barbin received a position as an assistant teacher in a girls school and she fell in love with another teacher, Sara, and Barbin demanded that only she should dress her. Her ministrations turned into caresses and they became lovers, eventually rumors about their affair began to circulate. Barbin, although sick her whole life, began to suffer excruciating pains, when a doctor examined her, he was shocked and asked that she should be sent away from the school, but she stayed. Eventually, the devoutly Catholic Barbin confessed to Jean-François-Anne Landriot, the Bishop of La Rochelle and she asked him permission to break the confessional silence in order to send for a doctor to examine her. When Dr. Chesnet did so in 1860, he discovered that even if Barbin had a small vagina, she was masculine and had a very small penis. In modern terms, she had male pseudohermaphroditism, a later legal decision declared official that Barbin was male. She left her lover and her job, changed her name to Abel Barbin and was mentioned in the press. She moved to Paris where she lived in poverty and wrote her memoirs, in the memoirs, Barbin would use female pronouns when writing about her life prior to sexual redesignation and male pronouns, including Alexina and Camille, following the declaration. Nevertheless, she regarded herself as punished, and disinherited. In February 1868, the concierge of Barbins house in rue de lÉcole-de-Médecine found her dead in her home and she had committed suicide by inhaling gas from her coal gas stove. Her memoirs were found beside her bed, Dr. Regnier reported the death, recovered the memoirs and performed an autopsy
Herculine Barbin
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Title page of Ambroise Tardieu's 1872 book in which excerpts of Herculine Barbin's memoirs were first published.
9.
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels and his thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, especially those working within contemporary sociology, cultural studies, and critical theory. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book and these first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called archaeology. In 1970 he was admitted to the Collège de France, membership of which he retained until his death and he also became active in a number of left-wing groups involved in anti-racist campaigns, anti-human rights abuses movements, and the struggle for penal reform. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, in these books he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role which power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France and he had been named after his father, Dr. His father was a local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-laws medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, in later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a delinquent, he claimed his father was a bully who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at arithmetic. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945, his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, in 1940, Foucaults mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the ordeal, but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, in 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor and these ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolites conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault
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In the early 1950s, Foucault came under the influence of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who remained a core influence on his work throughout his life.
Michel Foucault
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Foucault adored the work of Raymond Roussel and authored a literary study of it.
10.
Canon law
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Canon law is the body of laws and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. The way that such law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was originally a rule adopted by a council, these canons formed the foundation of canon law. Greek kanon / Ancient Greek, κανών, Arabic Qanun / قانون, Hebrew kaneh / קנה, straight, a rule, code, standard, or measure, the root meaning in all these languages is reed. In the Fourth century the First Council of Nicaea calls canons the disciplinary measures of the Church, the canon, κανὠν, means in Greek. There is an early distinction between the rules enacted by the Church and the legislative measures taken by the State called leges. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, west Syrian Rite which includes the Maronite Church, Syriac Catholic Church and the Syro-Malankara Church. Armenian Rite Church which includes the Armenian Catholic Church, east Syrian Rite Churches which includes the Chaldean Church and Syro-Malabar Church. All of these groups are in full communion with the Supreme Pontiff and are subject to the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods, the jus antiquum, the jus novum, the jus novissimum, in relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus and the jus novum. The academic degrees in law are the J. C. B. Because of its nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for the study of canon law. Much of the style was adapted from the Roman Law Code of Justinian. This is in contrast to the form of proceeding found in the common law system of English and U. S. law. The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the development of much of Europe. Sampel explains that law has significant influence in contemporary society. Canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian-Thomistic legal philosophy, each had its own special law, in which custom still played an important part. In 1929 Pius XI informed the Eastern Churches of his intention to work out a Code for the whole of the Eastern Church, the publication of these Codes for the Eastern Churches regarding the law of persons was made between 1949 through 1958 but finalized nearly 30 years later
Canon law
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Image of pages from the Decretum of Burchard of Worms, the 11th-century book of canon law.
11.
Decretum Gratiani
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It forms the first part of the collection of six legal texts, which together became known as the Corpus Juris Canonici. It was used by canonists of the Roman Catholic Church until Pentecost 1918 and he did this to obviate the difficulties which beset the study of practical, external theology, i. e. the study of canon law. In spite of its reputation and wide diffusion, the Decretum has never been recognized by the Church as an official collection. It is divided into three parts, the third part, entitled De consecratione, treats of the sacraments and other sacred things and contains 5 distinctions. Each distinction or question contains dicta Gratiani, or maxims of Gratian, Gratian himself raises questions and brings forward difficulties, which he answers by quoting auctoritates, i. e. canons of councils, decretals of the popes, texts of the Scripture or of the Fathers. These are the canones, the remaining portion, even the summaries of the canons. It is to be noted that many auctoritates have been inserted in the Decretum by authors of a later date and these are the Paleœ, so called from Paucapalea, the name of the principal commentator on the Decretum. The Roman revisers of the 16th century corrected the text of the Decree, the Decretum is quoted by indicating the number of the canon and that of the distinction or of the cause and the question. XI indicates the first part of the Decree, VI, refers to the second part, 33rd cause, question 3, distinction VI, canon 1, c. 8, de Cons. d. II refers to the part, distinction II. XII, q.3 refers to the part, cause XII, question 3. Sometimes, especially in the case of well-known and much-quoted canons,4, i. e. the 29th canon of the second part, cause XVII, question 4. Occasionally the first words alone are quoted, in both cases, to find the canon it is necessary to consult the alphabetical tables that contain the first words of every canon. Gratian was a lawyer from Bologna. He flourished in the mid 12th century, little else is known about his biography. He is sometimes referred to as Franciscus Gratianus, Johannes Gratian. For a long time he was believed to have born at the end of the 11th century. Since the 11th century, Bologna had been the centre of the study of law, as well as of Roman law
Decretum Gratiani
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Gratian
Decretum Gratiani
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An illustration from a 13th-century manuscript of the work, illustrating the kinds of blood relatives and common ancestry which made marriage impossible and contracted marriages null - it has since then been dispensed with so third cousins can now marry. [clarification needed]
12.
International Association of Athletics Federations
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The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body for the sport of athletics. It was founded on 17 July 1912 as the International Amateur Athletic Federation by representatives from 17 national athletics federations at the organizations first congress in Stockholm, since October 1993, it has been headquartered in Monaco. Beginning in 1982, the IAAF passed several amendments to its rules to allow athletes to receive compensation for participating in international competitions. However, the organization retained the word amateur in its name until its 2001 congress, the IAAFs president is Sebastian Coe of the United Kingdom. He was elected at the 2015 congress before the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, the process to found the IAAF was started at a meeting in Stockholm, Sweden on July 17,1912 soon after the completion of the 1912 Summer Olympics in that city. The congress that started on August 20,1913 in Berlin is when the foundation of the IAAF was formally completed, in 2015, a whistleblower leaked IAAFs blood test records from major competitions. After reviewing the results, Robin Parisotto, a scientist and leading anti-doping expert, said, so many athletes appear to have doped with impunity, and it is damning that the IAAF appears to have idly sat by and let this happen. Craig Reedie, president of the World Anti-Doping Agency, said his organisation was very disturbed by these new allegations, which will, once again, shake the foundation of clean athletes worldwide, and that its independent commission will investigate the claims. On 1 November 2015, former IAAF president Lamine Diack was arrested in France and is under investigation on suspicion of corruption, Diack allegedly accepted $1.2 million from the Russian athletics federation to cover up the positive doping tests of at least six Russian athletes in 2011. The report continued that the IAAF allowed the conduct to occur and must accept its responsibility and that corruption was embedded in the organization. In January 2016, as a result of the scandal and WADAs report. The BBC reported that as a result the IAAF would lose $33 million worth of revenue, the 11-year sponsorship deal with Adidas was due to run until 2019. World-record holding sprinter, Michael Johnson, described the scandal as more serious than that faced by FIFA, in February,2016, Nestle announced that it was ending its IAAF sponsorship. In June 2016, following a meeting of the IAAFs ruling council, in Ferbuary 2017, All-Russia Athletic Federation disqualified by decision of the IAAF Council for 8 years for the creation of a doping system. Since the establishment of the IAAF, it has had six presidents, The IAAF has a total of 215 member federations divided into 6 area associations
International Association of Athletics Federations
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IAAF Council Members gathered for the 2014 IAAF Council Meeting
International Association of Athletics Federations
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International Association of Athletics Federations
International Association of Athletics Federations
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The World Championships in Athletics is the foremost athletics competition held by the IAAF.
13.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code
14.
Le Monde
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Le Monde is a French daily afternoon newspaper founded by Hubert Beuve-Méry and continuously published in Paris since its first edition on 19 December 1944. It is one of the most important and widely respected newspapers in the world and it is one of two French newspapers of record along with Le Figaro, and the main publication of La Vie-Le Monde Group. It reported a circulation of 323,039 copies per issue in 2009. It has had its own website since 19 December 1995, and is often the only French newspaper easily obtainable in non-French-speaking countries and it should not be confused with the monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique, of which Le Monde has 51% ownership, but which is editorially independent. In the 1990s and 2000s, La Vie-Le Monde Group expanded under editor Jean-Marie Colombani with a number of acquisitions. However, its profitability was not sufficient to cover the debt loads it took on to fund this expansion. In June 2010, investors Matthieu Pigasse, Pierre Bergé, in contrast to other world newspapers such as The New York Times, Le Monde was traditionally focused on offering analysis and opinion, as opposed to being a newspaper of record. Hence, it was considered important for the paper to offer maximum coverage of the news than to offer thoughtful interpretation of current events. For instance, on the 10th anniversary of the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, the newspaper directly implicated François Mitterrand, in recent years, however, the paper has established a greater distinction between fact and opinion. Beuve-Méry reportedly demanded total editorial independence as the condition for his taking on the project, in 1981 it backed the election of socialist François Mitterrand on the grounds that alternation of the political party in government would be beneficial to the state. The paper endorsed centre-right candidate Édouard Balladur in the 1995 presidential election and Ségolène Royal, according to the Mitrokhin Archive investigators, Le Monde was the KGBs key outlet for spreading anti-American and pro-Soviet disinformation to the French media. The archive identified two senior Le Monde journalists and several contributors who were used in the operations, michel Legris, a former journalist with the paper, wrote Le Monde tel quil est in 1976. According to him, the journal minimized the atrocities committed by the Cambodian Khmer Rouge and it also accused the paper of dangerously damaging the authority of the French state by having revealed various political scandals. This book remains controversial, but attracted attention and media coverage in France. Following a lawsuit, the authors and the publisher agreed in 2004 not to proceed to any reprinting, Le Monde has been found guilty of defamation for saying that Spanish football club FC Barcelona was connected to a doctor involved in steroid use. The Spanish court fined the newspaper nearly $450,000, in April 2016, a Le Monde reporter was denied visa to visit Algeria as part of the French Prime Minister press convoy to Algeria. Le Monde had previously published names of Algerian officials directly involved with the Panama papers corruption scandal, Le Monde is published around midday, and the date on the masthead is the following days. For instance, the issue released at midday on 15 March shows 16 March on the masthead and it is available on newsstands in France on the day of release, and received by mail subscribers on the masthead date
Le Monde
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First issue on 19 December 1944
15.
Associated Press
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The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
Associated Press
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The AP headquarters in October 2008, located at 450 West 33rd Street, in New York City.
Associated Press
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Associated Press
Associated Press
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Logo on the former AP Building in New York City
Associated Press
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The APTN Building in London
16.
Le Figaro
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Le Figaro is a French daily morning newspaper founded in 1826 and published in Paris. The oldest national daily in France, Le Figaro is one of the two French newspapers of record, along with Le Monde, and is one of the most widely respected newspapers in the world. In 2012, the paper had a circulation of 330,952 copies per issue. The paper is published in the format, switching from a broadsheet in 2009. The newspaper is owned by Le Figaro Group, whose publications include TV Magazine and Evene, the companys chairman is Serge Dassault, whose Dassault Group has controlled the paper since 2004. Le Figaro was founded as a weekly in 1826, taking its name and motto from Le Mariage de Figaro. Its motto, from Figaros monologue in the final act, is Sans la liberté de blâmer. In 1833, editor Nestor Roqueplan fought a duel with a Colonel Gallois, who was offended by an article in Le Figaro, albert Wolff, Émile Zola, Alphonse Karr and Jules Claretie were among the papers early contributors. It was published irregularly until 1854, when it was taken over by Hippolyte de Villemessant. In 1866 Le Figaro became a daily newspaper and its first daily edition, that of 16 November 1866, sold 56,000 copies, having highest circulation of any newspaper in France. In 1922, Le Figaro was purchased by perfume millionaire François Coty, abel Faivre did cartoons for the paper. By the start of World War II, Le Figaro had become Frances leading newspaper, after the war it became the voice of the upper middle class, and continues to maintain a conservative position. In 1975, Le Figaro was bought by Robert Hersants Socpresse, in 1999, the Carlyle Group obtained a 40% stake in the paper, which it later sold in March 2002. Dassault owns 80% of the paper, in 2006, Le Figaro was banned in Egypt and Tunisia for publishing articles allegedly insulting Islam. Le Figaro switched to Berliner format in 2009, the paper has published The New York Times International Weekly on Friday since 2009, an 8-page supplement featuring a selection of articles from The New York Times translated into French. In 2010, Lefigaro. fr created a section called Le Figaro in English, Le Figaro has traditionally held a conservative editorial stance, becoming the voice of the French upper and middle classes. His son Olivier Dassault is a member of the French National Assembly, Dassault has remarked in an interview in 2004 on the public radio station France Inter that newspapers must promulgate healthy ideas and that left-wing ideas are not healthy ideas. They requested more pluralism and honesty and accused the paper of one-sided political reporting, mougeotte had previously said that Le Figaro would do nothing to embarrass the government and the right
Le Figaro
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Front page of Le Figaro, August 4, 1914
Le Figaro
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First issue, 15 January 1826
Le Figaro
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Figaro Illustré 01-08-1906
Le Figaro
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Logo during the 1820s
17.
RTL Group
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RTL Group is a European entertainment company. It has interests in 59 television and 31 radio stations in 10 countries and it is majority-owned by German media conglomerate Bertelsmann. Its shares are quoted on the Xetra stock exchange in Germany. It is one of the leading producers of television content, such as game shows and soaps, including The X Factor, Pop Idol, Good Times, Bad Times, The Price Is Right, Family Feud. RTL originally stood for Radio Television Lëtzebuerg, Radio Télévision Luxembourg or Radio Television Luxemburg, the RTL Group began in 1924 with a single radio station operated from a private home in Luxembourg. In 1931 CLR or Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Radiodiffusion, which operated Radio Luxembourg, was founded, CLR was one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union in 1950. RTL Group is still an EBU-member under a name, CLT Multi Media. In 1954 it was renamed CLT or Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion, in 1997 it merged with Hamburg-based UFA Film- und Fernseh-GmbH, a subsidiary of global media conglomerate Bertelsmann to create CLT-UFA. In 2000 it merged with Pearson TV and became RTL Group, as of January 2014, Bertelsmann owns a 75. 1% stake in the publicly listed company. One of the reasons for RTLs early success was that Luxembourg allowed commercial radio and this flexibility enabled RTL to transmit to other countries in their own languages. Many British radio presenters began their careers on Radio Luxembourg before moving to the BBC, Radio Luxembourg relaunched in November 2005 and is currently available online at www. radioluxembourg. co. uk and on Digital Radio Mondiale. A sister station, Atlantic 252 was a radio station jointly run by RTL Group. It ceased broadcasting live on December 20,2001, RTL Television has been operating HbbTV services since 2010. In August 2013, RTL announced a joint venture for the Asian market with CBS Corporation, RTL CBS Entertainment will be the first channel, expected to launch in September. Another channel, RTL CBS Extreme is announced for early 2014, the joint venture operates under the newly founded RTL CBS Asia Entertainment Network. In 2014 RTL Group bought a controlling interest in StyleHaul, a YouTube fashion platform, RTL raised its stake in StyleHaul to 93. 6% for $US107 million. Media Capital, a Portuguese media group was sold to Prisa on 6 February 2007, subsequently, RTLs 33% share in TVI was transferred to Prisa. Five, a UK TV channel was sold to Richard Desmonds Northern & Shell on 23 July 2010, alpha TV, a Greek channel with panhellenic transmission
RTL Group
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RTL Group, the leading European Entertainment Network
18.
Prehistory of France
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Stone tools indicate that early humans were present in France at least 1.57 million years ago. Stone tools discovered at Lézignan-la-Cèbe in 2009 indicate that humans were present in France at least 1.57 million years ago. France includes Olduwan and Acheulean sites from early or non-modern Hominini species, most notably Homo erectus, tooth Arago 149 -560,000 years. Tautavel Man, is a subspecies of the hominid Homo erectus. The Grotte du Vallonnet near Menton contained simple stone tools dating to 1 million to 1.05 million years BC, excavations at Terra Amata found traces of the earliest known domestication of fire in Europe, from 400,000 BC. Importantly, recent findings suggest that Neandertals and modern humans may have interbred, evidence of cannibalism among Neanderthals found in Neanderthal settlements Moula-Guercy and Les Pradelles. When they arrived in Europe, they brought with them sculpture, engraving, painting, body ornamentation, music, some of the oldest works of art in the world, such as the cave paintings at Lascaux in southern France, are datable to shortly after this migration. European Palaeolithic cultures are divided into several subgroups, Aurignacian – responsible for Venus figurines. Périgordian – use of term is debated. Gravettian – responsible for Venus figurines, cave paintings at the Cosquer Cave, solutrean Magdalenian – thought to be responsible for the cave paintings at Pech Merle, Lascaux, the Trois-Frères cave and the Rouffignac Cave also known as The Cave of the hundred mammoths. It possesses the most extensive system of the Périgord in France with more than 8 kilometers of underground passageways. Experts sometimes refer to the Franco-Cantabrian region to describe densely populated region of southern France. From the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, the Magdalenian culture evolved, the Azilian culture was followed by the Sauveterrian in Southern France and Switzerland, the Tardenoisian in Northern France, the Maglemosian in Northern Europe. Archeologists are unsure whether Western Europe saw a Mesolithic immigration, if Gravettian or Epipaleolithic immigrants to Europe were indeed Indo-European, then populations speaking non-Indo-European languages are obvious candidates for previous Paleolithic remnants. The Vascons of the Pyrenees present the strongest case, since their language is related to other in the world. The disappearance of the Doggerland affected the surrounding territories, the Doggerland population had to go as far as northern France and eastern Ireland to escape from the floods. The Neolithic period lasted in northern Europe for approximately 3,000 years, there was an expansion of peoples from southwest Asia into Europe, this diffusion across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about 2,500 years. Within the framework of this theory, which remains the most commonly accepted model of Indo-European expansion
Prehistory of France
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Tautavel Man
Prehistory of France
Prehistory of France
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Restoration of Mousterian Homo neanderthalensis by Charles R. Knight
Prehistory of France
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Cave painting of a Megaloceros in Lascaux.
19.
Gaul
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It covered an area of 190,800 sq mi. According to the testimony of Julius Caesar, Gaul was divided into three parts, Gallia Celtica, Belgica and Aquitania, during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule, Gallia Cisalpina was conquered in 203 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in 123 BC. Gaul was invaded after 120 BC by the Cimbri and the Teutons, Gallia remains a name of France in modern Greek and modern Latin. The Greek and Latin names Galatia, and Gallia are ultimately derived from a Celtic ethnic term or clan Gal-to-. Galli of Gallia Celtica were reported to refer to themselves as Celtae by Caesar. Hellenistic folk etymology connected the name of the Galatians to the supposedly milk-white skin of the Gauls, modern researchers say it is related to Welsh gallu, Cornish galloes, capacity, power, thus meaning powerful people. The English Gaul is from French Gaule and is unrelated to Latin Gallia, as adjectives, English has the two variants, Gaulish and Gallic. The two adjectives are used synonymously, as pertaining to Gaul or the Gauls, although the Celtic language or languages spoken in Gaul is predominantly known as Gaulish. The Germanic w- is regularly rendered as gu- / g- in French, also unrelated in spite of superficial similarity is the name Gael. The Irish word gall did originally mean a Gaul, i. e. an inhabitant of Gaul, but its meaning was later widened to foreigner, to describe the Vikings, and later still the Normans. The dichotomic words gael and gall are sometimes used together for contrast, by 500 BC, there is strong Hallstatt influence throughout most of France. By the late 5th century BC, La Tène influence spreads rapidly across the territory of Gaul. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, southwest Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, farther north extended the contemporary pre-Roman Iron Age culture of northern Germany and Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the Romans described Gallia Transalpina as distinct from Gallia Cisalpina, while some scholars believe the Belgae south of the Somme were a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements, their ethnic affiliations have not been definitively resolved. One of the reasons is political interference upon the French historical interpretation during the 19th century, in addition to the Gauls, there were other peoples living in Gaul, such as the Greeks and Phoenicians who had established outposts such as Massilia along the Mediterranean coast. Also, along the southeastern Mediterranean coast, the Ligures had merged with the Celts to form a Celto-Ligurian culture, the prosperity of Mediterranean Gaul encouraged Rome to respond to pleas for assistance from the inhabitants of Massilia, who were under attack by a coalition of Ligures and Gauls. The Romans intervened in Gaul in 154 BC and again in 125 BC, whereas on the first occasion they came and went, on the second they stayed. Massilia was allowed to keep its lands, but Rome added to its territories the lands of the conquered tribes. The direct result of conquests was that by now, Rome controlled an area extending from the Pyrenees to the lower Rhône river
Gaul
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Map of Roman Gaul (Droysens Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas, 1886)
Gaul
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Gaul on the eve of the Gallic Wars. Roman ethnography divides Gaul into five parts: Gallia Belgica, Gallia Celtica (largely corresponding to the later province Gallia Lugdunensis), Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Narbonensis and Gallia Aquitania.
Gaul
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Gauls in Rome
Gaul
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Soldiers of Gaul, as imagined by a late 19th-century illustrator for the Larousse dictionary, 1898
20.
Kingdom of the Visigoths
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The Visigothic Kingdom or Kingdom of the Visigoths was a kingdom that occupied what is now southwestern France and the Iberian Peninsula from the 5th to the 8th centuries. The Kingdom maintained independence from the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, the kingdom of the 6th and 7th centuries is sometimes called the regnum Toletanum after the new capital of Toledo. The ethnic distinction between the indigenous Hispano-Roman population and the Visigoths had largely disappeared by this time, Liber Iudiciorum abolished the old tradition of having different laws for Romans and for Visigoths. Most of the Visigothic Kingdom was conquered by Arab Umayyad troops from North Africa in 711 AD and these gave birth to the medieval Kingdom of Asturias when a local landlord called Pelayo, most likely of Gothic origin, was elected Princeps by the Astures. The Visigoths also developed the influential law code known in Western Europe as the Liber Iudiciorum. From 407 to 409 AD, the Germanic Vandals, with the allied Alans and Suebi, crossed the frozen Rhine, for their part, the Visigoths under Alaric famously sacked Rome in 410, capturing Galla Placidia, the sister of Western Roman emperor Honorius. After he married Placidia, the Emperor Honorius enlisted him to provide Visigothic assistance in regaining nominal Roman control of Hispania from the Vandals, Alans and Suevi. In 418, Honorius rewarded his Visigothic federates under King Wallia by giving land in the Garonne valley of Gallia Aquitania on which to settle. This probably took place under hospitalitas, the rules for billeting army soldiers, the Visigoths with their capital at Toulouse, remained de facto independent, and soon began expanding into Roman territory at the expense of the feeble Western empire. Under Theodoric I, the Visigoths attacked Arles and Narbonne, but were checked by Flavius Aetius using Hunnic mercenaries, by 451, the situation had reversed and the Huns had invaded Gaul, now Theodoric fought under Aetius against Attila the Hun in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. Attila was driven back, but Theodoric was killed in the battle, the Vandals completed the conquest of North Africa when they took Carthage on October 19,439 and the Suevi had taken most of Hispania. The Roman emperor Avitus now sent the Visigoths into Hispania, Theodoric II invaded and defeated the King of the Suevi, Rechiarius, at the battle on the river Orbigo in 456 near Asturica Augusta and then sacked Bracara Augusta the Suevi capital. The Goths sacked the cities in Spain quite brutally, they massacred a portion of the population and even attacked some holy places, theoderic took control over Hispania Baetica, Carthaginiensis and southern Lusitania. In 461, the Goths received the city of Narbonne from the emperor Libius Severus in exchange for their support. This led to a revolt by the army and by Gallo-Romans under Aegidius, as a result, Romans under Severus and the Visigoths fought other Roman troops, in 466, Euric, who was the youngest son of Theodoric I, came to the Visigothic throne. He is infamous for murdering his elder brother Theodoric II who had become king by murdering his elder brother Thorismund. Under Euric, the Visigoths began expanding in Gaul and consolidating their presence in the Iberian peninsula, Euric fought a series of wars with the Suebi who retained some influence in Lusitania, and brought most of this region under Visigothic power, taking Emerita Augusta in 469. Euric also attacked the Western Roman Empire, capturing Hispania Tarraconensis in 472, by 476, he had extended his rule to the Rhone and the Loire rivers which comprised most of southern Gaul
Kingdom of the Visigoths
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Theodoric I by Fabrizio Castello (1560-1617).
Kingdom of the Visigoths
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Greatest extent of the Visigothic Kingdom, c. 500 (shown in orange, territory lost after Vouille shown in light orange).
Kingdom of the Visigoths
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Clovis I fights the Visigoths
Kingdom of the Visigoths
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Visigothic pseudo-imperial gold tremissis in the name of emperor Justinian I, 6th century: The Christian cross on the breast defines the Visigothic attribution. (British Museum)
21.
West Francia
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West Francia extended further south than modern France, but it did not extend as far east. In Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the West Frankish king was barely felt, West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, and for the half-century between 888 and 936 they chose alternatingly from the Carolingian and Robertian houses. By this time the power of king became weaker and more nominal, the Robertians, after becoming counts of Paris and dukes of France became kings themselves and established the Capetian dynasty. In August 843, after three years of war following the death of Louis the Pious on June 20,840. The youngest, Charles the Bald, received the western Francia, the contemporary West Frankish Annales Bertiniani describes Charles arriving at Verdun, where the distribution of portions took place. After describing the portions of his brothers, Lothair the Emperor and Louis the German, the Annales Fuldenses of East Francia describe Charles as holding the western part after the kingdom was divided in three. Charles the Bald was at war with Pippin II from the start of his reign in 840, accordingly, in June 845, after several military defeats, Charles signed the Treaty of Benoît-sur-Loire and recognised his nephews rule. This agreement lasted until March 25,848, when the Aquitainian barons recognised Charles as their king, thereafter Charless armies had the upper hand and by 849 had secured most of Aquitaine. In May, Charles had himself crowned King of the Franks, the coronation was officiated by Archbishop Wenilo of Sens, and included the first instance of royal unction in West Francia. The idea of anointing Charles may be owed to Archbishop Hincmar of Reims, by the time of the Synod of Quierzy, Hincmar was claiming that Charles was anointed to the entire West Frankish kingdom. With the Treaty of Mersen in 870 the western part of Lotharingia was added to West Francia, in 875 Charles the Bald was crowned Emperor of Rome. The last record in the Annales Bertiniani dates to 882, the next set of original annals from the West Frankish kingdom are those of Flodoard, who began his account with the year 919. After the death of Charless grandson, Carloman II, on December 12,884 and he was probably crowned King in Gaul on 20 May 885 at Grand. His reign was the time after the death of Louis the Pious that all of Francia would be re-united under one ruler. In his capacity as king of West Francia, he seems to have granted the title and perhaps regalia to the semi-independent ruler of Brittany. His handling of the Viking siege of Paris in 885–86 greatly reduced his prestige, in November 887 his nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia revolted and assumed the title as King of the East Franks. Charles retired and soon died on January 13,888, in Aquitaine, Duke Ranulf II may have had himself recognised as king, but he only lived another two years. Although Aquitaine did not become a kingdom, it was largely outside the control of the West Frankish kings
West Francia
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Map of the division of Francia enacted at Verdun in 843. From Ridpath's Universal History (1895)
22.
Early modern France
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The Kingdom of France in the early modern period, from the Renaissance to the Revolution, was a monarchy ruled by the House of Bourbon. This corresponds to the so-called Ancien Régime, the territory of France during this period increased until it included essentially the extent of the modern country, and it also included the territories of the first French colonial empire overseas. In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today, in addition, certain provinces within France were ostensibly personal fiefdoms of noble families. The late 15th, 16th and 17th centuries would see France undergo a massive territorial expansion, France also embarked on exploration, colonisation, and mercantile exchanges with the Americas, India, the Indian Ocean, the Far East, and a few African trading posts. The administrative and legal system in France in this period is called the Ancien Régime. The Black Death had killed an estimated one-third of the population of France from its appearance in 1348, the concurrent Hundred Years War slowed recovery. It would be the early 16th century before the population recovered to mid-14th century levels and these demographic changes also led to a massive increase in urban populations, although on the whole France remained a profoundly rural country. Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe, other major French cities include Lyon, Rouen, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Marseille. These centuries saw several periods of epidemics and crop failures due to wars, between 1693 and 1694, France lost 6% of its population. In the extremely harsh winter of 1709, France lost 3. 5% of its population, in the past 300 years, no period has been so proportionally deadly for the French, both World Wars included. Linguistically, the differences in France were extreme, before the Renaissance, the language spoken in the north of France was a collection of different dialects called Oïl languages whereas the written and administrative language remained Latin. Nevertheless, in 1790, only half of the spoke or understood standard French. The southern half of the continued to speak Occitan languages, and other inhabitants spoke Breton, Catalan, Basque, Dutch. In the north of France, regional dialects of the various langues doïl continued to be spoken in rural communities, during the French revolution, the teaching of French was promoted in all the schools. The French used would be that of the system, which differed from the French spoken in the courts of France before the revolution. Like the orators during the French revolution, the pronunciation of every syllable would become the new language, France would not become a linguistically unified country until the end of the 19th century. The Peace of Etaples marks, for some, the beginning of the modern period in France. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII in 1494 began 62 years of war with the Habsburgs, in 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on
Early modern France
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Francis I by Jean Clouet
Early modern France
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France on the eve of the modern era (1477). The red line denotes the boundary of the French kingdom, while the light blue the royal domain.
Early modern France
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Henry IV of France by Frans Pourbus the younger.
Early modern France
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Louis XIV King of France and of Navarre By Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
23.
France in the long nineteenth century
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The 19th century would complete the process by the annexation of the Duchy of Savoy and the city of Nice and some small papal and foreign possessions. Savoy and the Nice were definitively annexed following Frances victory in the Franco-Austrian War in 1859, in 1830, France invaded Algeria, and in 1848 this north African country was fully integrated into France as a département. The late 19th century saw France embark on a program of overseas imperialism — including French Indochina. Unlike other European countries, France did not experience a population growth from the middle of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century. The French population in 1789 is estimated at roughly 28 million, by 1850, it was 36 million, until 1850, population growth was mainly in the countryside, but a period of massive urbanization began under the Second Empire. Unlike in England, industrialization was a phenomenon in France. In addition, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers and France had to pay the costs of their accommodation, therefore, France had little resources to invest in industrial modernization. Frances economy in the 1830s developed gradually, the systematic establishment of primary education and the creation of new engineering schools prepared an industrial expansion which would blossom in the following decades. French rail transport only began hesitantly in the 1830s, and would not truly develop until the 1840s, by the revolution of 1848, a growing industrial workforce began to participate actively in French politics, but their hopes were largely betrayed by the policies of the Second Empire. The loss of the important coal, steel and glass production regions of Alsace, the industrial worker population increased from 23% in 1870 to 39% in 1914. Nevertheless, France remained a rural country in the early 1900s with 40% of the population still farmers in 1914. While exhibiting a similar rate as the U. S. the urbanization rate of France was still well behind the one of the UK. In the 19th century, France was a country of immigration for peoples and political refugees from Eastern Europe, France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population during the French Revolution. The Crémieux Decree gave full citizenship for the Jews in French Algeria, with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine,5000 French refugees from these regions emigrated to Algeria in the 1870s and 1880s, as did too other Europeans seeking opportunity. In 1889, non-French Europeans in Algeria were granted French citizenship, France suffered massive losses during World War I — roughly estimated at 1.4 million French dead including civilians and four times as many wounded. People in the countryside spoke various dialects, France would only become a linguistically unified country by the end of the 19th century, and in particular through the educational policies of Jules Ferry during the French Third Republic. From an illiteracy rate of 33% among peasants in 1870, by 1914 almost all French could read and understand the national language, although 50% still understood or spoke a regional language of France. Through the educational, social and military policies of the Third Republic, the reign of Louis XVI saw a temporary revival of French fortunes, but the over-ambitious projects and military campaigns of the 18th century had produced chronic financial problems
France in the long nineteenth century
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A map of France in 1843 under the July Monarchy
France in the long nineteenth century
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French peasants depicted in Fin du travail (1887)
France in the long nineteenth century
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Workers unloading flour in Paris, 1885
France in the long nineteenth century
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Wealthy women in an urban café or patisserie, 1889.
24.
Absolute monarchy in France
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Absolute monarchy in France slowly emerged in the 16th century and became firmly established during the 17th century. Absolute monarchy is a variation of the form of monarchy in which all governmental power. In France, Louis XIV was the most famous exemplar of absolute monarchy, the 16th century was strongly influenced by religious conflicts developing out of the establishment of Lutheranism and permanent wars. However, France’s critical position turned out to be of a meaning for the formation. By the early 9th century, the efficient administration of Charlemagnes Empire was ensured by high-level civil servants, carrying the, then non-hereditary, titles of counts, marquis, dukes, thus was established feudalism in France. Over time, some of the vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king. Since then, French kings had tried to strengthen existing royal powers scattered among their nobles. Philip the Fair, Charles the Wise and Louis the Cunning were instrumental in the transformation of France from a state to a modern country. With his skilful Prime Minister Richelieu, who vowed to make the royal power supreme in France and France supreme in Europe, Louis XIII established Absolute Monarchy in France during his reign. When his son and successor Louis XIV came to power, a period of known as the Fronde occurred in France. This rebellion was driven by the feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the rise of royal power in France. The rebellion was crushed, however, many obstacles stood in the way of absolutism in France, Nobles had the means to raise private armies, effectively, they were his representatives of government to the people. They collected taxes, posted edicts, and administered justice, the Huguenots, who since the 1598 Edict of Nantes by Henry IV, held the rights to bear arms and to build fortifications in certain locations. This Edict of 1626 was justified as a reform to reduce maintenance costs by removing obsolete fortifications within the borders of France. While a rational economic step in itself, this measure did have the effect of undermining the independence of the aristocracy. Louis XIV reduced the nobles’ power further by requiring them to spend at least some portion of the year as courtiers in residence at the Versailles, at Versailles, the aristocracy were removed from their provincial power centers and came under the surveillance and control of the royal government. Rather than seen as demeaning, the nobles took required membership of the court to be a high honor. Nobles, being granted residence at Versailles, were prepared to give up their former duties as royal representatives outside Paris
Absolute monarchy in France
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Louis XIII in full military regalia by Peter Paul Rubens
Absolute monarchy in France
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Louis XIV King of France and Navarre By Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
25.
French First Republic
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In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
French First Republic
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Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power during the Coup of 18 Brumaire
French First Republic
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26.
Bourbon Restoration
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The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1814 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of executed Louis XVI of France reigned in highly conservative fashion, and they were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up all the gains made since 1789. King Louis XVI of the House of Bourbon had been overthrown and executed during the French Revolution, a coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The Bourbon Restoration lasted from 6 April 1814 until the uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. There was an interlude in spring 1815—the Hundred Days—when the return of Napoleon forced the Bourbons to flee France, when Napoleon was again defeated by the Seventh Coalition they returned to power in July. During the Restoration, the new Bourbon regime was a monarchy, unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime. The period was characterized by a conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of changes to France which the Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris, the political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform. France was divided more than 80 departments, which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris. The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, the bishop still ruled his diocese, and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other people were paid salaries by the state. All the old rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful, education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris
Bourbon Restoration
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Louis XVIII makes a return at the Hôtel de Ville de Paris on August 29th, 1814
Bourbon Restoration
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Bourbon Restoration
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Allégorie du retour des Bourbons le 24 avril 1814: Louis XVIII relevant la France de ses ruines, by Louis-Philippe Crépin
Bourbon Restoration
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Popular colored etching, verging on caricature, published by Décrouant, early 19th century: La famille royale et les alliées s'occupant du bonheur de l'Europe (The Royal Family and the Allies concerned with the Happiness of Europe)
27.
July Monarchy
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The July Monarchy, was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under Louis Philippe I, starting with the July Revolution of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. It began with the overthrow of the government of Charles X. The king promised to follow the juste milieu, or the middle-of-the-road, avoiding the extremes of the supporters of Charles X. The July Monarchy was dominated by wealthy bourgeoisie and numerous former Napoleonic officials and it followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of François Guizot. The king promoted friendship with Great Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, by 1848, a year in which many European states had a revolution, the kings popularity had collapsed and he was overthrown. Louis Phillipe was pushed to the throne by an alliance between the people of Paris, the republicans, who had set up barricades in the capital, and the liberal bourgeoisie. However, at the end of his reign the so-called Citizen King was overthrown by similar barricades during the February Revolution of 1848, the Legitimists withdrew from the political stage to their castles, leaving the stage opened for the struggle between the Orleanists and the Republicans. Louis-Philippe was crowned King of the French, instead of King of France, Louis-Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. The July Monarchy, however, remained a time of turmoil, a large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, Republicanism and, later Socialism, remained a powerful force, late in his reign Louis-Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his President of the Council, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis-Philippe refused to remove him. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy, however, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. And indeed, Louis-Phillipe and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution, thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory. During the years of the July Monarchy, enfranchisement roughly doubled, however, this still represented only roughly one percent of population, and as the requirements for voting were tax-based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. By implication, the enlarged enfranchisement tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group, beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, Louis-Philippe acted primarily to empower his supporters, the inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends. The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King—stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, one of the first acts of Louis-Philippe in constructing his cabinet was to appoint the rather conservative Casimir Perier as the premier of that body. Perier, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies, in addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He performed all of actions, of course, with royal approval
July Monarchy
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Louis-Philippe I, King of the French. The King is depicted at the entrance of the Gallerie des batailles which he had furnished in the Château de Versailles.
July Monarchy
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July Monarchy
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Liberty Leading the People (1830) by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution of 1830. The child with two pistols to the right of Liberty (who holds the tricolor flag) would be Victor Hugo 's inspiration for Gavroche in Les Misérables. [citation needed]
July Monarchy
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Silver five- franc coin featuring Louis Philippe from 1834. The obverse French inscription is Louis Philippe I, Roi des Français ("Louis Philippe I, King of the French."
28.
Second French Empire
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The Second French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the First, but Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government. He had so often, while in prison or in exile and his answer was to organize a system of government based on the principles of the Napoleonic Idea. This meant that the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, ruled supreme. He himself drew power and legitimacy from his role as representative of the great Napoleon I of France, the anti-parliamentary French Constitution of 1852 instituted by Napoleon III on 14 January 1852, was largely a repetition of that of 1848. All executive power was entrusted to the emperor, who, as head of state, was responsible to the people. The people of the Empire, lacking democratic rights, were to rely on the benevolence of the rather than on the benevolence of politicians. He was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently established as a constituent part of the empire. One innovation was made, namely, that the Legislative Body was elected by universal suffrage and this new political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence as had attended that of Brumaire. The press was subjected to a system of cautionnements and avertissements, in order to counteract the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was instituted. In the same way public instruction was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was suppressed in the lycées, for seven years France had no democratic life. The Empire governed by a series of plebiscites, up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist, from then till 1860 it was reduced to five members, Darimon, Émile Ollivier, Hénon, Jules Favre and Ernest Picard. On 2 December 1851 Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who had been elected President of the Republic and he thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions and the extension of his mandate for 10 years were popularly endorsed by a referendum later that month that attracted an implausible 92 percent support. A new constitution was enacted in January 1852 which made Louis-Napoléon president for 10 years, however, he was not content with merely being an authoritarian president. Almost as soon as he signed the new document into law, in response to officially-inspired requests for the return of the empire, the Senate scheduled a second referendum in November, which passed with 97 percent support. As with the December 1851 referendum, most of the yes votes were manufactured out of thin air, the empire was formally re-established on 2 December 1852, and the Prince-President became Napoléon III, Emperor of the French. The constitution concentrated so much power in his hands that the only changes were to replace the word president with the word emperor
Second French Empire
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Napoléon III
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Second French Empire
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The official declaration of the Second Empire, at the Hôtel de Ville de Paris, on December 2, 1852.
29.
Provisional Government of the French Republic
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Its establishment marked the official restoration and re-establishment of a provisional French Republic assuring continuity with the defunct French Third Republic. As the wartime government of France in 1944-1945, its purposes were to handle the aftermath of the occupation of France. Its principal mission beside the war was to prepare the ground for a new order that resulted in the Fourth Republic. It was officially created by the CFLN on 3 June 1944, the day before Charles de Gaulle arrived in London from Algiers on Winston Churchills invitation, the CFLN itself had been created exactly one year earlier through the uniting of de Gaulles and Henri Girauds organisations. Among its foreign policy goals was to secure a French occupation zone in Germany and this was assured through a large military contribution on the western front. The unit under his command, barely above company size when it had captured the Italian fort, had grown into an armoured division. The spearhead of the Free French First Army that had landed in Provence was the I Corps and its leading unit, the French 1st Armoured Division, was the first Western Allied unit to reach the Rhône, the Rhine and the Danube. Along with the acceptance of the Marshall Plan, refused by countries who had fallen under the influence of the USSR, this marked the official beginning of the Cold War in these countries. It started decolonisation by recognising the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the Front National was the political front of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans resistance movement. It also appointed commissioners to fulfill its aims, Vichy loyalists were put on trial by the GPRF in legal purges, and a number were executed for treason, among them Pierre Laval, Vichys prime minister in 1942-44. The Marshal Philippe Pétain, Chief of the French State and Verdun hero, was condemned to death. Thousands of collaborators were executed by local Resistance forces in so-called savage purges. The provisional government considered that the Vichy government had been unconstitutional, all statutes, laws, regulations and decisions by the Vichy government were thus made null and void. Collaborationist paramilitary and political organizations, such as the Milice and the Legionary Order Service, were also disbanded, the right to vote had been granted to women by the CFLN on 21 April 1944, and was confirmed by the GPRF with the 5 October 1944 decree. They went to the polls for the first time in the elections of 29 April 1945. It passed decisions about Social Security, and child benefits, laying the foundations of the state in France. In the dirigist spirit, it created large state-owned companies, for instance by nationalising Renault and founding electricity company EDF, another main objective of the GPRF under de Gaulle leadership was to give a voice to the people by organizing elections which took place on 21 October 1945. Becoming a constituent assembly, the elected parliament was charged with drafting a constitution for a new fourth republic
Provisional Government of the French Republic
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30.
French Fourth Republic
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The French Fourth Republic was the republican government of France between 1946 and 1958, governed by the fourth republican constitution. It was in ways a revival of the Third Republic, which was in place before World War II. France adopted the constitution of the Fourth Republic on 13 October 1946, the greatest accomplishments of the Fourth Republic were in social reform and economic development. In 1946, the government established a social security system that assured unemployment insurance, disability and old-age pensions. Moreover, the government proved unable to make decisions regarding decolonization of the numerous remaining French colonies. After a series of crises, most importantly the Algerian crisis of 1958, wartime leader Charles de Gaulle returned from retirement to preside over a transitional administration which was empowered to design a new French constitution. The Fourth Republic was dissolved by a referendum on 5 October 1958 which established the modern-day Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency. After the liberation of France in 1944, the Vichy government was dissolved, Charles de Gaulle led the GPRF from 1944 to 1946. Meanwhile, negotiations took place over the new constitution, which was to be put to a referendum. De Gaulle advocated a system of government, and criticized the reinstatement of what he pejoratively called the parties system. He resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by Félix Gouin, the new constituent assembly included 166 MRP deputies,153 PCF deputies and 128 SFIO deputies, giving the tripartite alliance an absolute majority. Georges Bidault replaced Félix Gouin as the head of government, a new draft of the Constitution was written, which this time proposed the establishment of a bicameral form of government. Léon Blum headed the GPRF from 1946 to 1947, after a new legislative election in June 1946, the Christian democrat Georges Bidault assumed leadership of the Cabinet. This culminated in the establishment in the year of the Fourth Republic. The President of the Republic was given a symbolic role, although he remained chief of the French Army. The wartime damage was extensive and expectations of large reparations from defeated Germany largely failed, the United States helped revive the French economy with the Marshall Plan, 1948-1951, whereby it gave France $2.3 billion with no repayment. France was the second largest recipient after Britain, the total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953, amounted to $4.9 billion. The terms of the Marshall Plan required a modernization of French industrial and managerial systems, free trade, after the expulsion of the Communists from the governing coalition, France joined the Cold War against Stalin, as expressed by becoming a founding member of NATO in April 1949
French Fourth Republic
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31.
Administrative divisions of France
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The administrative divisions of France are concerned with the institutional and territorial organization of French territory. There are many divisions, which may have political, electoral. The French republic is divided into 18 regions,13 in metropolitan France and 5 in overseas France, the regions are subdivided into 96 departments. The departments are subdivided into 322 arrondissements, the arrondissements are subdivided into 1,995 cantons. The cantons are subdivided into 36,529 communes, three urban communes are further divided into municipal arrondissements. There are 20 arrondissements of Paris,16 arrondissements of Marseille, the city of Marseilles is also divided into 8 municipal sectors. Each sector is composed with two arrondissements. 4% of the population of metropolitan France living in them, each overseas region is coextensive with an overseas department, again with the same status as departments in metropolitan France. The first four departments were created in 1946 and preceded the four overseas regions. For elections it is divided into 6 electoral districts which differ slightly from the 5 administrative subdivisions, the 5 administrative subdivisions are divided into 48 communes. There also exist some associated communes as in metropolitan France, Saint-Barthélemy is a new overseas collectivity created on February 22,2007. It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe department, the commune structure was abolished and Saint-Barthélemy is now one of only three permanently inhabited territories of the French Republic with no commune structure. There are no cantons and arrondissements either, Saint-Martin is also a new overseas collectivity created on February 22,2007. It was also previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe department, the commune structure was abolished and Saint-Martin is now one of only three permanently inhabited territories of the French Republic with no commune structure. There are no cantons and arrondissements either, saint-Pierre and Miquelon is divided into 2 communes with no arrondissements or cantons. These 3 districts are, Uvea, Sigave, and Alo, Uvea is the most populous and is further divided into 3 wards, Hahake, Mua, and Hihifo. Wallis and Futuna is one of only three permanently inhabited territories of the French Republic with no communes and it also has no arrondissements or cantons. 1 overseas territory, the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, which have no permanent population, the French Southern and Antarctic Lands are divided into 5 districts,1. Amsterdam Island and Saint Paul Island 4, the Scattered Islands, a collection of six non permanently inhabited islands in the Indian Ocean, Banc du Geyser, Bassas da India, Europa, Juan de Nova, Glorioso, and Tromelin
Administrative divisions of France
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Regions and departments of France.
32.
Foreign relations of France
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Foreign relations France includes the governments external relations with other countries and international organizations since the end of the Middle Ages. France played the single most important role in European diplomacy and warfare before 1815, in the 19th century it built a colonial empire second only to the British Empire, but was humiliated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, which marked the rise of Germany to dominance in Europe. France was on the side of the First World War. Since 1945 France has been a member of the United Nations, of NATO. Its main ally since 1945 has been Germany, as a charter member of the United Nations, France holds one of the permanent seats in the Security Council and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies. France is also a member of the Union for the Mediterranean. Under the long reigns of kings Louis XIV and Louis XV, France was second in size to Russia but first in terms of economic and it fought numerous expensive wars, usually to protect its voice in the selection of monarchs in neighboring countries. A high priority was blocking the growth of power of the Habsburg rivals who controlled Austria, warfare defined the foreign policies of Louis XIV, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, while his battlefield generals were not especially good, Louis XIV had excellent support staff. His chief engineer Vauban perfected the arts of fortifying French towns, the finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert dramatically improved the financial system so that it could support an army of 250,000 men. The system deteriorated under Louis XV so that wars drained the increasingly inefficient financial system, Louis XIV made France prouder in psychology but poorer in wealth, military glory and cultural splendor were exalted above economic growth. Under Louis XIV, France fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, Louis XV did merge Lorraine and Corsica into France. However France was badly defeated in the Seven Years War and forced to give up its holdings in North America and it ceded New France to Great Britain and Louisiana to Spain, and was left with a bitter grudge that sought revenge in 1778 by helping the Americans win independence. Norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, a few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his highly negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, France played a key role helping the American Patriots win their War of Independence against Britain 1775–1783. Motivated by a rivalry with Britain and by revenge for its territorial losses during Seven Years War
Foreign relations of France
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Napoleon Bonaparte retreating from Moscow, by Adolf Northern.
Foreign relations of France
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France
Foreign relations of France
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The Indian Air Force has the second largest fleet of France's Mirage 2000H after Armée de l'Air.
33.
Law of France
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In academic terms, French law can be divided into two main categories, private law and public law. This differs from the common law conception in which the main distinction is between Criminal law and Civil Law. Private law governs relationships between individuals and it includes, in particular, Civil law. This branch refers to the field of law in common law systems. This branch encompasses the fields of law, civil law, family law, property law. Commercial law Employment law Public law defines the structure and the workings of the government as well as relationships between the state and individuals, also, during the colonial era some Muslim-dominated societies began to blend the sharia legal system with the French legal system as represented in local law. As mentioned, the civil law in France refers to private law. The main body of statutes and laws governing civil law and procedure are set out in the Civil Code of France, other private law statutes are also located in other codes such as commercial code in the Code of Commerce, or copyright law in the Intellectual Property Code. However, a number of offenses, e. g. slander. Relationship between citizens and public authorities, in particular the participation of French citizens to the exercise of public powers and it fixes the hierarchy of laws and rules within the French legal system and the relationship between these different norms. In France, most claims against local or national governments are handled by the administrative courts, the main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs and cours administratives dappel for appeals. The French body of law is called droit administratif. The commission intended to create a dozen or so EU criminal offences, indeed, led by its then-Commissioner for Justice and Home Affairs Franco Frattini - it insisted that the principle created in this decision applied to all policies, not just pollution policy. In May 2006, the Commission formally submitted to the EU Parliament, the Parliament began its consideration of the draft directive in March 2007. Introduction au droit ISBN 2-13-053181-4,127 pages One of the Que sais-je. series of pocketbook volumes, introduction to French law ISBN 1-85941-112-6. Principles of French law ISBN 0-19-876394-8, ISBN 0-19-876395-6, the French legal system 2nd ed. ISBN 0-421-53970-4. The French legal system 2nd ed. ISBN 0-406-90323-9, foreign law, current sources of codes and basic legislation in jurisdictions of the world v.24 cm. Series, AALL publications series 33, Contents v.1, ISBN 0-8377-0134-1, http, //www. foreignlawguide. com/ For both an overview and pointers toward further study, see the excellent introduction to the France section David, René
Law of France
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French system of Jurisdiction
34.
Law enforcement in France
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Law enforcement in France has a long history dating back to AD570, when night watch systems were commonplace. Policing is centralized at the national level, recently, legislation has allowed local governments to hire their own police officers which are called the police municipale. There are two police forces called Police nationale and Gendarmerie nationale. The Prefecture of Police of Paris provides policing services directly to Paris as a subdivision of Frances Ministry of the Interior, within these national forces only certain designated police officers have the power to conduct criminal investigations which are supervised by investigative magistrates. France has two police forces, The Police Nationale, formerly called the Sûreté, is considered a civilian police force. Its origins date back to 1812 and was created by Eugène François Vidocq, in 1966 its name was officially changed to Police Nationale. It has primary responsibility for cities and large urban areas. The Police Nationale are under the control of the Ministry of the Interior, the Gendarmerie Nationale is part of the French armed forces. It has the responsibility for policing smaller towns and rural areas, as well as the armed forces and military installations, airport security. Being a military force, the gendarmerie has a centralized organization structure. It is under the control of both the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of the Interior, the Gendarmeries origin dates back to 1306 C. E. when King Philippe le Bel formed the first mounted military police force called the Maréchaussée. Between 1697 and 1699, King Louis XIV asserted his authority over police in France, in February 1791 it was renamed gendarmerie nationale by the revolutionary government of France. Today there are about 105000 gendarmes in France and they have special environment law enforcement and police power that ranges from pollution, hunting, fishing, forests products to nature protection. Its strength was roughly 10,000 in 2007, only counting the National Forests Office, the municipal policemen can notice all the breaches but cannot investigate. There are also local polices in the zones, as for the rural policemen the police rurale as such does not exist. Note the heterogeneousness of local polices both in means and in equipment, Police municipale are the local police of towns and cities in France. The French municipal police are under the authority of the mayor. The Police Nationale is responsible for Paris and other urban areas whereas the gendarmerie is responsible for small towns, the existence of two national police forces with similar goals and attributions, but somewhat different zones of activity, has at times created friction or competition between the two
Law enforcement in France
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Policemen with motorcycles and a car in Strasbourg.
Law enforcement in France
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Renault Mégane of the Douanes
Law enforcement in France
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Vehicle of the municipal police of Strasbourg
Law enforcement in France
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French gendarmes
35.
French Armed Forces
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The French Armed Forces encompass the French Army, the French Navy, the French Air Force, the French National Guard and the National Gendarmerie of France. The President of the Republic heads the armed forces, with the title chef des armées, the President is the supreme authority for military matters and is the sole official who can order a nuclear strike. France maintains the tenth largest defence budget in the world and the second largest armed forces in size in the EU, France also maintains the third largest nuclear deterrent behind only Russia and the United States. The Gallo-Roman conflict predominated from 60 BC to 50 BC, with the Romans emerging victorious in the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, after the decline of the Roman Empire, a Germanic tribe known as the Franks took control of Gaul by defeating competing tribes. The land of Francia, from which France gets its name, had points of expansion under kings Clovis I. In the Middle Ages, rivalries with England and the Holy Roman Empire prompted major conflicts such as the Norman Conquest and the Hundred Years War. The Wars of Religion crippled France in the late 16th century, in parallel, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas. Resurgent French armies secured victories in dynastic conflicts against the Spanish, Polish, at the same time, France was fending off attacks on its colonies. As the 18th century advanced, global competition with Great Britain led to the Seven Years War, internal political upheaval eventually led to 23 years of nearly continuous conflict in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The rest of the 19th century witnessed the growth of the Second French colonial empire as well as French interventions in Belgium, Spain, other major wars were fought against Russia in the Crimea, Austria in Italy, and Prussia within France itself. Following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Franco-German rivalry erupted again in the First World War, France and its allies were victorious this time. The Allies, including the government in exiles Free French Forces and later a liberated French nation, as a result, France secured an occupation zone in Germany and a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. The imperative of avoiding a third Franco-German conflict on the scale of those of two world wars paved the way for European integration starting in the 1950s. France became a power and since the 1990s its military action is most often seen in cooperation with NATO. Today, French military doctrine is based on the concepts of independence, nuclear deterrence. France is a member of NATO, and has worked actively with its allies to adapt NATO—internally. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATOs military wing, including the Military Committee, France remains a firm supporter of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and other cooperative efforts. Paris hosted the May 1997 NATO-Russia Summit which sought the signing of the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation, France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable, and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France
French Armed Forces
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Free French Foreign Legionnaires at the Battle of Bir Hakeim (1942).
French Armed Forces
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Flag of France
French Armed Forces
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AMX 56 Leclerc Tank of Armée de terre.
French Armed Forces
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The Charles de Gaulle, the nuclear aircraft carrier of Marine nationale.
36.
Economy of France
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France has the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal figures and the tenth largest economy by PPP figures. It has the third-largest economy in Europe with Germany in 1st, the OECD is headquartered in Paris, the nations financial capital. The chemical industry is a key sector for France, helping to develop other manufacturing activities, Frances tourism industry is a major component of the economy, as France is the most visited destination in the world. Sophia Antipolis is the technology hub for the economy of France. According to the IMF, in 2013, France was the worlds 20th country by GDP per capita with $44,099 per inhabitant, in 2013, France was listed on the United Nationss Human Development Index with 0.884 and 25th on the Corruption Perceptions Index. Frances economy entered the recession of the late 2000s later and appeared to leave it earlier than most affected economies, with 31 of the 500 biggest companies of the world in 2015, France ranks 4th in the Fortune Global 500, behind the USA, China and Japan. Several French corporations rank amongst the largest in their industries such as AXA in insurance, luxury and consumer good are particularly relevant, with LOreal being the worlds largest cosmetic company while LVMH and PPR are the worlds two largest luxury product companies. France embarked on an ambitious and very successful programme of modernization under state coordination, the 1981 election of president François Mitterrand saw a short-lived increase in governmental control of the economy, nationalising many industries and private banks. This form of increased dirigisme, was criticised as early as 1982, by 1983, the government decided to renounce dirigisme and start an era of rigueur or corporatization. As a result, the government largely retreated from economic intervention, dirigisme has now essentially receded, the French economy grew and changed under government direction and planning much more than in other European countries. Labour conditions and wages are highly regulated, the government continues to own shares in corporations in a range of sectors, including banking, energy production and distribution, automobiles, transportation, and telecommunications. These differ from such as the US or UK where most of these companies have been privatized. In April and May 2012, France held an election in which the winner François Hollande had opposed austerity measures. French government bond interest rates fell 30% to record lows, less than 50 basis points above German government bond rates, the French government has run a budget deficit each year since the early 1970s. In mid-2012, French government debt levels reached €1,833 billion and this debt level was the equivalent of 91% of French GDP. In 2012 France was downgraded by ratings agencies Moodys, Standard&Poors, in December 2014 Frances credit rating was further downgraded by Fitch to the AA credit rating. Research and development spending is high in France at 2. 26% of GDP. Nuclear waste is stored on site at reprocessing facilities, due to its heavy investment in nuclear power, France is the smallest emitter of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialized countries in the world
Economy of France
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La Défense is a major business district in Europe
Economy of France
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A wheat field in Île-de-France region.
Economy of France
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The Palace of Versailles is one of the most popular tourist destinations in France.
Economy of France
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the Dassault Rafale.
37.
Banque de France
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The Bank of France known in French as the Banque de France, headquartered in Paris, is the central bank of France, it is linked to the European Central Bank. Founded in 1800, it helped resolve the crisis of 1848. Its main charge is to implement the interest rate policy of the European System of Central Banks. In 1800, financial power in France was in the hands of ten to fifteen banking houses whose founders, in most cases. These bankers, mostly Protestant, were involved in the agitations leading up to the French Revolution. When the revolutionary violence got out of hand, they orchestrated the rise of Napoleon, as a reward for their support, Napoleon, in 1800, gave the bankers a monopoly over French finance by giving them control of the new Bank of France. For the first fifteen years it was the issuer of bank notes in Paris, and this privilege was extended to other financially important towns. On 1 June 1998, a new institution was created, the European Central Bank, the body formed by the ECB, and the national central banks of all the member states of the European Union, constitute the European System of Central Banks. The ESCB is a framework of a single monetary policy for the euro. According to the Bank of Frances website, the sharing of responsibilities between the ECB and the NCBs is based upon significant decentralization of the conduct of the ESCBs single monetary policy,22 April 1806, a new law replaced the Central Committee with a Governor and two Deputy Governors. All three were appointed by the Emperor, decree dated 16 January 1808 set out the Basic Statutes, which were to govern the Banks operations until 1936. Decree on 6 March 1808 authorized the Bank to purchase the mansion of the Count of Toulouse in the rue de la Vrillière in Paris for its headquarters. This reform cleared the path for the European monetary union, economy of France Euro French franc Governor of the Bank de France Bouvier, Jean. The Banque de France and the State from 1850 to the Present Day, in Fausto Vicarelli, et al. eds. Central banks independence in historical perspective pp 73–104, crises et Apprentissage, La Banque de France en 1848, Entreprises et Histoire Issue 69, pp 27–37 Plessis, Alain. The history of banks in France, in Pohl, Manfred, and Sabine Freitag, eds. Handbook on the history of European banks pp, 185-296, online Official site of Bank of France Beginnings of Banque de France The directors of Bank of France between 1800 and 1815
Banque de France
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ATM of the Banque de France in Paris.
Banque de France
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Headquarters: Hôtel de Toulouse in Paris
38.
Economic history of France
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This is a history of the economy of France. For more information on historical, cultural, demographic and sociological developments in France, for more information on specific political and governmental regimes in France, see the dynasty and regime articles. The collapse of the Roman Empire unlinked the French economy from Europe, Town life and trade declined and society became based on the self-sufficient manor. What limited international trade existed in the Merovingian age — primarily in luxury goods such as silk, papyrus, agricultural output began to increase in the Carolingian age as a result of the arrival of new crops, improvements in agricultural production, and good weather conditions. However, this did not lead to the revival of life, in fact, urban activity further declined in the Carolingian era as a result of civil war, Arab raids. When trade revived these centres became the nucleus of new towns and cities around which suburbs of merchants, the High Middle Ages saw a continuation of the agricultural boom of the Carolingian age. In addition, urban life grew during this period, towns such as Paris expanded dramatically, the 13 decades from 1335 to 1450 spawned a series of economic catastrophes, with bad harvests, famines, plagues and wars that overwhelmed four generations of Frenchmen. The population had expanded, making the supply more precarious. The bubonic plague hit Western Europe in 1347, killing a third of the population, royal authority weakened, as local nobles became strongmen fighting their neighbors for control of the local region. Frances population plunged from 17 million, down to 12 million in 130 years, finally, starting in the 1450s, a long cycle of recuperation began. The economy of Renaissance France was, for the first half-century, marked by a demographic growth and by developments in agriculture. Until 1795, France was the most populated country in Europe, with an estimated population of 17 million in 1400,20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789, its population exceeded even Russia and was twice the size of Britain and Holland. Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe, with a population of 650,000 by the end of the 18th century. Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded, olive oil, wine, cider, woad, the South grew artichokes, melons, romaine lettuce, eggplant, salsifys, celery, fennel, parsley, and alfalfa. After 1500 New World crops appeared such as beans, corn, squash, tomatoes, potatoes, production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce, the situation was made worse by repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s. Industrial developments greatly affected printing and metallurgy, mines and glasswork benefited greatly from royal tax exemptions for a period of about twenty years. Silk production enabled the French to join a thriving market, wool production was widespread, as was the production of linen and of hemp
Economic history of France
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Early Assignat of 29 Sept, 1790: 500 livres
Economic history of France
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"Au Bon Marché"
39.
Euronext Paris
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It operates the MATIF futures exchange, which trades futures and options on interest rate products and commodities, and MONEP, equity and index futures and options. All products are traded electronically on the NSC system adopted by all of the Euronext members, trading hours are 9 am to 5,30 pm CET, Monday to Friday. The French equities market is divided into three sections, the Premier Marché, formerly called the Official List, includes large French and foreign companies, and most Bond issues. The Second Marché, lists medium-sized companies, while nouveau marché lists fast-growing start up companies seeking capital to finance expansion, linked to Euro. nm, the European equity growth market. A fourth market, Marché Libre, is nonregulated, administered by Euronext Paris for transactions in securities not listed on the three markets. Euronext Paris calculates a family of indices, the CAC40 is the exchanges benchmark, desseminated in real time. Its components are included in the broader SBF120 Index, a benchmark for investment funds, the SBF250 index, a benchmark for the long-term performance of equity portfolios, includes all of the SBF120, it is structured by sector. Both indices are benchmarks for funds, the Nouveau Marché Index represents stocks in the growth market. The SBF-FCI index is based on a selection of bonds that represent at least 70% of the total capitalization of this market. For derivatives, MONEP trades short-term and long-term stock options and futures, for the fiscal year ending December 2004, Euronext Paris recorded sales of US $522 million, a −12. 9% decrease in sales from 2003. Euronext Paris has a US $2.9 trillion total market capitalization of listed companies, List of French companies CAC40 CAC Next 20 French Society of Financial Analysts Euronext Paris website MONEP website
Euronext Paris
40.
Taxation in France
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See Government of France for a wider perspective of French government. Taxation in France is determined by the budget vote by the French Parliament, which determines which kinds of taxes can be levied. In France, taxes are levied by the government, and collected by the public administrations, French public administrations are made up of three different institutions, the central government, i. e. the national government or the state strictly speaking, plus various central government bodies. It collects most of the taxes and they collect many taxes, but their weight is rather limited compared to that of central government. Social security association, private organizations endowed with a mission of public service and their budget is made up of all mandatory social security funds and the agencies financed by such funds. They are mostly financed by contributions, collected for the sole purpose of social welfare. Taxes in France are made up of taxes in the meaning of the word. Most of the taxes are collected by the government and the local collectivities, Taxes and contributions together are called in French prélèvements obligatoires. People having their tax residence in France are subject to French tax, any one of these criteria is sufficient for a person to be treated as taxable. Despite a downward trend registered since 1999, the tax burden in 2007 remains at a high level, OECD countries have experienced an increase in the tax burden since the mid-1960s comparable to that of France, rising from 25% of the GDP in 1965 to 36% in 2005. That of the countries of the European Union has increased by nearly 12 percentage points of GDP over the period. Efforts to control the increase in the tax burden have been made by the states of the OECD and this is why France continues to be among the OECD countries whose tax rate is the highest. Taxes account for 45% of GDP against 37% on average in OECD countries, the overall rate of social security and tax on the average wage in 2005 was 71. 3% of gross salary, the highest of the OECD. The levels of social security contributions are particularly high, the social security budgets are larger than the budget of the national government. The budgets of both the government and of social security organizations run deficits. There are many taxes in France and they can be classified according to the institution which collects and benefit from them and to the people who pay them. As for tariffs, they are different from taxes because of their strictly economic aspect, finally, although they are compulsory, social security contributions are not taxes as they are collected for one purpose – social protection – and as the taxpayers might benefit from these expenses. Some other taxes, based on income, are allocated to social agencies
Taxation in France
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The sumptuous main entrance of Direction régionale des finances publiques of Alsace in Strasbourg.
41.
Transport in France
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Transportation in France relies on one of the densest networks in the world with 146 km of road and 6.2 km of rail lines per 100 km2. It is built as a web with Paris at its center, rail, road, air and water are all widely developed forms of transportation in France. The first important human improvements were the Roman roads linking major settlements, all through the Middle Ages improvements were few and second rate. Transport became slow and awkward to use, the early modern period saw great improvements. There was a very quick production of canals connecting rivers and it also saw great changes in oceanic shipping. Rather than expensive galleys, wind powered ships that were faster and had more room for cargo became popular for coastal trade. Transatlantic shipping with the New World turned cities such as Nantes, Bordeaux, Cherbourg-Octeville, there is a total of 9,501 kilometres of railway in France, mostly operated by SNCF, the French national railway company. Like the road system, the French railways are subsidised by the state, the railway system is a small portion of total travel, accounting for less than 10% of passenger travel. From 1981 onwards, a constructed set of high-speed Lignes à Grande Vitesse lines linked Frances most populous areas with the capital. In 1994, the Channel Tunnel opened, connecting France and Great Britain by rail under the English Channel.8 km/h, trains, unlike road traffic, drive on the left. Metro and tramway services are not thought of as trains and usually follow road traffic in driving on the right, six cities in France currently have a rapid transit service. Full metro systems are in operation in Paris, Lyon and Marseille, light metro systems are in use in Lille, Toulouse and Rennes. Recently the tram has seen a big revival with many experiments such as ground level power supply in Bordeaux. This way of travelling started disappearing in France at the end of the 1930s, only Lille, Marseille and Saint-Étienne have never given up their tram systems. Since the 1980s, several cities have re-introduced it, each tram has two power collection skates, next to which are antennas that send radio signals to energise the power rail segments as the tram passes over them. At any one time no more than two consecutive segments under the tram should actually be live, alstrom developed the system primarily to avoid intrusive power supply cables in sensitive area of the old city of Bordeaux. Modern styling, The Eurotram, used in Strasbourg has a design that makes it look almost as much like a train as a tram. The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to 100 km/h, is suitable for stop spacings ranging from 500 m to 5 km, dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections
Transport in France
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Two high-speed TGV trains at Paris-Gare de l'Est
Transport in France
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Travel times by road in Metropolitan France from Paris
Transport in France
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A high-speed double-decker TGV train in Toulon
Transport in France
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A section of APS track in Bordeaux with powered and neutral sections
42.
Health care in France
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The French health care system is one of universal health care largely financed by government national health insurance. In its 2000 assessment of health care systems, the World Health Organization found that France provided the close to best overall health care in the world. In 2011, France spent 11. 6% of GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita, approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government funded agencies. Most general physicians are in practice but draw their income from the public insurance funds. These funds, unlike their German counterparts, have never gained self-management responsibility, instead, the government has taken responsibility for the financial and operational management of health insurance. The French government generally refunds patients 70% of most health care costs, supplemental coverage may be bought from private insurers, most of them nonprofit, mutual insurers. Only about 3. 7% of hospital treatment costs are reimbursed through private insurance, there are public hospitals, non-profit independent hospitals, as well as private for-profit hospitals. France 1871–1914 followed well behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain, in developing the state including public health. Tuberculosis was the most dreaded disease of the day, especially striking young people in their 20s, Germany set up vigorous measures of public hygiene and public sanatoria, but France let private physicians handle the problem, which left it with a much higher death rate. The French medical profession jealously guarded its prerogatives, and public health activists were not as organized or as influential as in Germany. However the reformers met opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and physicians, because it was so threatening to so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Success finally came when the government realized that contagious diseases had a national security impact in weakening military recruits, the current system has undergone several changes since its foundation in 1945, though the basis of the system remains state planned and operated. Jean de Kervasdoué, a health economist, believes that French medicine is of quality and is the only credible alternative to the Americanization of world medicine. According to Kervasdoué, Frances surgeons, clinicians, psychiatrists, however, despite this, Kervasdoué criticizes the fact that hospitals must comply with 43 bodies of regulation and the nit-picking bureaucracy that can be found in the system. Kervasdoué believes that the state too much in regulating the daily functions of French hospitals. Furthermore, Japan, Sweden, and the Netherlands have health care systems with performance to that of Frances. According to various experts, the state of the French social security systems finances is causing the growth of Frances health care expenses. The entire population must pay compulsory health insurance, the insurers are non-profit agencies that annually participate in negotiations with the state regarding the overall funding of health care in France
Health care in France
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The reduction in infant mortality between 1960 and 2008 for France in comparison with Ireland, Switzerland, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Health care in France
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Total health spending per capita, in U.S. dollars PPP-adjusted, of France compared amongst various other first world nations.
Health care in France
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Private Ambulance in Pontarlier
Health care in France
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Total health spending as a percentage of GDP for France compared amongst various other first world nations from 2005 to 2008
43.
French people
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The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
French people
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Louis XIV of France "The Sun-King"
French people
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Row 1: Joan of Arc
French people
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Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix
French people
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French people in Paris, August 1944
44.
Poverty in France
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Poverty in France has fallen by 60% over thirty years. Although it affected 15% of the population in 1970, in 2001 only 6. 1% were below the poverty line, other national estimates at the time were 13%, 11%, 8%, 5%, and 3. 5%. A two-parent family with four dependent children on 66% of average earnings gained an amount after tax, according to one estimate from the early Seventies, using 1500 francs net per month for those in full-time employment 44% of women and 24. 5% of men were low paid. The percentage of workers who were low paid was particularly high in personal services such as hairdressing, hotel and catering and textiles. In comparison with average French workers, foreign workers tended to be employed in the hardest and lowest-paid jobs and live in poor conditions. ”Studies by Serge Milano, Lionel Stoleru, and Rene Lenoir estimated that between 10% and 14% of the population lived in poverty from 1970 to 1980. A report by the EEC estimated that 14. 8% of households in France lived in poverty in 1975, in 1987, it was estimated that 2 million people in France lived in extreme poverty. Previously, the poor were for the most part retirees, various social welfare programs have had an important impact in low-income households, and in 2002, they may in some cases have represented more than 50% of the households income. In 2008, the OECD claimed that France was only one of five countries in the OECD where income inequality and poverty had declined over the past 20 years. Such camps are becoming a common occurrence in Northern France, along the coast of La Manche. The Calais Jungle is perhaps the best known example of this, poverty threshold was fixed at 645 euros per person per month. By comparison, the revenu minimum dinsertion was at that time 440.86 euros per month for a living alone. However, it is difficult to them as they are not calculated in the same way. While the French poverty threshold is calculated as being half of the median income, the risk of exposure to lead today is four times greater for buildings constructed before 1915 than for a building constructed between 1915 and 1948. 200,000 students were in financial situations, which has led some young women to pay for their studies through prostitution. This phenomenon is on the rise in the country, nevertheless, social services allow France to have one of the lowest child mortality rates despite this poverty. This phenomenon is explained by the lower cost of rural living compared with that in cities. Another indicator of poverty is the RMI, in 1994, in metropolitan France, the number of RMI recipients was 783,436, ten years later, it rose to 1,041,026. In the overseas departments, it was 105,033 at the end of 1994 and 152,892 in June 2004, by 31 December 2005, the figure stood at 1,112,400
Poverty in France
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A homeless man in Paris.
45.
Social protection in France
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This article is about the social protection system in France. For details about the institution dealing with the French public insurance system, Welfare in France includes all systems whose purpose is to protect people against the financial consequences of social risks. Social welfare refers to all the mechanisms of collective foresight, enabling individuals to cope with the consequences of social risks. These are situations that could jeopardize the security of the individual or his family. In France, the system make up for about 500 billion euros annually. The origin of social protection in France dates back to medieval times, in the second half of the nineteenth century, systems of social assistance developed gradually, often launched by employers marked by social Catholicism, then relayed by the first laws. In 1930, modern social insurance was created, offering protection against certain risks, accidents, sickness, disability, maternity, old age. During the Second World War, the National Council of Resistance designed the system of social security and it was created just after the Liberation, by an order of 4 October 1945, followed by other texts. Gradually, protection has covered the entire population, while the benefits extend, when creating Social Security, France imitated more the Bismarckian system than the Beveridge one. Over the years, the solidarity has gradually developed in the French system, however, the desire to establish a universal system has faced opposition. This explains why the French welfare system is plural, with a variety of actors. The most important is the scheme for employees of industry, commerce. The French social protection system is gradually becoming universal, covering all individuals, at its origins, social protection has been built as a system of social insurance. Insurance was tied to the exercise of an occupation and the benefits were provided in case of the risk of loss of income due to the forced inactivity and it only covered workers and their families. The right to social benefits depended on the payment of social security contributions, non-employees, or individuals who have not contributed during their occupation, were entitled to welfare, reserved for cases of extreme distress. Since its creation on October 4,1945, Social Security administrations has had the objective of gradually extending social protection to all residents of the territory. Each member of the community has now the right to benefit a minimum standard of living, whether exercising a profession. Indeed, the 22 August 1946 law extended the family allowances to the entire population, in addition, the social minima, benefits ensuring a minimum income to a person in an insecure situation, offer anyone a minimum of resources to fight against the risk of social exclusion
Social protection in France
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A building of the Sécurité Sociale at Rennes
46.
Culture of France
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The culture of France and of the French people has been shaped by geography, by profound historical events, and by foreign and internal forces and groups. France, and in particular Paris, has played an important role as a center of culture since the 17th century, first in Europe. From the late 19th century, France has also played an important role in cinema, fashion, cuisine, the importance of French culture has waxed and waned over the centuries, depending on its economic, political and military importance. French culture today is marked both by regional and socioeconomic differences and strong unifying tendencies. Some action has taken by the government in order to promote French culture. For instance, they have established a system of subsidies and preferential loans for supporting French cinema, the Toubon law, from the name of the conservative culture minister who promoted it, makes it mandatory to use French in advertisements directed to the general public. France counts many regional languages, some of them being different from standard French, such as Breton. Some regional languages are Roman, like French, such as Occitan, many of these languages have enthusiastic advocates, however, the real importance of local languages remains subject to debate. In April 2001, the Minister of Education, Jack Lang and he announced that bilingual education would, for the first time, be recognized, and bilingual teachers recruited in French public schools to support teaching these other languages. In French schools, pupils are expected to learn at least two languages, the first of which is typically German or English. A revision of the French constitution creating official recognition of languages was implemented by the Parliament in Congress at Versailles in July 2008. France is a country where freedom of thought and of religion is preserved, by virtue of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man. A2011 European poll found that a third of the French population does not believe there is any sort of spirit, in 2011, in a poll published by Institut français dopinion publique 65% of the French population describes itself as Christians, and 25% as not adhering any religion. According to Eurobarometer poll in 2012 Christianity is the largest religion in France accounting 60% of French citizens, Catholics are the largest Christian group in France, accounting for 50% of French citizens, while Protestants make up 8%, and other Christians make up 2%. Non believer/Agnostic account for 20%, Atheist 13%, and Muslim 6%, France guarantees freedom of religion as a constitutional right, and the government generally respects this right in practice. A long history of violent conflict between groups led the state to break its ties to the established Catholic Church early in the last century, the government adopted a strong commitment to maintaining a totally secular public sector. Long the established religion, the Roman Catholic Church has historically played a significant role in French culture. Kings were considered head of the church and state, most French people are Roman Catholic Christians, however, many of them are secular but still place high value on Catholicism
Culture of France
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Masterpiece painting by Eugène Delacroix called Liberty Leading the People portrays the July Revolution using the stylistic views of Romanticism. Since Liberty is part of the motto " Liberté, égalité, fraternité ", as the French put it, this painting has become the primary symbol of the French Republic.
Culture of France
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Notre-Dame de Reims is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the kings of France were crowned until 1825.
Culture of France
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The Grande Mosquée in Paris.
Culture of France
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A sweet crêpe. Crêpes are originally from Brittany.
47.
French art
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French art consists of the visual and plastic arts originating from the geographical area of France. Modern France was the centre for the European art of the Upper Paleolithic, then left many megalithic monuments. With Merovingian art the story of French styles as a distinct, in France there are some 5,000 megalithics monuments, mainly in Brittany, where there is the largest concentration of these monuments. In this area there is variety of these monuments that have been well preserved, like menhirs, dolmen, cromlechs. The Cairn of Gavrinis in southern Brittany is an example of megalithic art. The great broken menhir of Er-Grah, now in four pieces was more than 20 meters high originally, France has also numerous painted stones, polished stone axes, and inscribed menhirs from this period. The Grand-Pressigny area was known for its precious silex blades and they were exported during the Neolithic. In France from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, one finds a variety of archaeological cultures, 4500–4000 BC, Beaker culture of c. 2800–1900 BC, Tumulus culture of c, 1600–1200 BC, Urnfield culture of c. 1300–800 BC, and, in a transition to the Iron Age, for more on Prehistoric sites in Western France, see Prehistory of Brittany. This art drew on native, classical and perhaps, the Mediterranean, the Celts of Gaul are known through numerous tombs and burial mounds found throughout France. The Celtic Vix grave in present-day Burgundy revealed the largest bronze crater of the Antiquity, the region of Gaul came under the rule of the Roman Empire from the first century BC to the fifth century AD. Southern France, and especially Provence and Languedoc, is known for its many intact Gallo-Roman monuments, lugdunum, modern Lyon, was at the time of the Roman Empire the largest city outside Italy and gave birth to two Roman Emperors. The city still boasts some Roman remains including a Theater, Merovingian art is the art and architecture of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks, which lasted from the fifth century to the eighth century in present-day France and Germany. The advent of the Merovingian dynasty in Gaul during the century led to important changes in the arts. In architecture, there was no longer the desire to build robust, sculpture regressed to being little more than a simple technique for the ornamentation of sarcophagi, altars, and ecclesiastical furniture. The unification of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis I and his successors, the plans for them probably were copied from Roman basilicas. Unfortunately, these structures have not survived because of destruction by fire
French art
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Front and side view of the Venus of Brassempouy.
French art
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The Menec alignments, the most well-known megalithic site among the Carnac stones
French art
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Agris helmet
French art
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Théâtre antique d'Orange
48.
French comedy films
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French comedy films are comedy films produced in France. Comedy is also the most popular French genre in cinema, comic films began to appear in significant numbers during the era of silent films, roughly 1895 to 1930. The visual humour of many of these silent films relied on slapstick, a very early comedy short was Watering the Gardener by the Lumière brothers. In his native France and throughout the world, Max Linder was a comic feature. Later, when the sound came in 1927, Comedy films took another swing, due to laughter can now be caused not only by the burlesque situations, but also the dialogues. Always a favorite of the public, as well as acclaimed, some were the subject of remakes in other countries and have had great success worldwide, sometimes rewarded with prizes. French comedy films are often social comedies. That is a big difference compared to American comedies, during the Middle Ages, the theater plays in the street, in the form of mystery plays, fabliaux, farces, soties and mimes. Some of these types are more or less inspired by antique survivals genres like Atellan, in France in the 17th century under Louis XIV, the Italian influence and Molière are recognizing the comedy theater as an art in itself and not as a subgenre compared to the tragedy. From the 18th to the 19th century, comedy would go to incorporate opera, Comedy would also go to create the Operetta in the middle of the 19th century. In the beginning of the 20th century, operettas were transformed into musical theatre, Bourvil and Fernandel started as operetta singers, Louis de Funès, started as a music-hall pianist. In 1892, before cinema was created, Émile Reynaud realized several Comedy Cartoons, comic films began to appear in significant numbers during the era of silent films, roughly 1895 to 1930. The visual humour of many of these silent films relied on slapstick, a very early comedy short was Watering the Gardener by the Lumière brothers. In his native France and throughout the world, Max Linder was a comic feature. Georges Méliès, from theatre, created the first studio de cinéma and he also created a lot of silent comedies in which a lot will be destroyed later. He would have an homage in 2011 with the movie Hugo, when the sound came in 1927, Comedy films took another swing, due to laughter can now be caused not only by the burlesque situations, but also the dialogues. In the 1930s, French comedies talked about farmers and villages, the theme of countryside associated to medecine occurs in the film Dr. Knock of 1933, based on the novel Knock by Jules Romains. In this film, Louis Jouvet plays the character Dr. Knock, in A Cage of Nightingales of 1945, a teacher has to face difficult teens
French comedy films
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Pantomimes cartoons by Reynaud
French comedy films
French comedy films
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Fratelli Lumiere
French comedy films
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The Well-Digger's Daughter.
49.
French cuisine
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French cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices from France. In the 14th century Guillaume Tirel, a chef known as Taillevent, wrote Le Viandier. During that time, French cuisine was influenced by Italian cuisine. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine. They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations, gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country, knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines. Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education, in November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the worlds intangible cultural heritage. In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy, multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called service en confusion, or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers, the sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Meals often ended with an issue de table, which changed into the modern dessert. The ingredients of the time varied according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey. Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse, livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked, bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt, fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent, artificial freshwater ponds held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and other fish. Poultry was kept in yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare, rabbit, kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy, rue, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today
French cuisine
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A nouvelle cuisine presentation
French cuisine
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French haute cuisine presentation
French cuisine
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French wines are usually made to accompany French cuisine
French cuisine
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John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is sitting with a cardinal at the high table, under a luxurious baldaquin, in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants, including a carver. On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden salt cellar, or nef, in the shape of a ship; illustration from Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, circa 1410.
50.
Remarkable Gardens of France
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The complete list of gardens can be found on, site of the Comité des Parcs et Jardins. Small private modern romantic floral garden, Kintzheim - The Park of Ruins of the Château de Kintzheim. An early 19th century romantic landscape garden, Kolbsheim - The Garden of the Château de Kolbsheim. French garden and English landscape park, Ottrott - Le Domaine de Windeck. Romantic landscape park, with views of the castle of Ottrott. Plobsheim - Le Jardin de Marguerite, small private English secret garden in the Alsatian village of Plobsheim. Saverne - Jardin botanique du col de Saverne, Botanical garden in an enclave in the Vosges Forest. Strasbourg - Jardin botanique de lUniversité de Strasbourg, founded in 1619, the second-oldest botanical garden in France. Uttenhoffen - Jardin de la Ferme Bleue, modern garden on the site of a 17th-century farm. Guebwiller - Parc de la Marseillaise, public arboretum and botanical garden, designed by Édouard André between 1897 and 1899. Husseren-Wesserling - Parc de Wesserling Private garden at the site of a lodge of the prince-abbey of Murbach. Formal French garden, flower garden, kitchen garden, field garden, Mulhouse - Parc Zoologique et Botanique de Mulhouse. Public botanical gardens and zoo, English landscape park, Created in 1935 by Paris landscape architect Achille Duchêne, stairways connecting the different parts of the garden, and tree-shaded allées. Domme - Park and Boxwood Garden of the Château de Caudon, a garden à la française and French landscape garden, created between 1808 and 1814 by the Marquis Jacques de Malville, one of the authors of the French Civil Code. See pictures Eymet - Park and Kitchen Garden of Pouthet, Hautefort - Gardens of the Château de Hautefort. The château was reconstructed in the 17th century, and embellished with a garden à la française, next to the formal gardens is a hill with an Italian garden with winding shaded paths. Notable trees in the include a Magnolia grandiflora and a Cedar of Lebanon. Le Buisson-de-Cadouin - Garden of Planbuisson, the garden presents two hundred and sixty four different types of bamboo, from dwarf bamboo to giant, as well as exotic trees, such as Paulownia fortunei
Remarkable Gardens of France
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Sign indicating one of the Remarkable Gardens of France, listed by the Committee of Parks and Gardens of the French Ministry of Culture
Remarkable Gardens of France
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Gardens of the Château of Versailles (Île-de-France), Parterre du Midi
Remarkable Gardens of France
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Gardens of the Château de Villandry (Indre-et-Loire), Salon de Musique
Remarkable Gardens of France
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Manoir of Eyrignac (Dordogne)
51.
Languages of France
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The languages of France include the French language and some regional languages. The French language is the official language of France according to the second article of the French Constitution. Several regional languages are spoken to varying degrees as a secondary language after French, such as German dialects, Celtic languages. Some of these languages have also spoken in neighbouring countries, such as Belgium, Germany, Switzerland. The official language of the French Republic is French and the French government is, by law, the government, furthermore, mandates that commercial advertising be available in French, see Toubon Law. The French government, however, does not mandate the use of French by private individuals or corporations or in any other media, a revision of the French constitution creating official recognition of regional languages was implemented by the Parliament in Congress at Versailles in July 2008. 24 of those languages are indigenous to the European territory of the state all the others are from overseas areas of the French Republic. The category of languages of France is thus administratively recognised even if this does not go so far as to any official status. Following his election as President, François Hollande reasserted in 2012 his campaign platform to ratify the European Charter, the regional languages of France are sometimes called patois, but this term is often considered derogatory. The topic of the teaching of languages in public primary and secondary schools is controversial. Proponents of the state that it would be necessary for the preservation of those languages. Opponents contend that local languages are often non-standardised, of practical usefulness. The topic also leads to wider questions of autonomy of the régions. Regarding other languages, English, Spanish, Italian and German are the most commonly studied languages in French schools. Some of the languages of France are also languages, some of which enjoy a recognised or official status in the respective neighbouring state or territory. French itself is also a language, being spoken in neighbouring Andorra, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, Monaco. A large number of immigrant languages are spoken in France, with a handful having a significant number of home speakers, berber the language of North Africans is one of the most spoken languages in France, about 2,200,000 speakers. Maghrebi Arabic, is the most common language in French homes
Languages of France
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Regional languages and their dialects in Metropolitan France
52.
French philosophy
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Peter Abelard was a scholastic philosopher, theologian and logician. The story of his affair with and love for Héloïse has become legendary, the Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as the keenest thinker and boldest theologian of the 12th Century. He helped to establish the ascendancy of the authority of Aristotle which became firmly established in the half-century after his death. It was at time that the completed Organon, and gradually all the other works of the Greek thinker. Before his time Platos authority was the basis for the prevailing Realism, as regards his so-called Conceptualism and his attitude to the question of Universals, see Scholasticism. Outside of his dialectic, it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity of philosophical thought and he laid particular stress upon the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral character, at least the moral value, of human action. Pope Innocent III accepted Abelards Doctrine of Limbo, which amended Augustine of Hippos Doctrine of Original Sin, the Vatican accepted the view that unbaptized babies did not, as at first believed, go straight to Hell but to a special area of limbo, limbus infantium. They would therefore feel no pain but no supernatural happiness either because, it was held, michel Eyquem de Montaigne may have been Catholic, but his anti-dogmatic stances made him the father of the anti-conformist French spirit. His work consists of little trials for his beliefs, filled with autobiographical and casual anecdotes and his intention with these papers was to leave something by which family could remember him. He was the first person to use the word essays, and his writings came to be influential upon Shakespeare, Rousseau. His radical scepticism, summed up in the phrase Que sais-je. served as one of the catalysts for René Descartes oeuvre, modern philosophy began in France with the philosophy of René Descartes. René Descartes was concerned with the uncertainty in the sciences and the radical scepticism which spread across Europe when publications of Sextus Empiricus became available, Descartes desired to find indubitable ground on which all the sciences could be placed and progressively built. Thus he rejected anything which appeared uncertain and decided to only accept apodeictic knowledge as truth, if he himself was doubting, then he had to exist. Thus Cogito Ergo Sum - I think, therefore I am - became the first principle of Cartesianism, Descartes then claimed that because he discovered the Cogito through perceiving it clearly and distinctly, anything he can perceive clearly and distinctly must be true. Then he argues that he can conceive of an infinite being and he uses this argument, commonly known as an ontological argument, to invoke the existence of an omni-benevolent God as the indubitable foundation that makes all sciences possible. Many people admired Descartes intentions, but were unsatisfied with this solution, some accused him of circularity, proclaiming his ontological argument uses his definition of truth as a premise, while his proof of his definition of truth uses his ontological argument as a premise. Hence the problems of solipsism, truth and the existence of the world came to dominate 17th century western thought. Another famous problem arises from Descartes’ substance dualism, for Descartes, a substance is that which can be conceived independent of everything else and exist independent of anything else
French philosophy
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Abelard with Héloïse
French philosophy
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Montaigne became the father of the anti-conformist French spirit.
French philosophy
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René Descartes is considered as the founder of modern philosophy.
French philosophy
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Voltaire came to embody the Enlightenment.
53.
Theatre of France
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Most historians place the origin of medieval drama in the churchs liturgical dialogues and tropes. In the 12th century one finds the earliest extant passages in French appearing as refrains inserted into liturgical dramas in Latin, such as a Saint Nicholas play, public performances were tightly controlled by a guild system. Another guild, the Enfants Sans-Souci was in charge of farces and soties, like the Confrères de la Passion, la Basoche came under political scrutiny, and they were finally suppressed in 1582. In 1597, they abandoned this privilege, alongside the numerous writers of these traditional works, Marguerite de Navarre also wrote a number of plays close to the traditional mystery and morality play. From 1550 on, one finds humanist theatre written in French, the influence of Seneca was particularly strong in humanist tragedy. The plots often had clear parallels to political and religious matters. Horace was translated in the 1540s, but had been throughout the Middle Ages. The fourth century grammarians Diomedes and Aelius Donatus were also a source of classical theory, the sixteenth century Italians played a central role in the publishing and interpretation of classical dramatic theory, and their works had a major effect on French theatre. Lodovico Castelvetros Aristote-based Art of Poetry was one of the first enunciations of the three unities, this work would inform Jean de la Tailles Art de la tragedie, Italian theatre and debates on decorum would also influence the French tradition. The Tragicomedy — a theatrical version of the novel, with lovers, knights, disguises. The most famous of these is Robert Garniers Bradamante, adapted from Ariostos Orlando furioso, the Pastoral — modeled on Giambattista Guarinis Pastor fido, Tassos Aminta and Antonio Ongaro Alceo. The first French pastorals were short plays performed before a tragedy, nicolas de Montreux wrote three pastorals, Athlette, Diane Arimène ou le berger désespéré. The Ballets de cour — an allegorical and fantastic mixture of dance, the most famous of these is the Ballet comique de la reine. By the end of the century, the most influential French playwright — by the range of his styles, all of these eclectic traditions would continue to evolve in the baroque theatre of the early 17th century, before French classicism would finally impose itself. In 1597, this guild abandoned its privilege which permitted other theatres, in addition to public theatres, plays were produced in private residences, before the court and in the university. In the first half of the century, the public, the humanist theatre of the colleges, for example, while the tragicomedy was fashionable at the court in the first decade, the public was more interested in tragedy. The early theatres in Paris were often placed in existing structures like tennis courts, their stages were extremely narrow, eventually, theatres would develop systems of elaborate machines and decors, fashionable for the chevaleresque flights of knights found in the tragicomedies of the first half of the century. In the early part of the century, the performances took place twice a week starting at two or three oclock
Theatre of France
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The French Comedians by Antoine Watteau (c.1720)
