1.
King of Morocco
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This is the list of rulers of Morocco, since the establishment of the first Moroccan state in 789. The common and formal titles of these rulers has varied, depending on the time period, since 1957, the designation King has been used. Hassan I al-Hajam The second period of Fatimid overlordship lasted from 927 to 937, al Qasim Gannum Abu l-Aish Ahmad Al-Hasan ben Kannun In 974, the Sultan Al-Hasan ben Kannun was defeated by Cordobese Umayyads. A period of Umayyad overlordship followed then, as Said Abu Salim Ali II. Abu Umar Taschufin Abu Zayyan Muhammad III, Abu l-Abbas Ahmad Musa ibn Faris Al-Wathiq Abu l-Abbas Ahmad Abu Faris Abdul Aziz II
King of Morocco
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King of Morocco
King of Morocco
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Coat of arms of Morocco
King of Morocco
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Al-Rashid
King of Morocco
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Ismail Ibn Sharif
2.
Al-Rashid of Morocco
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Mulai al-Rashid was Sultan of Morocco from 1666 to 1672. He has been called the founder of the Alaouite Dynasty and it was his father Moulay Ali Cherif who took power in Tafilalt around 1630. In 1635 al-Rashids brother Ismail Ibn Sharif succeeded their still living father, after the death of their father, Mulai Mohammed brought Tafilalt, the Draa River valley and the Sahara region under Alaouite power. However due to internal feuding war broke out between the brothers and Mohammed was killed by troops of al-Rashid in 1664, with a small army al-Rashid ruled the east of Morocco. He was able to expand his power and seize Taza, in 1666 he marched into Fes and ended the rule of the zaouia of Dila, a Berber movement which ruled the northern part of Morocco. After subjugating the northern areas of Morocco he also succeeded in capturing Marrakech in 1669. He occupied the Sus and the Little Atlas, which solidified Alaouite control over the entirety of Morocco and he died in Marrakech in 1672 after a fall from his horse, and was succeeded by his half-brother Ismail Ibn Sharif. Al-Rashid was sometimes known as Tafiletta by the English, list of Kings of Morocco History of Morocco
Al-Rashid of Morocco
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Al-Rashid of Morocco
3.
Rissani
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Rissani is a town in Errachidia Province in eastern Morocco, located near Erfoud. It is the closest town of significant size to the Erg Chebbi and its population in 2004 was 20,469. The mausoleum of Moulay Ali Cherif, third great-grandfather of Moulay Cherif, Rissani is the ancient capital of Tafilalet. Its location as a crossroads between north and south gave the city a certain importance in previous times, a former major caravan center, Rissani remains a major commercial center in the region, with a large souk, particularly lively on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Sundays. It is noted for its leather and goat skin trading
Rissani
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Western city gate of Rissani
4.
Tafilalt
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Tafilalt or Tafilet, historically Sijilmasa, is a region and the largest oasis in Morocco. The word Tafilalt is an Amazigh word and it means Jug, in the area, the town of Sijilmasa founded by Miknasa Amazigh leader Moussa ben Nasser in 757, formerly existed. It was on the caravan route from the Niger river to Tangier. A decade after this, a small revolt built up in Tafilalt against the sultan, later, Tafilalt was a major center of the Dilaites. In 1648, a custom was established of the Moorish sultans of Morocco sending superfluous sons or daughters to Tafilalt, medieval traveler Ibn Batuta wrote about visiting Sijilmasa in the fourteenth century on his journey from Fez to Mali, the country of the blacks. It was later destroyed in 1818 by the Aït Atta, but its ruins remain, the first European to visit Tafilalt in the modern era was René Caillié, and later Gerhard Rohlfs. English writer WB Harris described Tafilalt in a journal after his visit, entirely located along the Ziz River, the oasis ten days journey south of Fez and Meknes, across the Atlas Mountains. It is known for its dates and it is the birthplace of the famed Rabbi Israel Abuhatzeira, known as the Baba Sali. Tafilet, The Narrative of a Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains and the Oases of the North-west Sahara, Edinburgh, W. Blackwood and Sons
Tafilalt
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Panorama of the oasis of Tafilalet, seen from the ksar of Tingheras (Rissani).
Tafilalt
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Isoprusia tafilaltana, a fossil trilobite found in (and named after) Tafilalt
5.
Morocco
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Morocco, officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco, is a sovereign country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a mountainous interior, large tracts of desert. Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km2 and its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, a historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, the Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with a zone in Tangier. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco annexed the territory in 1975, leading to a war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy, the king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister, Moroccos predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken, Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa, the full Arabic name al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyyah translates to Kingdom of the West, although the West in Arabic is الغرب Al-Gharb. The basis of Moroccos English name is Marrakesh, its capital under the Almoravid dynasty, the origin of the name Marrakesh is disputed, but is most likely from the Berber words amur akush or Land of God. The modern Berber name for Marrakesh is Mṛṛakc, in Turkish, Morocco is known as Fas, a name derived from its ancient capital of Fes. The English name Morocco is an anglicisation of the Spanish Marruecos, the area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian Mechta-Afalou burials and European Cro-Magnon remains, the Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco
Morocco
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Berber Roman King Ptolemy of Mauretania.
Morocco
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Flag
Morocco
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Roman mosaic of Diana in Volubilis.
Morocco
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Morocco, Safi ceramic vessel Jobbana
6.
Alaouite Dynasty
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The Alaouite dynasty, or Alawite dynasty, is the current Moroccan royal family. The name Alaouite comes from the ‘Alī of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib and his son Mulay Al-Rashid was able to unite and pacify the country. The Alaouite family claim descent from Muhammad through his daughter Fāṭimah az-Zahrah and they were hoping that, as he was a descendant of Muhammad, his presence would help to improve their date palm crops thanks to his barakah blessing, an Arabic term meaning a sense of charisma. His descendants began to increase their power in southern Morocco after the death of the Saʻdī ruler Ahmad al-Mansur, in 1669, the last Saʻdī sultan was overthrown in the conquest of Marrakesh by Mulay al-Rashid. After the victory over the zāwiya of Dila, who controlled northern Morocco, he was able to unite, the organization of the sultanate developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif, who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state. Because the Alaouites had difficult relations with many of the countrys Berber and Bedouin-Arab tribes, Ismaīl formed a new army of black slaves, however, the unity of Morocco did not survive his death—in the ensuing power struggles the tribes became a political and military force once again. Only with Muhammad III could the kingdom be pacified again and the administration reorganized, a renewed attempt at centralization was abandoned, and the tribes were allowed to preserve their autonomy. Under Abderrahmane Morocco fell under the influence of the European powers, when Morocco supported the Algerian independence movement of Emir Abd al-Qadir, it was defeated by the French in 1844 at the Battle of Isly and made to abandon its support. During the reigns of Muhammad IV and Hassan I, the Alaouites tried to foster trading links, above all with European countries, the army and administration were also modernised to improve control over the Berber and Bedouin tribes. With the war against Spain came direct involvement in European affairs, although the independence of Morocco was guaranteed at the Conference of Madrid, the French gained ever greater influence. German attempts to counter growing influence led to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905–1906. Eventually the Moroccans were forced to recognise the French Protectorate through the Treaty of Fez, at the same time the Rif area of northern Morocco was raised under Spanish control. Under the protectorate, infrastructure was invested in heavily in order to link the Atlantic coastal cities to the hinterland, the Protectorate regime faced opposition from the tribes. In 1930, the Berbers were placed under the jurisdiction of French courts, in 1944, the Istiqlāl was founded and was supported by Sultan Muhammad V. From 1631 to 1666 as princes of Tafilalt, proclaimed at Taza, on the death of his elder half-brother as Sultan of Tafilalt,2 August 1664. Proclaimed as Sultan of Morocco, etc. at Fez,1666, commander of the Faithful Royal Ark Morocco Alaoui dynasty
Alaouite Dynasty
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Alaouite Dynasty
7.
Sharif ibn Ali
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Abul Amlak Sidi Muhammad as-Sharif ibn Ali was the prince of Tafilalt from 1631 to 1636. He was born before 9 November 1589 as the son of Ali ibn Muhammad as-Sharif al-Marrakchi. He is considered to have been the founder of the Alaouite Dynasty of Morocco and he began to increase his power in the Tafilalt during the anarchy following the death of the Saadi ruler Ahmad al-Mansur and ruled that region from 1631 to 1636. He abdicated the throne of Tafilalt in 1636 in favour of his eldest of fifteen sons and he died at Sijilmasa, Tafilalt, on 5 June 1659
Sharif ibn Ali
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Moulay Ali Cherif
Sharif ibn Ali
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Moulay Ali Cherif Mausoleum in Rissani south east Morocco
8.
Arabic language
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
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The Galland Manuscript of One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
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al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (Naskh script)
Arabic language
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Bilingual traffic sign in Qatar.
Arabic language
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Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
9.
Alaouite dynasty
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The Alaouite dynasty, or Alawite dynasty, is the current Moroccan royal family. The name Alaouite comes from the ‘Alī of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib and his son Mulay Al-Rashid was able to unite and pacify the country. The Alaouite family claim descent from Muhammad through his daughter Fāṭimah az-Zahrah and they were hoping that, as he was a descendant of Muhammad, his presence would help to improve their date palm crops thanks to his barakah blessing, an Arabic term meaning a sense of charisma. His descendants began to increase their power in southern Morocco after the death of the Saʻdī ruler Ahmad al-Mansur, in 1669, the last Saʻdī sultan was overthrown in the conquest of Marrakesh by Mulay al-Rashid. After the victory over the zāwiya of Dila, who controlled northern Morocco, he was able to unite, the organization of the sultanate developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif, who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state. Because the Alaouites had difficult relations with many of the countrys Berber and Bedouin-Arab tribes, Ismaīl formed a new army of black slaves, however, the unity of Morocco did not survive his death—in the ensuing power struggles the tribes became a political and military force once again. Only with Muhammad III could the kingdom be pacified again and the administration reorganized, a renewed attempt at centralization was abandoned, and the tribes were allowed to preserve their autonomy. Under Abderrahmane Morocco fell under the influence of the European powers, when Morocco supported the Algerian independence movement of Emir Abd al-Qadir, it was defeated by the French in 1844 at the Battle of Isly and made to abandon its support. During the reigns of Muhammad IV and Hassan I, the Alaouites tried to foster trading links, above all with European countries, the army and administration were also modernised to improve control over the Berber and Bedouin tribes. With the war against Spain came direct involvement in European affairs, although the independence of Morocco was guaranteed at the Conference of Madrid, the French gained ever greater influence. German attempts to counter growing influence led to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905–1906. Eventually the Moroccans were forced to recognise the French Protectorate through the Treaty of Fez, at the same time the Rif area of northern Morocco was raised under Spanish control. Under the protectorate, infrastructure was invested in heavily in order to link the Atlantic coastal cities to the hinterland, the Protectorate regime faced opposition from the tribes. In 1930, the Berbers were placed under the jurisdiction of French courts, in 1944, the Istiqlāl was founded and was supported by Sultan Muhammad V. From 1631 to 1666 as princes of Tafilalt, proclaimed at Taza, on the death of his elder half-brother as Sultan of Tafilalt,2 August 1664. Proclaimed as Sultan of Morocco, etc. at Fez,1666, commander of the Faithful Royal Ark Morocco Alaoui dynasty
Alaouite dynasty
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Alaouite Dynasty
10.
Sous
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The Suss is a region in southern Morocco. Geologically, it is the basin of the Oued Sous. The natural vegetation in the Suss is savanna dominated by the Argan, a well irrigated area, this has been one of Moroccos most fertile regions for centuries, known since at least the eleventh century for its cultivation and export of sugar. The centre for trade during this time was Agadir, a city 10 km north of the mouth of the Sous river. The Berber Literary Tradition of the Sous, with an edition and translation of The Ocean of Tears by Muḥammad Awzal, Leiden, les Berbères et le Makhzen dans le sud du Maroc, essai sur la transformation politique des Berbères sédentaires. Rabat, Dar Al-Aman,2013 ISBN 9954-561-35-8, UNESCO Arganeraie Biosphere Reserve Euratlas Periodis Web - Map of Suss in Year 1600
Sous
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The Sous, here northeast of Taroudant, with Argan trees interplanted with cereal crops
11.
Fes, Morocco
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Fez is the second largest city of Morocco, with a population of 1.1 million. Fez was the city of modern Morocco until 1925 and is now the capital of the Fès-Meknès administrative region. The city has two old medina quarters, the larger of which is Fes el Bali and it is listed as a World Heritage Site and is believed to be one of the worlds largest urban pedestrian zones. University of Al Quaraouiyine, founded in 859, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the world, the city has been called the Mecca of the West and the Athens of Africa. The Arabic word فأس Faʾs means pickaxe, which legends say Idris I of Morocco used when he created the lines of the city, one noticeable thing was that the pickaxe was made from silver and gold. During the rule of the Idrisid dynasty, Fez consisted of two cities, Fas Elbali, founded by Idris I, and al-ʿĀliyá, founded by his son and it is not known whether the name al-ʿĀliyá ever referred to both urban areas. It wasnt until 1070 that the two agglomerations were united and the name Fas was used for the combined site, the city was founded on a bank of the Jawhar river by Idris I in 789, founder of the Zaydi Shii Idrisid dynasty. His son, Idris II, built a settlement on the river bank. These settlements would soon develop into two walled and largely autonomous sites, often in conflict with one another, Madinat Fas, in 808 Al-Aliya replaced Walili as the capital of the Idrisids. The Andalusians settled in what is called the Old Fez, while the Tunisians found their home in the New Fez and these two waves of immigrants would subsequently give their name to the sites Adwat Al-Andalus and Adwat al-Qarawiyyin. Upon the death of Idris II in 828, the territory was divided among his sons. The newly fragmented Idrisid power would never again be reunified, during Yahya ibn Muhammads rule in Fez the Kairouyine mosque, one of the oldest and largest in Africa, was built and its associated University of Al Quaraouiyine was founded. Comparatively little is known about Idrisid Fez, owing to the lack of historical narratives. The sources that mention Idrisid Fez, describe a rather rural one, not having the cultural sophistication of the important cities of Al-Andalus and Ifriqiya. In the 10th century the city was contested by the Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimid Caliphate of Tunisia, the Fatimids took the city in 927 and expelled the Idrissids, after which their Miknasa were installed there. The Miknasa were driven out of Fez in 980 by the Maghrawa, their fellow Zenata and it was in this period that the great Andalusian ruler Almanzor commissioned the Maghrawa to rebuild and refurnish the Al-Kairouan mosque, giving it much of its current appearance. Thus, the two grew into each other, being now only separated by their walls and the river. His sons fortified the city to a great extent and this could not keep the Almoravid emir Ibn Tashfin from conquering it in 1070, after more than a decade of battling the Zenata warriors in the area and constant besieging of the city
Fes, Morocco
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View of the medina (old city) of Fez
Fes, Morocco
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Flag
Fes, Morocco
Fes, Morocco
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Leather tanning in Fez
12.
Ruins
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Natural disaster, war and depopulation are the most common root causes, with many structures becoming progressively derelict over time due to long-term weathering and scavenging. Many ruins have become UNESCO World Heritage Sites in recent years, to identify, ancient cities were often highly militarized and fortified defensive settlements. In times of war they were the focus of armed conflict. Entire cities have also been ruined, and some occasionally lost completely, the ancient city of Pompeii was completely lost during a volcanic eruption in the 1st century AD, its uncovered ruins now preserved as a World Heritage Site. The city of Lisbon was totally destroyed in 1755 by an earthquake and tsunami. Apart from acts of war, some important historic buildings have fallen victim to deliberate acts of destruction as a consequence of social, political, marble was still being burned for agricultural lime in the Roman Camapgna into the nineteenth century. In Europe, many buildings suffered as a result of the politics of the day. In the 16th century, the English monarch Henry VIII set about confiscating the property of monastic institutions in a campaign which known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Many abbeys and monsateries fell into ruin when their assets, including lead roofs, were stripped, following World War II, a number of European historic buildings fell into ruin as a result of taxation policies, which required all structures with roofs to pay substantial property tax. The owners of buildings, like Fetteresso Castle and Slains Castle in Scotland, deliberately destroyed their roofs in protest at, and defiance of. Post-colonial Ireland has encouraged the ruin of grand Georgian houses, symbols of British imperialism, however, sometimes tower basements remain, because their removal can sometimes be expensive. One example of such a basement is the basement of the radio mast of Deutschlandsender Herzberg/Elster. The basements of large wooden towers such as Transmitter Ismaning may also be left behind, the contemplation of rust belt post-industrial ruins is in its infancy. The new sense of historicism that accompanied neoclassicism led some artists, in the period of Romanticism ruins were frequent object for painters, place of meetings of romantic poets, nationalist students etc. Joseph Michael Gandy completed for Sir John Soane in 1832 an atmospheric watercolor of the architects vast Bank of England rotunda as an overgrown ruin. Ruinenwert was popularized in the 20th century by Albert Speer while planning for the 1936 Summer Olympics, for example, the ruins of Dunstanburgh Castle in England inspired Turner to create several paintings, in 1989 the ruined Dunnottar Castle in Scotland was used for filming of Hamlet
Ruins
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Roman Forum ruins in Rome
Ruins
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Ruins of Spiš Castle in Slovakia
Ruins
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San Francisco earthquake of 1906: Ruins in vicinity of Post and Grant Avenue.
Ruins
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Ury House, Aberdeenshire ruined by removal of the roof after the Second World War to avoid taxation.
13.
Volubilis
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Volubilis is a partly excavated Berber and Roman city in Morocco situated near the city of Meknes, and commonly considered as the ancient capital of the kingdom of Mauretania. Built in an agricultural area, it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as an Amazigh, then proto-Carthaginian. It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward, the city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century, including a basilica, temple and triumphal arch. Its prosperity, which was derived principally from olive growing, prompted the construction of many fine town-houses with large mosaic floors, the city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility on the south-western border of the Roman Empire. It continued to be inhabited for at least another 700 years, first as a Latinised Christian community, in the late 8th century it became the seat of Idris ibn Abdallah, the founder of the Idrisid dynasty and the state of Morocco. By the 11th century Volubilis had been abandoned after the seat of power was relocated to Fes, much of the local population was transferred to the new town of Moulay Idriss Zerhoun, about 5 km from Volubilis. The ruins remained substantially intact until they were devastated by an earthquake in the mid-18th century and it was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the site was definitively identified as that of the ancient city of Volubilis. Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, listed for being a well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire. Built on a slope below the Zerhoun mountain, Volubilis stands on a ridge above the Wadi Khoumane. It overlooks a fertile plain north of the modern city of Meknes. By the third century BC, the Phoenicians had a presence there, as evidenced by the remains of a temple to the Punic god Baal and finds of pottery and stones inscribed in the Phoenician language. The origins of its name are unknown but may be a Latinisation of the Berber word oualilt, meaning oleander, the city lay within the kingdom of Mauretania, which became a Roman client state following the fall of Carthage in 146 BC. The Punic influence lasted for a time afterwards, as the citys magistrates retained the Carthaginian title of suffete long after the end of Punic rule. Juba II of Numidia was placed on the Mauretanian throne by Augustus in 25 BC and it is also mentioned by Pliny the Elder, and the 2nd century Antonine Itinerary refers to its location and names it as Volubilis Colonia. Its population was dominated by Romanised Berbers, the city became the administrative centre of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana. It remained loyal to Rome despite a revolt in 40–44 AD led by one of Ptolemys freedmen, Aedemon, and its inhabitants were rewarded with grants of citizenship and a ten-year exemption from taxes. The city was raised to the status of a municipium and its system of governance was overhauled, with the Punic-style suffetes replaced by annually elected duumvirs, or pairs of magistrates. However, the position was always tenuous, it was located on the south-eastern edge of the province, facing hostile
Volubilis
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Volubilis ruins
Volubilis
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Map of Mauretania Tingitania showing the location of Volubilis
Volubilis
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Panoramic view of Volubilis, looking west. The old Phoenician core of the city is on the left, the Basilica and Capitoline Temple are visible in the centre, while the Arch of Caracalla can be seen on the right behind the Roman extension to the city.
Volubilis
14.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Empire
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Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Empire
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Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Empire
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Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Empire
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Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538.
15.
Al-Mamurah
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Mehdya, also Mehdia or Mehedya, is a town in Kénitra Province, Rabat-Salé-Kénitra, Morocco. Previously called al-Mamura, it was known as São João da Mamora under 16th century Portuguese occupation, according to the 2004 census, the town has a population of 16,262. It is located on Sebou River, Mehdya was previously called Al-Mamura or La Mamora in Europe, and was a harbour on the coast of Morocco. It seems to have been occupied by the Carthaginians since the 5th century BCE and it was captured by the Portuguese in 1515, and renamed São João da Mamora. Four of the stand-alone fortresses only had a duration, Graciosa, Forte de São João de Mamora, Castelo Real of Mogador. Two of them were to become permanent urban settlements, Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué, the Portuguese had to abandon most of their settlements between 1541 and 1550, although they were able to keep Ceuta, Tangier and Mazagan. Mehdya, known as La Mamora, was under Spanish rule between 1614 and 1681. After capturing Larache in 1610, the Spanish then captured Al-Mamura during the reign of Mulay Zidan in August 1614, after negotiations with Mulay Zidan, they left a strong garrison of 1,500 men, and called the harbour San Miguel de Ultramar. The warlord Sidi al-Ayachi led a counter-offensive against Spain, privateering against its shipping, and obtaining the help of the Moriscos, about 1627, he managed to temporarily capture Al-Mamura, and add it to his Republic of Salé. The Spanish retained the city for 67 years, when it was conquered by the Alaouite ruler Moulay Ismaïl, according to tradition, the Bishop of Cadiz had commissioned a statue of Jesus Christ for the church at La Mamora, which was in his diocese. The new Sultan Mulay Ismail took the city by storm in 1681, in 1795, Mulay Slimane closed the harbour of Mehdya to avoid foreign incursions. The French occupied Mehdya in 1911, about 9,000 Allied troops, carried by 19 warships, were landed in Mehdya during Operation Torch in 1942
Al-Mamurah
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La Mamora harbour under the Spanish.
Al-Mamurah
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The Christ of Medinaceli, looted in La Mamora (Medhya), being pulled through the streets of Meknes, by Juan de Valdés Leal, 1681.
16.
Sub-Saharan Africa
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Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. According to the UN, it consists of all African countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara and it contrasts with North Africa, whose territories are part of the League of Arab states within the Arab world. Somalia, Djibouti, Comoros and Mauritania are geographically in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Sahel is the transitional zone between the Sahara and the tropical savanna and forest-savanna mosaic to the south. The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna left Africa to penetrate the Middle East, African pluvial periods are associated with a wet Sahara phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed. Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct ethnographic sections based on each areas respective inhabitants, commentators in Arabic in the medieval period used the general term bilâd as-sûdân for the vast Sudan region, or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan. Its equivalent in Southeast Africa was Zanj, which was situated in the vicinity of the Great Lakes region. The geographers drew an explicit distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the Red Sea coast in the Horn of Africa. In modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea was Al-Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, Sub-Saharan Africa has a wide variety of climate zones or biomes. South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in particular are considered Megadiverse countries, the Sahel shoots across all of Africa at a latitude of about 10° to 15° N. Countries that include parts of the Sahara Desert proper in their territories and parts of the Sahel in their southern region include Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad. The Sahel has a hot semi-arid climate, South of the Sahel, there is a belt of savanna, widening to include most of South Sudan and Ethiopia in the east. The Serengeti ecosystem is located in northwestern Tanzania and extends to southwestern Kenya, the Kalahari Basin includes the Kalahari Desert surrounded by a belt of semi-desert. The Bushveld is a tropical ecoregion of Southern Africa. The Karoo is a semi-desert in western South Africa and this occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago. By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout southern, eastern and they were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The tools were classed as Oldowan, roughly 1.8 million years ago, Homo ergaster first appeared in the fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster, Homo erectus evolved 1.5 million years ago, some of the earlier representatives of this species were small-brained and used primitive stone tools, much like H. habilis. The brain later grew in size, and H. erectus eventually developed a complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean
Sub-Saharan Africa
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Stone chopping tool from Olduvai Gorge.
Sub-Saharan Africa
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Dark and lighter green: Definition of "Sub-Saharan Africa" as used in the statistics of UN institutions. Lighter green: However, Sudan is classified as North Africa by United Nations Statistics Division.
Sub-Saharan Africa
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Nzinga Mbande, queen of the Bantu Ndongo and Matamba kingdoms.
Sub-Saharan Africa
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Stone city of Gondershe, Somalia.
17.
Ceuta
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Ceuta is an 18. 5-square-kilometre Spanish autonomous city located on the north coast of Africa, sharing its land border with Morocco, in which it is thus an enclave. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta, along with the Spanish exclave Melilla, is one of nine populated Spanish territories in Africa and it was part of Cádiz province until 14 March 1995 when the citys Statute of Autonomy was passed. Ceuta, like Melilla and the Canary Islands, was a port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2011, it has a population of 82,376 and its population consists of Christians, Muslims, and small minorities of Sephardic Jews and ethnic Sindhi Hindus. Spanish is the language, while Moroccan Darija of the northern Jebli variety is spoken by between 40% and 50% of the population which is of Moroccan origin. It was known variously in Ancient Greek as, Ἀβύλη, Ἀβύλα, Ἀβλύξ, or Ἀβίλη στήλη – Abyle, Abila, Ablyx or Abile Stele – Pillar of Abyle), together with Gibraltar on the European side, it formed one of the famous Pillars of Hercules. It changed hands again approximately 400 years later, when Vandal tribes ousted the Romans, after being controlled by the Visigoths, it then became an outpost of the Byzantine Empire. Ceuta was an important Christian center since the fourth century, in the 7th century the Umayyads tried to conquer the region but were unsuccessful. Under the leadership of the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Muslims used Ceuta as a ground for an assault on Visigothic Iberian Peninsula. After Julians death, the Berbers took direct control of the city and they destroyed Ceuta during the Kharijite rebellion led by Maysara al-Matghari in 740. Ceuta lay in ruins until it was resettled in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived Banu Isam dynasty. His great-grandson briefly allied his tribe with the Idrisids, but the Banu Isam rule ended in 931 when he abdicated in favor of Abd ar-Rahman III, Ceuta reverted to Moorish Andalusian rule in 927 along with Melilla, and later Tangier, in 951. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031, following this Ceuta and the rest of Muslim Iberia were controlled by successive North African dynasties. Starting in 1084, the Almoravid Berbers ruled the region until 1147, apart from Ibn Huds rebellion of 1232, they ruled until the Tunisian Hafsids established control. The Hafsids influence in the west rapidly waned, and Ceutas inhabitants eventually expelled them in 1249, after this, a period of political instability persisted, under competing interests from the Kingdom of Fez and the Kingdom of Granada. The Kingdom of Fez finally conquered the region in 1387, with assistance from the Crown of Aragon, in 1415, during the Battle of Ceuta, the city was captured by the Portuguese during the reign of John I of Portugal. The Benemerine sultan besieged the city in 1418 but was defeated, phillip II ascended the Portuguese throne in 1580 and Spanish kings of Portugal governed Ceuta for 60 years
Ceuta
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Ceuta, as seen from Monte Hacho
Ceuta
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Flag
Ceuta
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The Royal Walls of Ceuta and navigable moats
Ceuta
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A street of Ceuta, c. 1905–1910
18.
Melilla
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Melilla is a Spanish autonomous city located on the north coast of Africa, sharing a border with Morocco with an area of 12.3 square kilometres. Melilla, along with Ceuta, is one of two permanently inhabited Spanish cities in mainland Africa and it was part of Málaga province until 14 March 1995 when the citys Statute of Autonomy was passed. Melilla, like Ceuta, was a port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2011, it had a population of 78,476 made up of ethnic Spaniards, ethnic Riffian Berbers, both Spanish and Riffian-Berber are the two most widely spoken languages, with Spanish as the only official language. Melilla is officially subject to a claim along with the city of Ceuta. The current Berber name of Melilla is Mřič or Mlilt which means the white one, Melilla was an ancient Berber village and a Phoenician and later Punic trade establishment under the name of Rusadir. Later it became a part of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana, rusaddir is mentioned by Ptolemy and Pliny who call it oppidum et portus, also by Mela, under the corrupted form Rusicada and by the Itinerarium Antonini. Rusaddir was supposed to have once been the seat of a bishop, but there is no record of any bishop of the supposed see, as centuries passed, it went through Vandal, Byzantine and Hispano-Visigothic hands. The political history is similar to that of towns in the region of the Moroccan Rif, local rule passed through Amazigh, Phoenician, Punic, Roman, Umayyad, Idrisid, Almoravid, Almohad, Marinid, and then Wattasid rulers. During the Middle Ages it was the Berber city of Mlila, Melilla was immediately threatened with reconquest and was besieged during 1694–1696 and 1774–1775. One Spanish officer reflected, an hour in Melilla, from the point of view of merit, was more than thirty years of service to Spain. The current limits of the Spanish territory around the fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859,1860,1861, and 1894. In the late 19th century, as Spanish influence expanded, Melilla became the authorized center of trade on the Rif coast between Tetuan and the Algerian frontier. The value of trade increased, goat skins, eggs and beeswax being the principal exports, and cotton goods, tea, sugar, in 1893, the Rif Berbers launched the First Melillan campaign and 25,000 Spanish soldiers had to be dispatched against them. The conflict was known as the Margallo War, after the Governor of Melilla and Spanish General Juan García y Margallo. In 1908 two companies, under the protection of Bou Hmara, a chieftain ruling the Rif region, started mining lead. A railway to the mines was begun, in October of that year the Bou Hmaras vassals revolted against him and raided the mines, which remained closed until June 1909. By July the workmen were again attacked and several of them killed, severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen followed, in the Second Melillan campaign
Melilla
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Port of Melilla
Melilla
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Illustration of the death of Spanish General Juan García y Margallo during the First Melillan campaign in 1893
Melilla
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Juan José Imbroda, current Mayor-President of Melilla
Melilla
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Old Town
19.
Mohammad Temim
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Mohammad Temim, also Haji Mohammad Temim was an ambassador of the Moroccan king Mulay Ismail to France. Mohammad Temim was accompanied by Ali Manino, as well as six other ambassadorial members and he was able to explore many aspects of French intellectual and artistic life. He attended a performance of Lullys Atys and he also visited Notre-Dame de Paris where he attended an organ performance. Mohammad Temin showed great interest in arts and sciences, upon his return, he received beautiful farewell gifts from Louis XIV. Another Moroccan ambassador Abdallah bin Aisha would visit France in 1699-1700, matar, Nabil In the Lands of the Christians. Arabic Travel Writing in the Seventeenth Century New York London, Routledge
Mohammad Temim
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Mohammed Temim, Ambassadeur du Maroc, à la Comédie Italienne (1682), Antoine Coypel (1661-1722), Versailles.
20.
Mohammed bin Hadou
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Mohammed ben Hadou, also Mohammad bin Hadou, Mohammad bin Hadu or Muhammad ben Haddu alAttar, was a Moroccan ambassador sent to the English court of Charles II by Muley Ismail in 1681-82. According to the contemporary English commentator John Evelyn, he was the son of an English woman and he arrived in England on 29 December 1681, and left on 23 July 1682. His six month visit to England was highly commented upon, publicized in the London Gazette and was even the subject of occasional poems and he visited Oxford and Cambridge among many other places and became a Fellow of the Royal Society in April. John Evelyn recorded that he was the fashion of the season, at the theater the ambassador behaved with extreme modesty and gravity. He struck a magnificent figure riding in Hyde Park, the exchanges started 40 years of a shifting Anglo-Moroccan alliance related to European conflicts, trade issues, Barbary Coast pirates and the exchange of captives. However, they complained that the Quran contained contradictions that must have been a consequence of its editing after Mohammeds death. During his stay Mohammed bin Hadou apparently married an English servant, forty years of shifting alliances between the two countries would follow Mohammeds embassy
Mohammed bin Hadou
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Mohammed bin Hadou, Moroccan ambassador to Great-Britain in 1682.
Mohammed bin Hadou
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Ambassador Ben Hadou, riding in Hyde Park, 1682.
21.
Mohammed Tenim
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Mohammad Temim, also Haji Mohammad Temim was an ambassador of the Moroccan king Mulay Ismail to France. Mohammad Temim was accompanied by Ali Manino, as well as six other ambassadorial members and he was able to explore many aspects of French intellectual and artistic life. He attended a performance of Lullys Atys and he also visited Notre-Dame de Paris where he attended an organ performance. Mohammad Temin showed great interest in arts and sciences, upon his return, he received beautiful farewell gifts from Louis XIV. Another Moroccan ambassador Abdallah bin Aisha would visit France in 1699-1700, matar, Nabil In the Lands of the Christians. Arabic Travel Writing in the Seventeenth Century New York London, Routledge
Mohammed Tenim
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Mohammed Temim, Ambassadeur du Maroc, à la Comédie Italienne (1682), Antoine Coypel (1661-1722), Versailles.
22.
Marie Anne de Bourbon
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Marie Anne de Bourbon, Légitimée de France was the eldest legitimised daughter of King Louis XIV of France and his mistress Louise de La Vallière. At the age of thirteen, she was married to Louis Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti and her fathers favourite daughter, Marie Anne was widowed in 1685 aged 19. She never married again and had no children, following her mothers retirement to a convent, Marie Anne continued to reside at her fathers court and was later her mothers heiress. She later became the Duchess of La Vallière in her own right, born secretly at the Château de Vincennes outside Paris on 2 October 1666 while the court was in residence, Marie Anne was the eldest illegitimate child of King Louis XIV. Considered by some as the kings most beautiful daughter, she would become his favourite female child and his favourite child, however, was her younger half-brother, Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine. She and her younger brother Louis de Bourbon were put in the care of Madame Colbert and they were raised by Madame Colbert away from the intrigues of the Court. The following year, Marie Anne was legitimised by her father on 14 May 1667, on the same day, her mother was given the titles of Duchess of La Vallière and of Vaujours with letters patent. Marie Anne would succeed to her mothers La Vallière title, during her youth, she was known as Mademoiselle de Blois, a style that was later granted to her younger half-sister, Françoise Marie de Bourbon, youngest daughter of the king by Madame de Montespan. On 16 January 1680, Marie Anne married her cousin, Louis Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti and he had fallen in love with her at first sight. Her dowry was one million livres, the marriage was the first between a Prince of the Blood and one of Louis XIVs legitimised daughters which caused a scandal at the time. After a disastrous wedding night, the marriage remained sterile and Marie Anne shocked the court when she stated that her husband was not good at making love. In 1683, she lost her brother the Count of Vermandois. The young count had been exiled from court after being involved in a scandal involving the Chevalier de Lorraine. From all sources, Marie Anne was quite upset by her brothers death, while, according to contemporary accounts, in 1685, her husband contracted smallpox from Marie Anne. Although she recovered, he succumbed after five days, after his death, she was called Madame la Princesse Douairière, and also la Grande Princesse de Conti. She never remarried and even refused an offer of marriage from the Sultan of Morocco, during the five years of her marriage to the Prince of Conti, a Prince of the Blood, she was one of the most important ladies at her fathers court. As the Conti line descended from the Condés, the latter took precedence over the former and this matter of etiquette, so important at Versailles, led to friction between the two. In 1698, there might have been a proposal from her nephew, Philippe of France and he later became the King of Spain and married twice to Marie Louise of Savoy and then Elisabeth Farnese
Marie Anne de Bourbon
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Marie Anne by Rigaud in circa 1706
Marie Anne de Bourbon
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Signature
Marie Anne de Bourbon
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Marie Anne de Conti refusing the marriage proposal on behalf of Moulay Ismaïl, King of Morocco (French school of the 17th century)
Marie Anne de Bourbon
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The Infanta Marie Anne Victoire, fiancée of Louis XV, who was put in Marie Anne's care from 1721-1725
23.
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon earthquake, occurred in the Kingdom of Portugal on Saturday,1 November, the holy day of All Saints Day, at around 09,40 local time. In combination with subsequent fires and a tsunami, the earthquake almost totally destroyed Lisbon, estimates place the death toll in Lisbon alone between 10,000 and 100,000 people, making it one of the deadliest earthquakes in history. The earthquake accentuated political tensions in the Kingdom of Portugal and profoundly disrupted the countrys colonial ambitions, the event was widely discussed and dwelt upon by European Enlightenment philosophers, and inspired major developments in theodicy. As the first earthquake studied scientifically for its effects over an area, it led to the birth of modern seismology. In 1755, the earthquake struck on the morning of 1 November, contemporary reports state that the earthquake lasted between three and a half and six minutes, causing fissures 5 metres wide to open in the city centre. Survivors rushed to the space of the docks for safety and watched as the water receded, revealing a sea floor littered with lost cargo. Approximately 40 minutes after the earthquake, a tsunami engulfed the harbour and downtown area, rushing up the Tagus river, were forced to gallop as fast as possible to the upper grounds for fear of being carried away. It was followed by two more waves, in the areas unaffected by the tsunami, fire quickly broke out, and flames raged for five days. Lisbon was not the only Portuguese city affected by the catastrophe, throughout the south of the country, in particular the Algarve, destruction was rampant. The tsunami destroyed some coastal fortresses in the Algarve and, in the lower levels, almost all the coastal towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro, which was protected by the sandy banks of Ria Formosa. In Lagos, the reached the top of the city walls. Other towns of different Portuguese regions, such as Peniche, Cascais, and even Covilhã, the shock waves of the earthquake destroyed part of Covilhãs castle walls and its large towers. On the island of Madeira, Funchal and many smaller settlements suffered significant damage, almost all of the ports in the Azores archipelago suffered most of their destruction from the tsunami, with the sea penetrating about 150 m inland. Shocks from the earthquake were felt throughout Europe as far as Finland and North Africa, and according to some even in Greenland. Tsunamis as tall as 20 metres swept the coast of North Africa, a three-metre tsunami hit Cornwall on the southern English coast. Galway, on the west coast of Ireland, was also hit, at Kinsale, several vessels were whirled round in the harbor, and water poured into the marketplace. In 2015, it was revealed that the waves may have reached the coast of Brazil. Such a hypothesis was raised by reviewing letters sent by Brazilian authorities at the time of the earthquake and these letters describe damage and destruction caused by gigantic waves
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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1755 copper engraving showing Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor.
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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1755 Lisbon earthquake
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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A depiction of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake as seen from across the Tagus River.
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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Calculated travel times for the tsunami waves of 1 November 1755.
24.
Mohammed III of Morocco
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Mohammed Ben Abdellah al-Khatib was Sultan of Morocco from 1757 to 1790 under the Alaouite dynasty. He was the governor of Marrakech around 1750 and he was also sultan briefly during 1748. He was the son of Sultan Abdallah IV who reigned 1745–1757, a more open-minded ruler than many of his forebears, he signed numerous peace treaties with the European powers, and curtailed the power of the Barbary corsairs. He revived the city of Essaouira and invited Jews and English to trade there and he also built the old medina of Casablanca and renovated the kasbah of Marrakesh. Mohammed III used numerous European technicians and architects for his projects, such as Théodore Cornut, Mohammed ben Abdallah also took steps to remove the foreign presence on Moroccan coasts. He repulsed the French in the 1765 Larache expedition and he conquered Mazagan from the Portuguese in 1769. However, the Siege of Melilla against the Spanish ended in defeat in 1775 when British aid failed to materialize, in 1777, under the rule of Mohammed ben Abdallah, the Sultanate of Morocco became the first nation to recognize the United States as an independent nation. Mohammed al-Duayf List of Kings of Morocco History of Morocco Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship Morocco Alaoui dynasty History of Morocco
Mohammed III of Morocco
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Mohammed III of Morocco
Mohammed III of Morocco
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Mohammed ben Abdallah employed the French architect Théodore Cornut to build the model city of Essaouira.
Mohammed III of Morocco
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Coins of Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah, 1760–67 (Hijra 1182–1189), minted in Essaouira.
Mohammed III of Morocco
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Letter of George Washington to Mohammed ben Abdallah in appreciation of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, signed in Marrakech in 1787.
25.
Marguerite Henry
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Marguerite Henry née Breithaupt was an American writer of childrens books. Her fifty-nine books based on stories of horses and other animals captivated entire generations. She won the annual Newbery Medal for one of her books about horses, One of the latter, Misty of Chincoteague, was the basis for several sequels and for the 1961 movie Misty. Born to Louis and Anna Breithaupt, the youngest of the five children, Henry was a native of Milwaukee, unfortunately, Henry was stricken with rheumatic fever at the age of six, which kept her bedridden until the age of twelve. She was unable to attend school with children due to her weak condition. While confined indoors, she discovered the joy of reading, Henrys love of animals started during her childhood. Soon afterwards, she discovered a love for writing when her parents presented her with a writing desk for Christmas. Henry later said, At last I had a world of my very own – a writing world, Henry sold her first story at the age of 11. A magazine had solicited articles about the four seasons from children and she often wrote about animals, such as dogs, cats, birds, foxes, and even mules, but chiefly her stories focused on horses. She studied at Milwaukee State Teachers College, on May 5,1923, she married Sidney Crocker Henry. During their 64 years of marriage they did not have any children, in 1945, Henry began a 20-year collaboration with artist Wesley Dennis. I had just finished writing Justin Morgan Had a Horse, she recalled, so I went to the library, studied the horse books, and immediately fell in love with the work of Will James and Wesley Dennis. When I found out that Will James was dead, I sent my manuscript to Wesley Dennis, Henry and Dennis eventually collaborated on nearly 20 books. Misty of Chincoteague was published in 1947 and was an instant success, in 1961, it was adapted for film, as were Justin Morgan had a Horse and Brighty of the Grand Canyon. San Domingo, the Medicine Hat Stallion was adapted for television as Peter Lundy, Henrys last book was Brown Sunshine of Sawdust Valley, a 93-page novel published in September 1996, when she was 94 years old. Kirkus Reviews called it Vintage Henry. a lighthearted version of the old story, only this time. She died on November 26,1997, at home in Rancho Santa Fe, California, Misty features the annual Pony Penning of feral horses from Assateague Island, a two-day round-up, swim, and auction that Henry had been sent to look at by a hopeful editor. She created several Misty sequels including two childrens novels illustrated by Dennis, Sea Star, Orphan of Chincoteague and Stormy
Marguerite Henry
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Marguerite Henry
26.
History of Morocco
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The history of Morocco spans several millennia, succeeding the prehistoric cultures of Jebel Irhoud and Taforalt. Archaeological evidence has shown that the area was inhabited by hominids at least 400,000 years ago, in the 5th century BC, the city-state of Carthage extended its hegemony over the coastal areas. They remained there until the late 3rd century BC, while the hinterland was ruled by indigenous monarchs, indigenous Berber monarchs ruled the territory from the 3rd century BC until 40 AD, when it was annexed to the Roman Empire. In the mid-5th century AD, it was overrun by Vandals, the region was conquered by the Muslims in the early 8th century AD, but broke away from the Umayyad Caliphate after the Berber Revolt of 740. Half a century later, the Moroccan state was established by the Idrisid dynasty, under the Almoravid and the Almohad dynasties, Morocco dominated the Maghreb and Muslim Spain. The Saadi dynasty ruled the country from 1549 to 1659, followed by the Alaouites from 1667 onwards, in 1912, after the First Moroccan Crisis and the Agadir Crisis, the Treaty of Fez was signed, dividing Morocco into French and Spanish protectorates. In 1956, after 44 years of French rule, Morocco regained independence from France, archaeological excavations have demonstrated the presence of people in Morocco that were ancestral to Homo sapiens, as well as the presence of early human species. The fossilized bones of a 400, 000-year-old early human ancestor were discovered in Salé in 1971, the bones of several very early Homo sapiens were discovered at Jebel Irhoud in 1991, that were found to be at least 160,000 years old. In 2007, small perforated seashell beads were discovered in Taforalt that are 82,000 years old, in Mesolithic times, between 20,000 and 5000 years ago, the geography of Morocco resembled a savanna more than the present arid landscape. During the Neolithic period, which followed the Mesolithic, the savanna was occupied by hunters and herders, the culture of these Neolithic hunters and herders flourished until the region began to desiccate after 5000 BC as a result of climatic changes. The coastal regions of present-day Morocco in the early Neolithic shared in the Cardium Pottery culture that was common to the entire Mediterranean region, archaeological excavations have suggested that the domestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops both occurred in the region during that period. In the Chalcolithic period, or the age, the Beaker culture reached the north coast of Morocco. The arrival of Phoenicians on the Moroccan coast heralded many centuries of rule by foreign powers in the north of Morocco, major early settlements of the Phoenicians included those at Chellah, Lixus and Mogador. Mogador is known to have been a Phoenician colony by the early 6th century BC, by the 5th century BC, the state of Carthage had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa. Carthage developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes of the interior, Mauretania was an independent tribal Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of north Africa, corresponding to northern modern-day Morocco from about the 3rd century BC. The earliest known king of Mauretania was Bocchus I, who ruled from 110 BC to 81 BC, some of its earliest recorded history relates to Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements such as Lixus and Chellah. The Berber kings ruled inland territories overshadowing the coastal outposts of Carthage and Rome, often as satellites and it became a client of the Roman empire in 33 BC, then a full province after Emperor Caligula had the last king, Ptolemy of Mauretania, executed. Hence, Roman administration never extended outside the area of the northern coastal plain
History of Morocco
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Phoenician plate with red slip, 7th century BCE, excavated on Mogador Island, Essaouira. Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum.
History of Morocco
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Roman coins excavated in Essaouira, 3rd century.
History of Morocco
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Roman remains of Volubilis
History of Morocco
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The school of Al-Karaouine in Fes, established by the Idrisids in the 9th century
27.
Anglo-Moroccan alliance
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The Anglo-Moroccan alliance was established at the end of the 16th century and the early 17th century between the kingdoms of England and Morocco. Commercial agreements had been reached by Queen Elizabeth I of England, the arms trade dominated the exchange, and numerous attempts at direct military collaboration were also made. The alliance was maintained for some time by their successors, the alliance between the two states developed during the 16th century on the back of regular commercial exchanges, largely thanks to the work of the Amphlett family of merchants. European trade with Morocco had been at the command of Spain, Portugal and Genoa, following the sailing of The Lion of Thomas Wyndham in 1551, and the 1585 establishment of the English Barbary Company, trade developed between England and the Barbary states, and especially Morocco. Sugar, ostrich feathers and saltpeter from Morocco were typically exchanged for English fabrics and firearms, in spite of the protests of Spain, Elizabeth I had numerous exchanges with Sultan Abd al-Malik to facilitate trade and obtain advantages for English traders. The sultan could speak Spanish and Italian as well as Arabic, in 1577 he wrote to the queen in Spanish, signing himself AbdelMeleck in Latin script. That same year, the queen sent Edmund Hogan as ambassador to the Moroccan court, Elizabeth was initially reluctant to develop an arms trade with Morocco, for fear of criticism by other Christian powers, as was communicated by Hogan to the Sultan in 1577. Relations intensified with the acclamation of Philip II of Spain as King of Portugal in 1580, in 1581, Elizabeth authorized the exportation of naval-grade timber to Morocco in exchange for saltpeter, a necessary ingredient in gunpowder. The establishment of the Barbary Company in 1585 further gave England a monopoly on Morocco trade for 12 years, in 1585-1588, through the embassy of Henry Roberts, Elizabeth tried to obtain the Sultans help in backing Dom António. In 1588, Al-Mansur granted special privileges to English traders and he also requested English military assistance in case of a conflict with neighbouring non-Christian countries. Elizabeth could not meet these demands completely, especially the transportation of Moroccan forces, the 1589 English expedition to Portugal moved ahead nonetheless, and ended in failure with the English fleet hoping in vain for reinforcements from England or Morocco. Only the Moroccan ambassador Marzuq Rais was accompanying the expedition, on board the flagship of Dom António, disguised as a Portuguese nobleman, diplomatic relations continued to intensify between Elizabeth and the Barbary states. In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur. Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud spent 6 months at the court of Elizabeth, the Moroccan ruler wanted the help of an English fleet to invade Spain, Elizabeth refused, but welcomed the embassy as a sign of insurance, and instead accepted to establish commercial agreements. Elizabeth agreed to sell supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on. Discussions however remained inconclusive, and both died within two years of the embassy. James I also made peace with Spain upon his accession in 1603, relations continued under James I however, who sent his ambassador John Harrisson to Muley Zaydan in 1610 and again in 1613 and 1615 in order to obtain the release of English captives in Morocco. English privateers such as Jack Ward continued to prosper in collaboration with the Barbary states, during the Thirty Years War under the rule of Charles I, England sought Moroccan military help against Spain in Tetouan and Salé
Anglo-Moroccan alliance
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Left image: Queen Elizabeth I of England. Right image: Moroccan ambassador to Elizabeth, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, in 1600.
Anglo-Moroccan alliance
Anglo-Moroccan alliance
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After 1578, Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur developed relations between England and Morocco into a political alliance.
Anglo-Moroccan alliance
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Elizabeth I tried to obtain Sultan al-Mansur's help in backing Dom António 's claim to the Portuguese throne against Philip of Spain.
28.
Prehistoric North Africa
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The Prehistory of North Africa spans the period of earliest human presence in the region to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt in c.3100 BC. Geographically, it can also be held to include the Saharan portions of Mauritania, Mali, Niger, as modern humans are generally believed to originate in Africa, prehistoric North Africa may hold important clues in understanding the evolution and spread of Homo sapiens. Human habitation in North Africa has been influenced by the climate of the Sahara. This is due to a 41000-year cycle in which the tilt of the changes between 22° and 24. 5°. At present, we are in a dry period, but it is expected that the Sahara will become again in 15000 years. During the last glacial period, the Sahara was much larger than it is today, the end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps because of low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north. Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern Sahara dried out, in the southern Sahara, the drying trend was initially counteracted by the monsoon, which brought rain further north than it does today. By around 4200 BC, however, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today, the Sahara is now as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago. These conditions are responsible for what has called the Sahara pump theory. During periods of a wet or Green Sahara, the Sahara becomes a savanna grassland and various flora and this separates populations of some of the species in areas with different climates, forcing them to adapt, possibly giving rise to allopatric speciation.8 million BC. Tools of this era, starting about 130,000 BCE, are called Aterian and are marked by a standard of workmanship, great variety. The earliest blade industries in North Africa belong to the Iberomaurusian or Oranian and this lithic industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of North Africa between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic society spread in the Saharan and Mediterranean North Africa after the Levante between 6000 and 2000 BC and this type of economy, so richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer cave paintings, predominated in North Africa until the classical period. The pictures provide the most complete record of a prehistoric African culture, in 2013, Iberomaurusian skeletons from the prehistoric sites of Taforalt and Afalou in the Maghreb were analyzed for ancient DNA. The ancient Taforalt individuals carried the mtDNA haplogroups U6, H, JT and V, cultures producing rock art flourished during this period. In Prehistoric Egypt, Neolithic settlements appear from about 6000 BC, oher regions in Africa independently developed agriculture at about the same time, the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel, and West Africa. The beginning of the Bronze Age in Egypt is conventionally identified as the Protodynastic Period, by the Iron Age, the historic record demonstrated the existence of the Berbers in North Africa from at least 10,000 B. C. While Egypt and Sudan had entered historicity since the Bronze Age, some Phoenician and Greek colonies were established along the Mediterranean coast during the 7th century BC
Prehistoric North Africa
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Carvings of fauna common in the Sahara during the wet phase, found at Tassili in the central Sahara
Prehistoric North Africa
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Northern Africa (UN subregion)
Prehistoric North Africa
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Dolmen at Roknia. Roknia is a necropolis in the Guelma region of north-east Algeria consisting of more than 7000 dolmens spread over an area of 2 km.
Prehistoric North Africa
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Neolithic cave paintings found in Tassil-n-Ajjer (Plateau of the Chasms) region of the Sahara
29.
Mousterian
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Mousterian is a name given by archaeologists to a style of predominantly flint tools associated primarily with Neanderthals. They date to the Middle Paleolithic, the part of the European Old Stone Age. The culture was named after the site of Le Moustier. Similar flintwork has been all over unglaciated Europe and also the Near East. Handaxes, racloirs and points constitute the industry, sometimes a Levallois technique or another prepared-core technique was employed in making the flint flakes, Mousterian tools that have been found in Europe were made by Neanderthals and date from around 160,000 BP and 40,000 BP. In North Africa and the Near East, Mouseterian tools were produced by anatomically modern humans. In the Levant, for example, assemblages produced by Neanderthals are indistinguishable from those made by Qafzeh type modern humans, possible variants are Denticulate, Charentian named after the Charente region, Typical and the Acheulean Tradition - Type-A and Type-B. The industry continued alongside the new Châtelperronian industry during the 45, Mousterian artifacts have been found in Haua Fteah in Cyrenaica and other sites in Northwest Africa. Contained within a cave in the Syria region, along with a Neanderthaloid skeleton, located in the Haibak valley of Afghanistan. Zagros and Central Iran The archaeological site of Atapuerca, Spain, gorhams Cave in Gibraltar contains Mousterian objects. Uzbekistan has sites of Mousterian culture, including Teshik-Tash, siberia has many sites with Mousterian style implements, eg Denisova Cave. Neanderthal extinction hypotheses Synoptic table of the old world prehistoric cultures Levallois technique Neanderthals’ Last Stand Is Traced — New York Times article
Mousterian
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Mousterian
Mousterian
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A reconstruction of the head of the Shanidar 1 fossil, a Homo neanderthalensis male who lived circa 70000 BCE discovered in the mid-20th century at the Mousterian archaeological site Shanidar Cave
Mousterian
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Restoration of Le Moustier Homo neanderthalensis by Charles R. Knight
Mousterian
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Levallois points
30.
Iberomaurusian
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The Iberomaurusian culture is a backed bladelet lithic industry found throughout the Tamazgha. The industry was originally described in 1909 by the French scholar Pallary, other names for the industry have included Mechta-Afalou, Mouillian and Oranian. Recent fieldwork indicates that the Iberomaurusian culture existed in the region from around the timing of the Last Glacial Maximum, at 20,000 BP, the industry is succeeded by the Capsian culture, which was originally thought to have spread into the Maghreb from the Near East. However, later studies suggest that the Iberomaurusian may have been the progenitors of the Capsian, despite suggestions that this minor element may be related to the Basques of southwestern Europe, there appear to be no vestiges of a Basque linguistic influence in the region. In 2013, Iberomaurusian skeletons from the sites of Taforalt. The ancient Taforalt individuals carried the mtDNA Haplogroup N subclades like U6, H, JT and V, which points to population continuity in the region dating from the Iberomaurusian period. In 2016 it has been identified mtDNA haplogroups H or U, T2b, JT or H14b1, J, J1c3f, H1, R0a1a, R0a2c, H2a1e1a, H2a2a1, H6a1a8, H14b1, U4a2b, U4c1, U6d3. A2003 sequencing on the mitochondrial DNA of two Cro-Magnons identified the mtDNA as Haplogroup N. Aterian
Iberomaurusian
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Capsian culture
31.
Capsian culture
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The Capsian culture was a Mesolithic culture of the Maghreb, which lasted from about 10,000 to 6,000 BCE. It was named after the town of Gafsa in Tunisia, which was Capsa in Roman times, the Capsian industry was concentrated mainly in modern Tunisia and Algeria, with some sites attested in southern Spain to Sicily. It is traditionally divided into two horizons, the Capsien typique and the Capsien supérieur, which are found in chronostratigraphic sequence. They represent variants of one tradition, the differences between them being both typological and technological, during this period, the environment of the Maghreb was open savanna, much like modern East Africa, with Mediterranean forests at higher altitudes. The Capsian diet included a variety of animals, ranging from aurochs and hartebeest to hares and snails. During the succeeding Neolithic of Capsian Tradition, there is evidence from one site, for domesticated, probably imported, anatomically, Capsian populations were modern Homo sapiens, traditionally classed into two variegate types, Proto-Mediterranean and Mechta-Afalou on the basis of cranial morphology. Some have argued that they were immigrants from the east, whereas others argue for population continuity based on physical characteristics and other criteria. Nothing is known about Capsian religion, but their burial methods suggest a belief in an afterlife, decorative art is widely found at their sites, including figurative and abstract rock art, and ochre is found coloring both tools and corpses. Ostrich eggshells were used to make beads and containers, seashells were used for necklaces, the Ibero-Maurusian practice of extracting the central incisors continued sporadically, but became rarer. The Eburran industry which dates between 13,000 and 9,000 BCE in East Africa, was known as the Kenya Capsian due to similarities in the stone blade shapes
Capsian culture
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The main sites of the Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures in north Africa
32.
Phoenicia
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The enterprising, sea-based Phoenician civilization spread across the Mediterranean between 1500 BC and 300 BC. Their civilization was organized in city-states, similar to those of Ancient Greece, perhaps the most notable of which were Tyre, Sidon, Arvad, Berytus and Carthage. Each city-state was an independent unit, and it is uncertain to what extent the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality. In terms of archaeology, language, lifestyle, and religion there was little to set the Phoenicians apart as markedly different from other Semitic Canaanites. The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make use of alphabets. By their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks, the name Phoenicians, like Latin Poenī, comes from Greek Φοίνικες. The word φοῖνιξ phoînix meant variably Phoenician person, Tyrian purple, the word may be derived from φοινός phoinós blood red, itself possibly related to φόνος phónos murder. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the ethnonym, the oldest attested form of the word in Greek may be the Mycenaean po-ni-ki-jo, po-ni-ki, possibly borrowed from Ancient Egyptian fnḫw Asiatics, Semites, although this derivation is disputed. The folk-etymological association of Φοινίκη with φοῖνιξ mirrors that in Akkadian which tied kinaḫni, the land was natively known as knʿn and its people as the knʿny. In the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC, people from the region called themselves Kenaani or Kinaani, the ethnonym survived in North Africa until the 4th century AD. Herodotus account refers to the myths of Io and Europa, according to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. The Greek historian Strabo believed that the Phoenicians originated from Bahrain, Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Bahrain. The people of Tyre in South Lebanon in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, however, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place. Canaanite culture apparently developed in situ from the earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture, Byblos is attested as an archaeological site from the Early Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, fernand Braudel remarked in The Perspective of the World that Phoenicia was an early example of a world-economy surrounded by empires. The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed c, archaeological evidence consistent with this understanding has been difficult to identify. A unique concentration in Phoenicia of silver hoards dated between 1200 and 800 BC, however, contains hacksilver with lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain. This metallic evidence agrees with the memory of a western Mediterranean Tarshish that supplied Solomon with silver via Phoenicia
Phoenicia
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Sarcophagus of Eshmunazor II, Phoenician King of Sidon found near Sidon, in southern Lebanon
Phoenicia
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Map of Phoenicia and its Mediterranean trade routes
Phoenicia
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Assyrian warship (probably built by Phoenicians) with two rows of oars, relief from Nineveh, c. 700 BC
Phoenicia
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A naval action during the siege of Tyre (350 BC). Drawing by André Castaigne, 1888–1889.
33.
Ancient Carthage
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Carthage was the Phoenician city-state of Carthage and during the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, included its sphere of influence, the Carthaginian Empire. The empire extended over much of the coast of North Africa as well as encompassing substantial parts of coastal Iberia, Carthage was founded in 814 BC. At the height of the prominence it served as a major hub of trade. The city also had to deal with potentially hostile Berbers, the inhabitants of the area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Roman forces destroyed, redesigned, nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Roman hands. According to Roman sources, Phoenician colonists from modern-day Lebanon, led by Dido, Queen Elissa was an exiled princess of the ancient Phoenician city of Tyre. At its peak, the metropolis she founded, Carthage, came to be called the city, ruling 300 other cities around the western Mediterranean Sea. Elissas brother, Pygmalion of Tyre, had murdered Elissas husband, Elissa escaped the tyranny of her own country, founding the new city of Carthage and subsequently its later dominions. Details of her life are sketchy and confusing, but the following can be deduced from various sources, according to Justin, Princess Elissa was the daughter of King Belus II of Tyre. When he died, the throne was jointly bequeathed to her brother, Pygmalion and she married her uncle Acerbas, also known as Sychaeus, the High Priest of Melqart, a man with both authority and wealth comparable to the king. This led to increased rivalry between the elite and the monarchy. Pygmalion was a tyrant, lover of both gold and intrigue, who desired the authority and fortune enjoyed by Acerbas, Pygmalion assassinated Acerbas in the temple and kept the misdeed concealed from his sister for a long time, deceiving her with lies about her husbands death. At the same time, the people of Tyre called for a single sovereign, in the Roman epic of Virgil, the Aeneid, Queen Dido, the Greek name for Elissa, is first introduced as a highly esteemed character. In just seven years, since their exodus from Tyre, the Carthaginians have rebuilt a successful kingdom under her rule and her subjects adore her and present her with a festival of praise. Her character is perceived by Virgil as even more noble when she offers asylum to Aeneas and his men, who have recently escaped from Troy. A spirit in the form of the god, Mercury, sent by Jupiter, reminds Aeneas that his mission is not to stay in Carthage with his new-found love, Dido. Virgil ends his legend of Dido with the story that, when Aeneas tells Dido, her heart broken, as she lay dying, she predicted eternal strife between Aeneas people and her own, rise up from my bones, avenging spirit she says, an invocation of Hannibal. The settlements at Crete and Sicily were in conflict with the Greeks
Ancient Carthage
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Carthage and its dependencies in 264 BC
Ancient Carthage
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Mediterranean sea nations in 323 BC.
Ancient Carthage
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Trireme mosaic from Carthage, Bardo Museum, Tunis.
34.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Rome
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Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Rome
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Roman Republic
Ancient Rome
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According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Rome
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This bust from the Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of Lucius Junius Brutus.
35.
Mauretania
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Mauretania is the Latin name for an area of the ancient Maghreb stretching from central Algeria westwards to the Atlantic, covering northern Morocco, and southward to the Atlas Mountains. Its native inhabitants, seminomadic pastoralists of Berber stock, were known to the Romans as the Mauri, in the late 3rd century, another province, Mauretania Sitifensis, was formed out of the eastern part of Caesariensis. When the Vandals arrived in Africa in 429, much of Mauretania became virtually independent, christianity had spread rapidly there in the 4th and 5th centuries but was extinguished when the Arabs conquered the region in the 7th century. Mauretania existed as a kingdom of the Mauri people. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, the Mauri would later bequeath their name to the Moors on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, from at least the 3rd century BC. King Atlas was a king of Mauretania credited with the invention of the celestial globe. The first known king of the Mauri is Baga, who ruled during the Second Punic War. The Mauri were in contact with Numidia. Bocchus I was father-in-law to the redoubted Numidian king Jugurtha, Mauretania became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 33 BC. The Romans installed Juba II of Numidia as their client-king, when Juba died in AD23, his Roman-educated son Ptolemy of Mauretania succeeded him. The Emperor Caligula had Ptolemy executed in 40, Emperor Claudius annexed Mauretania directly as a Roman province in 44, under an imperial governor. Mauretania Caesariensis was named after its capital Caesarea and comprised western, Mauretania gave the empire one emperor, the equestrian Macrinus. He seized power after the assassination of Caracalla in 217 but was defeated and executed by Elagabalus the next year. Emperor Diocletians Tetrarchy reform further divided the area into three provinces, as the small, easternmost region of Sitifensis was split off from Mauretania Caesariensis, followed by Columnatensis, Vidensis, inferioris, Fortensis, Muticitani, Audiensis, Caputcellensis and Augustensis. A Praeses in the province of Mauretania Sitifensis, direct Roman rule became confined to a few coastal cities by the late 3rd century. In an inscription from Altava in western Algeria, one of these rulers, Masuna, Altava was later the capital of another ruler, Garmul or Garmules, who resisted Byzantine rule in Africa but was finally defeated in 578. The Byzantine historian Procopius also mentions another independent ruler, Mastigas, in the VII century there were eight Romano-Moorish kingdoms, Altava, Ouarsenis, Hodna, Aures, Nemenchas, Capsa, Dorsale and Cabaon
Mauretania
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Map of the Roman Empire showing Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis
Mauretania
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Mauretania Tingitana province (borders in AD 116).
Mauretania
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Cities of Roman Mauretania in the Tabula Peutingeriana
36.
Mauretania Tingitana
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Mauritania Tingitana was a Roman province located in the Maghreb, coinciding roughly with the northern part of present-day Morocco. The territory stretched from the peninsula opposite Gibraltar, to Sala Colonia and Volubilis to the south. Its capital city was Tingis, which is the modern Tangier, other major cities of the province were Iulia Valentia Banasa, Septem, Rusadir and Lixus. The Mulucha, located around 60 km west of modern Oran, Algeria, the Roman occupation did not extend very far into the continent. On the Atlantic coast Sala Colonia was protected by another ditch and a rampart and this was not a continuous line of fortifications, there is no evidence of a defensive wall like the one that protected the turbulent frontier in Britannia at the other extremity of the Roman Empire. Rather, it was a network of forts and ditches that seems to have functioned as a filter, the same people lived on both sides of these limes, although the population was quite small. Volubilis had perhaps twenty thousand inhabitants at most in the second century, on the evidence of inscriptions, only around ten to twenty per cent of them were of European origin, mainly Spanish, the rest were local. The effective control of Roman legionaries, however, was up to the area of Sala Colonia, some historians, like Leo Africanus, believe the Roman frontier reached the area of Casablanca, founded by the Romans as a port named Anfa. Indeed, the city of Azemmour in central Morocco lies on the ancient Azama. Still today can be seen the remains of a Roman deposit for grain in the so-called Portuguese cisterns and this western part of Mauretania was to become the province called Mauretania Tingitana shortly afterwards. The region remained a part of the Roman Empire until 429, the most important city of Mauretania Tingitana was Volubilis. This city was the administrative and economic center of the province in western Roman Africa, the fertile lands of the province produced many commodities such as grain and olive oil, which were exported to Rome, contributing to the provinces wealth and prosperity. Archaeology has documented the presence of a Jewish community in the Roman period, the principal exports from Mauretania Tingitana were purple dyes and valuable woods, Tingitana also supplied Rome with agricultural goods and animals, such as lions and leopards. The native Mauri were highly regarded and recruited by the Romans as soldiers, clementius Valerius Marcellinus is recorded as governor between 24 October 277 and 13 April 280. According to tradition, the martyrdom of St Marcellus took place on 28 July 298 at Tingis, during the Tetrarchy, Mauretania Tingitana became part of the Diocese of Hispaniae, the Spains, and, by extension, part of the Praetorian Prefecture of the Gauls. (Mauretania Caesariensis was in the Diocese of Africa, lucilius Constantius is recorded as governor in the late fourth century. The Notitia Dignitatum shows also, in its organisation, a Comes Tingitaniae with a field army composed of two legions, three vexillations, and two auxilia palatina. Flavius Memorius held this office at some point during the middle of the fourth century, however, it is implicit in the source material that there was a single military command for both of the Mauretanian provinces, with a Dux Mauretaniae controlling seven cohorts and one ala
Mauretania Tingitana
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Roman territories in the Maghreb, showing that the southern limits of Mauretania Tingitana reached Casablanca
Mauretania Tingitana
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The province of Mauretania Tingitana within the Roman Empire, c. 120 AD
Mauretania Tingitana
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Morocco
37.
Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
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The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb continued the century of rapid Arab Muslim military expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632 AD. It was at point that Arab military expeditions into North African regions west of Egypt were first launched, continuing for years. The Byzantine navy would be defeated in the eastern Mediterranean, beginning in the 12th century, scholars at Kairouan began to construct a new version of the history of the conquest, which was finalised by ar-Raqiq. This version was copied in its entirety, and sometimes interpolated, by authors, reaching its zenith in the 14th century with scholars such as Ibn Idhari, Ibn Khaldun. It differs from the earlier version not only in the greater detail and this, however, is the best-known version and is the one given below. There is ongoing regarding the relative merits of the two versions. For more information, refer to the works cited below by Brunschvig, Modéran and Benabbès, the first invasion of North Africa, ordered by Caliph Umar, commenced in 647. 20,000 Arabs marched from Medina in Arabia, another 20,000 joined them in Memphis, Egypt, Count Gregory, the local Byzantine governor, had declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire in North Africa. He gathered his allies, confronted the Islamic invasion force and suffered defeat at the Battle of Sufetula, with the death of Gregory his successor, probably Gennadius, secured the Arab withdrawal in exchange for tribute. The campaign lasted fifteen months and Abdallahs force returned to Egypt in 648, all further Muslim conquests were soon interrupted, however, by a civil war between rival Arab factions that resulted in the murder of Caliph Uthman in 656. He was replaced by Ali Ibn Abi Talib, who in turn was murdered in 661 and he put a governor in place in Egypt at al-Fustat, creating a subordinate seat of power that would continue for the next two centuries. He then continued the invasion of neighbouring states, attacking Sicily. In 664 Kabul, Afghanistan, fell to the invading Muslim armies, the years 665 to 689 saw a new Arab invasion of North Africa. It began, according to Will Durant, to protect Egypt from flank attack by Byzantine Cyrene. So an army of more than 40,000 Muslims advanced through the desert to Barca, took it, next came a force of 10,000 Arabs led by the Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi and enlarged by thousands of others. Departing from Damascus, the army marched into North Africa and took the vanguard, in 670 the city of Kairouan was established as a refuge and base for further operations. This would become the capital of the Islamic province of Ifriqiya, which would cover the regions of todays western Libya, Tunisia. In his conquest of the Maghreb he besieged the city of Bugia as well as Tingi or Tangier
Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
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The Arab conqueror and general Uqba Ibn Nafi founded the Great Mosque of Kairouan (also known as the Mosque of Uqba) in 670 AD - the oldest [citation needed] and most important mosque in North Africa, city of Kairouan, Tunisia.
38.
Umayyad Caliphate
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The Umayyad Caliphate, also spelled Omayyad, was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centred on the Umayyad dynasty, hailing from Mecca, Syria remained the Umayyads main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 and 62 million people, the Umayyad Caliphate was secular by nature. At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims, Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that Abrahamic religious groups, should be allowed to practice their own religion, provided that they paid the jizya taxation. The welfare state of both the Muslim and the poor started by Umar ibn al Khattab had also continued, financed by the zakat tax levied only on Muslims. Muawiyas wife Maysum was also a Christian, the relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were stable in this time. Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments, the employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious assimilation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Muawiyas popularity and solidified Syria as his power base, the rivalries between the Arab tribes had caused unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of AD 680–692 and the Berber Revolt of 740–743. During the Second Civil War, leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwanid branch. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, according to tradition, the Umayyad family and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, and they originally came from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manāf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, the two families are therefore considered to be different clans of the same tribe. However Muslim Shia historians suspect that Umayya was a son of Abd Shams so he was not a blood relative of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family, Sunni historians disagree with this and view Shia claims as nothing more than outright polemics due to their hostility to the Umayyad family in general. While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan killed by Hashimites in a three-on-three melee and this fueled the opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Badr and he did this to avenge the defeat at Badr. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans
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Umayyad Caliphate in 750
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History of Afghanistan
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Idrisid dynasty
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The Idrisids were an Arab Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 974. Named after the founder Idriss I, the grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali. The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah, who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. After the Battle of Fakhkh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and a Shiite party, Idris ibn Abdallah fled to the Maghreb and he first arrived in Tangier, the most important city of Morocco at the time, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis. The powerful Awraba Berbers of Volubilis took him in and made him their imam, the Awraba tribe was originally from the Tlemcen region and had supported Kusayla in his struggle against the Ummayad armies in the 670s and 680s. By the second half of the 8th century they had settled in northern Morocco, by this time the Awraba were already Muslim, but lived in an area where most tribes were either Christian, Jewish, Khariji or pagan. The Awraba seem to have welcomed a Sharifi imam as a way to strengthen their political position, Idris I, who was very active in the political organization of the Awraba, began by asserting his authority and working toward the subjugation of the Christian and Jewish tribes. In 789 he founded a settlement south east of Volubilis, called Medinat Fas, in 791 Idris I was poisoned and killed by an Abbasid agent. Even though he left no heir, shortly after his death, his concubine Lalla Kanza bint Uqba al-Awrabi, bore him his only son and successor. Idris loyal Arab ex-slave and companion Rashid brought up the boy and took on himself the regency of the state, in 801 Rashid was killed by the Abbasids. In the following year, at the age of 11 years, even though he had spread his authority across much of northern Morocco, as far west as Tlemcen, Idris I had been completely dependent on the Awraba leadership. Idris II began his rule with the weakening of Awraba power by welcoming Arab settlers in Walili, thus he transformed himself from a protégé of the Awraba into their sovereign. The Awraba leader Ishak responded by plotting against his life with the Aghlabids of Tunisia, Idris reacted by having his former protector Ishak killed, and in 809 moved his seat of government from the Awraba dominated Walili to Fes, where he founded a new settlement named Al-Aliya. Idriss II developed the city of Fez, established earlier by his father as a Berber market town, here he welcomed two waves of Arab immigration, one in 818 from Cordoba and another in 824 from Aghlabid Tunisia, giving Fes a more Arab character than other Maghrebi cities. Muhammad himself came to rule Fes, with nominal power over his brothers. During this time Islamic and Arabic culture gained a stronghold in the towns and Morocco profited from the trans-Saharan trade, the Idrisids were principally rulers of the towns and had little power over the majority of the countrys population. The Idrisid family in turn was heavily berberised, with its members aligning itself with the Zenata tribes of Morocco, already in the 870s the family was described by Ibn Qutaybah as being berberised in customs. By the 11th century this process had developed to such an extant, in the 11th century the Hammudid family arose among these Berber Idrisids, which was able to gain power in several cities of northern Morocco and southern Spain
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Idrisid coin, minted at al-'Aliyah, Morocco, 840 CE.
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40.
Saadi dynasty
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The Saadi dynasty or Saadian dynasty was a dynasty that ruled Morocco from 1549 to 1659. From 1509 to 1549 they had ruled only in the south of Morocco and their reign over Morocco began with the reign of Sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh in 1554, when he vanquished the last Wattasids at the Battle of Tadla. The Saadian rule ended in 1659 with the end of the reign of Sultan Ahmad el Abbas They claimed descent from Muhammad through the line of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Saadi came from Tagmadert in the valley of the Draa River. The familys village of origin in the Draa was Tidzi and they claimed sharifian origins through an ancestor from Yanbu and rendered Sufism respectable in Morocco. The name Saadi or Saadian derives from saada meaning happiness or salvation, the most famous sultan of the Saadi was Ahmad al-Mansur, builder of the El Badi Palace in Marrakech and contemporary of Elizabeth I. One of their most important achievements was defeating the Portuguese at the Battle of Ksar El Kebir, before they conquered Marrakech, they had Taroudannt as their capital city. The Saadian Tombs were rediscovered in 1917 and can be seen in Marrakech, African Islam and Islam in Africa, Encounters Between Sufis and Islamists. ISBN 1-85065-282-1 S. Cory, Reviving the Islamic Caliphate in Early Modern Morocco, ISBN9781472413987 Morocco in the Sixteenth Century. Problems and Patterns in African Foreign Policy by Dahiru Yahya, Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines, Vol.18, No
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41.
First Moroccan Crisis
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The First Moroccan Crisis was an international crisis between March 1905 and May 1906 over the status of Morocco. The crisis worsened German relations with both France and the United Kingdom, and helped enhance the new Anglo-French Entente, on March 31,1905, Kaiser William II of Germany landed at Tangier, Morocco and conferred with representatives of Sultan Abdelaziz of Morocco. The Kaiser proceeded to tour the city on the back of a white horse, the Kaiser declared he had come to support the sovereignty of the Sultan—a statement which amounted to a provocative challenge to French influence in Morocco. The Sultan subsequently rejected a set of French-proposed governmental reforms and issued invitations to major powers to a conference which would advise him on necessary reforms. Germany sought a conference where the French could be called to account before other European powers. The French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line, count Bernhard von Bülow, the German Chancellor, threatened war over the issue. The French cancelled all leave and Germany threatened to sign a defensive alliance with the Sultan. French Premier Maurice Rouvier refused to risk war with Germany over the issue, Delcassé resigned, as the French government would no longer support his policy. On July 1, France agreed to attend the conference, the crisis continued to the eve of the conference at Algeciras, with Germany calling up reserve units and France moving troops to the German border. The Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute, lasting from January 16 to April 7,1906, of the 13 nations present, the German representatives found that their only supporter was Austria-Hungary. A German attempt at compromise was rejected by all but Austria-Hungary, France had firm support from Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the United States. The Germans decided to accept a compromise agreement on March 31,1906 that was signed on May 31,1906. France agreed to control of the Moroccan police, but otherwise retained effective control of Moroccan political and financial affairs. The First Moroccan Crisis also showed that the Entente Cordiale was strong, the crisis can be seen as a reason for the Anglo-Russian Entente and the Anglo-Franco-Spanish Pact of Cartagena being signed the following year. Kaiser Wilhelm II was angry at being humiliated and was determined not to back down again, esthus, Raymond A. Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries pp 66–111. Gifford, Prosser, and Alison Smith, eds, Britain and Germany in Africa, imperial rivalry and colonial rule ch 7 Perdicaris incident
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History
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Spanish protectorate of Morocco
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The Spanish protectorate in Morocco was established on 27 November 1912 by a treaty between France and Spain that converted the Spanish sphere of influence in Morocco into a formal protectorate. The Spanish protectorate consisted of a strip on the Mediterranean and the Strait of Gibraltar. The northern zone was retroceded to an independent Morocco on 7 April 1956, Spain finally ceded her southern zone through the Treaty of Angra de Cintra around Cintra Bay on 1 April 1958, only after the short Ifni War. The city of Tangiers was excluded of the Spanish protectorate and received an special internationally controled status, since France already held a protectorate over the entire country and controlled Moroccos foreign affairs, it also held the power to delegate a zone to Spanish protection. The surface area of the zone was about 20,948 km2, in a convention dated 27 June 1900, France and Spain agreed to recognize separate zones of influence in Morocco, but did not specify their boundaries. In 1902, France offered Spain all of Morocco north of the Sebu River and south of the Sous River, in regard to these interests the French Government will come to an understanding with the Spanish Government. The agreement which may be come to on the subject between France and Spain shall be communicated to His Britannic Majestys Government. The British goal in negotiations with France was to ensure that a weaker power held the strategic coast opposite Gibraltar in return for Britain ceding all interest in Morocco. France began negotiating with Spain at once, but the offer of 1902 was no longer on the table, since France had given up her ambitions in Ottoman Libya in a convention with Italy in 1903, she felt entitled to a greater share of Morocco. On 3 October 1904, France and Spain concluded a treaty that defined their precise zones, Spain received a zone of influence consisting of a northern strip of territory and a southern strip. The northern strip did not reach to the border of French Algeria, nor did it include Tangier, the treaty also recognized the Spanish enclave of Ifni and delimited its borders. In March 1905, the German kaiser, Wilhelm II, visited Tangier, there he loudly touted Germanys economic interests in Morocco and assured the sultan of financial assistance in the event of a threat to Moroccan independence. At Wilhelms urging, Sultan Abd el Aziz called for an international conference, the final Spanish zone of influence consisted of a northern strip and a southern strip centred on Cape Juby. The consideration of the strip as part of the protectorate back in 1912 eventually gave Morocco a solid legal claim to the territory in the 1950s. The Protectorate system was established in 1912, the Islamic legal system of qadis was formally maintained. The Spanish lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August 1921, controversy in Spain over the early conduct in the war was a driving factor behind the military coup by General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923 which foreshadowed the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39. After the successful 1925 Alhucemas landing, the French–Spanish alliance ended up achieving victory, before 1934, the southern part of the protectorate was governed from Cape Juby since 1912, Cape Juby was also head of the Spanish West Africa. The Spanish Civil War started in 1936 with the partially successful coup against the Republican Government
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Civil ensign of Spanish Morocco (1937–56)
43.
Tangier Protocol
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The Tangier Protocol was an agreement signed between France, Spain and the United Kingdom by which the city of Tangier in Morocco became the Tangier International Zone. The protocol was signed in Paris on 18 December 1923 and entered into force with ratification on 14 May 1924, starting from 1929, Spain assumed the policing of the city. An international legislative body was created to govern the city, Spain occupied Tangier from 1940 to 1945 taking advantage of Frances occupation by Germany in 1940. The status of the international zone remained until its 29 October 1956 reintegration with Morocco, after it came into force, the Protocol was also acceded to by Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal, and Sweden. First Moroccan Crisis Second Moroccan Crisis List of administrators of the Tangier International Zone
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History
44.
Sand War
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The Sand War or Sands War was a border conflict between Algeria and Morocco in October 1963. It resulted largely from the Moroccan governments claim to portions of Algerias Tindouf, the Sand War led to a heightened tensions between the two countries for several decades. Before French colonization of the region in the century, part of south and west Algeria were under Moroccan influence. Beyond that there is one border area, without limit. An armed conflict opposed French 19th Corps Oran and Algiers divisions to the Aït Khabbash, the conflict ended by the annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt complex by France in 1901. The Algerians therefore did not recognize Moroccos historical or political claims of Greater Morocco that includes Bechar, tension escalated as neither side wanted to back down. Weeks of skirmishes along the border eventually escalated into a confrontation on September 25,1963, with intense fighting around the oasis towns of Tindouf. The Royal Moroccan Army soon crossed into Algeria in force and succeeded in taking two border posts near both settlements, the Algerian military, recently formed from the guerrilla ranks of the FLNs Armée de Libération Nationale was still oriented towards asymmetric warfare, and had little heavy weapons. Its logistics was also complicated by its vast array of largely obsolete weapons from a number of sources, including France, Germany, Czechoslovakia. The Algerian army had ordered a number of AMX-13 light tanks from France in 1962. Ironically at least four AMX-13s had been also been donated by Morocco a year earlier, the Soviet Union supplied Algeria with ten T-34 tanks, but these were equipped for clearing minefields and were delivered without turrets or armament. Moroccos armed forces were smaller, but comparatively well-equipped and frequently took advantage of their firepower on the battlefield. They possessed forty T-54 main battle tanks, twelve SU-100 tank destroyers, seventeen AMX-13s, Morocco also possessed modern strike aircraft, while Algeria did not. Despite internal discontent with the Algerian government, most of the supported the war effort. Even in regions where Ben Bellas regime remained deeply unpopular, such as Kabylie, Moroccos invasion proved to be a diplomatic blunder, as the other Arab and African states refused to recognize its border claims. Egypt even began sending troops and defense hardware to bolster the Algerian military, on October 13,1963, Moroccan ground units launched a major offensive on Tindouf. It stalled due to stubborn resistance from the towns Algerian and Egyptian garrison. On October 22, hundreds of Cuban troops disembarked at Oran, including a T-34 tank company and they were commanded by Efigenio Ameijeiras
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The Maghreb in the second half of the 19th century
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Sand War
45.
Green March
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Nevertheless, the events quickly escalated into a fully waged war between Morocco and the militias of the Polisario, the Western Sahara War, which would last for 16 years. Morocco later gained control over the former Spanish Sahara, which it continues to hold, Morocco, to the north of the Spanish Sahara, had long claimed that the territory was historically an integral part of Morocco. Mauritania to the south argued similarly that the territory was in fact Mauritanian, Morocco intended to vindicate its claims by demanding a verdict from the International Court of Justice, which was issued on 16 October 1975. Instead, the court argued, the population were the owners of the land. This meant that regardless of political solution was found to the question of sovereignty. Complicating matters, a UN visiting mission had concluded on 15 October, the day before the ICJ verdict was released, within hours of the ICJ verdicts release, he announced the organizing of a green march to Spanish Sahara, to reunite it with the Motherland. The Green March was a popular march of enormous proportions. On 6 November 1975 approximately 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in southern Morocco, as the marchers reached the border, the Spanish Armed Forces were ordered not to fire to avoid bloodshed. The Spanish troops also cleared some previously mined zones, according to Morocco, the exercise of sovereignty by the Moroccan state was characterized by official pledges of allegiance to the sultan. The Moroccan government was of the opinion that this allegiance existed during several centuries before the Spanish occupation and that it was a legal and political tie. The sultan Hassan I, for example, had carried out two expeditions in 1886 in order to put an end to foreign incursions in this territory and to officially invest several caids and cadis. In its presentation to the ICJ, the Moroccan side also mentioned the levy of taxes as an instance of the exercise of sovereignty. Even taking account of the structure of that State, they do not show that Morocco displayed any effective and exclusive State activity in Western Sahara. The Green March caught Spain in a moment of political crisis, the dictator General Franco, who had been leading the country for almost 40 years, was dying. Only the year before, the Portuguese government had been toppled by the Portuguese armed forces after becoming bogged down in wars in Angola. Under pressure from Morocco, Spain also agreed that no representatives of the population would be present in the negotiations that resulted in the 14 November Madrid Accords. This was a treaty which divided Spanish Sahara between Mauritania and Morocco, Spain received a 35% concession in the phosphate mines of Bou Craa and offshore fishing rights that were not respected by Morocco. Morocco and Mauritania then formally annexed the parts they had been allotted in the Accords
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A 100 dirham note from 1991 commemorating the Green March
46.
Western Sahara conflict
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The Western Sahara conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Polisario Front and the Kingdom of Morocco. The conflict is the continuation of the past insurgency by Polisario against the Spanish colonial forces in 1973–75, today the conflict is dominated by unarmed civil campaigns of the Polisario Front and their self-proclaimed SADR state to gain fully recognized independence for Western Sahara. The conflict escalated after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords, beginning in 1975, the Polisario Front, backed and supported by Algeria, waged a 16-year-long war for independence against Mauritania and Morocco. In 1977, France intervened, as the conflict reached its peak intensity, in 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict and territories, leading to a stalemate through most of the 1980s. After several more engagements between 1989 and 1991, a agreement was reached between the Polisario Front and the Moroccan government. At present, these borders are largely unchanged, in late 2010, the protests re-erupted in the Gdeim Izik refugee camp in Western Sahara. While the protests were peaceful, they were later marked by clashes between civilians and security forces, resulting in dozens of casualties on both sides. Though sporadic demonstrations continue, the movement had subsided by May 2011. In 1884 Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc, later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958 Spain merged the separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra. Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Sahrawi population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the Spanish-claimed territory for a long time, ma al-Aynayn died in October 1910, and his son El Hiba succeeded him. El Hibas forces were defeated during a campaign to conquer Marrakesh. The city was rebuilt, and Sahrawi resistance continued for the following twenty years. The rebellious territory was subdued in 1934, after joint Spanish. In 1956 the Ifni War, initiated by the Moroccan Army of Liberation, marked renewed conflict in the region, however, unrest lingered among the regions population, and in 1967 the Harakat Tahrir arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. In 1971 a group of young Sahrawi students in the universities of Morocco began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra, as a result of this ambivalence, the movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Western Sahara to start an armed rebellion. Women in Western Sahara are prominent members of the Polisario Front as soldiers, the Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 in the Mauritanian city of Zouirate, with the express intention of militarily forcing an end to Spanish colonization. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed, on 20 May he led the Khanga raid, the Polisarios first armed action, in which a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas was overrun and a cache of rifles seized
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Gathering of Saharawi troops, near Tifariti (Western Sahara), celebrating the 32nd anniversary to the Polisario Front (2005).
47.
Military history of Morocco
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The military history of Morocco covers a vast time period and complex events. It interacts with multiple events in a vast area containing North Africa. Just after defeating the Phoenicians and destructing the city of Carthage in nowadays Tunisia during the Punic Wars, in the west, Mauritania Tingitana was developed by the creation of roads, agricultural innovations and trade expansions. In the mountainous areas, the Berber tribes resisted to the Roman invasions, the Roman influence will be preserved in the south until 285 AD. As of the end of 4th century AD, under the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian and they remained in the north until 429 AD, date of the passage of the Vandals in this part of Mauretania Tingitana. In 533 AD, the Byzantine fleets and then the Visigoths occupied Ceuta, though Morocco was not part of the Ottoman empire, Moroccan pirates held their activities in both the Mediterranean sea and the Atlantic ocean. They used two main ports as bases, Salé and Tétouan, Salé pirates roamed the seas as far as the shores of the Americas, bringing back loot and slaves. The character Robinson Crusoe, in Daniel Defoes novel by the same name, in 1783 the United States made peace with and was recognized by Great Britain, and in 1784 the first American ship was captured by pirates from Morocco. The stars and stripes was a new flag to them, after six months of negotiation, a treaty of friendship between the U. S. and Morocco was signed, $60,000 cash was paid, and trade began. Morocco was the first independent nation to recognize the United States back in 1778, the First Franco-Moroccan War consisted of a series of conflicts fought between France and its colonial administrators on one side, and the sultanate of Morocco on the other. The name of the conflict can be misleading however, seeing the first conflict between the two took place during the Larache expedition, after the Seven Years War. The Second Franco-Moroccan War took place in 1911, when Moroccan forces besieged the French-occupied city of Fez, approximately one month later, French forces brought the siege to an end. On March 30,1912, Sultan AbdelHafid signed the Treaty of Fez, formally ceding Moroccan sovereignty to France, on April 17,1912, Moroccan infantrymen mutinied in the French garrison in Fez. The Moroccans were unable to take the city and were defeated by a French relief force, in late May 1912, Moroccan forces unsuccessfully attacked the enhanced French garrison at Fez. During the period of the French protectorate of Morocco large numbers of Moroccans were recruited for service in the Spahi, during World War II more than 300,000 Moroccan troops served with the Free French forces in North Africa, Italy, France and Austria. The two world conflicts saw Moroccan units earning the nickname of Todesschwalben by German soldiers as they showed particular toughness on the battlefield. By the end of the World War II, Moroccan troops took part of the French Expeditionary Force engaged in the First Indochina War from 1946 to 1954. The Spanish Army also made use of Moroccan troops recruited in the Spanish Protectorate
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Mauritanian cavalry under Lusius Quietus (a Berber prince) fighting in the Dacian wars. Berber cavalry fought with shield and throwing javelins.
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The last page of 1786 treaty of friendship sealed by Mohammed III of Morocco, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams
48.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code
49.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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GND screenshot
50.
Idris I of Morocco
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Idris I was the first Arab ruler and founder of the Idrisid dynasty, ruling from 788 to 791. He is credited with founding the dynasty that was instrumental in the early Islamization of Morocco and he was the great-great-great grandson of the Islamic Prophet Mohammed. Idris was the grandchild of Hasan, who was the son of Fatimah and grandson of the Islamic prophet. There he established the Arabian Idrisid dynasty, in 789 arrived in Walīla, the site of the Roman Volubilis where he founded the town of Moulay Idriss near the hill of Zerhoun surrounding the native Berber tribes. It was then occupied by the Berber tribe of the Awraba and he married Kenza, daughter of Ishaq ben Mohammed the king of the tribe, fathering a son, Idris II. Idris I conquered large parts of northern Morocco, his son Idris II made Fez the capital city of the Idrisid dynasty, in 789 AD, he captured Tlemcen which became part of the kingdom. This succession of events prompted vengeance from the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, Idris I was poisoned and died in 791. His son, Idris II, was brought up by the Awraba, Idris is buried in Moulay Idriss. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period
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The Tomb of Idris I (green roofed structure, bottom left)
51.
Yusuf ibn Tashfin
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Yusuf ibn Tashfin also, Tashafin, or Teshufin, or Yusuf, was leader of the Moroccan Almoravid empire. He co-founded the city of Marrakech and led the Muslim forces in the Battle of Zallaqa/Sagrajas, Ibn Tashfin came to al-Andalus from Africa to help the Muslims fight against Alfonso VI, eventually achieving victory and promoting an Islamic system in the region. He was married to Zainab al-Nafzawiyya, whom he reportedly trusted politically, Yusuf ibn Tashfin emerged from a line of Berber military leaders. His brother oversaw the military for ibn Yasin but was killed in a Saharan revolt in 1056, Ibn Yasin, too, would die in battle against the Barghawata three years later. He appears to have handed him this authority in the interim but even went as far as to give Yusuf his wife, Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyat, purportedly the richest woman of Aghmāt. Daunted by Yusufs new-found power, Abu Bakr saw any attempts at recapturing his post politically unfeasible, the Taifa period followed the demise of the Umayyad Caliphate. The tribute of the emirs bolstered the economy of the Christian kingdom, I am loath to have my name cursed in every Muslim pulpit. And, for my part, I would rather be a camel-driver in Africa than a swineherd in Castile and he is regarded as the co-founder of the famous Moroccan city Marrakech. The site had been chosen and work started by Abu Bakr in 1070, the work was completed by Yusef, who then made it the capital of his empire, in place of the former capital Aghmāt. Yusefs cavalry was said to have included 6,000 shock troops from Senegal mounted on white Arabian horses, camels were also put to use. The death of Yusefs heir, however, prompted his return to Africa. The emirs in such cities as Seville, Badajoz, Almeria, on top of doling out tribute to the Christians and giving Andalusian Jews unprecedented freedoms and authority, they had levied burdensome taxes on the populace to maintain this lifestyle. After a series of fatwas and careful deliberation, Yusef saw the implementation of orthodoxy as long overdue and that year he exiled the emirs Abdallah and his brother Tamim from Granada and Málaga, respectively, to Aghmāt, and a year later al-Mutamid of Seville suffered the same fate. When all was said and done, Yusef united all of the Muslim dominions of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Zaragoza, to the Kingdom of Morocco, and situated his royal court at Marrakech. He took the title of Amir al-muslimin, seeing himself as serving the caliph of Baghdad. The military might of the Almoravids was at its peak, the Sanhaja confederation, which consisted of a hierarchy of Lamtuna, Musaffa and Djudalla Berbers, represented the militarys top brass. The occupying forces of the Almoravids were made up largely of horsemen, soldiers on foot used bows & arrows, sabres, pikes, javelins, each protected by a cuirass of Moroccan leather and iron-spiked shields. Yusef also established bases in Cadiz, Almeria and neighboring ports along the Mediterranean
Yusuf ibn Tashfin
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Qirat minted during his administration
52.
Almohad dynasty
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The Almohad Caliphate was a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement founded in the 12th century. The Almohad movement was founded by Ibn Tumart among the Berber Masmuda tribes of southern Morocco, around 1120, the Almohads first established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains. They succeeded in overthrowing the ruling Almoravid dynasty governing Morocco by 1147 and they then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of North Africa and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172, nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Cordova and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively. The Almohads continued to rule in Africa until the loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies. The Almohad movement originated with Ibn Tumart, a member of the Masmuda, at the time, Morocco, and much of the rest of North Africa and Spain, was under the rule of the Almoravids, a Sanhaja Berber dynasty. Early in his life, Ibn Tumart went to Spain to pursue his studies, in Baghdad, Ibn Tumart attached himself to the theological school of al-Ashari, and came under the influence of the teacher al-Ghazali. He soon developed his own system, combining the doctrines of various masters, Ibn Tumarts main principle was a strict unitarianism, which denied the independent existence of the attributes of God as being incompatible with His unity, and therefore a polytheistic idea. Ibn Tumart represented a revolt against what he perceived as anthropomorphism in Muslim orthodoxy and his followers would become known as the al-Muwahhidun, meaning those who affirm the unity of God. After his return to the Maghreb c.1117, Ibn Tumart spent some time in various Ifriqiyan cities, preaching and agitating, heading riotous attacks on wine-shops and on other manifestations of laxity. He laid the blame for the latitude on the dynasty of the Almoravids. His antics and fiery preaching led fed-up authorities to him along from town to town. After being expelled from Bejaia, Ibn Tumart set up camp in Mellala, in the outskirts of the city, where he received his first disciples - notably, al-Bashir and Abd al-Mumin. In 1120, Ibn Tumart and his band of followers proceeded to Morocco, stopping first in Fez. He even went so far as to assault the sister of the Almoravid emir Ali ibn Yusuf, in the streets of Fez, because she was going about unveiled, after the manner of Berber women. After the debate, the scholars concluded that Ibn Tumarts views were blasphemous and the man dangerous, but the emir decided merely to expel him from the city. Ibn Tumart took refuge among his own people, the Hargha, in his village of Igiliz. He retreated to a cave, and lived out an ascetic lifestyle, coming out only to preach his program of puritan reform
Almohad dynasty
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The Almohads transferred the capital of Al-Andalus to Seville.
Almohad dynasty
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Flag
Almohad dynasty
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Almohads after 1212
Almohad dynasty
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La Giralda.
53.
Abu Yaqub Yusuf
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Abu Yaqub Yusuf or Yusuf I was the second Almohad Amir or caliph. He reigned from 1163 until 1184 in Marrakech and he had the Giralda in Seville built as well as Koutoubia in Marrakech and Hassan Tower in Rabat. Yusuf was the son of Abd al-Mumin, the first caliph of the Almohad dynasty, originally hailing from North Africa, Yusuf and his bloodline were descended from the Zenata Berbers. Like a number of Almohad rulers, Yusuf favored the Zahirite or literalist school of Muslim jurisprudence and was a scholar in his own right. Respected men of such as Ibn Rushd and Ibn Tufayl were entertained at his court. Yusuf favored Cordoban polymath Ibn Maḍāʾ as his judge, during the Almohad reforms. Yusufs son al-Mansur would eventually take the reforms even further, actually burning non-Zahirite books instead of banning them. In 1170 he invaded Iberia, conquering al-Andalus and ravaging Valencia and Catalonia, the following year he established himself in Seville. He ordered the construction of buildings, such as the Alcazar, the Buhaira palace. Abu Yaqub Yusuf was defeated by Afonso I of Portugal at the Siege of Santarém, in which he died, his body was sent from Seville to Tinmel where he was buried
Abu Yaqub Yusuf
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Abu Yaqub Yusuf
54.
Idris al-Ma'mun
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Abu al-Ala Idris al-Ma’mun was an Almohad rival caliph who reigned in part of the empire from 1229 until his death. He was a son of Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur and brother of Muhammad al-Nasir, at the death of Abdallah, a civil war broke out between Idris and his nephew Yahya, who had the support of the capital Marrakesh. Idris asked Ferdinand III of Castile for help, receiving 12,000 knights who allowed him to conquer that city, Idris abandoned the Mahdi doctrine, in favour of the Sunni one. He went so far as to claim that the Mahdi was Jesus and not Ibn Tumart and this sacrilege caused the break away of the Hafsid dynasty in the Ifriqiya province. Owing to his inability to pay Ferdinand, he accepted the construction of a Christian church in Marrakesh in 1230, the side changes of Idris soon lost him popular consent. In the early 1232, when he was besieging Ceuta, Yahya took the occasion to capture Marrakesh, Idris died during the march to reach the city, and was succeeded by his son Abd al-Wahid II. Idris’ other son was Abu al-Hasan as-Said al-Mutadid, histoire de lAfrique du Nord, des origines à1830
Idris al-Ma'mun
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Coins of Ferdinand III of Castile, who helped Idris al-Ma’mun
55.
Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd Al-Haqq
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Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq was a Marinid ruler of Morocco. He was the son of Marinid founder Abd al-Haqq. The Marinids had been fighting the Almohads for supremacy over Morocco since the 1210s, in September,1260, in a surprise attack, a Christian naval force from Spain, probably Castilian, landed on the Atlantic coast of Morocco and seized the city of Salé. Abu Yusuf retook the city after a fourteen-day siege and it was the first known direct encounter between the Marinids and the Christian powers of the Iberian peninsula. Abu Yusuf decided against a raid, and instead focused on reducing the Almohad resistance in the south. In 1262, Abu Yusuf laid siege to the Almohad capital of Marrakech, changing tactics, he decided to sponsor the rebellious Almohad chieftain Abu Dabbus in his struggle against his cousin, the Almohad caliph Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada. But once Abu Dabbus seized Marrakech in 1266, he broke his treaty with the Marinids, instead, Abu Dabbus persuaded the Abdalwadid ruler Yaghmorassan of the Kingdom of Tlemcen to launch an incursion into Marinid land from the northeast. Abu Yusuf broke off his campaign against the errant Almohad client to deal with the Tlemcen intervention, Abu Yusuf promptly returned to the south, defeated the forces of Abu Dabbus and entered Marrakech on 8 September 1269, putting a final end to the Almohad Caliphate. The Marinids were masters of Morocco, and Abu Yusuf Yaqub took up the title of Prince of the Muslims, like the Almoravids, the Marinids never adopted the caliphal title, believing it to be an impious pretension. The Marinids resisted the temptation of relocating their capital to the Marrakech, citadel of the Almoravids and Almohads, the Marinids had some difficulty getting their authority recognized by the southerly Maqil Arabs of the Draa valley and Sijilmassa. The Draa valley Arabs submitted only after a campaign in 1271, the northerly port cities of Ceuta and Tangiers also refrained from acknowledging Marinid suzerainty until 1273. Abu Yusuf erected the advanced coastal fortress of Taount to police any future Abdalwadid interventions in Marinid dominions, ibn Khaldouns account of Abu Yusufs 1274 siege of Sijilmassa relates what seems to be one of the first uses of powder cannon as a siege weapon. In 1272, the Nasrid ruler Muhammad I of Granada had appealed to the Marinid emir Abu Yusuf Yaqub for assistance, Granada was then plunged in civil war, with the Nasrids fighting off a challenge from the rival Banu Ashqilula family, rulers in Málaga, Guadix and Comares. The Christian king Alfonso X of Castile had thrown his weight behind the Ashqilula - in part because the Nasrids themselves had sheltered Castilian rebels, but the Marinid emir Abu Yusuf was then engaged against Tlemcen and could not intervene. In 1274, Muhammad Is son and successor, Muhammad II al-Faqih struck a deal with Alfonso X, paying the Castilian king some 300,000 maravedis and promising not to intrigue with Castilian rebels. With Morocco now pacified and Tlemcen controlled, in April,1275, Abu Yusuf Yaqub took up the Nasrid request and crossed the straits, the Marinids quickly took Tarifa and Algeciras and confirmed their pact with Muhammad II. The arrival of the Marinids and the absence of Alfonso X prompted the Banu Ashqilula to quickly come terms with the Nasrids. With that out of the way, raids were launched on Castilian lands - the Marinids ravaged Castilian-ruled Andalusia below the Guadalquivir, while Muhammad II led a Granadan army against Cordoba
Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd Al-Haqq
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Abu Yusuf Yaqub
56.
Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr
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Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr was a Marinid ruler of Morocco. He was the son of Abu Yusuf Yaqub, whom he succeeded in 1286, Abu Yaqub Yusuf succeeded his father Abu Yusuf Yaqub in March 1286, shortly after the latters expedition to Spain and peace treaty with Sancho IV of Castile. The accession was contested by several of his relatives, including his brother, some of whom were backed by, in November 1288, Abu Yaqubs own son Abu Amir, hatched a conspiracy to depose him. The plot was discovered and stopped, but Abu Amir. Abu Yaqub was soon reconciled with his son, but demanded that his fellow conspirators be handed over for justice, a Marinid fleet blockaded Tlemcen through much of 1290, but to little effect. In 1291, the truce with Sancho IV of Castile expired, with Granadine assistance, the Marinid citadel of Tarifa fell to Sancho IV in October 1292. But Sancho refused to honour his agreement to hand the citadel over to Granada, in response, Muhammad II immediately tried to repair relations with the Marinids. The estranged Castilian prince Infante Don Juan, then in exile, participated in this discussion, Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub undertook his first crossing of the straits in 1293 to lay siege of Tarifa. But the citadel, held by the Castilian noble Alonso Perez de Guzman held out. It is said that when Infante Don Juan threatened to kill Guzmans son who he was holding prisoner, Guzmans only response was to toss a knife from the walls, and tell him to proceed. Around 1294, while still in Spain, Abu Yaqub received word that a revolt had broken out among the Berber Wattasids of the Rif, fomented by the Abdalwadids of Tlemcen. Plans for the resumption of the siege of Tarifa were shelved, the failed siege of Tarifa persuaded the Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub to abandon his plans for conquering territory on the peninsula. In 1295, he handed over the last two remaining Marinid citadels, Algeciras and Ronda, to Muhammad II of Granada. The abandonment of his territories in Spain gave Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub a free hand to pursue a war against the Abdalwadids of Tlemcen in 1295. Marinid forces moved systematically and slowly along the coast, taking Taourirt, Oujda, Taount and Nedroma before finally arriving at Tlemcen in May 1299. Settling down for a siege, Abu Yaqub erected a siege camp which turned into a veritable city, known as al-Mahalla al-Mansura, with markets, public baths. From here, he conducted the siege against Tlemcen, while dispatching detachments to seize the remaining possessions of the Abdalwadid sultanate. Nonetheless, the city of Tlemcen refused to fall
Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr
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Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr
57.
Abu Thabit Amir
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Abu Thabit Amir was a Marinid ruler of Morocco for around a year. Son or grandson of Abu Yaqub Yusuf, whom he succeeded in 1307, the Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf was in the Kingdom of Tlemcen laying siege to the Abd al-Wadid capital when he was assassinated. The new Marinid sultan Abu Thabit, whose ascendancy was contested by four pretenders, had to choose between pressing the siege or recovering his dominions. Acting quickly, Abu Thabit dispatched three of the pretenders, then struck a deal with the Abd al-Wadid ruler Abu Zayyan I to allow an orderly lifting of the siege of Tlemcen. Abu Thabit rushed his troops back to Morocco to take on the fourth pretender, Othman ibn Idris, the Abd al-Wadids set about razing the Marinid siege camp at Tlemcen and proceeded down the coast to Oujda, rolling back the hard-won Marinid gains of the last few years. To coordinate his operations against Othman ibn Idris, Abu Thabit erected a new town, Tetouan, in July 1308, Abu Thabit fell ill and died in Tetouan. He was succeeded by his brother, Abu al-Rabi Sulayman as Marinid sultan of Morocco
Abu Thabit Amir
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Abu Thabit Amir
58.
Abu al-Rabi Sulayman
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Abu ar-Rabi Sulayman was a Marinid ruler of Morocco. Son or grandson of Abu Yaqub Yusuf and brother of Abu Thabit Amir, Abu ar-Rabi Sulayman succeeded his brother Abu Thabit Amir as Marinid sultan in July 1308. Abu Thabit had died at Tetouan, while laying siege to Ceuta, then held by Othman ibn Idris, the Marinids were quick to return the favor. As part of the deal, a treaty was contracted between Abu al-Rabi and a Granadine princess. The Nasrid ruler Nasr of Granada passed over the Iberian towns of Algeciras, like his brother before him, Abu al-Rabi Sulayman fell ill and died in November 1310. Without sons of his own, he was succeeded by an uncle, Abu Said Uthman II as Marinid sultan of Morocco
Abu al-Rabi Sulayman
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Abu ar-Rabi Sulayman
59.
Abu Sa'id Uthman II
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Abū Saīd Uthmān II (أبو سعيد عبد الله عثمان بن يوسف ابو يعقوب was the 10th Marīnīd sultan. A younger son of Yūsuf Abū Yaqūb, Abū Saīd Uthmān succeeded his nephew Abū al-Rabï Sulaymān as Sultan of Morocco in November 1310 and his full name was Abdullāh Uthmān ibn Yūsuf Abū Yaqūb ibn Abd al-Ḥaqq. He was the son of Abū Yaqūb Yūsuf al-Nașr and his wife Āishah who was a daughter of an Arab tribal leader and he was described by his biographer as being of a white complexion, average height and well featured. Pious and preferring peace, Abū Saīd Uthmān refrained from any great enterprises, in 1313, hoping to divest himself of any entanglements on the Iberian peninsula, he returned the towns of Algeciras and Ronda to the Naṣrid ruler Nașr of Granada. In 1315, Abū Saīd Uthmān faced a rebellion by his son and designated heir, Abū Alī, at first not enthusiastic about a confrontation, the sultan entered into negotiations which would pass the Marinid state over to his son and leave himself as governor of Taza. But Abū Saīd Uthmān gained courage when he heard Abū Alī had fallen ill, Abū Alī was removed from the line of succession, in favour of another son, Abū al-Ḥasan Alī. However, Abū Saīd Uthmān granted Abū Alī an appanage centered on Sijilmasa in southern Morocco, which he would rule as a quasi-independent state for the next couple of decades. In 1316, Yahyā ibn Afzi, governor of Ceuta, revolted against the Marinid sultan, in 1320 his son Abū Alī renewed his revolt against his father. From his base in Sijilmasa, Abu Ali seized control of much of southern Morocco, in 1322, the Marīnīd sultan Abū Saīd Uthmān marched against the south and defeated Abū Alī at the Oum er-Rebia. But, once again, he reconciled with his son and allowed him to retain Sijilmasa, Abū Saīd Uthmān built three significant madrasas in Fez, Fez al-Jedid, Es-Sahrij and El-Ațțārīn. Satisfied by the terms, Abū Saīd Uthmān arranged a diversionary raid against Tlemcen from the west, in August 1331, while arranging for the reception of the Tunisian princess, Abū Saīd Uthmān fell ill and died in the environs of Taza. He was succeeded by his son and designated heir Abū al-Ḥasan, julien, Charles-André, Histoire de lAfrique du Nord, des origines à1830, édition originale 1931, réédition Payot, Paris,1961
Abu Sa'id Uthman II
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'Uthmān II
60.
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman
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Abu Al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman was a sultan of the Marinid dynasty who reigned in Morocco between 1331 and 1348. In 1333 he captured Gibraltar from the Castilians, although an attempt to take Tarifa in 1339 ended in fiasco. In North Africa he extended his rule over Tlemcen and Ifriqiya, under him the Marinid realms in the Maghreb briefly covered an area that rivaled that of the preceding Almohad Caliphate. However, he was forced to retreat due to a revolt of the Arab tribes, was shipwrecked and his son Abu Inan Faris seized power in Fez. Abu Al-Hasan died in exile in the High Atlas mountains, Abu al-Hassan was the son of Marinid ruler Abu Said Uthman II and an Abyssinian mother. He had a dark complexion, and was known as the Black Sultan of Morocco and he succeeded his father Abu Said Uthman II in 1331. Abu al-Hassan married Fatima, daughter of the Hafsid ruler Abu Bakr of Ifriqiya, in 1309, Castillian troops under Ferdinand IV captured Gibraltar, then known as the Medinat al-Fath, from the Muslim-ruled Emirate of Granada. In 1333, responding to the appeal of Nasrid ruler Muhammad IV of Granada, a force of 7,000 men was transported across the Strait of Gibraltar to rendezvous with the forces of Muhammad IV of Granada at Algeciras in February 1333. The situation in Gibraltar was desperate by mid-June, the food had run out and the townspeople and garrison had been reduced to eating their own shields, belts and shoes in an attempt to gain sustenance from the leather from which they were made. On 17 June 1333, Vasco Perez surrendered Gibraltar after agreeing terms with Abd al-Malik, the defenders were allowed to leave with honour as a mark of respect for their courage in defending the town for so long. According to Ibn Marzuq, the jubilant students burst out into cries of praise, gave thanks, however, Abu al-Hasan was not ready to invade the Iberian peninsula since he was engaged in hostilities with Tlemcen. Muhammad IVs brother and successor, Yusuf I of Granada maintained the alliance with the Marinid ruler, a peace treaty was signed at Fez on 26 February 1334 between Castile, Granada and Morocco with a four-year duration. Abu al-Hassan was married to a Hafsid princess, and in 1334 the Hafsids appealed to him for help, in early 1335, Marinid forces under Abu al-Hassan invaded Tlemcen from the west and dispatched a naval force to assist the Hafsids from the east. The Zayyanids were rolled back into the city of Tlemcen, the Marinid sultan Abu al-Hassan laid a three-year siege of Tlemcen, turning his siege camp into a veritable adjoining city. In May 1337, after a siege, Tlemcen finally fell to a Marinid assault. Ibn Tashufin died during the fighting and his brothers were captured and killed and the Sultanate of Tlemcen was annexed by the Marinids. Abu al-Hasan received delegates from Egypt, Granada, Tunis and Mali congratulating him on his victory, flush from these victories, in 1339, Abu al-Hassan received an appeal from the Nasrid ruler Yusuf I of Granada to help drive back the Castilians. The assembly of a large Marinid invasion force in Morocco prompted the Castilian king Alfonso XI to bring to an end his quarrel with Afonso IV of Portugal
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman
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Strait of Gibraltar, with Ceuta in the southeast opposite Algeciras Bay and Gibraltar
61.
Abu Inan Faris
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Abu Inan Faris was a Marinid ruler of Morocco. He succeeded his father Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman in 1348 and he extended his rule over Tlemcen and Ifriqiya, which covered the north of what is now Algeria and Tunisia, but was forced to retreat due to a revolt of Arab tribes there. He died strangled by his vizier in 1358, Abu Inans father Abul Hasan had taken the town of Tlemcen in 1337. In 1347 Abul Hasan annexed Ifriqiya, briefly reuniting the Maghrib territories as they had been under the Almohads, however, Abul Hasan went too far in attempting to impose more authority over the Arab tribes, who revolted and in April 1348 defeated his army near Kairouan. Abu Inan Faris, who had been serving as governor of Tlemcen, returned to Fez, Tlemcen and the central Maghreb revolted. Abu Inan took the title of Amir al-muminin, Abul Hasan had to return from Ifriqiya by sea. After failing to retake Tlemcen and being defeated by his son, in 1352 Abu Inan Faris recaptured Tlemcen. He also reconquered the central Maghreb, the Nasrid rulers of Granada were concerned that if Abu Inan was able to gain full control of the Maghreb, he would then invade Granada. To weaken him, they sponsored a rebellion by his brother Abul Fadl, sultan Abul-Hajjaj of Grenada hired ships from Castile and used them to take Abul-Fadl and his supporters to Sousse, where he launched a short-lived rebellion. Abu Inan continued his expansion, and took Tunis in 1357. Due to the intrigues of his vizier, Faris bin Maymum, Abu Inan fell ill in November 1357. His vizier Hasan bin Umar al-Fududi had a dispute with his heir apparent Abu Zayyan Muhammad, when Abu Inan began to recover from his illness, the vizier feared he would be punished for nominating Abu Bakr. On 10 January 1358 he had Abu Inan strangled, under Abu Inans rule the Black Death and the rebellions of Tlemcen and Tunis marked the beginning of the decline of the Marinids. They proved unable to back the Portuguese and the Spaniards, who settled on the North African coast during the reign of the Wattasids. Abu Inan commissioned one of his secretaries, Ibn Juzayy, to record an account of Ibn Battutas 29 years of travelling, the result, Ibn Battutas rihla, was completed in December 1355. Abu Inan built madrasas in Meknes and Fes in 1350, the Bou Inania Madrasa of Fes and that of Meknes were named after him
Abu Inan Faris
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Coin minted in Fes during the reign of Abu Inan Faris
Abu Inan Faris
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Zaouiyat Annoussak in Salé, built by Abu Inan Faris in 1356
62.
Mohammed ash-Sheikh
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Mawlay Mohammed ash-Sheikh ash Sharif al-Hassani al-Drawi at-Tagmaderti was the first sultan of the Saadi dynasty ruling over Morocco. Al-Drawi at-Tagmadert means, the man from the Draa river valley and he was particularly successful in expelling the Portuguese from most of their bases in Morocco. He also eliminated the Wattasids and resisted the Ottomans, thereby establishing a rule over Morocco. After the death of his father Abu Abdallah al-Qaim in 1517, Ahmad al-Araj became Emir of Marrakesh, while still recognizing the Wattasid Sultan of Fez, while Mohammed ash-Sheikh remained as ruler of Taroudannt. In 1527, the Treaty of Tadla was passed between the Saadians and the Wattasids, following the Wattasid defeat in the battle of Wadi al-Abid, both dynasties agreed to their dominion on respective territories, separated by Tadla. After 1536, and the rise in power of Araj, the brothers came into conflict with each other, Ahmad al-Araj had in effect allied himself with the Wattasids under regent Ali Abu Hassun. Mohammed ash-Sheikh could maintain his position in Southern Morocco and conquered Agadir in 1541 and other coastal towns, after the loss of Agadir, the Portuguese immediately evacuated Azamor and Safi. Eventually, brother Ahmad al-Araj fled to Tafilalet, after reorganising his army after Ottoman example he succeeded in conquering Fez in 1549, causing the downfall of the Wattasids. In the conquest of Fez he again used European artillery, which he had used in the Fall of Agadir in 1541. He then provided an army to his son, who was able to conquer Tlemcen in 1549, after the fall of Fez, Ksar-el-Kebir and Asila were also evacuated in 1550 by the Portuguese. Finally, only Ceuta, Tangier and Mazagan remained in Portuguese hands, during the Ottoman Siege of Oran, Mohammed ash-Sheikh, who was allied with the Spanish, managed to capture Tlemcen from the Ottomans. With the final victory of the Saadi and the death of Ali Abu Hassun in 1554, Mohammed ash-Sheikh was assassinated by the Ottomans in 1557 by order of Hasan Pasha, son of Barbarossa, as he was preparing for an alliance with Spain against the Ottomans. Some Ottoman soldiers had entered into his service, claiming to be deserters. He was buried in the Saadian Tombs of Marrakech and he was succeeded by his son Abdallah al-Ghalib
Mohammed ash-Sheikh
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Mohammed ash-Sheikh initially had his capital in the southern Moroccan city of Taroudant, the walls of which he built. The capital was then moved to Marrakesh after its conquest in 1524.
Mohammed ash-Sheikh
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Mohammed ash-Sheikh محمد الشيخ
63.
Ahmad al-Mansur
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Ahmad al-Mansur was Sultan of the Saadi dynasty from 1578 to his death in 1603, the sixth and most famous of all rulers of the Saadis. Ahmad al-Mansur was an important figure in both Europe and Africa in the century, his powerful army and strategic location made him an important power player in the late Renaissance period. He has been described as a man of profound Islamic learning, a lover of books, calligraphy and mathematics, as well as a connoisseur of mystical texts and he was the fifth son of Mohammed ash-Sheikh who was the first Saadi sultan of Morocco. His mother was the well-known Lalla Masuda, the two brothers spent 17 years among the Ottomans between the Regency of Algiers and Constantinople, and benefited from Ottoman training and contacts with Ottoman culture. In 1578, Ahmads brother, Sultan Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi, Ahmad was named his brothers successor and began his reign amid newly won prestige and wealth from the ransom of Portuguese captives. Al-Mansur began his reign by leveraging his dominant position with the vanquished Portuguese during prisoner ransom talks, shortly after, he began construction on the great architectural symbol of this new birth of Moroccan power and relevance, the grand palace in Marrakesh called El Badi, or the marvelous. Moroccos standing with the Christian states was still in flux, to do that Morocco had to control sizable gold resources of its own. Accordingly, al-Mansur was drawn irresistibly to the gold trade of the Songhai in hopes of solving Moroccos economic deficit with Europe. Ahmad al-Mansur developed friendly relations with England in view of an Anglo-Moroccan alliance, in 1600 he sent his Secretary Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud as ambassador to the Court of Queen Elizabeth I of England to negotiate an alliance against Spain. Ahmad al-Mansur also wrote about reconquering Al-Andalus for Islam back from the Christian Spanish, in a letter of 1 May 1601 he wrote that he also had ambitions to colonize the New World with Moroccans. He envisioned that Islam would prevail in the Americas and the Mahdi would be proclaimed from the two sides of the oceans, Ahmad al-Mansur had French physicians at his Court. Arnoult de Lisle was physician to the Sultan from 1588 to 1598 and he was then succeeded by Étienne Hubert dOrléans from 1598 to 1600. Both in turn returned to France to become professors of Arabic at the Collège de France, the Songhai Empire was a western African state centered in eastern Mali. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, it was one of the largest African empires in history. On October 16,1590, Ahmad took advantage of recent civil strife in the empire, though the Songhai met them at the Battle of Tondibi with a force of 40,000, they lacked the Moroccans gunpowder weapons and quickly fled. Ahmad advanced, sacking the Songhai cities of Timbuktu and Djenné, despite these initial successes, the logistics of controlling a territory across the Sahara soon grew too difficult, and the Saadians lost control of the cities not long after 1620. Ahmad al-Mansur died of the plague in 1603 and was succeeded by Zidan Abu Maali, who was based in Marrakech, and by Abou Fares Abdallah and he was buried in the mausoleum of the Saadian Tombs in Marrakech. In that city is also his El Badi Palace, well-known writers at his court were Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari, Abd al-Aziz al-Fishtali, Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi and Al-Masfiwi
Ahmad al-Mansur
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Ahmad I al-Mansur
Ahmad al-Mansur
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In 1600 Ahmad al-Mansur sent his Secretary Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud (pictured) as ambassador of Morocco to the Court of Queen Elizabeth I of England to negotiate an alliance against Spain.
Ahmad al-Mansur
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Marrakech and El Badi Palace, by Adriaen Matham, 1640.
Ahmad al-Mansur
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El Badi Palace, Marrakech. Built by Al-Mansur in 1578.
64.
Abdalmalik of Morocco
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Abdalmalik was Sultan of Morocco in 1728, and member of the Alaouite Dynasty. Son of the notorious Moulay Ismail, Abdalmalik was earmarked as his fathers successor until he fell from favour and was replaced as heir by his half-brother Ahmed ed Dehebi in 1727. Ahmed ed Dehebi proved quite ineffective as a ruler, and when it became public that he was a drunkard, Abdalmalik was proclaimed Sultan, but failed to prevent his brothers escape and made the mistake of criticising the fiercely loyal bukhari. The bodyguard then threw their support behind the ousted Ahmed ed Dehebi, a compromise was reached between the brothers after bloody fighting, splitting Morocco into two kingdoms. Ahmed ed Dehebi was to have Meknes for his capital while Abdalmalik was to rule from Fez, not content with this however, Abdalmalik arranged a face-to-face meeting with his brother with the intention of assassinating him. The attempt failed and Abdalmalik was sent off under guard to a remote prison, where several weeks later he was assassinated
Abdalmalik of Morocco
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Abdalmalik
65.
Yazid of Morocco
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Yazid was Sultan of Morocco from 1790 to 1792, and was a member of the Alaouite dynasty. Yazids first order of business was persecuting the Jews of the city of Tétouan, in deference to Yazids father, Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah, the Jews of Tétouan denied financial support to Yazid and his effort to overthrow his father. Although observers remark that Yazid authorized his black troops to plunder Tétouans Jewish quarter, also during his rule, he allowed Shiite refugees from the Ottoman Empire to reside and become prominent in the country. List of Kings of Morocco History of Morocco Morocco Alaoui dynasty History of Morocco
Yazid of Morocco
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Yazid
66.
Slimane of Morocco
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Mulay Slimane or Suleiman was the Sultan of Morocco from 1792 to 1822. Slimane was one of five sons of Mohammed III who fought a war for control of the kingdom. Slimane emerged victorious in 1795, and the country remained largely passive for the subsequent decades of his rule and he was a member of the Alaouite dynasty. Slimane continued his fathers centralization and expansion of the kingdom, as part of Moroccos long running conflict with Spain and Portugal, Slimane halted all trade with Europe. However, he continued his fathers policies of close relations with the United States, mulay Slimane is also the author of some works. Most famous his Inayat Ula li al-Majd and it is dedicated to one of his teachers, Mohammed ibn Abd al-Salam al-Fasi and discusses the origins of the Fasi al-Fihris. Another famous essay is his Hawashi ala Sharh al-Kharshi a work on religion, some of his other works are Taqayid fi Hukm al-Ghina and Risala fi Hukm al-Ghina. Mulay Slimane is also the author of several letters, list of Kings of Morocco History of Morocco Morocco in the Reign of Mawlay Sulayman, by Mohamed El Mansour Morocco Alaoui dynasty History of Morocco Dar-Sirr. com, Portal to Moroccan Sufism
Slimane of Morocco
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Slimane
67.
Abd al-Rahman of Morocco
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Not to be confused with Abd al-Rahman I Moulay Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham was the sultan of Morocco from 1822 to 1859. He was a member of the Alaouite dynasty, Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham was born in 1778. Following the death of his uncle Suleiman of Morocco, Abd al-Rahman was proclaimed sultan of Morocco in Fez on 30 November 1822, upon ascension, the sultans finances were in shambles. With the country in disarray, the government was unable to collect much customary taxation. Abd al-Rahman turned to trade, which had been cut off by the prior sultan, as way to reap in customs revenue. The final bombardment of a Moroccan city in retribution for piracy occurred in 1851 at Salé and he was an adept leader and administrator and was able to build public works and infrastructure. He did however have to deal with conflicts and had to quell revolts many times,1824,1828,1831,1843,1849. He was always successful at placating the nobles and malcontents though, the most serious foreign threat to Morocco, however, was France, which had launched its invasion of neighboring Algeria in 1830. Abd al-Rahman rushed Moroccan troops up to defend Tlemcen, but they were thrown back, Abd al-Rahman supported the continued guerrilla resistance in Algeria led by Abd al-Qadir al-Jazairi, albeit only tentatively, not wishing to incur French retaliation. The French demanded that Morocco cease its support of Abd al-Qadir and cede its eastern frontierlands to French control and, in 1844, the war did not go well for the sultan. The French navy bombarded Mogador and Tangier, while the Moroccan army, the Treaty of Lalla Maghnia was signed in March 1845, whereby the Moroccan border was demarcated further west, closer to the Moulouya River. The treaties aggravated the situation in Morocco, which grew more unstable as Abd al-Rahman was accused of yielding too quickly to French demands. Abd al-Rahman in fact rejected the treaty of Lalla Maghnia at first, blaming it on his negotiatiors, army units and rural tribes across the north and east, already basically ungovernable, started raising rebellions which were only crushed with difficulty. The aftermath saw the break between Abd al-Rahman and Abd al-Qadir and they would tax caravans travelling from the Sahara and Tafilalt regions as well as taxing goods sold locally. Abd al-Rahman died in Meknes on August 28,1859 and he was succeeded by his son, sultan Mohammed IV of Morocco. During his long reign he proved competent in an Africa that was being colonized by stronger European nations. He was able to remain independent and maintain his borders without ceding any land and he also signed the necessary treaties to enforce his beliefs. List of Kings of Morocco History of Morocco Treaty of Lalla-Maghnia Morocco Alaoui dynasty History of Morocco Travel in Morocco IterancePlus Smara, Morocco history
Abd al-Rahman of Morocco
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'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Hisham
68.
Mohammed Ben Aarafa
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Mohammed Ben Aarafa, or Ben Arafa was a distant relative of Sultan Mohammed V of Morocco, he was put in Mohammed Vs place by the French after they exiled Mohammed V to Madagascar. Installed in August 1953, he abdicated in October 1955, while Mohammed V was still in exile, the reign of this Mohammed VI was not recognized in the Spanish protected part of Morocco. Protests against Ben Aarafa helped lead to Moroccan independence, which was agreed to between France and Mohammed V in 1955 and he died in 1976 in France. Mohammed Vs grandson now reigns in Morocco as Mohammed VI, ignoring the reign of Ben Aarafa by using the regnal number. Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honor of France –10 December 1953, list of Kings of Morocco History of Morocco Morocco Alaoui dynasty History of Morocco
Mohammed Ben Aarafa
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Mohammed Ben Aarafa of Morocco
69.
Mohammed V of Morocco
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Mohammed V was Sultan of Morocco from 1927–53, exiled from 1953–55, where he was again recognized as Sultan upon his return, and King from 1957 to 1961. His full name was Sidi Mohammed ben Yusef, or Son of Yusef and he was a member of the Alaouite Dynasty. On 20 August 1953, the French who were occupying Morocco at the time forced Mohammed V and his uncle, Mohammed Ben Aarafa, was placed on the throne. Mohammed V and his family were transferred to Madagascar in January 1954. Mohammed V returned from exile on 16 November 1955, and was recognized as Sultan after active opposition to the French protectorate. In February 1956 he successfully negotiated with France and Spain for the independence of Morocco, here are competing accounts of exactly what Mohammed V did or did not do for the Moroccan Jewish community during the Holocaust. However, hough a subject of debate, most scholars stress the benevolence of Mohammed V toward the Jews during the Vichy era. The sultans stand was based as much on the insult the Vichy diktats posed to his claim of sovereignty over all his subjects, including the Jews, as on his humanitarian instincts. Mohammed V was one of the sons of Sultan Yusef, who was enthroned by the French in September 1912 and his wife Lalla Yaqut and his first wife was Lalla Hanila bint Mamoun. She was the mother of his first daughter Lalla Fatima Zohra and his second wife was his first cousin Lalla Abla bint Tahar. She was the daughter of Moulay Mohammed Tahar bin Hassan, son of Hassan I of Morocco and she married Mohammed V in 1929 and died in Rabat on 1 March 1992. She gave birth to five children, the future King Hassan II, Lalla Aicha, Lalla Malika, Moulay Abdallah and his third wife was Lalla Bahia bint Antar, mother of his last daughter Lalla Amina. He died on 26 February 1961 following complications of a surgery he had undergone, the Mohammed V International Airport and Stade Mohamed V of Casablanca are named after him, as well as numerous universities and various public spaces across Morocco. There is an Avenue Mohammed V in nearly every Moroccan city, in December 2007, The Jewish Daily Forward reported on a secret diplomatic initiative by the Moroccan government to have Mohammed V admitted to the Righteous Among the Nations. Du Lys, www. editionsdulys. com, Montréal,2010, Second edition, www. iuniverse. com, Bloomington, IN,2012, ISBN 978-1-4759-2608-8, 620p
Mohammed V of Morocco
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Mohammed V of Morocco
Mohammed V of Morocco
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Mohammed V's tomb inside his mausoleum at Rabat, with Hassan II's tomb in the background
Mohammed V of Morocco
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Sultan Mohammed V of Morocco visiting Lawrence Livermore Lab, United States, in 1957.
Mohammed V of Morocco
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Mohammed V with his family in Madagascar, 1954.
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