1.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
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In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
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The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
2.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
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University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
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The Sorbonne covered by snow.
3.
20th-century philosophy
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20th-century philosophy saw the development of a number of new philosophical schools— including logical positivism, analytic philosophy, phenomenology, existentialism, and poststructuralism. In terms of the eras of philosophy, it is labelled as contemporary philosophy. However, there have been disputes regarding both the terminology and the reasons behind the divide, as well as philosophers who see themselves as bridging the divide, in addition, philosophy in the twentieth century became increasingly technical and harder for lay people to read. Analytic philosophy is a term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, epistemology in the Anglo-American tradition was radically shaken up by the publication of Edmund Gettiers 1963 paper Is Justified True Belief Knowledge. This paper provided counter-examples to the formulation of knowledge going back to Plato. Neopragmatism, sometimes called linguistic pragmatism is a recent philosophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. V. O and it repudiates the notion of universal truth, epistemological foundationalism, representationalism, and the notion of epistemic objectivity. It is a nominalist approach that denies that natural kinds and linguistic entities have substantive ontological implications and this approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theories in favour of close attention to the details of the use of everyday, ordinary language. The later Ludwig Wittgenstein is ordinary language philosophys most celebrated proponent outside the Oxford circle, second generation figures include Stanley Cavell and John Searle. Continental philosophy, in usage, refers to a set of traditions of 19th and 20th century philosophy from mainland Europe. This sense of the term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the half of the 20th century. Existentialism is generally considered a philosophical and cultural movement that holds that the point of philosophical thinking must be the individual. Common themes are the primacy of experience, Angst, the absurd, while György Lukácss History and Class Consciousness and Karl Korschs Marxism and Philosophy, first published in 1923, are often seen as the works that inaugurated this current. Maurice Merleau-Ponty coined the phrase Western Marxism much later, phenomenology is the study of the phenomena of experience. It is a philosophical movement founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl. Phenomenology, in Husserls conception, is concerned with the systematic reflection on, and study of, the structures of consciousness. This phenomenological ontology can be differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis, which sees the world as objects, sets of objects. Post-structuralism is a label formulated by American academics to denote the heterogeneous works of a series of French intellectuals who came to prominence in the 1960s and 70s
20th-century philosophy
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History of
Western philosophy
4.
Post-structuralism
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Existential phenomenology is a significant influence, Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called post-phenomenologists. Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, Structuralism rejected the phenomenological idea that knowledge could be centred on the human knower, and sought what they considered a more secure foundation for knowledge. In phenomenology, this foundation is experience itself, in structuralism, knowledge is founded on the structures that make possible, concepts. By contrast, post-structuralism argues that founding knowledge either on experience or systematic structures is impossible. This impossibility was not meant as a failure or loss, a major theory associated with Structuralism was binary opposition. This theory proposed that there are theoretical and conceptual opposites, often arranged in a hierarchy. Such binary pairs could include Enlightenment/Romantic, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signifier/signified, the only way to properly understand these meanings is to deconstruct the assumptions and knowledge systems that produce multiplicity, the illusion of singular meaning. It emphasized the logical and scientific nature of its results, post-structuralism offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced and critiques structuralist premises. It argues that history and culture condition the study of underlying structures. A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object, it is necessary to both the object itself and the systems of knowledge that produced the object. Post-structuralists generally assert that post-structuralism is historical, and they classify structuralism as descriptive and this terminology relates to Ferdinand de Saussures distinction between the views of historical and descriptive reading. From this basic distinction, post-structuralist studies often emphasize history to analyze descriptive concepts, by studying how cultural concepts have changed over time, post-structuralists seek to understand how those same concepts are understood by readers in the present. For example, Michel Foucaults Madness and Civilization is both a history and an inspection of cultural attitudes about madness, the uncertain distance between structuralism and post-structuralism is further blurred by the fact that scholars rarely label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as Roland Barthes and Foucault, some observers from outside the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigor and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher John Searle argued in 1990 that The spread of poststructuralist literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly, similarly, physicist Alan Sokal in 1997 criticized the postmodernist/poststructuralist gibberish that is now hegemonic in some sectors of the American academy. Has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale, one can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to Chomsky. Post-structuralism emerged in France during the 1960s as a movement critiquing structuralism, merquior a love–hate relationship with structuralism developed among many leading French thinkers in the 1960s. In a 1966 lecture Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences, Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life, Derrida interpreted this event as a decentering of the former intellectual cosmos
Post-structuralism
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Sub-fields
Post-structuralism
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Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
5.
University of Paris VIII
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The University of Paris VIII or University of Vincennes in Saint-Denis is a public university in Paris. Once part of the federal University of Paris system, it is now a public institution and is part of the Université Paris Lumières. Most undergraduate degrees are taught in French and it is one of the thirteen inheritors of the worlds second oldest academic institution, the University of Paris, shortly before the latter officially ceased to exist on December 31,1970. It was founded as a response to events of May 1968. Founded in 1969, the new institution was named Centre Universitaire Expérimental de Vincennes in Vincennes. In 1971, it gained university status, thus allowing it to award its own degrees. Since moving to Saint-Denis in 1980, the university has become a major teaching, as soon as it opened, Vincennes became the venue for a continuation of 1968, being occupied almost immediately by student radicals, and being the scene of violent confrontations with the police. The department had its accreditation withdrawn after it was revealed that Miller had handed out course credit to someone she met on a bus. Since the turmoil in the late 1960s, the University has endorsed a far more mainstream academic life and has brought in new departments, new professors, in 1980, the University was relocated to the suburb of Saint-Denis. The university offers over a hundred undergraduate, graduate and diploma courses and it is particularly well known for its Political Sciences programme as it is the only public university in France to offer this subject at undergraduate level. The University of Paris VIII also offers some distance-learning opportunities for a number of subjects such as Law. Paris-VIII is exceptionally well-connected and enjoys over 250 partnerships with universities around the world, alternatively, students also have the possibility to teach French in a high school abroad or to complete an internship
University of Paris VIII
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Paris 8 University
University of Paris VIII
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Entrance of Paris 8 University
6.
Mirror stage
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The mirror stage is a concept in the psychoanalytic theory of Jacques Lacan. The mirror stage is based on the belief that infants recognize themselves in a mirror or other symbolic contraption which induces apperception from the age of six months. Initially, Lacan proposed that the stage was part of an infants development from 6 to 18 months. This evolution in Lacans thinking becomes clear in his essay titled The Subversion of the Subject. Wallon noted that by the age of six months, human infants. In a 1931 paper, Wallon argued that mirrors helped children develop a sense of self-identity, holland to declare that there is no evidence whatsoever for Lacans notion of a mirror stage. There is no evidence whatsoever that this implausible consequence of the theory is borne out in practice, Wallons ideas about mirrors in infant development were distinctly non-Freudian and little-known until revived in modified form a few years later by Lacan. As Evans writes, Lacan used this observation as a springboard to develop an account of the development of human subjectivity that was inherently, though often implicitly, Lacan attempted to link Wallons ideas to Freudian psychoanalysis, but was met with indifference from the larger community of Freudian psychoanalysts. Richard Webster explains how the complex, and at times impenetrable paper appears to have little or no lasting impression on the psychoanalysts who first heard it. It was not mentioned in Ernest Jones’s brief account of the congress, in the 1930s, Lacan attended seminars by Alexandre Kojève, whose philosophy was heavily influenced by Hegel. The diachronic structure of the stage theory is influenced by Kojèves interpretation of the Master-slave dialectic. Lacan continued to refine and modify the mirror stage concept through the remainder of his career, the mirror stage is a phenomenon to which I assign a twofold value. In the first place, it has value as it marks a decisive turning-point in the mental development of the child. In the second place, it typifies an essential libidinal relationship with the body image, as Lacan further develops the mirror stage concept, the stress falls less on its historical value and ever more on its structural value. Historical value refers to the development of the child and structural value to the libidinal relationship with the body image. In Lacans fourth Seminar, La relation dobjet, he states that the stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child. It illustrates the nature of the dual relationship. The visual identity given from the mirror supplies imaginary wholeness to the experience of a fragmentary real, see Lacans paper, The Mirror Stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience, the first of his Écrits
Mirror stage
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A toddler and a mirror
7.
Theodor Reik
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Theodor Reik was a psychoanalyst who trained as one of Freuds first students in Vienna, Austria, and was a pioneer of lay analysis in the United States. Reik received a Ph. D. degree in psychology from the University of Vienna in 1912 and his dissertation, a study of Flauberts Temptation of Saint Anthony, was only the second psychoanalytic dissertation ever written, coming one year after Otto Ranks. After receiving his doctorate, Reik devoted several years to studying with Freud, Freud financially supported Reik and his family during his psychoanalytic training. During this time, Reik was analyzed by Karl Abraham, Reik, who was Jewish, emigrated from Germany to the Netherlands in 1934 and to the United States in 1938 in flight from Nazism. In 1944, he became a citizen of the United States. During the First World War, Reik was mobilized and had to face up to the experience of unbearable helplessness found in trench-warfare, in 1935, a book is published in which Reik speaks about the dread when confronting thoughts, from the point of view of the psychoanalyst. When peace was restored, a Committee directed by Julius Tandler was organized in Vienna to investigate committed felonies. At that time, the practice of medicine in places directed by Wagner von Jauregg and Arnold Durig had been discredited by a former patient, sigmund Freud was appointed as an expert on the medical care to be provided to war neurotics. In February 1920, he gave its opinion and, in October 1920, another matter shook up the Austrian capital. In November 1924, Durig asked Freud to write an evaluation about the question of lay analysis, it is to say. In December 1924, during a session of the Vienna Health State Board and they take place during the same period and in the same city, Vienna, they each concerned the practice of caregivers, and they implicated the same individuals who were in authority. Among those treated by Reik in his Viennese period was the philosopher Frank P. Ramsey, once in the United States, Reik found himself rejected from the dominant community of medical psychoanalysts because he did not possess an M. D. Degree. As part of Reiks conflict with the medical community, he participated in the first lawsuit which helped define. Reik is best known for studies of psychotherapeutic listening, masochism, criminology, literature. Reik further explored this theme in The Unknown Murderer, in which he examined the process of psychologically profiling unknown criminals and he argued out that because of unconscious guilt, criminals often leave clues that can lead to their identification and arrest. In Ritual, Four Psychoanalytic Studies, he uses psychoanalysis to shed light on the meaning of couvade, puberty rites, according to Reik, analysts come to understand patients most deeply by examining their own unconscious intuitions about their patients. The Secret Self comprises a number of essays of literary criticism. In this book, Reik continued to develop his interest in the relationship between his own personality and his work, exploring how his internal conflicts shaped his interpretations of literary works
Theodor Reik
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Thedor Reik.
Theodor Reik
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Memorial plaque, Berlin.
8.
Martin Heidegger
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Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, he is acknowledged to be one of the most original. His first and best known book, Being and Time, though unfinished, is one of the philosophical works of the 20th century. Heidegger approached the question through an inquiry into the being that has an understanding of Being, and asks the question about it, namely, Human being, for Heidegger thinking is thinking about things originally discovered in our everyday practical engagements. The consequence of this is that our capacity to think cannot be the most central quality of our being because thinking is a reflecting upon this more original way of discovering the world. Heideggers later work includes criticisms of technologys instrumentalist understanding in the Western tradition as enframing, treating all of Nature as a reserve on call for human purposes. Heidegger was born in rural Meßkirch, Germany, the son of Johanna, raised a Roman Catholic, he was the son of the sexton of the village church that adhered to the First Vatican Council of 1870, which was observed mainly by the poorer class of Meßkirch. Heidegger was short and sinewy, with piercing eyes. He enjoyed outdoor pursuits, being proficient at skiing. In the two following, he worked first as an unsalaried Privatdozent. He served as a soldier during the year of World War I, working behind a desk. During the 1930s, critics of Heideggers espousal of a Nazi-style rhetoric of martial manliness noted the unheroic nature of his service in WWI, in 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary Professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg. His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai Hartmann, and Paul Natorp, Heideggers students at Marburg included Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, Karl Löwith, Gerhard Krüger, Leo Strauss, Jacob Klein, Gunther Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy, the question of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence, which he found prefigured in such Christian thinkers as Saint Paul, Augustine of Hippo, Luther and he also read the works of Dilthey, Husserl, and Max Scheler. In 1927, Heidegger published his main work Sein und Zeit, when Husserl retired as Professor of Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburgs election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for the rest of his life, declining a number of later offers and his students at Freiburg included Arendt, Günther Anders, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse and Ernst Nolte. Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928, Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21 April 1933, and joined the National Socialist German Workers Party on 1 May
Martin Heidegger
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Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger
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The Mesnerhaus in
Meßkirch, where Heidegger grew up
Martin Heidegger
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Heidegger's stone-and-tile chalet clustered among others at Todtnauberg
Martin Heidegger
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Heidegger's grave in Meßkirch
9.
Roman Jakobson
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Roman Osipovich Jakobson was a Russian–American linguist and literary theorist. Influenced by the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, Jakobson developed, with Nikolai Trubetzkoy, techniques for the analysis of systems in languages. He went on to apply the techniques of analysis to syntax and morphology. He made numerous contributions to Slavic linguistics, most notably two studies of Russian case and an analysis of the categories of the Russian verb and he studied at the Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages and then at the Historical-Philological Faculty of Moscow University. As a student he was a figure of the Moscow Linguistic Circle and took part in Moscows active world of avant-garde art. The linguistics of the time was overwhelmingly neogrammarian and insisted that the scientific study of language was to study the history. Jakobson was also known for his critique of the emergence of sound in film. Jakobson received a degree from Moscow University in 1918. 1920 was a year of conflict in Russia, and Jakobson relocated to Prague as a member of the Soviet diplomatic mission to continue his doctoral studies. He immersed himself both into the academic and cultural life of pre-World War II Czechoslovakia and established relationships with a number of Czech poets. Jakobson received his Ph. D. from Charles University in 1930 and he became a professor at Masaryk University in Brno in 1933. He also made an impression on Czech academics with his studies of Czech verse, in 1926, together with Vilém Mathesius and others he became one of the founders of the Prague school of linguistic theory. There his numerous works on phonetics helped continue to develop his concerns with the structure and this mode of analysis has been since applied to the plane of Saussurean sense by his protégé Michael Silverstein in a series of foundational articles in functionalist linguistic typology. Jakobson escaped from Prague in early March 1939 via Berlin for Denmark, where he was associated with the Copenhagen linguistic circle and he fled to Norway on 1 September 1939, and in 1940 walked across the border to Sweden, where he continued his work at the Karolinska Hospital. In New York, he began teaching at The New School, at the École libre des hautes études, a sort of Francophone university-in-exile, he met and collaborated with Claude Lévi-Strauss, who would also become a key exponent of structuralism. He also made the acquaintance of many American linguists and anthropologists, such as Franz Boas, Benjamin Whorf, when the American authorities considered repatriating him to Europe, it was Franz Boas who actually saved his life. After the war, he became a consultant to the International Auxiliary Language Association, in 1949 Jakobson moved to Harvard University, where he remained until his retirement in 1967. In his last decade he maintained an office at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the early 1960s Jakobson shifted his emphasis to a more comprehensive view of language and began writing about communication sciences as a whole
Roman Jakobson
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Roman Jakobson
10.
Karl Marx
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Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
Karl Marx
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Marx in 1875
Karl Marx
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Marx's birthplace in Trier. It was purchased by the
Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928 and now houses a museum devoted to him.
Karl Marx
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Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s
Karl Marx
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Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; they became lifelong friends and collaborators.
11.
Georges Bataille
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Georges Albert Maurice Victor Bataille was a French intellectual and literary figure working in literature, philosophy, anthropology, economics, sociology and history of art. His writing, which included essays, novels, and poetry, explored such subjects as eroticism, mysticism, surrealism and his work would prove influential on subsequent schools of philosophy and social theory, including poststructuralism. Georges Bataille was the son of Joseph-Aristide Bataille, a tax collector, born in Billom in the region of Auvergne, his family moved to Reims in 1898, where he was baptized. He went to school in Reims and then Épernay, although brought up without religious observance, he converted to Catholicism in 1914, and became a devout Catholic for about nine years. He considered entering the priesthood and attended a Catholic seminary briefly, however, he quit, apparently in part in order to pursue an occupation where he could eventually support his mother. He eventually renounced Christianity in the early 1920s, Bataille attended the École Nationale des Chartes in Paris, graduating in February 1922. Though he is referred to as an archivist and a librarian because of his employment at the Bibliothèque Nationale. After graduating he moved to the School of Advanced Spanish Studies in Madrid, as a young man, he befriended, and was much influenced by, the Russian existentialist, Lev Shestov. Founder of several journals and literary groups, Bataille is the author of a large and diverse body of work, readings, poems and he sometimes published under pseudonyms, and some of his publications were banned. Initially attracted to Surrealism, Bataille quickly fell out with its founder André Breton, although Bataille, Bataille was a member of the extremely influential College of Sociology which included several other renegade surrealists. Fascinated by human sacrifice, he founded a society, Acéphale. According to legend, Bataille and the members of Acéphale each agreed to be the sacrificial victim as an inauguration. An indemnity was offered for an executioner, but none was found before the dissolution of Acéphale shortly before the war, the group also published an eponymous review of Nietzsches philosophy which attempted to postulate what Derrida has called an anti-sovereignty. Collaborators in these projects included André Masson, Pierre Klossowski, Roger Caillois, Jules Monnerot, Jean Rollin, Bataille drew from diverse influences and used various modes of discourse to create his work. The imagery of the novel is built upon a series of metaphors which in turn refer to philosophical constructs developed in his work, the eye, the egg, the sun, the earth, the testicle. During World War II Bataille produced Summa Atheologica which comprises his works Inner Experience, Guilty, after the war he composed The Accursed Share, which he said represented thirty years work. The singular conception of sovereignty expounded there would become an important topic of discussion for Derrida, Giorgio Agamben, Jean-Luc Nancy, Bataille also founded the influential journal Critique. Batailles first marriage was to actress Silvia Maklès, in 1928, they divorced in 1934, Bataille also had an affair with Colette Peignot, who died in 1938
Georges Bataille
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Georges Bataille in the 1950s
12.
Henri Wallon (psychologist)
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Henri Paul Hyacinthe Wallon was a French philosopher, psychologist, neuropsychiatrist, teacher, and politician. He was the grandson of Henri-Alexandre Wallon, Henri Wallon conducted two parallel careers. As a convinced Marxist, he took up political duties while carrying out work in the field of developmental psychology. In 1931, Wallon joined the French socialist political party SFIO, in 1944 he was named Secretary of National Education. He was elected Communist Deputy and chaired an education reform commission that durably marked the National Education system under the name The Langevin-Wallon Project, Henri Wallon is better known by his scientific work primarily devoted to child development. Following his education, he occupied the highest positions in the French university world where he fostered leading research activity, Wallon was admitted to the École Normale Supérieure in 1899, where he passed higher-level competitive examinations for teachers and professors in philosophy in 1902. In 1908 he became a doctor of medicine, and from 1908 to 1931 worked with mentally retarded children, during World War I, Wallon was mobilized as an army medical officer and became interested in neurology. In 1920 he became a lecturer at the Sorbonne. From 1937 to 1949 he was a professor with the Collège de France, in 1948, as director of the University of Pariss Institute of Psychology, he created the journal Enfance. He was a president of the Groupe français déducation nouvelle from 1946 until his death in 1962, Henri Wallon organized his observations by presenting the development of the childs personality as a succession of stages. Some of these stages are marked by the predominance of affectivity over intelligence whereas others appear characterized instead by the primacy of intelligence over affectivity, the childs personality is developed in this discontinuous and competitive succession between the prevalence of intelligence and affectivity. Thus, Wallon articulated at the core of a model of concepts such as emotion, attitudes. His conception of the stages implied the idea that regression was possible, dominating infantile life, they are the internal feelings and the affective factors fostered with the surroundings. On the motor plane this period is characterized by weak motor control, the quality responses from the infants surroundings will enable him to pass from the gestural disorder to differentiated emotions. What prevails then for the child is the influence of the external world, the integration of this external influence will support the awakening of two types of intelligence, one practical, the other the discursive through imitation and appropriation of language. The personalism stage is characterized by a predominance, once again, around 3 years of age the child tends to be opposed to the adult in a kind of negativist crisis, but this attitude is soon followed by a period of motor and social imitation. The child expresses thus the ambivalence binding him to the model that the adult represents for him. Here, intellectual faculties seem to take the lead over the affective one, during his schooling the child acquires capacities for voluntary memory and attention
Henri Wallon (psychologist)
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Contents
13.
Julia Kristeva
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Julia Kristeva is a Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, psychoanalyst, feminist, and, most recently, novelist, who has lived in France since the mid-1960s. She is now a professor at the University Paris Diderot, Kristeva became influential in international critical analysis, cultural studies and feminism after publishing her first book, Semeiotikè, in 1969. She is prominent in structuralist and poststructuralist thought, Kristeva is also the founder and head of the Simone de Beauvoir Prize committee. Born in Sliven, Bulgaria to Christian parents, Kristeva is the daughter of a church accountant, Kristeva and her sister attended a Francophone school run by Dominican nuns. Kristeva became acquainted with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin at this time in Bulgaria, Kristeva went on to study at the University of Sofia, and while a postgraduate there obtained a research fellowship that enabled her to move to France in December 1965, when she was 24. She continued her education at several French universities, studying under Lucien Goldmann and Roland Barthes, on August 2,1967, Kristeva married the novelist Philippe Sollers, né Philippe Joyaux. Kristeva taught at Columbia University in the early 1970s, and remains a Visiting Professor and she has also published under the married name Julia Joyaux. After joining the Tel Quel group founded by Sollers, Kristeva focused on the politics of language and she trained in psychoanalysis, and earned her degree in 1979. In some ways, her work can be seen as trying to adapt a psychoanalytic approach to the poststructuralist criticism, for example, her view of the subject, and its construction, shares similarities with Sigmund Freud and Lacan. However, Kristeva rejects any understanding of the subject in a structuralist sense, instead, in this way, she contributes to the poststructuralist critique of essentialized structures, whilst preserving the teachings of psychoanalysis. She travelled to China in the 1970s and later wrote About Chinese Women and it is an emotional field, tied to the instincts, which dwells in the fissures and prosody of language rather than in the denotative meanings of words. It is closely tied to the feminine, and represents the state of the pre-Mirror Stage infant. Upon entering the Mirror Stage, the child learns to distinguish between self and other, and enters the realm of shared meaning, known as the symbolic. This process of separation is known as abjection, whereby the child must reject and move away from the mother in order to enter into the world of language, culture, meaning, and the social. This realm of language is called the symbolic and is contrasted with the semiotic in that it is associated with the masculine, the law, Kristeva departs from Lacan in the idea that even after entering the symbolic, the subject continues to oscillate between the semiotic and the symbolic. Therefore, rather than arriving at an identity, the subject is permanently in process. Because female children continue to identify to some degree with the mother figure and this continued identification with the mother may result in what Kristeva refers to in Black Sun as melancholia, given that female children simultaneously reject and identify with the mother figure. After abjecting the mother, subjects retain an unconscious fascination with the semiotic, desiring to reunite with the mother, slasher films thus provide a way for audience members to safely reenact the process of abjection by vicariously expelling and destroying the mother figure
Julia Kristeva
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Julia Kristeva in Paris, 2008
Julia Kristeva
14.
Psychosexual development
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Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. He argued that adult neurosis often is rooted in childhood sexuality, sexual infantilism, in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido, the child might experience failure and thus might associate anxiety with the given erogenous zone. e. The tendency to place objects in the mouth, the id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully developed, and, since the infant has no personality, every action is based upon the pleasure principle. Nonetheless, the ego is forming during the oral stage, two factors contribute to its formation, in developing a body image, he or she is discrete from the external world. Weaning is the key experience in the oral stage of psychosexual development. In the case of too little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that gratification is not forthcoming, the style of parenting influences the resolution of the id–ego conflict, which can be either gradual and psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden and psychologically traumatic. If the child obeys the id, and the yield, he or she might develop a self-indulgent personality characterized by personal slovenliness. If the parents respond to that, the child must comply, but might develop a sense of self, because it was the parents will, and not the childs ego. The third stage of development is the phallic stage, spanning the ages of three to six years, wherein the childs genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone. In the phallic stage, a boys decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex and this psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and sexually possessed his mother, Jocasta. Analogously, in the stage, a girls decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra complex. The boy focuses his libido upon his mother, and focuses jealousy, Electra, Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that is rooted in anatomic fact, without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother, as the infantile id demands. As a result, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father, thus, moreover, after the phallic stage, the girls psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered a girls Oedipal conflict to be more intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially. Psychologic defense, In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the Id and the drives of the Ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, in a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might lead him to become an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain man. The genital stage affords the person the ability to confront and resolve his or her remaining psychosexual childhood conflicts, as in the phallic stage, the genital stage is centered upon the genitalia, but the sexuality is consensual and adult, rather than solitary and infantile. Hence, the stage proved controversial, for being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus complex
Psychosexual development
–
The
neurologist Sigmund Freud,
c. 1921.
Psychosexual development
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Oedipus complex: Oedipus explains the riddle of the Sphinx,
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. (ca. 1805)
Psychosexual development
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Electra complex: Electra at the Tomb of
Agamemnon, by
Frederic Leighton, c.1869
Psychosexual development
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Psychosexual development: Bronisław Malinowski and natives,
Trobriand Islands (1918).
15.
Consciousness
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Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it
Consciousness
–
Schema of the neural processes underlying consciousness, from
Christof Koch
Consciousness
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Representation of consciousness from the seventeenth century
Consciousness
–
A Buddhist monk meditating
16.
Id, ego and super-ego
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The super-ego can stop one from doing certain things that ones id may want to do. The super-ego is observable in how someone can view themselves as guilty, bad, pathetic, shameful, weak, Freud in The Ego and the Id discusses the general character of harshness and cruelty exhibited by the ideal – its dictatorial Thou shalt. At the time at which the Oedipus complex gives place to the super-ego they are something quite magnificent, the earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. When one defuses into rivalry with the imago, then one feels the dictatorial thou shalt to manifest the power the imago represents. Four general levels are found in Freuds work, the auto-erotic, the narcissistic, the anal, and these different levels of development and the relations to parental imagos correspond to specific id forms of aggression and affection. Freuds proposal was influenced by the ambiguity of the term unconscious, the id is the disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a humans basic, instinctual drives. Id is the component of personality that is present from birth. It is the source of our needs, wants, desires. The id contains the libido, which is the source of instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality. We approach the id with analogies, we call it a chaos, in the id, …contrary impulses exist side by side, without cancelling each other out. There is nothing in the id that could be compared with negation, nothing in the id which corresponds to the idea of time. Developmentally, the id precedes the ego, i. e. the psychic apparatus begins, at birth, as an undifferentiated id, part of which then develops into a structured ego. The mind of a child is regarded as completely id-ridden, in the sense that it is a mass of instinctive drives and impulses. The id knows no judgements of value, no good and evil, instinctual cathexes seeking discharge—that, in our view, is all there is in the id. It is regarded as the reservoir of libido, the instinctive drive to create—the life instincts that are crucial to pleasurable survival. For Freud, the death instinct would thus seem to express itself—though probably only in part—as an instinct of destruction directed against the external world, Freud considered that the id, the whole person. Originally includes all the instinctual impulses, the destructive instinct as well, as eros or the life instincts. The reality principle that operates the ego is a mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs
Id, ego and super-ego
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"The ego is not sharply separated from the id; its lower portion merges into it.... But the repressed merges into the id as well, and is merely a part of it. The repressed is only cut off sharply from the ego by the resistances of repression; it can communicate with the ego through the id." (
Sigmund Freud, 1923)
17.
Libido
–
Libido, colloquially known as sex drive, is a persons overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Sex drive is influenced by biological, psychological and social factors, biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens regulate libido in humans. Social factors, such as work and family, and internal factors, like personality and stress. Sex drive can also be affected by conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues. A person who has extremely frequent or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing hypersexuality, while the opposite condition is hyposexuality. A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, psychologically, a persons urge can be repressed or sublimated. On the other hand, a person can engage in activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans. A lack or loss of desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved. The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partners changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship, problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences. A person is sex starved or sexually frustrated when they have a libido, sigmund Freud defined libido as the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude. Of those instincts which have to do all that may be comprised under the word love. It is the energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id. Freud pointed out that these drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis, a primary goal of psychoanalysis is to bring the drives of the id into consciousness, allowing them to be met directly and thus reducing the patients reliance on ego defenses. Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of stages within the individual. According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, the libido is identified as psychic energy, defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individuals urge to engage in sexual activity, and its antonym is the force of destruction termed mortido or destrudo
Libido
–
Sigmund Freud
18.
Alfred Adler
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Alfred W. Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of inferiority—the inferiority complex—is recognized as an element which plays a key role in personality development. Alfred Adler considered human beings as a whole, therefore he called his psychology Individual Psychology. Adler was the first to emphasize the importance of the element in the re-adjustment process of the individual. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Adler as the 67th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Alfred Adler was born at Mariahilfer Straße 208 in Rudolfsheim, then a village on the fringes of Vienna, and today part of Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus. He was third of the seven children of a Hungarian-born, Jewish grain merchant, others contend that he was the second of the children. Alfreds younger brother died in the bed next to him, when Alfred was only three years old, Alfred was an active, popular child and an average student who was also known for his competitive attitude toward his older brother, Sigmund. Early on, he developed rickets, which kept him from walking until he was four years old, at the age of four, he developed pneumonia and heard a doctor say to his father, Your boy is lost. At that point, he decided to be a physician and he was very interested in the subjects of psychology, sociology and philosophy. After studying at University of Vienna, he specialized as an eye doctor and his clients included circus people, and it has been suggested that the unusual strengths and weaknesses of the performers led to his insights into organ inferiorities and compensation. In 1902 Adler received an invitation from Sigmund Freud to join an informal group that included Rudolf Reitler. The group, the Wednesday Society, met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freuds home and was the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement, a long-serving member of the group, Adler became president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later. He remained a member of the Society until 1911, when he and a group of his supporters formally disengaged from Freuds circle and this departure suited both Freud and Adler, since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which diverged from Freuds. While Adler is often referred to as a pupil of Freuds, in fact this was never true, they were colleagues, in 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freuds, Adler founded the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adlers group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents and their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration for Freuds ideas on dreams and credited him with creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilization
Alfred Adler
–
Alfred Adler
19.
Wilfred Bion
–
Wilfred Ruprecht Bion DSO was an influential British psychoanalyst, who became president of the British Psychoanalytical Society from 1962 to 1965. Wilfred Bion was a potent and original contributor to psychoanalysis and he was one of the first to analyze patients in psychotic states using an unmodified analytic technique, he extended existing theories of projective processes and developed new conceptual tools. Bions ideas are highly unique, so that he remained larger than life to almost all who encountered him and he has been considered by Neville Symington as possibly the greatest psychoanalytic thinker. after Freud. Bion was born in Mathura, North-Western Provinces, India, and he was demobilised on 1 September 1921, and was granted the rank of captain. The full citation for his DSO reads, Awarded the Distinguished Service Order, T. /2nd Lt, Wilfred Ruprecht Bion, Tank Corps. For conspicuous gallantry, and devotion to duty, when in command of his tank in an attack he engaged a large number of enemy machine guns in strong positions, thus assisting the infantry to advance. When his tank was put out of action by a hit he occupied a section of trench with his men and machine guns. He moved about in the open, giving directions to other tanks when they arrived and he also got a captured machine gun into action against the enemy, and when reinforcements arrived he took command of a company of infantry whose commander was killed. He showed magnificent courage and initiative in a most difficult situation, after World War I, Bion studied history at The Queens College, Oxford, earning a bachelor of arts degree in 1922, then studying medicine at University College London. This was to prove an important influence on Bions interest in group behavior and it did, however, bring him into fruitful contact with Samuel Beckett. He wanted to train in Psychoanalysis and in 1938 he began an analysis with John Rickman. These ideas on the psychoanalysis of groups were taken up and developed by others such as S. H. Foulkes, Rickman, Bridger, Main. It was less a guide for the therapy of individuals within or by the group, the book quickly became a touchstone work for applications of group theory in a wide variety of fields. During the war Bions wife, Betty Jardine, gave birth to a daughter and his daughter, Parthenope, became a highly regarded psychoanalyst In Italy. She died prematurely, in a car crash in Italy in 1998, as his interest in psychoanalysis increased, he underwent training analysis, between 1946 and 1952, with Melanie Klein. He met his wife, Francesca, at the Tavistock in 1951. He joined a group of Kleins students, who were developing Kleins theory of the paranoid-schizoid. He produced a series of original and influential papers on the analysis of schizophrenia, and the specifically cognitive, perceptual
Wilfred Bion
–
Wilfred Bion
Wilfred Bion
–
Wilfred Bion in uniform in 1916
20.
Josef Breuer
–
Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Viennas Jewish community. Breuers mother died when he was young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year before enrolling in the school of the University of Vienna. He passed his exams in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internist Johann Oppolzer at the university. Breuer, working under Ewald Hering at the medical school in Vienna, was the first to demonstrate the role of the vagus nerve in the reflex nature of respiration. This was a departure from previous physiological understanding, and changed the way scientists viewed the relationship of the lungs to the nervous system, the mechanism is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex. That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz, but Goltz did not discover how the balance-sensing apparatus functions. Breuer is perhaps best known for his work in the 1880s with Anna O. a woman suffering from paralysis of her limbs, Breuer observed that her symptoms reduced or disappeared after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping and she also coined the more serious appellation for this form of therapy, talking cure. Breuer later referred to it as the “cathartic method”, Breuer was then a mentor to the young Sigmund Freud, and had helped set him up in medical practice. Never before had anyone removed a hysterical symptom by such a method, Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies in Hysteria. He also gives others, such as Pierre Janet, credit and argues for “eclecticism”, the two men became increasingly estranged. In 1894 Breuer was elected a Corresponding Member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, Breuer married Mathilde Altmann in 1868, and they had five children. His daughter Dora later committed suicide rather than be deported by the Nazis, another one of his daughters, Margarete Schiff, perished in Theresienstadt on September 9,1942. Breuers granddaughter, Hanna Schiff, died imprisoned by the Nazis. Das Verhalten der Eigenwärme in Krankheiten, die Selbststeuerung der Athmung durch den Nervus vagus. In, Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien, math. -naturw, bemerkungen zu Senators „Beiträge zur Lehre von der Eigenwärme und dem Fieber“. Über die Function der Bogengänge des Ohrlabyrinthes, beiträge zur Lehre vom statischen Sinne
Josef Breuer
–
Josef Breuer
21.
Max Eitingon
–
Max Eitingon was a Belarusian-German medical doctor and psychoanalyst, instrumental in establishing the institutional parameters of psychoanalytic education and training. Eitingon was cofounder and president from 1920 to 1933 of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Polyclinic, Eitingon was born to an extremely wealthy orthodox Jewish family in Mohilev, Imperial Russia, the son of a successful fur trader Chaim Eitingon. When he was twelve the family moved to Leipzig, before completing his dissertation, Eitingon worked as an intern at Eugen Bleulers Burghölzli Clinic in Zurich. In 1907 he was sent by Bleuler to meet Freud, and in 1908-9 underwent five weeks of analysis with Freud and he completed his dissertation, Effect of an epileptic attack on mental associations, with Carl Jungs help, and settled in Berlin. In 1913 he married Mirra Jacovleina Raigorodsky, an actress with the Moscow Art Theater, during World War I Eitingon became an Austrian citizen, joining the army as a doctor and using hypnosis to treat soldiers with war trauma. Settling in Berlin after the war, he was invited by Freud to join the secret Psychoanalytic Committee, Eitingon financed the building of a polyclinic, using Freuds son Ernst Freud as architect. Eitingon, Karl Abraham and Ernst Simmel ran the clinic until the rise of Nazism in 1933, at the 1925 Bad Homburg Congress, Eitingon proposed that the Berlin system of psychoanalytic training should be made an international standard under an International Training Commission. Eitingon was appointed president of the ITC, and kept the position until his death in 1943, after the family business suffered in the US Great Depression, Eitingon was forced for the first time to take a patient to earn his living. In 1932 he had a cerebral thrombosis, on Freuds advice, Eitingon left Germany in September 1933 and emigrated to Palestine. In 1934 he founded the Palestine Psychoanalytic Association in Jerusalem, however, despite Freuds recommendation, he did not manage to gain a chair in psychoanalysis at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Eitingon died on 30 July 1943 in Jerusalem, and is buried on Mount Scopus, genie, Talent und Psychoanalyse, Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse 2 539-540. Gott und Vater, Imago 3, 90-93 Ein Fall von Verlesen, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 3, zur psychoanalytischen Bewegung, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 8, 103-106. Report of the Berlin Psychoanalytical Polyclinic, Bulletin of the International Psychoanalytical Association 4,254
Max Eitingon
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Left to right, seated:
Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and
Hanns Sachs. Standing;
Otto Rank,
Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon, and
Ernest Jones. Photo 1922
22.
Erik Erikson
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Erik Homburger Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis and his son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Although Erikson lacked even a bachelors degree, he served as a professor at prominent institutions such as Harvard, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Eriksons mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen and she was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Eriks biological father except that he was a Danish gentile, on discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled to Frankfurt, Germany, where Erik was born on June 15,1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen. Following Eriks birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved to Karlsruhe, in 1905 she married Eriks Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homberger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsens name was changed to Erik Homberger, the development of identity seems to have been one of Eriksons greatest concerns in his own life as well as in his theory. As an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent “identity confusion” in his European days. “My identity confusion, ” he wrote was at times on “the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis. ”Erikson’s daughter writes that her father’s “real psychoanalytic identity” was not established until he “replaced his stepfather’s surname with a name of his own invention. ”During his childhood and early adulthood he was known as Erik Homberger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion, at temple school, the kids teased him for being a Nordic, at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish. At Das Humanistische Gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, after graduation, instead of attending medical school, as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, but soon dropped out. Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erikson began a period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos. During this period he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious and he specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Helene Deutsch and Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult, simultaneously he studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages. In 1933 he received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and this and his Montessori diploma were to be Eriksons only earned academic credentials for his lifes work. In 1931 Erikson married Joan Mowat Serson, a Canadian dancer, during their marriage Erikson converted to Christianity. Unable to regain Danish citizenship because of requirements, the family left for the United States. In 1936, Erikson left Harvard and joined the staff at Yale University, while at Yale he became a naturalized citizen of the United States and changed his familys surname from his adoptive fathers name of Homberger to Erikson
Erik Erikson
–
Erik Erikson
23.
Carl Jung
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Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, the two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated on an initially joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw in the man the potential heir he had been seeking to carry on his new science of psychoanalysis. Jungs researches and personal vision, however, made it impossible for him to bend to his older colleagues dogma and this break was to have historic as well as painful personal repercussions that have lasted to this day. Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder as well as a prolific writer, many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the out of each individuals conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the unconscious, the psychological complex. Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as the second and first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung and their first child, born in 1873 was a boy named Paul who survived only a few days. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk, and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes, the given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author and editor. When Jung was six months old, his father was appointed to a prosperous parish in Laufen. Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed woman, she spent considerable time in her bedroom where she said that spirits visited her at night, although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck. Jung had a relationship with his father. Jungs mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for a physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jungs unmarried sister in Basel, Emilie Jungs continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her sons attitude towards women — one of innate unreliability
Carl Jung
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A portrait of Jung, unknown date
Carl Jung
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The clergy house of Kleinhüningen, where Carl Gustav Jung grew up.
Carl Jung
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Group photo 1909 in front of
Clark University. Front row,
Sigmund Freud,
G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row,
Abraham Brill,
Ernest Jones,
Sándor Ferenczi.
Carl Jung
–
Jung outside Burghölzli in 1910.
24.
Ronald Laing
–
Ronald David Laing, usually cited as R. D. Laing, was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness – in particular, the experience of psychosis. Laing was associated with the movement, although he rejected the label. Politically, he was regarded as a thinker of the New Left, Laing was born in the Govanhill district of Glasgow on 7 October 1927, the only child of David Park MacNair Laing and Amelia Glen Laing. Laing described his parents – his mother especially – as being somewhat odd and he was educated initially at Sir John Neilson Cuthbertson Public School and after four years transferred to Hutchesons Grammar School. Described variously as clever, competitive or precocious, he studied mainly Classics, particularly philosophy and he was also a musician, being made an Associate of the Royal College of Music. He chose to go on to study medicine at the University of Glasgow, during his medical degree he set up a Socratic Club, of which the philosopher Bertrand Russell agreed to be President. Laing failed his final exams on his first attempt, in 1950, in 1953 Laing left the Army and worked at the Glasgow Royal Mental Hospital, becoming the youngest consultant in the country. During this period Laing also participated in a discussion group in Glasgow, organised by Karl Abenheimer. In 1956 Laing went on to train on a grant at the Tavistock Institute in London, widely known as a centre for the study, at this time, he was associated with John Bowlby, D. W. Winnicott and Charles Rycroft. He remained at the Tavistock Institute until 1964, in 1965 Laing and a group of colleagues created the Philadelphia Association and started a psychiatric community project at Kingsley Hall, where patients and therapists lived together. The Norwegian author Axel Jensen contacted Laing at Kingsley Hall after reading his book The Divided Self, Jensen was treated by Laing and subsequently they became close friends. Laing often visited Jensen onboard his ship Shanti Devi, which was his home in Stockholm, in October 1972, Laing met Arthur Janov, author of the popular book The Primal Scream. Though Laing found Janov modest and unassuming, he thought of him as a jig man, Laing sympathized with Janov, but regarded his primal therapy as a lucrative business, one which required no more than obtaining a suitable space and letting people hang it all out. Many former colleagues regarded him as a brilliant mind gone wrong, Laing was seen as an important figure in the anti-psychiatry movement, along with David Cooper, although he never denied the value of treating mental distress. Hence, according to Laing, psychiatry was founded on an epistemology, illness diagnosed by conduct. His attitude to recreational drugs was quite different, privately, he advocated an anarchy of experience and his mother Amelia, according to some speculation and rumour about her behaviour, has been described as psychologically peculiar. These admissions were to have consequences for Laing as they formed part of the case against him by the General Medical Council which led to him ceasing to practise medicine. He died at age 61 of an attack while playing tennis with his colleague
Ronald Laing
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R. D. Laing in 1983, perusing the
The Ashley Book of Knots (1944)
25.
Sabina Spielrein
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Sabina Nikolayevna Spielrein was a Russian physician and one of the first female psychoanalysts. She also met, corresponded, and had a relationship with Sigmund Freud. One of her more famous analysands was the Swiss developmental psychologist and she worked as a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, teacher and paediatrician in Switzerland and Russia. In a thirty-year professional career, she published over 35 papers in three languages, covering psychoanalysis, developmental psychology, psycholinguistics and educational psychology. Her best known and perhaps most influential published work in the field of psychoanalysis is the essay titled Destruction as the Cause of Coming Into Being and she was born in 1885 into a wealthy Jewish family in Rostov-on-Don, Russian Empire. Her mother Eva Lublinskaya was the daughter and granddaughter of rabbis from Yekaterinoslav, Eva trained as a dentist, but did not practise. Sabinas father Nikolai Spielrein was an agronomist, after moving from Warsaw to Rostov, he became a successful merchant. On her birth certificate, Sabina appeared as Sheyve Naftulovna, but throughout her life and she was the eldest of five children. All three of her brothers later became eminent scientists, one of them, Isaac Spielrein, was a Soviet psychologist, a pioneer of work psychology. From her early childhood, Sabina was highly imaginative and believed that she had a calling to achieve greatness. However, her parents marriage was turbulent and she experienced physical violence from both of them and she suffered from multiple somatic symptoms and obsessions. Some commentators believe she may have sexually abused by someone in the family. She attended a Froebel school followed by the Yekaterinskaya Gymnasium in Rostov and she learned to speak three languages fluently. During her teens, she continued to be troubled emotionally and became infatuated first with her history teacher, while at school, she resolved to go abroad to train as a doctor, with the approval of her rabbinic grandfather. At the end of her schooling she was awarded a gold medal, after an unsuccessful stay in a Swiss sanatorium, where she developed another infatuation with one of the doctors, she was admitted to the Burghölzli mental hospital near Zurich in August 1904. Its director was Eugen Bleuler, who ran it as a community with social activities for the patients including gardening, drama. One of Bleulers assistants was Carl Jung, afterwards appointed as deputy director, in the days following her admission, Spielrein disclosed to Jung that her father had often beaten her, and that she was troubled by masochistic fantasies of being beaten. Bleuler ensured that she was separated from her family, later requiring her father and she made a rapid recovery, and by October was able to apply for medical school and to start assisting Jung with word association tests in his laboratory
Sabina Spielrein
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Memorial plaque at former residence of Sabina Spielrein in Berlin, Germany
Sabina Spielrein
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Memorial plaque on the house where Sabina Spielrein lived at 83 Pushkin St,
Rostov-on-Don. The sign says: "In this house lived the famous student of C. G. Jung and S. Freud, psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein (1885-1942)"
26.
Susan Sutherland Isaacs
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Susan Sutherland Isaacs, CBE was a Lancashire-born educational psychologist and psychoanalyst. She published studies on the intellectual and social development of children, for Isaacs, the best way for children to learn was by developing their independence. She believed that the most effective way to achieve this was through play, Isaacs was born in 1885 in Turton, Lancashire, the daughter of William Fairhurst, a journalist and Methodist lay preacher, and his wife, Miriam Sutherland. Isaacs mother died when she was six years old, shortly afterwards she became alienated from her father after he married the nurse who had attended her mother during her illness. Aged 15, she was removed from Bolton Secondary School by her father because she had converted to atheistic socialism and she stayed at home with her stepmother until she was 22. She was first apprenticed to a photographer and then she began her career as a governess for an English family. In 1907, Isaacs enrolled to train as a teacher of children at the University of Manchester. Isaacs then transferred to a course and graduated in 1912 with a first class degree in Philosophy. She was awarded a scholarship at the Psychological Laboratory in Newnham College, Cambridge, Isaacs also trained and practised as a psychoanalyst after analysis by the psychoanalyst John Carl Flugel. She became a member of the newly formed British Psychoanalytical Society in 1921. She began her own practice that same year, Isaacs also helped popularise the works of Klein, as well as the theories of Jean Piaget and Sigmund Freud. Between 1924 and 1927, she was the head of Malting House School in Cambridge, the school fostered the individual development of children. Children were given freedom and were supported rather than punished. The teachers were seen as observers of the children who were seen as research workers and her work had a great influence on early education and made play a central part of a childs education. Isaacs strongly believed that play was the childs work, between 1929 and 1940, she was an agony aunt under the pseudonym of Ursula Wise, replying to readers problems in several child care journals, notably The Nursery World and Home and School. Her department had a influence on the teaching profession and encouraged the profession to consider psychodynamic theory with developmental psychology. Isaacs argued that it is important to develop skills to think clearly. Developing a childs independence is beneficial to their development as an individual, parents were viewed as the main educators of their children with institutionalised care for children before the age 7 being potential damaging
Susan Sutherland Isaacs
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Susan Isaacs, 1910s
27.
The Interpretation of Dreams
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Freud revised the book at least eight times and, in the third edition, added an extensive section which treated dream symbolism very literally, following the influence of Wilhelm Stekel. Freud said of this work, Insight such as this falls to ones lot, the book was first published in an edition of 600 copies, which did not sell out for eight years. The Interpretation of Dreams later gained in popularity, and seven editions were published in Freuds lifetime. Because of the length and complexity, Freud also wrote an abridged version called On Dreams. The original text is regarded as one of Freuds most significant works. Freud spent the summer of 1895 at Schloss BelleVue near Grinzing in Austria, at the moment I see little prospect of it. — Freud in a letter to Wilhelm Fliess, June 12,1900 While staying at Schloss Bellevue and his reading and analysis of the dream allowed him to be exonerated from his mishandling of the treatment of a patient in 1895. In 1963, Belle Vue manor was demolished, but today a plaque with just that inscription has been erected at the site by the Austrian Sigmund Freud Society. Dreams, in Freuds view, are all forms of wish fulfillment — attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. Because the information in the unconscious is in an unruly and often disturbing form, Freud introduced the term manifest content to describe what the dream recalled. As such, images in dreams are not what they appear to be, according to Freud. Freud used to mention the dreams as The Royal Road to the Unconscious and he proposed the phenomenon of condensation, the idea that one simple symbol or image presented in a persons dream may have multiple meanings. For this very reason, Freud tried to focus on details during psychoanalysis, an abridged version called On Dreams was published in 1901 as part of Lowenfeld and Kurellas Grenzfragen des Nerven und Seelenlebens. It was re-published in 1911 in slightly larger form as a book, on Dreams is also included in the 1953 edition and the second part of Freuds work on dreams, Volume Five, The Interpretation of Dreams II and On Dreams. It follows chapter seven in The Interpretation of Dreams and in this edition, is fifty three pages in length, there are thirteen chapters in total and Freud directs the reader to The Interpretation of Dreams for further reading throughout On Dreams, in particular, in the final chapter. Immediately after its publication, Freud considered On Dreams as a version of The Interpretation of Dreams. The English translation of On Dreams was first published in 1914, Freud investigates the subject of displacement and our inability to recognize our dreams. This accomplished by investigation will terminate as it will reach the point where the problem of the dream meets broader problems and he then makes his argument by describing a number of dreams which he claims illustrate his theory
The Interpretation of Dreams
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Title page of the original German edition
The Interpretation of Dreams
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Memorial plate in commemoration of the place where Freud began The Interpretation of Dreams, near
Grinzing, Austria
28.
Beyond the Pleasure Principle
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Beyond the Pleasure Principle is a 1920 essay by Sigmund Freud that marks a major turning point in his theoretical approach. Previously, Freud attributed most human behavior to the sexual instinct, with this essay, Freud went beyond the simple pleasure principle, developing his theory of drives with the addition of the death drive. In sections IV and V, Freud posits that the process of creating living cells binds energy and it is the pressure of matter to return to its original state which gives cells their quality of living. The process is analogous to the creation and exhaustion of a battery and this pressure for molecular diffusion can be called a death-wish. The compulsion of the matter in cells to return to a diffuse, thus, the psychological death-wish is a manifestation of an underlying physical compulsion present in every cell. Freud also stated the differences, as he saw them. Beyond the Pleasure Principle is a difficult text, as Ernest Jones, one of Freuds closest associates and a member of his Inner Ring, put it, the train of thought by no means easy to follow. And Freuds views on the subject have often been considerably misinterpreted, what have been called the two distinct frescoes or canti of Beyond the Pleasure Principle break between sections III and IV. If, as Otto Fenichel remarked, Freuds new classification has two bases, one speculative, and one clinical, thus far the clinical, Freud begins with a commonplace then unchallenged in psychoanalytic theory, The course of mental events is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle. A strong tendency toward the pleasure principle, does not seem to necessitate any far-reaching limitation of the pleasure principle. Freud proceeds to look for evidence, for the existence of hitherto unsuspected forces beyond the pleasure principle and he found exceptions to the universal power of the pleasure principle—situations. With which the pleasure principle cannot cope adequately—in four main areas, childrens games, as exemplified in his grandsons famous fort-da game, from these cases, Freud inferred the existence of motivations beyond the pleasure principle. Remembering it as something belonging to the past, a compulsion to repeat, Freud still wanted to examine the relationship between repetition compulsion and the pleasure principle. Although compulsive behaviors evidently satisfied some sort of drive, they were a source of direct unpleasure, somehow, no lesson has been learnt from the old experience of these activities having led only to unpleasure. In spite of that, they are repeated, under pressure of a compulsion, asserting that the first task of the mind is to bind excitations to prevent trauma, he reiterates the clinical fact that for a person in analysis. The compulsion to repeat the events of his childhood in the transference evidently disregards the pleasure principle in every way, Freud begins to look for analogies repetition compulsion in the essentially conservative. The lower we go in the scale the more stereotyped does instinctual behavior appear. He thus found his way to his concept of the death instinct
Beyond the Pleasure Principle
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Beyond the Pleasure Principle
29.
The Ego and the Id
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The Ego and the Id is a prominent paper by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. It is a study of the human psyche outlining his theories of the psychodynamics of the id, ego and super-ego. The study was conducted over years of research and was first published in 1923. The Ego and the Id develops a line of reasoning as a groundwork for explaining various psychological conditions, pathological and non-pathological alike. These conditions result from powerful internal tensions—for example, 1) between the ego and the id, 2) between the ego and the ego, and 3) between the love-instinct and the death-instinct. The book deals primarily with the ego and the effects these tensions have on it, the ego—caught between the id and the super-ego—finds itself simultaneously engaged in conflict by repressed thoughts in the id and relegated to an inferior position by the super-ego. And at the time, the interplay between the love instinct and the death instinct can manifest itself at any level of the psyche. The outline below is an exegesis of Freuds arguments, explaining the formation of the aforementioned tensions, all concepts in The Ego and the Id are built upon the presupposed existence of conscious and unconscious thoughts. On the first line, Freud states, there is nothing new to be said, the division of mental life into what is conscious and what is unconscious is the fundamental premise on which psycho-analysis is based. It would be simple to assume that the unconscious and the conscious map directly onto the id. Freud argues that the supposedly conscious ego can be shown to possess unconscious thoughts when it unknowingly resists parts of itself. Thus, a kind of unconscious thought seems to be necessary, a process that is neither repressed nor latent, but which is nonetheless an integral part of the ego. A new framework is required, one that further examines the status of the ego, before defining the ego explicitly, Freud argues for a manner in which unconscious thoughts can be made conscious. The difference, then, is a connection to words The goal of psychoanalysis and he goes on to note that the ego is essentially a system of perception, so it must be closely related to the preconscious. Thus, two components of ego are a system of perception and a set of unconscious ideas. Its relationship to the id, therefore, is a close one. The ego merges into the id and he compares the dynamic to that of a rider and a horse. The ego must control the id, like the rider, but at times, likewise, the ego must, at times, conform to the desires of the id
The Ego and the Id
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The Ego and the Id
30.
International Psychoanalytical Association
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The International Psychoanalytical Association is an association including 12,000 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations. It was founded in 1910 by Sigmund Freud, on an idea proposed by Sándor Ferenczi, in 1902 Sigmund Freud started to meet every week with colleagues to discuss his work, and so the Psychological Wednesday Society was born. By 1908 there were 14 regular members and some guests including Max Eitingon, Carl Jung, Karl Abraham, Society became the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society. In 1907 Jones suggested to Jung that a meeting should be arranged. The meeting took place in Salzburg on April 27,1908, Jung named it the First Congress for Freudian Psychology. It is later reckoned to be the first International Psychoanalytical Congress, even so, the IPA had not yet been founded. The IPA was established at the next Congress held at Nuremberg in March of 1910 and its first President was Carl Jung, and its first Secretary was Otto Rank. Sigmund Freud considered an organization to be essential to advance his ideas. In 1914 Freud published a paper entitled The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement, the IPA is the world’s primary accrediting and regulatory body for psychoanalysis. The IPAs aims include creating new psychoanalytic groups, stimulating debate, conducting research, developing training policies and it organizes a large biennial Congress. Its administrative offices are at The Lexicon in Central London, Latin America—Federation of Psychoanalytic Societies of Latin America, North America—North American Psychoanalytic Confederation, which also includes Japan and Korea. Each of these three bodies consists of Constituent Organisations and Study Groups that are part of that IPA region, the IPA has a close working relationship with each of these independent organisations and values them highly, but they are not officially or legally part of the IPA. The IPAs members qualify for membership by being a member of a constituent organisation, Study Groups are bodies of analysts which have not yet developed sufficiently to be a freestanding society, but that is their aim. Erich Fromm questioned this organization and finds that the association is organized according to standards rather dictatorial. Elisabeth Roudinesco notes that IPA professionalizing psychoanalysis has become a machine to manufacture significant and she also notes that in France, Lacanian colleagues looked IPA as bureaucrats who had betrayed psychoanalysis in favor of an adaptive psychology in the service of triumphant capitalism. She speaks of the IPA Legitimist Freudianism, we mistakenly called orthodox, among Roudinescos other criticisms, she talks about homophobia in the IPA, considered as a disgrace of psychoanalysis. It should be noted that one of the three training models in the IPA, is due to Lacans ideas and their perspectives regarding the training. Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research International Psychoanalytical Association
International Psychoanalytical Association
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The symbol of the International Psychoanalytical Association is a picture of
Oedipus and the Sphinx, with the organisation's name shown in
Trajan typeface.
31.
Charles Maurras
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Charles-Marie-Photius Maurras was a French author, poet, and critic. He was an organizer and principal philosopher of Action Française, a movement that was monarchist, anti-parliamentarist. Maurras ideas greatly influenced National Catholicism and nationalisme intégral, a major tenet of integral nationalism was stated by Maurras as a true nationalist places his country above everything. A political theorist and an intellectual influence in early 20th-century Europe, his views influenced several far-right ideologies. Maurras was born in an old Provençal family, and brought up by his mother and grandmother in a Catholic, in his early teens he became deaf. Like many other French politicians, he was affected greatly by the defeat during the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, Maurras published his first article, at the age of 17 years, in the review Annales de philosophie chrétienne. He then collaborated on various reviews, including L’Événement, La Revue bleue, La Gazette de France or La Revue encyclopédique, in which he praised Classicism, however, some time during his youth, Maurras lost his faith and became an agnostic. At the age of seventeen he came to Paris and started literary criticism in 1887 in the Catholic and he became acquainted with the Provençal poet Frédéric Mistral in 1888 and shared the federalist thesis of Mistrals Félibrige movement. The same year he met the nationalist writer Maurice Barrès, in 1890, Maurras approved Cardinal Lavigeries call for the rallying of Catholics to the Republic, making his opposition not to the Republic in itself but to sectarian Republicanism. Beside this Orleanist affiliation, Maurras shared some traits with Bonapartism, in December 1887, he demonstrated to the cry of Down with the robbers. During the decorations trafficking scandal which had involved Daniel Wilson, the son-in-law of the President Jules Grévy, despite this, he opposed at first the nationalist-populist Boulangist philosophy. But in 1889, after a visit to Maurice Barrès, Barrès voted for the Boulangist candidate, despite his anti-Semitism of the heart, during 1894–95 he briefly worked for Barrès newspaper La Cocarde, although he sometimes opposed Barrès opinions concerning the French Revolution. La Cocarde supported General Boulanger who had become a threat to the parliamentary Republic in the late 1880s and he became involved in politics at the time of the Dreyfus affair, becoming well-known as an Anti-Dreyfusard. He endorsed Colonel Henrys forgery blaming Dreyfus, as he considered that defending Dreyfus weakened the Army, according to Maurras, Dreyfus was to be sacrificed on the altar of national interest. But when the Republican nationalist thinker Barrès accused Dreyfus of being guilty because of his Jewishness, Maurras went a step further, while Barrès anti-Semitism originated both in pseudo-scientific racist contemporary theories and Biblical exegesis, Maurras decried scientific racism in favor of a more radical state anti-Semitism. In 1899 he founded the review Action Française, an offshoot of the created by Maurice Pujo. Maurras quickly became influential in the movement, and converted Pujo and Vaugeois to monarchism, with Léon Daudet he edited the movements review La Revue de lAction Française, which during 1908 became a daily newspaper with the shorter title LAction Française. The AF mixed integral nationalism with reactionary themes, shifting the nationalist ideology, previously supported by left-wing Republicans and it had a wide readership during the implementation of the 1905 law on the separation of Church and State
Charles Maurras
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Charles Maurras during 1922.
32.
Rudolph Loewenstein (psychoanalyst)
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Rudolph Maurice Loewenstein was a Polish-Jewish psychoanalyst who practiced in Germany, France, and the United States. Loewenstein was born in Łódź, Poland, to a Jewish family from the province of Galicia, after studying medicine in Poland, he moved to Zurich, apparently to flee antisemitism, and began new medical studies, specializing in neurology and studying under Eugen Bleuler. At this time he became acquainted with psychoanalysis and he then moved to Berlin where he was certified as a psychoanalyst after undergoing a training analysis with Hanns Sachs. He became a member of the German Psychoanalytic Society in 1925, at the request of Sigmund Freud, Loewenstein moved to Paris, France in 1925 in order to train new analysts. He was the second licensed psychoanalyst, after Eugenie Sokolnicka, to practice there and he trained most of the first two generations of French analysts, including, notably, Jacques Lacan. He was a member and also secretary of the first French psychoanalytic society. In 1927, he participated in the creation of the SPPs journal, the Revue française de psychanalyse, in 1930, he became a French citizen and obtained his medical license anew - defending his thesis for a doctorate in medicine in 1935. In 1939, he was mobilized as a doctor in the French army, after the Armistice, he fled to the south of France, and in 1942 left there for the United States, where he settled in New York. There he pursued a distinguished career with the International Psychoanalytic Association. He died in 1976 in New York City, Loewenstein is known, along with Ernst Kris and Heinz Hartmann, as one of the foremost figures of what has been called Ego psychology
Rudolph Loewenstein (psychoanalyst)
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Rudolph Loewenstein
33.
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, Picassos work is often categorized into periods. Much of Picassos work of the late 1910s and early 1920s is in a neoclassical style and his later work often combines elements of his earlier styles. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco and María Picasso y López. His mother was of one quarter Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa, though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picassos family was of middle-class background and his father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts, Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were piz, piz, a shortening of lápiz, from the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was an academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork, the family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his sketch of a pigeon. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his sister, Conchita. After her death, the moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home, Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, the student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day. Picassos father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrids Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, at age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment
Pablo Picasso
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Picasso in 1908
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Picasso with his sister Lola, 1889
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Picasso, 1901, Old Woman (Woman with Gloves), oil on cardboard, 67 x 52.1 cm,
Philadelphia Museum of Art
Pablo Picasso
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Pablo Picasso, 1901-02, Femme au café (Absinthe Drinker), oil on canvas, 73 x 54 cm,
Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia
34.
Contemporary philosophy
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The phrase contemporary philosophy is a piece of technical terminology in philosophy that refers to a specific period in the history of Western philosophy. However, the phrase is often confused with philosophy, postmodern philosophy. No longer will researches usually be embodied in books addressed to anyone who might be interested in the matter of the field. Philosophy underwent this process toward the end of the 19th century, Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed professor by the State, namely by the Prussian Minister of Education, in the United States, the professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German model. James Campbell describes the professionalisation of philosophy in America as follows, philosopher Michael Sandels book Justice, Whats the Right Thing to Do. Both works became New York Times best sellers, the Association has three divisions - Pacific, Central and Eastern. Each division organises an annual conference. The biggest of these is the Eastern Division Meeting, which attracts around 2,000 philosophers. The Eastern Division Meeting is also the USAs largest recruitment event for philosophy jobs, among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the professions top honors. The largest academic organization devoted to furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for Phenomenology. Concerning professional journals today, a 2009 survey of professional philosophers asked them to rank the highest quality general philosophy journals in English. The directory is published two years, alternating with its companion volume, the International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers. Since the start of the 21st century, philosophers have seen the growing utilization of blogs as a means of professional exchange. In bringing attention to the experience of women in the profession, as a result, most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has appeared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact. Also working from outside the profession were philosophers such as Gerd B, achenbach and Michel Weber who have proposed since the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework. Contemporary continental philosophy began with the work of Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl, Adolf Reinach, and Martin Heidegger and this development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic. Analytic philosophy dominates in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Continental philosophy prevails in France, Italy, Spain, and parts of the United States
Contemporary philosophy
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Existentialism is an important school in the continental philosophical tradition. Four key existentialists pictured from top-left clockwise:
Kierkegaard,
Nietzsche,
Kafka,
Dostoevsky
Contemporary philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
35.
Ethnology
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Ethnology is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationship between them. The term ethnologia is credited to Adam Franz Kollár who used and defined it in his Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates published in Vienna in 1783, the distinction between the three terms is increasingly blurry. Ethnology has been considered a field since the late 18th century especially in Europe and is sometimes conceived of as any comparative study of human groups. The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occidental, such as and this term was used in conjunction with savages, which was either seen as a brutal barbarian, or alternatively, as noble savage. Thus, civilization was opposed in a dualist manner to barbary, lévi-Strauss often referred to Montaignes essay on cannibalism as an early example of ethnology. Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a method, at discovering universal invariants in human society. However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th and 20th century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, list of scholars of ethnology Forster, Johann Georg Adam. Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty’s Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772,3,4, the Elementary Structures of Kinship, Structural Anthropology Mauss, Marcel. Originally published as Essai sur le don, forme et raison de léchange dans les sociétés archaïques in 1925, this classic text on gift economy appears in the English edition as The Gift, The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies. Akwe-Shavante society, The Politics of Ethnicity, Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States, problemi generali delletnologia europea, La Ricerca Folklorica, No. Webpage History of German Anthropology/Ethnology 1945/49-1990 Languages describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, national Museum of Ethnology - Osaka, Japan Texts on Wikisource, Rhyn, G. A. F. Van
Ethnology
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Adam František Kollár, 1779
Ethnology
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Claude Lévi-Strauss
Ethnology
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A picture of the
Izmir Ethnography Museum (İzmir Etnografya Müzesi) from the courtyard.
36.
Topology
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In mathematics, topology is concerned with the properties of space that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, crumpling and bending, but not tearing or gluing. This can be studied by considering a collection of subsets, called open sets, important topological properties include connectedness and compactness. Topology developed as a field of study out of geometry and set theory, through analysis of such as space, dimension. Such ideas go back to Gottfried Leibniz, who in the 17th century envisioned the geometria situs, Leonhard Eulers Seven Bridges of Königsberg Problem and Polyhedron Formula are arguably the fields first theorems. The term topology was introduced by Johann Benedict Listing in the 19th century, by the middle of the 20th century, topology had become a major branch of mathematics. It defines the basic notions used in all branches of topology. Algebraic topology tries to measure degrees of connectivity using algebraic constructs such as homology, differential topology is the field dealing with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to geometry and together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds. Geometric topology primarily studies manifolds and their embeddings in other manifolds, a particularly active area is low-dimensional topology, which studies manifolds of four or fewer dimensions. This includes knot theory, the study of mathematical knots, Topology, as a well-defined mathematical discipline, originates in the early part of the twentieth century, but some isolated results can be traced back several centuries. Among these are certain questions in geometry investigated by Leonhard Euler and his 1736 paper on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg is regarded as one of the first practical applications of topology. On 14 November 1750 Euler wrote to a friend that he had realised the importance of the edges of a polyhedron and this led to his polyhedron formula, V − E + F =2. Some authorities regard this analysis as the first theorem, signalling the birth of topology, further contributions were made by Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Ludwig Schläfli, Johann Benedict Listing, Bernhard Riemann and Enrico Betti. Listing introduced the term Topologie in Vorstudien zur Topologie, written in his native German, in 1847, the term topologist in the sense of a specialist in topology was used in 1905 in the magazine Spectator. Their work was corrected, consolidated and greatly extended by Henri Poincaré, in 1895 he published his ground-breaking paper on Analysis Situs, which introduced the concepts now known as homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology. Unifying the work on function spaces of Georg Cantor, Vito Volterra, Cesare Arzelà, Jacques Hadamard, Giulio Ascoli and others, Maurice Fréchet introduced the metric space in 1906. A metric space is now considered a case of a general topological space. In 1914, Felix Hausdorff coined the term topological space and gave the definition for what is now called a Hausdorff space, currently, a topological space is a slight generalization of Hausdorff spaces, given in 1922 by Kazimierz Kuratowski
Topology
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Möbius strips, which have only one surface and one edge, are a kind of object studied in topology.
37.
Yale
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
Yale
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Charter creating Collegiate School, which became
Yale College, October 9, 1701
Yale
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Yale University
Seal
Yale
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A Front View of Yale-College and the College Chapel, Daniel Bowen, 1786.
Yale
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First diploma awarded by
Yale College, granted to Nathaniel Chauncey, 1702.
38.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
Columbia University
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The Library at Columbia University, ca. 1900
Columbia University
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Columbia University
Columbia University
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Low Memorial Library
Columbia University
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Alma Mater
39.
Transitional object
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A comfort object, transitional object, or security blanket is an item used to provide psychological comfort, especially in unusual or unique situations, or at bedtime for small children. Among toddlers, comfort objects may take the form of a blanket, an animal, or a favorite toy. Emergency vehicles and police cars are sometimes equipped with stuffed toys, to be given to victims involved in an accident or traumatic shock. Paramedics are trained to treat physical shock with an array of blankets designed to preserve heat, blood. Often charities will provide comfort objects such as blankets and quilts to survivors of disasters, psychologists are experimenting with the use of heavy thick fleece blankets to replace restraints such as straitjackets. They have noted through experiments with children who have autism that weighted blankets have a soothing effect to help calm agitated patients. In human childhood development, the transitional object is normally used. It is something, usually an object, which takes the place of the mother-child bond. Common examples include dolls, teddy bears or blankets, donald Woods Winnicott introduced the concepts of transitional objects and transitional experience in reference to a particular developmental sequence. With transition Winnicott means an intermediate phase between the psychic and external reality. In this transitional space we can find the transitional object, when the young child begins to separate the me from the not-me and evolves from complete dependence to a stage of relative independence, it uses transitional objects. Infants see themselves and the mother as a whole, alongside the subjective omnipotence of a child lies an objective reality, which constitutes the child’s awareness of separateness between itself and desired objects. Later on the child comes to realize that the mother is a separate entity, the child realizes that they are dependent on others, thus losing the idea that they are independent. This realization creates a difficult period and brings frustration and anxiety with it, the mother cannot always be there to bring the world to the baby, a realization which has a powerful, somewhat painful, but ultimately constructive impact on the child. Through fantasizing about the object of its wishes the child will find comfort, a transitional object can be used in this process. The transitional object is often the first not me possession that really belongs to the child and this could be a real object like a blanket or a teddy bear, but other objects, such as a melody or a word, can fulfill this role as well. This object represents all components of mothering, and it means that the child itself is able to create what it needs as well and it enables the child to have a fantasized bond with the mother when she gradually separates for increasingly longer periods of time. The transitional object is important at the time of going to sleep, in a later stage of the development the child no longer needs the transitional object
Transitional object
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Legend: (a) mother, (b) child, (1) illusion, (2) transitional object
40.
Other
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The condition and quality of Otherness, the characteristics of the Other, is the state of being different from and alien to the social identity of a person and to the identity of the Self. Therefore, the imposition of Otherness alienates the labelled person from the centre of society, the term Othering describes the reductive action of labelling a person as someone who belongs to a subordinate social category defined as the Other. The practice of Othering is the exclusion of persons who do not fit the norm of the social group, see, The Phenomenology of Spirit Edmund Husserl applied the concept of the Other as a basis for intersubjectivity, the psychological relations among people. In Cartesian Meditations, An Introduction to Phenomenology, Husserl said that the Other is constituted as an alter ego, as such, the Other person posed and was an epistemological problem—of being only a perception of the consciousness of the Self. The Other appears as a phenomenon in the course of a persons life. The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and the Ethical philosopher Emmanuel Lévinas established the contemporary definitions, usages, Lacan associated the Other with language and with the symbolic order of things. Lévinas associated the Other with the metaphysics of scripture and tradition. In the event, Lévinas re-formulated the face-to-face encounter to include the propositions of Jacques Derrida about the impossibility of the Other being an entirely metaphysical pure-presence. That the Other could be an entity of pure Otherness personified in a created and depicted with language that identifies, describes. In the psychology of the mind, the Other identifies and refers to the mind, to silence, to insanity. Nonetheless, in such psychologic and analytic usages, there arise a tendency to relativism if the Other person leads to ignoring the commonality of truth. Likewise, problems arise from unethical usages of the terms The Other, Otherness, and Othering to reinforce ontological divisions of reality, of being, of becoming, and of existence. As a challenge to self-assurance, the existence of the Other is a matter of ethics and that logical problem has especially negative consequences in the realm of human geography when the Other person is denied ethical priority in geopolitical discourse. In The Colonial Present, Afghanistan, Palestine and Iraq, the geographer Derek Gregory said that the responses of U. S. President George W. S. populace Why do they hate us, as political prelude to the War on Terror. President Bushs rhetorical question led the U. S. populace to make an artificial, in the imperialist world system, political and economic affairs were fragmented, and the discrete empires provided for most of their own needs. Their influence solely through conquest or the threat of conquest, in 1951, the United Nations officially declared that the differences among the races were insignificant in relation to the anthropological sameness among the peoples who are the human race. As such, a colony is a way to dominate and dispose of two groups of people who can be used to define the Other. The dehumanisation of colonialism—the colonist Self against the colonised Other—is maintained with the false binary-relations of social class and race, of sex and gender, and of nation and religion
Other
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Simone de Beauvoir applied the concept of The Other to the man–woman relation, to analyse the dominator–dominated relation that historically characterised the relations between the sexes.
Other
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In Feminism is Humanism. So Why the Debate?, Sarojini Sahoo indicated that women are equal to men, yet have an identity independent of men’s definition of “woman”.
41.
Phallus
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A phallus is a penis, especially when erect, an object that resembles a penis, or a mimetic image of an erect penis. Any object that symbolically—or, more precisely, iconically—resembles a penis may also be referred to as a phallus, however, such symbols often represent fertility and cultural implications that are associated with the male sexual organ, as well as the male orgasm. The term is a loanword from Latin phallus, itself borrowed from Greek φαλλός, compare with Old Norse boli bull, Old English bulluc bullock, Greek φαλλή whale. The Hohle phallus, a 28, 000-year-old siltstone phallus discovered in the Hohle Fels cave, in traditional Greek mythology, Hermes, god of boundaries and exchange is considered to be a phallic deity by association with representations of him on herms featuring a phallus. There is no consensus on this depiction and it would be speculation to consider Hermes a type of fertility god. Pan, son of Hermes, was depicted as having an exaggerated erect phallus. Priapus is a Greek god of fertility whose symbol was an exaggerated phallus, the son of Aphrodite and either Dionysus or Adonis, according to different forms of the original myth, he is the protector of livestock, fruit plants, gardens, and male genitalia. His name is the origin of the medical term priapism, the city of Tyrnavos in Greece holds an annual Phallus festival, a traditional phallophoric event on the first days of Lent. The phallus was ubiquitous in ancient Roman culture, particularly in the form of the fascinum, the ruins of Pompeii produced bronze wind chimes that featured the phallus, often in multiples, to ward off the evil eye and other malevolent influences. Statues of Priapus similarly guarded gardens, Roman boys wore the bulla, an amulet that contained a phallic charm, until they formally came of age. According to Augustine of Hippo, the cult of Father Liber, the phallic deity Mutunus Tutunus promoted marital sex. A sacred phallus was among the objects considered vital to the security of the Roman state which were in the keeping of the Vestal Virgins, sexuality in ancient Rome has sometimes been characterized as phallocentric. Evidence of phallic worship in India dates back to prehistoric times, stone Lingams with several varieties of stylized heads, or the glans, are found to this date in many of the old temples, and in museums in India and abroad. The almost naturalistic giant lingam is distinguished by its prominent, bulbous glans, linguistic evidence indicates that the post-Vedic Hindus not only adopted the tradition/ cult of the linga from the pre-Vedic non-Aryans, but even the term itself is of Austric origin. Chakravarti further says that when two words entered Sanskrit, they, along with another word langula were derivations of the same root syllable lang or lng. Stone lingams have been found in several Indus Civilization sites, varying in size from 3 feet in length to very small pieces and these are found to be of steatite, sandstone and burnt clay. Some among these are unmistakably naturalistic in their rendition, Phallic worship was prevalent in India from the Chalcolithic period itself, and it was closely associated with magical rites based religion of that time. The phallus played a role in the cult of Osiris in ancient Egyptian religion, supposedly, Isis made a wooden replacement
Phallus
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Mural of
Priapus depicted with the attributes of Mercury in a fresco found in
Pompeii
Phallus
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Tintinnabulum from Pompeii showing a phallus
Phallus
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Polyphallic wind chime from Pompeii; a bell hung from each phallus
Phallus
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Herm
42.
Feminism
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Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
Feminism
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International Women's Day rally in
Dhaka, Bangladesh, on 8 March 2005, organized by the National Women Workers Trade Union Centre
Feminism
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Feminist Suffrage Parade in New York City, 6 May 1912
Feminism
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After selling her home,
Emmeline Pankhurst, pictured in New York City in 1913, travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States.
Feminism
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Louise Weiss along with other Parisian
suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote."
43.
Jacques Derrida
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Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher, born in Algeria. Derrida is best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts and he is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. During his career Derrida published more than 40 books, together with hundreds of essays and he also influenced architecture, music, art, and art criticism. Particularly in his writings, Derrida addressed ethical and political themes in his work. Some critics consider Speech and Phenomena to be his most important work, others cite Of Grammatology, Writing and Difference, and Margins of Philosophy. These writings influenced various activists and political movements and he became a well-known and influential public figure, while his approach to philosophy and the notorious difficulty of his work made him controversial. Derrida was the third of five children and his elder brother Paul Moïse died at less than three months old, the year before Derrida was born, leading him to suspect throughout his life his role as a replacement for his deceased brother. Derrida spent his youth in Algiers and in El-Biar, on the first day of the school year in 1942, French administrators in Algeria — implementing anti-Semitic quotas set by the Vichy government — expelled Derrida from his lycée. He secretly skipped school for a rather than attend the Jewish lycée formed by displaced teachers and students. In this adolescent period, Derrida found in the works of philosophers and writers an instrument of revolt against family and his reading also included Camus and Sartre. In the late 1940s, he attended the Lycée Bugeaud and the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, on his first day at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1952, Derrida met Louis Althusser, with whom he became friends. After visiting the Husserl Archive in Leuven, Belgium, he completed his masters degree in philosophy on Edmund Husserl and he then passed the highly competitive agrégation exam in 1956. Derrida received a grant for studies at Harvard University, and he spent the 1956–57 academic year reading Joyces Ulysses at the Widener Library, in June 1957, he married the psychoanalyst Marguerite Aucouturier in Boston. During the Algerian War of Independence of 1954–1962, Derrida asked to teach children in lieu of military service, teaching French. Following the war, from 1960 to 1964, Derrida taught philosophy at the Sorbonne and his wife, Marguerite, gave birth to their first child, Pierre, in 1963. In 1964, on the recommendation of Louis Althusser and Jean Hyppolite, Derrida got a permanent teaching position at the ENS, in 1965 Derrida began an association with the Tel Quel group of literary and philosophical theorists, which lasted for seven years. Derridas subsequent distance from the Tel Quel group, after 1971, has attributed to his reservations about their embrace of Maoism. At the same colloquium Derrida would meet Jacques Lacan and Paul de Man, a second son, Jean, was born in 1967
Jacques Derrida
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Jacques Derrida
44.
Chiasmus
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Chiasmus was particularly popular in the literature of the ancient world, including Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, where it was used to articulate the balance of order within the text. As a popular example, many long and complex chiasmi have been found in Shakespeare and it is also found throughout the Quran. Today, chiasmus is applied broadly to any criss-cross structure, although in classical rhetoric it was distinguished from other similar devices. In its classical application, chiasmus would have used for structures that do not repeat the same words and phrases. The concept of chiasmus on a level, applied to motifs, turns of phrase. The elements of simple chiasmus are often labelled in the form A B B A, for example John F. Kennedy said, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. But O, what damned minutes tells he oerWho dotes, yet doubts, suspects, —Shakespeare, Othello 3.3 Dotes and strongly loves share the same meaning and bracket doubts and suspects. Fair is foul, and foul is fair —Shakespeare, Macbeth 1.1 Chiasmus can be used in the structure of entire passages to parallel concepts or ideas and this process, termed conceptual chiasmus, uses a criss-crossing rhetorical structure to cause an overlapping of intellectual space. Conceptual chiasmus utilizes specific linguistic choices, often metaphors, to create a connection between two differing disciplines, by employing a chiastic structure to a single presented concept, rhetors encourage one area of thought to consider an opposing areas perspective. Chiasmus derives its effectiveness from its symmetrical structure, the structural symmetry of the chiasmus imposes the impression upon the reader or listener that the entire argument has been accounted for. In other words, chiasmus creates only two sides of an argument or idea for the listener to consider, and then leads the listener to favor one side of the argument, the statement also proposes that the latter statement is more favorable. Thus, chiasmus gains its rhetorical efficacy through symmetrical structure causing the belief that all tenets of an argument have been evaluated, until they converge in the eighth verse, the heart of the song. Written in the 16th century, the Wilhelmus originated in the struggle to achieve independence. It tells of the Father of the Nation William of Orange who was stadholder in the Netherlands under the king of Spain and this is made apparent in the central 8th stanza, Oh David, thou soughtest shelter from King Sauls tyranny. Even so I fled this welter, here the comparison is made between the biblical David and William of Orange as merciful and just leaders who both serve under tyrannic kings. Chiasmus in the New Testament, a study in formgeschichte, chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press. Chiasmus, An Important Structural Device Commonly Found in Biblical Literature, albuquerque, New Mexico, Chafer Theological Seminary. Parry, Donald W. Poetic Parallelisms in the Book of Mormon, provo, Utah, Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship
Chiasmus
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Chiasmus represented as an "X" structure. When read left to right, top to bottom, the first topic (A) is reiterated as the last, and the middle concept (B) appears twice in succession.
45.
Thomas Kuhn
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Competing paradigms are frequently incommensurable, that is, they are competing and irreconcilable accounts of reality. Thus, our comprehension of science can never rely wholly upon objectivity alone, Science must account for subjective perspectives as well, since all objective conclusions are ultimately founded upon the subjective conditioning/worldview of its researchers and participants. Kuhn was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Samuel L. Kuhn, an industrial engineer and he graduated from The Taft School in Watertown, CT, in 1940, where he became aware of his serious interest in mathematics and physics. He obtained his BS degree in physics from Harvard University in 1943 and he later taught a course in the history of science at Harvard from 1948 until 1956, at the suggestion of university president James Conant. After leaving Harvard, Kuhn taught at the University of California, Berkeley, Kuhn interviewed and tape recorded Danish physicist Niels Bohr the day before Bohrs death. At Berkeley, he wrote and published his best known and most influential work, in 1964, he joined Princeton University as the M. Taylor Pyne Professor of Philosophy and History of Science. He served as the president of the History of Science Society from 1969–70, in 1979 he joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as the Laurance S. Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy, remaining there until 1991. In 1994 Kuhn was diagnosed with lung cancer, Thomas Kuhn was married twice, first to Kathryn Muhs with whom he had three children, then to Jehane Barton Burns. His family was Jewish on both sides, the Structure of Scientific Revolutions was originally printed as an article in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, published by the logical positivists of the Vienna Circle. In general, science is broken up into three distinct stages, prescience, which lacks a central paradigm, comes first. This is followed by science, when scientists attempt to enlarge the central paradigm by puzzle-solving. As anomalous results build up, science reaches a crisis, at point a new paradigm. In SSR, Kuhn also argues that rival paradigms are incommensurable—that is, it is not possible to understand one paradigm through the conceptual framework, freeman Dyson has quoted Kuhn as saying I am not a Kuhnian. Referring to the relativism that some philosophers have developed based on his work, Kuhns work has been extensively used in social science, for instance, in the post-positivist/positivist debate within International Relations. Kuhn is credited as a force behind the post-Mertonian sociology of scientific knowledge. This is because would-be scientists worldviews are changed through rigorous training, Kuhns notions of paradigms and paradigm shifts have been influential in understanding the history of economic thought, for example the Keynesian revolution, and in debates in political science. According to Kuhn, When scientists must choose between competing theories, two men fully committed to the same list of criteria for choice may nevertheless reach different conclusions. Kuhn then goes on to say, I am suggesting, of course, that the criteria of choice with which I began function not as rules, which determine choice, but as values, which influence it
Thomas Kuhn
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Thomas Kuhn
46.
Delphic Oracle
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The Pythia, was the name of the High Priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi who also served as the oracle, commonly known as the Oracle of Delphi. The name Pythia is derived from Pytho, which in myth was the name of Delphi. Pythia was the House of Snakes, the Pythia was established at the latest in the 8th century BC, and was widely credited for her prophecies inspired by being filled by the spirit of the god, in this case Apollo. The Pythian priestess emerged pre-eminent by the end of 7th century BC, during this period the Delphic Oracle was the most prestigious and authoritative oracle among the Greeks, and she was without doubt the most powerful woman of the classical world. The oracle is one of the religious institutions of the classical Greeks. Nevertheless, details of how the Pythia operated are missing as authors from the classical period treat the process as common knowledge with no need to explain and those who discussed the oracle in any detail are from 1st century BC to 4th century AD and give conflicting stories. Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BC describes the Pythia speaking in dactylic hexameters, the 8th-century reformulation of the Oracle at Delphi as a shrine to Apollo seems associated with the rise in importance of the city of Corinth and the importance of sites in the Corinthian Gulf. The earliest account of the origin of the Delphic oracle is provided in the Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo, which recent scholarship dates within a narrow range, c. It describes in detail how Apollo chose his first priests, whom he selected in their swift ship, but Apollo, who had Delphinios as one of his cult epithets, leapt into the ship in the form of a dolphin. Dolphin-Apollo revealed himself to the terrified Cretans, and bade them follow him up to the place where you will have rich offerings. The Cretans danced in time and followed, singing Iē Paiēon, paean seems to have been the name by which Apollo was known in Mycenaean times. G. L. Huxley observes, If the hymn to Apollo conveys a historical message, an early visitor to these dells of Parnassus, at the end of the eighth century, was Hesiod, who was shown the omphalos. There are also many stories of the origins of the Delphic Oracle. On entering the chasm, he found himself filled with a presence and could see outside of the present into the past. Excited by his discovery he shared it with nearby villagers, many started visiting the site to experience the convulsions and inspirational trances, though some were said to disappear into the cleft due to their frenzied state. A shrine was erected at the site, where people began worshiping in the late Bronze Age, after the deaths of a number of men, the villagers chose a single young woman as the liaison for the divine inspirations. Eventually she spoke on behalf of gods, according to earlier myths, the office of the oracle was initially possessed by the goddesses Themis and Phoebe, and the site was initially sacred to Gaia. Subsequently, it was believed to be sacred to Poseidon, the Earth-shaker god of earthquakes, apparently Poseidon was mollified by the gift of a new site in Troizen
Delphic Oracle
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Lycurgus Consulting the Pythia (1835/1845), as imagined by
Eugène Delacroix.
47.
Le Monde
–
Le Monde is a French daily afternoon newspaper founded by Hubert Beuve-Méry and continuously published in Paris since its first edition on 19 December 1944. It is one of the most important and widely respected newspapers in the world and it is one of two French newspapers of record along with Le Figaro, and the main publication of La Vie-Le Monde Group. It reported a circulation of 323,039 copies per issue in 2009. It has had its own website since 19 December 1995, and is often the only French newspaper easily obtainable in non-French-speaking countries and it should not be confused with the monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique, of which Le Monde has 51% ownership, but which is editorially independent. In the 1990s and 2000s, La Vie-Le Monde Group expanded under editor Jean-Marie Colombani with a number of acquisitions. However, its profitability was not sufficient to cover the debt loads it took on to fund this expansion. In June 2010, investors Matthieu Pigasse, Pierre Bergé, in contrast to other world newspapers such as The New York Times, Le Monde was traditionally focused on offering analysis and opinion, as opposed to being a newspaper of record. Hence, it was considered important for the paper to offer maximum coverage of the news than to offer thoughtful interpretation of current events. For instance, on the 10th anniversary of the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, the newspaper directly implicated François Mitterrand, in recent years, however, the paper has established a greater distinction between fact and opinion. Beuve-Méry reportedly demanded total editorial independence as the condition for his taking on the project, in 1981 it backed the election of socialist François Mitterrand on the grounds that alternation of the political party in government would be beneficial to the state. The paper endorsed centre-right candidate Édouard Balladur in the 1995 presidential election and Ségolène Royal, according to the Mitrokhin Archive investigators, Le Monde was the KGBs key outlet for spreading anti-American and pro-Soviet disinformation to the French media. The archive identified two senior Le Monde journalists and several contributors who were used in the operations, michel Legris, a former journalist with the paper, wrote Le Monde tel quil est in 1976. According to him, the journal minimized the atrocities committed by the Cambodian Khmer Rouge and it also accused the paper of dangerously damaging the authority of the French state by having revealed various political scandals. This book remains controversial, but attracted attention and media coverage in France. Following a lawsuit, the authors and the publisher agreed in 2004 not to proceed to any reprinting, Le Monde has been found guilty of defamation for saying that Spanish football club FC Barcelona was connected to a doctor involved in steroid use. The Spanish court fined the newspaper nearly $450,000, in April 2016, a Le Monde reporter was denied visa to visit Algeria as part of the French Prime Minister press convoy to Algeria. Le Monde had previously published names of Algerian officials directly involved with the Panama papers corruption scandal, Le Monde is published around midday, and the date on the masthead is the following days. For instance, the issue released at midday on 15 March shows 16 March on the masthead and it is available on newsstands in France on the day of release, and received by mail subscribers on the masthead date
Le Monde
–
First issue on 19 December 1944
48.
Hegelian
–
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher and an important figure of German idealism. He achieved wide renown in his day and, while primarily influential within the tradition of philosophy, has become increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well. Although he remains a figure, his canonical stature within Western philosophy is universally recognized. His philosophy of spirit conceptually integrates psychology, the state, history, art, religion and his account of the master–slave dialectic has been highly influential, especially in 20th-century France. Hegel has been seen in the 20th century as the originator of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad, however, as an explicit phrase, Hegel has influenced many thinkers and writers whose own positions vary widely. Hegel was born on August 27,1770 in Stuttgart, in the Duchy of Württemberg in southwestern Germany, christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekretär at the court of Karl Eugen, Hegels mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa, was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court. She died of a fever when Hegel was thirteen. Hegel and his father caught the disease but narrowly survived. Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise, and a brother, Georg Ludwig, at the age of three Hegel went to the German School. When he entered the Latin School two years later, he knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother. In 1776, Hegel entered Stuttgarts gymnasium illustre, during his adolescence Hegel read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian Garve, Hegels studies at the Gymnasium were concluded with his Abiturrede entitled The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey. At the age of eighteen Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift, where he had as roommates the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each others ideas. All greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and they watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, Hegel at this time envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, i. e. Having received his certificate from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister to an aristocratic family in Bern. During this period he composed the text which has known as the Life of Jesus
Hegelian
–
Portrait by
Jakob Schlesinger dated 1831, the year of Hegel's death.
Hegelian
–
The birthplace of Hegel in
Stuttgart, which now houses the Hegel Museum
Hegelian
–
Hegel sees the "world soul on horseback," Napoleon.
Hegelian
–
Hegel with his Berlin students Sketch by Franz Kugler
49.
Clinical psychology
–
In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The field is considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment and this changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained clinicians. Since that time, three main models have developed in the USA—the Ph. D. Clinical Science model, the Ph. D. science-practitioner model, in the UK the Clinical Psychology Doctorate falls between the latter two of these models, whilst in much of mainland Europe the training is at masters level and predominantly psychotherapeutic. The earliest recorded approaches assess and treat mental distress were a combination of religious, early examples of such physicians included Patañjali, Padmasambhava, Rhazes, Avicenna, and Rumi. In the early 19th century, one approach to mental conditions and behavior was using phrenology. Other popular treatments at that time included the study of the shape of the face, spiritualism and Phineas Quimbys mental healing were also popular. While the scientific community came to reject all of these methods for treating mental illness. The study of mental illness was already being done in the fields of psychiatry. It was not until the end of the 19th century, around the time when Sigmund Freud was first developing his talking cure in Vienna, by the second half of the 1800s, the scientific study of psychology was becoming well established in university laboratories. Although there were a few scattered voices calling for an applied psychology and this changed when Lightner Witmer, a past student of Wundt and head of the psychology department at the University of Pennsylvania, agreed to treat a young boy who had trouble with spelling. His successful treatment was soon to lead to Witmers opening of the first psychological clinic at Penn in 1896, the field was slow to follow Witmers example, but by 1914, there were 26 similar clinics in the U. S. Even as clinical psychology was growing, working with issues of mental distress remained the domain of psychiatrists and neurologists. However, clinical psychologists continued to make inroads into this area due to their skill at psychological assessment. The field began to organize under the name clinical psychology in 1917 with the founding of the American Association of Clinical Psychology and this only lasted until 1919, after which the American Psychological Association developed a section on Clinical Psychology, which offered certification until 1927. In 1945, the APA created what is now called Division 12, its division of clinical psychology, Psychological societies and associations in other English-speaking countries developed similar divisions, including in Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. When World War II broke out, the once again called upon clinical psychologists
Clinical psychology
–
Lightner Witmer, the father of modern clinical psychology
Clinical psychology
–
Many 18th-century treatments for psychological distress were based on pseudo-scientific ideas, such as
phrenology.
Clinical psychology
–
The
US army conducts a psychological test developed by clinical psychologists for selection purposes. The image is card IV of the
Rorschach inkblot test.
Clinical psychology
–
The
University of Pennsylvania was the first to offer formal education in clinical psychology.
50.
Fashionable Nonsense
–
Fashionable Nonsense, Postmodern Intellectuals Abuse of Science, published in the UK as Intellectual Impostures, is a book by Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont. Sokal is best known for the Sokal Affair, in which he submitted a deliberately absurd article to Social Text, a critical theory journal, and was able to get it published. The book was published in French in 1997, and in English in 1998, as part of the so-called science wars, Sokal and Bricmont criticize postmodernism in academia for what they consider misuses of scientific and mathematical concepts in postmodern writing. According to some reports, the response within the humanities was polarized, critics of Sokal and Bricmont charge that they lack understanding of the writing they were criticizing. Responses from the community were more supportive. The stated goal of the book is not to attack philosophy, to warn those who work in them against some manifest cases of charlatanism. In particular to deconstruct the notion that some books and writers are difficult because they deal with profound, if the texts seem incomprehensible, it is for the excellent reason that they mean precisely nothing. Sokal and Bricmont set out to show how those intellectuals have used concepts from the physical sciences, the extracts are intentionally rather long to avoid accusations of taking sentences out of context. Sokal and Bricmont claim that they do not intend to analyze postmodernist thought in general, rather, they aim to draw attention to the abuse of concepts from mathematics and physics, subjects theyve devoted their careers to studying and teaching. Sokal and Bricmont define abuse of mathematics and physics as, Using scientific or pseudoscientific terminology without bothering much about what these words mean, importing concepts from the natural sciences into the humanities without the slightest justification, and without providing any rationale for their use. Displaying superficial erudition by shamelessly throwing around technical terms where they are irrelevant, presumably to impress, manipulating words and phrases that are, in fact, meaningless. Self-assurance on topics far beyond the competence of the author and exploiting the prestige of science to give discourses a veneer of rigor. Similarly, Lacan is criticized for drawing an analogy between topology and mental illness that, in Sokal and Bricmonts view, is unsupported by any argument and is not just false, it is gibberish. Sokal and Bricmont highlight the rising tide of what they call cognitive relativism and their aim is not to criticize the left, but to help defend it from a trendy segment of itself. Several scientists have expressed similar sentiments, perhaps he is genuine when he speaks of non-scientific subjects. But a philosopher who is caught equating the erectile organ to the root of minus one has, for my money. Noam Chomsky called the very important and said that a lot of the so-called left criticism seems to be pure nonsense. The book has been subject to criticism by post-modern philosophers
Fashionable Nonsense
–
Cover of the first edition
51.
Charismatic authority
–
Charismatic authority involves a type of organization or a type of leadership in which authority derives from the charisma of the leader. This stands in contrast to two types of authority, legal authority and traditional authority. Each of the three types forms part of Max Webers tripartite classification of authority, Weber developed this definition in his essays Politics as a Vocation and Discipline and Charisma, as well as in other parts of his writings. The concept has acquired wide usage among sociologists, other terms used are charismatic domination and charismatic leadership. Charismatic authority is often the most lasting of regimes because the leader is seen as infallible, charismatic leaders eventually develop a cult of personality often not by their own doing. Ower legitimized on the basis of a leaders exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, leadership is the power to diffuse a positive energy and a sense of greatness. As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader, the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authoritys power dissolving. For instance, a leader in a religious context might require an unchallenged belief that the leader has been touched by God. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the leader can fade quickly. The validity of charism is founded on its recognition by the leaders followers and his charisma risks disappearing if he is abandoned by God or if his government doesnt provide any prosperity to those whom he dominates. Charismatic authority almost always endangers the boundaries set by traditional or rational authority and it tends to challenge this authority, and is thus often seen as revolutionary. Usually this charismatic authority is incorporated into society, hereby the challenge that it presents to society will subside. The way in which this happens is called routinization, a religion which evolves its own priesthood and establishes a set of laws and rules is likely to lose its charismatic character and move towards another type of authority. For example, Muhammad, who had authority as The Prophet among his followers, was succeeded by the traditional authority and structure of Islam. In politics, charismatic rule is found in various authoritarian states, autocracies, dictatorships. To help to maintain their authority, such regimes will often establish a vast personality cult. When the leader of such a state dies or leaves office, because the authority is concentrated in one leader, the death of the charismatic leader would constitute the destruction of the government unless prior arrangements were made. According to Max Weber, the methods of succession are, search, revelation, designation by original leader, designation by qualified staff, hereditary charisma, and office charisma
Charismatic authority
–
Sociology
52.
Narcissism
–
Narcissism is the pursuit of gratification from vanity or egotistic admiration of ones own attributes. The term originated from Greek mythology, where the young Narcissus fell in love with his own image reflected in a pool of water, Narcissism is a concept in psychoanalytic theory, which was popularly introduced in Sigmund Freuds essay On Narcissism. Narcissism is also considered a social or cultural problem and it is a factor in trait theory used in various self-report inventories of personality such as the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory. It is one of the three dark triadic personality traits, except in the sense of primary narcissism or healthy self-love, narcissism is usually considered a problem in a persons or groups relationships with self and others. Narcissism is not the same as egocentrism, the term narcissism comes from the Greek myth about Narcissus, a handsome Greek youth who, according to Ovid, rejected the desperate advances of the nymph Echo. These advances eventually led Narcissus to fall in love with his own reflection in a pool of water, unable to consummate his love, Narcissus lay gazing enraptured into the pool, hour after hour, and finally changed into a flower that bears his name, the narcissus. The concept of excessive selfishness has been recognized throughout history, in ancient Greece the concept was understood as hubris. It is only recently that narcissism has been defined in psychological terms. In 1752 Jean-Jacques Rousseaus play Narcissus, or the Self-Admirer was performed in Paris, otto Rank in 1911 published the first psychoanalytical paper specifically concerned with narcissism, linking it to vanity and self-admiration. Sigmund Freud published a paper on narcissism in 1914 called On Narcissism, in 1923, Martin Buber published an essay Ich und Du, in which he pointed out that our narcissism often leads us to relate to others as objects instead of as equals. Four dimensions of narcissism as a personality variable have been delineated, leadership/authority, superiority/arrogance, self-absorption/self-admiration, behavior is observable, but intention is not. Magical thinking, Narcissists see themselves as perfect, using distortion and illusion known as magical thinking and they also use projection to dump shame onto others. Arrogance, A narcissist who is feeling deflated may reinflate their sense of self-importance by diminishing, debasing, envy, A narcissist may secure a sense of superiority in the face of another persons ability by using contempt to minimize the other person or their achievements. Entitlement, Narcissists hold unreasonable expectations of particularly favorable treatment and automatic compliance because they consider themselves special, failure to comply is considered an attack on their superiority, and the perpetrator is considered an awkward or difficult person. Defiance of their will is an injury that can trigger narcissistic rage. Exploitation, Can take many forms but always involves the exploitation of others without regard for their feelings or interests, often the other person is in a subservient position where resistance would be difficult or even impossible. Sometimes the subservience is not so much real as assumed, bad boundaries, Narcissists do not recognize that they have boundaries and that others are separate and are not extensions of themselves. Others either exist to meet their needs or may as well not exist at all and those who provide narcissistic supply to the narcissist are treated as if they are part of the narcissist and are expected to live up to those expectations
Narcissism
–
Narcissus (1590s) by
Caravaggio (
Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome)
53.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
54.
Sylvana Tomaselli
–
Sylvana Palma Windsor, Countess of St Andrews, is the wife of George, Earl of St Andrews, elder son and heir of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent. A historian at the University of Cambridge, she is known in academic circles as Dr Sylvana Tomaselli. Tomaselli was born in 28 May 1957 at Placentia, Newfoundland and she was educated in Canada and England. Lady St Andrews married first, on 25 December 1977 at Vancouver, John Paul Jones, son of Captain Geoffrey Jones of Barbados, Tomaselli, who has received BA, MA and MA degrees, became a Fellow of St Johns College Cambridge in 2004. She is the translator of Book II of the Seminar of Jacques Lacan, The Ego in Freuds Theory and she teaches the three History of Political Theory Papers and is an affiliated Lecturer of the Faculties of History as well as of Social and Political Sciences. She also acts as a tutor for students of Natural Sciences at St Johns College. Tomaselli has been elected a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, as the wife of the Earl of St Andrews, Sylvana is styled as Countess of St Andrews. She prefers to be styled professionally as Dr. Sylvana Tomaselli
Sylvana Tomaselli
–
Duke of Kent family arms
55.
International Standard Serial Number
–
An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
–
ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
56.
French Communist Party
–
The French Communist Party is a communist party in France. Although its electoral support has declined in recent decades, the PCF retains an influence in French politics. In 2012, the PCF claimed 138,000 members including 70,000 who have paid their membership fees and this would make it the third largest party in France in terms of membership after the Republicans and the Socialist Party. It was also once the largest French left-wing party in a number of elections, from 1945 to 1960. The PCF has lost further ground to the Socialists since that time, since 2009 the PCF has been a leading member of the Left Front, alongside Jean-Luc Mélenchons Left Party. The PCF is a member of the Party of the European Left, the new SFIC defined itself as revolutionary and democratic centralist. The 1920s saw a number of splits within the party over relations with other left-wing parties, the party entered the French parliament, but also promoted strike action and opposed colonialism. Pierre Sémard, leader from 1924 to 1928, sought party unity and alliances with other parties, with the rise of Fascism after 1934 the PCF supported the Popular Front, which came to power under Léon Blum in 1936. The party supported the Spanish Republicans, and opposed the 1938 Munich agreement with Hitler, PCFs Members of Parliament vote declaration of war against Germany in 1939. But the party was banned after German–Soviet Non-aggression Pact by the government of Édouard Daladier, the leadership, threatened with execution, fled abroad. After the German invasion of 1940 the party began to organise opposition to the occupation, at the same time the PCF began to work with de Gaulles Free France government in exile, and later took part in the National Council of the Resistance. By the time the German occupation ended in 1944, the party had become a force in many parts of France. It was among the parties in elections in 1945 and 1946, and entered into the governing Tripartite alliance. However, amid concerns within France and abroad over the extent of communist influence, under pressure from Moscow, the PCF thereafter distanced itself from other parties and focussed on agitation within its trade union base. For the rest of the Fourth Republic period the PCF, led by Thorez and Jacques Duclos, remained isolated, still taking a Stalinist line. Although the PCF opposed de Gaulles formation of the Fifth Republic in 1958, the years saw a rapprochement with other left-wing forces. With Waldeck Rochet as its new secretary-general, the party supported François Mitterrands unsuccessful presidential bid in 1965, during the student riots and strikes of May 1968, the party supported the strikes while denouncing the revolutionary student movements. Under the Common Programme, however, the PCF steadily lost ground to the PS, initially allotted a minor share in Mitterrands government, the PCF resigned in 1984 as the government turned towards fiscal orthodoxy
French Communist Party
–
PCF rallying for a 6th republic, 2012 in Paris
French Communist Party
–
French Communist Party Parti communiste français
57.
May 1968 in France
–
The volatile period of civil unrest in France during May 1968 was punctuated by demonstrations and massive general strikes as well as the occupation of universities and factories across France. At the height of its fervor, it brought the economy of France to a virtual halt. May 68 had a impact on French society that would be felt for decades to come. It is considered to this day as a cultural, social and moral turning point in the history of the country, as Alain Geismar—one of the leaders of the time—later pointed out, the movement succeeded as a social revolution, not as a political one. The unrest began with a series of student occupation protests against capitalism, consumerism and traditional institutions, values and it then spread to factories with strikes involving 11 million workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time, for two continuous weeks. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, the student occupations and wildcat general strikes initiated across France were met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. De Gaulle went to a French military base in Germany, and after returning dissolved the National Assembly, Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, and when the elections were held in June. In February 1968, the French Communists and French Socialists formed an electoral alliance, the universitys administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the left the building without any trouble. After this first record some leaders of what was named the Movement of 22 March were called together by the committee of the university. Following months of conflicts between students and authorities at the Paris University at Nanterre, the shut down the university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne University in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and supporters marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to create out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, high school student unions spoke in support of the riots on 6 May. Negotiations broke down, and students returned to their campuses after a report that the government had agreed to reopen them. The students now had a near revolutionary fervor, on Friday,10 May, another huge crowd congregated on the Rive Gauche
May 1968 in France
–
Public square of
the Sorbonne, in the
Latin Quarter of Paris.
May 1968 in France
–
Street poster favoring the uprisings, depicting an
occupied factory. "May 68: the beginning of a prolonged struggle."
May 1968 in France
–
Street poster opposing the
de Gaulle government. A caricature of
Charles de Gaulle holds a
riot baton behind his back and patronizingly pats a representation of France. "Just vote, I will do the rest."
May 1968 in France
–
Wall slogan in a classroom
58.
October (journal)
–
October is a peer-reviewed academic journal specializing in contemporary art, criticism, and theory, published by MIT Press. October was established in 1976 in New York by Rosalind E. Krauss and Annette Michelson, the founders of the journal were originally known as Octoberists. Its name is a reference to the Eisenstein film that set the tone of intellectual, the journal was a participant in introducing French post-structural theory on the English-speaking academic scene. Jeremy Gilbert-Rolfe, one of the co-founders of the journal, withdrew after only a few issues, and by the spring of 1977, Douglas Crimp joined the editorial team. In 1990, after Crimp left the journal, Krauss and Michelson were joined by Yve-Alain Bois, Hal Foster, Benjamin H. D. Buchloh, Denis Hollier, and John Rajchman. As well as articles and reviews of 20th century and contemporary art. The Art Story describes the journal as significant for revisiting and stressing the importance of early modes of 20th-century avant-garde art. MIT Press has released two anthologies of articles and a book series
October (journal)
–
October
59.
Taylor and Francis
–
Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in the United Kingdom that publishes books and academic journals. It is a division of Informa plc, a United Kingdom-based publisher, the company was founded in 1852 when William Francis joined Richard Taylor in his publishing business. Taylor initially founded his company in 1798 and their subjects covered include agriculture, chemistry, education, engineering, geography, law, mathematics, medicine, and social sciences. From 1917 to 1930 Francis son, Richard Taunton Francis was sole partner in the firm, in 1965 Taylor & Francis launched Wykeham Publications and began book publishing. In 1988 it acquired Hemisphere Publishing and the company was renamed Taylor & Francis Group to reflect the number of imprints. In 1990 Taylor & Francis exited from the business to concentrate on publishing. In 1998 Taylor & Francis Group went public on the London Stock Exchange, acquisitions of other publishers has remained a core part of the group’s business strategy. Taylor & Francis merged with Informa in 2004 to create a new company called T&F Informa, following the merger, T&F closed the historic Routledge books office in New Fetter Lane, London and relocated to its current headquarters in Milton Park, Oxfordshire. Taylor & Francis Group is now the publishing arm of Informa. Taylor & Francis publishes more than 2,500 journals, and approximately 6,500 new books each year, with a backlist of over 130,000 titles available in print and digital formats. Although generally considered the smallest of the Big Four STEM publishers, its Routledge imprint is claimed to be the largest global academic publisher within humanities, the journals and e-books have been delivered through the Taylor & Francis Online website since June 2011. Prior to that they were provided through the Informaworld website, Taylor & Francis operates a number of Web services for its digital content including Routledge Handbooks Online, the Routledge Performance Archive, Secret Intelligence Files and CRC Netbase. Taylor & Francis offers Open Access publishing options in both its books and journals divisions and through its Cogent Open Access journals imprint, the group has approximately 1,800 employees located in at least 18 offices worldwide. The old Taylor and Francis logo depicts a hand pouring oil into a lit lamp, the modern logo is a stylised oil lamp in a circle. In 2013, the board of the Journal of Library Administration resigned in a dispute over author licensing agreements. Category, Taylor & Francis academic journals Munroe, Mary H. Taylor & Francis, the Academic Publishing Industry, A Story of Merger and Acquisition. The Lamp Of Learning, Taylor & Francis And Two Centuries Of Publishing, official website Taylor & Francis online journals and reference works Taylor & Francis eBooks Informa Divisions - Academic Publishing
Taylor and Francis
–
Previous Taylor & Francis logo from a 1900 publication
Taylor and Francis
–
Taylor & Francis
60.
Theodor W. Adorno
–
Theodor W. Adorno was a German philosopher, sociologist, and composer known for his critical theory of society. He is widely regarded as one of the 20th centurys foremost thinkers on aesthetics and philosophy, as a writer of polemics in the tradition of Nietzsche and Karl Kraus, Adorno delivered scathing critiques of contemporary Western culture. Theodor W. Adorno was born as Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund in Frankfurt am Main on September 11,1903, the only child of Oscar Alexander Wiesengrund and Maria Calvelli-Adorno della Piana. His mother, a devout Catholic from Corsica, was once a professional singer, while his father, proud of her origins, Maria wanted her sons paternal surname to be supplemented by the addition of her own name, Adorno. Thus his earliest publications carried the name Theodor Wiesengrund-Adorno, upon his application for US citizenship and he was not only a precocious child but, as he recalled later in life, a child prodigy who could play pieces by Beethoven on the piano by the time he was twelve. At the age of six, he attended the Deutschherren middle school before transferring to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gymnasium, I took this motif so much as my own that I do not believe I have ever written anything without reference to it, either implicit or explicit. Yet Adornos intellectual nonconformism was no less shaped by the repugnance he felt towards the nationalism which swept through the Reich during the First World War, the younger generations distrust for traditional knowledge arose from the way in which this tradition had discredited itself. Over time, Oscar Wiesengrunds firm established close professional and personal ties with the factory of Karplus & Herzberger in Berlin, I am not exaggerating in the slightest when I say that I owe more to this reading than to my academic teachers. In the summer of 1924, Adorno received his doctorate with a study of Edmund Husserl under the direction of the unorthodox neo-Kantian Hans Cornelius, before his graduation, Adorno had already met with his most important intellectual collaborators, Max Horkheimer and Walter Benjamin. Through Corneliuss seminars, Adorno met his future collaborator Max Horkheimer, in Vienna, he attended public lectures of the satirist Karl Kraus with Berg and met Lukács, who had been living in Vienna after the failure of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Alban Berg, the man Adorno referred to as my master and teacher, was among the most prescient of his young pupils early friends, convinced that and you are capable of supreme achievements and will undoubtedly fulfill this promise in the shape of great philosophical works. In December 1926 Adornos Two Pieces for String Quartet, op.2 were performed in Vienna, after writing the Piano Pieces in strict twelve-tone technique, as well as songs later integrated into the Six Bagatelles for Voice and Piano, op. 6, Adorno presented his Habilitation manuscript, The Concept of the Unconscious in the Transcendental Theory of the Psyche, Cornelius advised Adorno to withdraw his application on the grounds that the manuscript was too close to his own way of thinking. In this manuscript, Adorno attempted to underline the epistemological status of the unconscious as it emerged from Freuds early writings, against the function of the unconscious in both Nietzsche and Spengler, Adorno argued that Freuds notion of the unconscious serves as a sharp weapon. Against every attempt to create a metaphysics of the instincts and to deify full, undaunted by his academic prospects, Adorno threw himself once again into composition. In addition to publishing numerous reviews of performances and concerts, Adornos Four Songs for Medium Voice and Piano. Between 1928 and 1930 Adorno took on a role within the editorial committee of the Musikblätter des Anbruch. During this period he published the essays Night Music, On Twelve-Tone Technique and Reaction, at this time, Adorno struck up a correspondence with the composer Ernst Krenek, with whom he discussed problems of atonality and twelve-tone technique
Theodor W. Adorno
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(April 1964)
Theodor W. Adorno
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The "Adorno-Ampel" (Adorno-traffic light) on Senckenberganlage, a street which divides the Institute for Social Research from
Goethe University Frankfurt —Adorno requested its construction after a pedestrian death in 1962, and it was finally installed 25 years later.
61.
Hannah Arendt
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Johanna Hannah Arendt was a German-born Jewish American political theorist. She escaped Europe during the Holocaust, becoming an American citizen and her works deal with the nature of power and the subjects of politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism. The Hannah Arendt Prize is named in her honor, Arendt was born into a secular family of German Jews in Linden, the daughter of Martha and Paul Arendt. She grew up in Königsberg and Berlin, at the University of Marburg, she studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. Arendts family was assimilated and she later remembered, With us from Germany. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it, Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering antisemitism as an adult. Arendt later wrote about Varnhagen that she was my very closest woman friend, during the philosophy course taught by Heidegger, she fell in love with her married professor, and a relationship began. In 1929, when Heidegger failed to recognize her at a station, Arendt was devastated, writing, When I was a small child. I had read the tale about Dwarf Nose, whose nose gets so long nobody recognizes him anymore. My mother pretended that had happened to me, I still vividly recall the blind terror with which I kept crying, but I am your child, I am your Hannah. —That is what it was like today. In 1929, in Berlin, she married Günther Stern, later known as Günther Anders, the dissertation was published in 1929. In 1932, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at National Socialist meetings, Heidegger wrote back to her and in his letter did not seek to deny the rumors, and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged. Arendt was prevented from habilitating because she was Jewish and she researched antisemitism for some time before being arrested and briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo in 1933. While in France, she worked to support and aid Jewish refugees, in 1937, she was stripped of her German citizenship. In 1940, she married the German poet and Marxist philosopher Heinrich Blücher, like many others, Arendt was able to leave Gurs after a few weeks, and left France in 1941 with her husband and her mother, traveling via Portugal to the United States. They relied on visas illegally issued by the American diplomat Hiram Bingham, varian Fry, another American humanitarian, paid for their travel and helped obtain the visas. Upon arriving in New York, Arendt became active in the German-Jewish community, from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a column for the German-language Jewish newspaper Aufbau. From 1944, she directed research for the Commission of European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, during World War II, Arendt worked for Youth Aliyah, a Zionist organization, which saved thousands of children from the Holocaust and settled them in the British Mandate of Palestine
Hannah Arendt
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Hannah Arendt from a 1988 German stamp among the
Women in German history series
62.
Jean Baudrillard
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Jean Baudrillard was a French sociologist, philosopher, cultural theorist, political commentator, and photographer. He is best known for his analyses of media, contemporary culture and he wrote about diverse subjects, including consumerism, gender relations, economics, social history, art, Western foreign policy, and popular culture. Among his best known works are Simulacra and Simulation, America and his work is frequently associated with postmodernism and specifically post-structuralism. Baudrillard was born in Reims, northeastern France, on 27 July 1929 and his grandparents were peasant farm workers and his father a policeman. During high school, he became aware of pataphysics, which is said to be crucial for understanding Baudrillards later thought and he became the first of his family to attend university when he moved to Paris to attend the Sorbonne. There he studied German language and literature, which led him to teaching the subject at several different lycées. Subsequently, he began teaching sociology at the Paris X Nanterre, during this time, Baudrillard worked closely with Philosopher Humphrey De Battenburge, who described Baudrillard as a visionary. At Nanterre he took up a position as Maître Assistant, then Maître de Conférences, eventually becoming a professor after completing his accreditation, LAutre par lui-même. In 1970, Baudrillard made the first of his trips to the United States, and in 1973. He was given his first camera in 1981 in Japan, which led to his becoming a photographer, in 1986 he moved to IRIS at the Université de Paris-IX Dauphine, where he spent the latter part of his teaching career. He nonetheless continued supporting the Institut de Recherche sur lInnovation Sociale at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and was Satrap at the Collège de Pataphysique. Baudrillard taught at the European Graduate School in Saas-Fee, Switzerland, and collaborated at the Canadian theory, culture, and technology review Ctheory and he also participated in the International Journal of Baudrillard Studies from its inception in 2004 until his death. In 1999–2000, his photographs were exhibited at the Maison européenne de la photographie in Paris, in 2004, Baudrillard attended the major conference on his work, Baudrillard and the Arts, at the Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe in Karlsruhe, Germany. Baudrillard thought, as do many post-structuralists, that meaning is brought about through systems of working together. Following on from the structuralist linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, Baudrillard argued that meaning is created through difference—through what something is not, from this starting point Baudrillard theorized broadly about human society based upon this kind of self-referentiality. His writing portrays societies always searching for a sense of meaning—or a total understanding of the world—that remains consistently elusive. In Baudrillards view, the subject may try to understand the object, the subject is, rather, seduced by the object. Reality, in sense, dies out
Jean Baudrillard
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Jean Baudrillard in 2006 at
European Graduate School
63.
Walter Benjamin
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Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin was a German Jewish philosopher, cultural critic and essayist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School, and also maintained formative friendships with such as playwright Bertolt Brecht. He was also related by law to German political theorist Hannah Arendt through her first marriage to his cousin, Günther Anders. Among Benjamins best known works are the essays The Task of the Translator, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, and Theses on the Philosophy of History. His major work as a literary critic included essays on Baudelaire, Goethe, Kafka, Kraus, Leskov, Proust, Walser, and translation theory. He also made translations into German of the Tableaux Parisiens section of Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal. In 1940, at the age of 48, Benjamin committed suicide in Portbou at the French–Spanish border while attempting to escape from invading Nazi forces, though popular acclaim eluded him during his life, the decades following his death won his work posthumous renown. Benjamin and his siblings, Georg and Dora, were born to a wealthy business family of assimilated Ashkenazi Jews in the Berlin of the German Empire. He owned a number of investments in Berlin, including ice skating rinks, in 1902, ten-year-old Walter was enrolled to the Kaiser Friedrich School in Charlottenburg, he completed his secondary school studies ten years later. Here Benjamin had his first exposure to the ideas of Zionism and this exposure gave him occasion to formulate his own ideas about the meaning of Judaism. In Benjamins formulation his Jewishness meant a commitment to the furtherance of European culture, Benjamin expressed My life experience led me to this insight, the Jews represent an elite in the ranks of the spiritually active. For Judaism is to me in no sense an end in itself and this was a position that Benjamin largely held lifelong. Elected president of the Freie Studentenschaft, Benjamin wrote essays arguing for educational and general cultural change, in 1914, at the outbreak of the First World War, Benjamin began faithfully translating the works of the 19th-century French poet Charles Baudelaire. The next year,1915, he moved to Munich, and continued his schooling at the University of Munich, where he met Rainer Maria Rilke and Gershom Scholem, in that year, Benjamin wrote about the 18th-century Romantic German poet Friedrich Hölderlin. In 1917 he transferred to the University of Bern, there, he met Ernst Bloch and they had a son, Stefan Rafael. In 1919 Benjamin earned his Ph. D. cum laude with the dissertation Begriff der Kunstkritik in der Deutschen Romantik, later, unable to support himself and family, he returned to Berlin and resided with his parents. In 1921 he published the essay Kritik der Gewalt, at this time Benjamin first became socially acquainted with Leo Strauss, and Benjamin would remain an admirer of Strauss and of his work throughout his life. In 1923, when the Institut für Sozialforschung was founded, later to become home to the Frankfurt School, Benjamin published Charles Baudelaire, at that time he became acquainted with Theodor Adorno and befriended Georg Lukács, whose The Theory of the Novel much influenced him
Walter Benjamin
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Benjamin in Paris, 1939.
Walter Benjamin
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Walter Benjamin's Paris apartment at 10 rue Dombasle (1938–1940).
Walter Benjamin
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Walter Benjamin's grave in Portbou. The epitaph in German, repeated in Catalan, quotes from Section 7 of Theses on the Philosophy of History: "There is no document of civilization which is not at the same time a document of barbarism."
Walter Benjamin
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Commemorative plaque for Walter Benjamin, Berlin-Wilmersdorf
64.
Henri Bergson
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Henri-Louis Bergson was a French philosopher, influential especially in the first half of the 20th century and after WWII in continental philosophy. Bergson is known for his arguments that processes of immediate experience and intuition are more significant than abstract rationalism. He was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas, in 1930 France awarded him its highest honour, the Grand-Croix de la Legion dhonneur. Bergson was born in the Rue Lamartine in Paris, not far from the Palais Garnier in 1859 and his father, the pianist Michał Bergson, was of a Polish Jewish background. His great-grandmother, Temerl Bergson, was a well-known patroness and benefactor of Polish Jewry and his mother, Katherine Levison, daughter of a Yorkshire doctor, was from an English and Irish Jewish background. The Bereksohns were a famous Jewish entrepreneurial family of Polish descent, Henri Bergsons great-great-grandfather, Szmul Jakubowicz Sonnenberg, called Zbytkower, was a prominent banker and a protégé of Stanisław August Poniatowski, King of Poland from 1764 to 1795. Henri Bergsons family lived in London for a few years after his birth, before he was nine, his parents settled in France, Henri becoming a naturalized French citizen. Henri Bergson married Louise Neuberger, a cousin of Marcel Proust, Henri and Louise Bergson had a daughter, Jeanne, born deaf in 1896. Bergsons sister, Mina Bergson, married the English occult author Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, a founder of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and he then replaced Gabriel Tarde in the Chair of Modern Philosophy, which he held until 1920. The public attended his open courses in large numbers, Bergson attended the Lycée Fontanes in Paris from 1868 to 1878. He had previously received a Jewish religious education, between 14 and 16, however, he lost his faith. While at the lycée Bergson won a prize for his work and another, in 1877 when he was eighteen. His solution was published the year in Annales de Mathématiques. It was his first published work, after some hesitation as to whether his career should lie in the sphere of the sciences or that of the humanities, he decided in favour of the latter, to the dismay of his teachers. When he was nineteen, he entered the École Normale Supérieure, during this period, he read Herbert Spencer. He obtained there the degree of licence ès lettres, and this was followed by that of agrégation de philosophie in 1881 from the University of Paris, the same year he received a teaching appointment at the lycée in Angers, the ancient capital of Anjou. Two years later he settled at the Lycée Blaise-Pascal in Clermont-Ferrand, while teaching and lecturing in this part of his country, Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation Time and Free Will, which was submitted, along with a short Latin thesis on Aristotle, the work was published in the same year by Félix Alcan
Henri Bergson
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Bergson in 1927
Henri Bergson
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Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience (Dissertation, 1889)
65.
Martin Buber
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Born in Vienna, Buber came from a family of observant Jews, but broke with Jewish custom to pursue secular studies in philosophy. In 1902, he became the editor of the weekly Die Welt, in 1923, Buber wrote his famous essay on existence, Ich und Du, and in 1925, he began translating the Hebrew Bible into the German language. He was nominated for the Nobel prize in literature ten times, Martin Buber was born in Vienna to an Orthodox Jewish family. His grandfather, Solomon Buber, was a scholar of Midrash. At home Buber spoke Yiddish and German, in 1892 Buber returned to his fathers house in Lemberg, todays Lviv, Ukraine. The latter two, in particular, inspired him to studies in philosophy. In 1896, Buber went to study in Vienna, in 1898, he joined the Zionist movement, participating in congresses and organizational work. In 1899 while studying in Zürich, Buber met his wife, Paula Winkler. In 1930, Buber became a professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main. He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an important body as the German government forbade Jews to attend public education. In 1938, Buber left Germany and settled in Jerusalem, Mandate Palestine, receiving a professorship at Hebrew University and lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology. Buber was a descendant of the prominent 16th century rabbi Meir Katzenellenbogen, known as the Maharam of Padua, as was his cousin. Karl Marx is another notable relative, Bubers wife Paula died in 1958, and he died at his home in the Talbiya neighborhood of Jerusalem on June 13,1965. They had two children, a son, Rafael Buber and a daughter, Eva Strauss-Steinitz, Bubers evocative, sometimes poetic, writing style marked the major themes in his work, the retelling of Hasidic and Chinese tales, Biblical commentary, and metaphysical dialogue. A cultural Zionist, Buber was active in the Jewish and educational communities of Germany and he was also a staunch supporter of a binational solution in Palestine, and after the establishment of the Jewish state of Israel, of a regional federation of Israel and Arab states. His influence extends across the humanities, particularly in the fields of psychology, social philosophy. Bubers attitude towards Zionism was tied to his desire to promote a vision of Hebrew humanism, according to Laurence J. Accordingly, the task of Israel as a distinct nation was inexorably linked to the task of humanity in general. Approaching Zionism from his own viewpoint, Buber disagreed with Theodor Herzl about the political and cultural direction of Zionism
Martin Buber
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Martin Buber
Martin Buber
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Martin Buber's house (1916–38) in
Heppenheim, Germany. Now the headquarters of the
ICCJ.
Martin Buber
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Martin Buber and Rabbi Binyamin in Palestine (1920–30)
Martin Buber
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Buber (left) and
Judah Leon Magnes testifying before the
Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in Jerusalem (1946)
66.
Albert Camus
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Albert Camus was a French philosopher, author, and journalist. His views contributed to the rise of the known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay The Rebel that his life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual freedom. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957, Camus did not consider himself to be an existentialist despite usually being classified as a follower of it, even in his lifetime. In a 1945 interview, Camus rejected any ideological associations, No, Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names linked. Camus was born in French Algeria to a Pied-Noir family and studied at the University of Algiers, in 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons to denounce two ideologies found in both the USSR and the USA. Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in Dréan in French Algeria and his mother was of Spanish descent and could only hear out of her left ear. His father, Lucien, an agricultural worker of Alsatian descent, was wounded in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during World War I. Lucien died from his wounds in an army hospital on 11 October. Camus and his mother, a house cleaner, lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. In 1923, Camus was accepted into the Lycée Bugeaud and eventually was admitted to the University of Algiers, after he contracted tuberculosis in 1930, he had to end his football activities, he had been a goalkeeper for a prominent Algerian university team. In addition, he was able to study part-time. To earn money, he took odd jobs, as a tutor, car parts clerk. Camus joined the French Communist Party in early 1935, seeing it as a way to fight inequalities between Europeans and natives in Algeria. He did not suggest he was a Marxist or that he had read Das Kapital, in 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party was founded. Camus joined the activities of the Algerian Peoples Party, which got him into trouble with his Communist party comrades, Camus then became associated with the French anarchist movement. The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought, Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire, La révolution Prolétarienne, and Solidaridad Obrera, the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT. Camus stood with the anarchists when they expressed support for the uprising of 1953 in East Germany and he again allied with the anarchists in 1956, first in support of the workers uprising in Poznań, Poland, and then later in the year with the Hungarian Revolution
Albert Camus
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Portrait from
New York World-Telegram and Sun Photograph Collection, 1957.
Albert Camus
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Albert Camus's gravestone
Albert Camus
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The monument to Camus built in the small town of
Villeblevin, France where he died in an automobile accident on 4 January 1960
67.
Ernst Cassirer
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Ernst Cassirer was a German philosopher. He is one of the leading 20th century advocates of philosophical idealism, born in Breslau in Silesia, into a Jewish family, Cassirer studied literature and philosophy at the University of Marburg and at the University of Berlin. Because he was Jewish, he left Germany after the Nazis came to power in 1933, after leaving Germany he taught for a couple of years in Oxford before becoming a professor at Gothenburg University. When Cassirer considered Sweden too unsafe, he applied for a post at Harvard, in 1941 he became a visiting professor at Yale University, then moved to Columbia University in New York City, where he lectured from 1943 until his death in 1945. His son, Heinz Cassirer, was also a Kantian scholar, cassirers first major published writings were a history of modern thought from the Renaissance to Kant. In accordance with his Marburg neo-Kantianism he concentrated upon epistemology, a. Burtt, E. J. Dijksterhuis, and Alexandre Koyré. In Substance and Function, he writes about late nineteenth-century developments in physics including relativity theory, in Einsteins Theory of Relativity he defended the claim that modern physics supports a neo-Kantian conception of knowledge. He also wrote a book about Quantum mechanics called Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics, at Hamburg Cassirer discovered the Library of the Cultural Sciences founded by Aby Warburg. Warburg was an art historian who was interested in ritual. In Philosophy of Symbolic Forms Cassirer argues that man is a symbolic animal, whereas animals perceive their world by instincts and direct sensory perception, humans create a universe of symbolic meanings. Cassirer is particularly interested in language and myth. He argues that science and mathematics developed from natural language, and religion, in 1929 Cassirer took part in an historically significant encounter with Martin Heidegger in Davos. Cassirer argues that while Kants Critique of Pure Reason emphasizes human temporality and finitude, Cassirer challenges Heideggers relativism by invoking the universal validity of truths discovered by the exact and moral sciences. Cassirer believed that reasons self-realization leads to human liberation, mazlish however notes that Cassirer in his The Philosophy of the Enlightenment focuses exclusively on ideas, ignoring the political and social context in which they were produced. In The Logic of the Cultural Sciences Cassirer argues that objective and universal validity can be achieved not only in the sciences, but also in practical, cultural, moral, and aesthetic phenomena. Cassirers last work The Myth of the State was published posthumously, Cassirer sees Nazi Germany as a society in which the dangerous power of myth is not checked or subdued by superior forces. G. The Symbolic Construction of Reality, The Legacy of Ernst Cassirer Folkvord Ingvild & Hoel Aud Sissel, Ernst Cassirer on Form and Technology, Contemporary Readings, Basingstoke, a Parting of the Ways, Carnap, Cassirer, and Heidegger Gordon, Peter Eli. Continental Divide, Heidegger, Cassirer, Davos Krois, John Michael, Cassirer, Symbolic Forms and History Schilpp, Paul Arthur
Ernst Cassirer
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Ernst Cassirer
68.
Guy Debord
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Guy Louis Debord was a French Marxist theorist, writer, filmmaker, member of the Letterist International, founder of a Letterist faction, and founding member of the Situationist International. He was also briefly a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie, Guy Debord was born in Paris in 1931. Debords father, Martial, was a pharmacist who died due to illness when Debord was young, Debords mother, Paulette Rossi, sent Guy to live with his grandmother in her family villa in Italy. During World War II, the Rossis left the villa and began to travel from town to town, as a result, Debord attended high school in Cannes, where he began his interest in film and vandalism. As a young man, Debord actively opposed the French war in Algeria, Debord studied Law at the University of Paris, but left early and did not complete his college education. After ending his stint at the University of Paris, he began his career as a writer, Debord joined the Letterist International when he was 19. The Letterists were led dictatorially by Isidore Isou until an agreed upon schism ended Isous authority. This schism gave rise to several factions of Letterists, one of which was led by Debord upon Gil Wolmans unequivocal recommendation. In the 1960s, Debord led the Situationist International group, which influenced the Paris Uprising of 1968, some consider his book The Society of the Spectacle to be a catalyst for the uprising. In 1972, Debord disbanded the Situationist International after its members, including Asger Jorn and Raoul Vaneigem. Debord then focused on filmmaking with financial backing from the movie mogul and publisher, Gérard Lebovici, Debord was suspected of Lebovicis murder. Distraught by the accusations and his friends death, Debord took his films and he had agreed to have his films released posthumously at the request of the American researcher, Thomas Y. Debords two most recognized films are Society of the Spectacle and In girum imus nocte et consumimur igni, after dissolving the Situationist International, Debord spent his time reading, and occasionally writing, in relative isolation in a cottage at Champot with Alice Becker-Ho, his second wife. He continued to correspond on political and other issues, notably with Lebovici and he focused on reading material relating to war strategies, e. g. Clausewitz and Sun Tzu, and he designed a war game with Alice Becker-Ho. Debord married twice, first to Michèle Bernstein and then Alice Becker-Ho, Debord had affairs with other women, including Michèle Mochot, the daughter of a surrealist. Bernstein wrote a fictional but detailed account of the open relationships Mochot. Just before Debords death, he filmed a documentary, Son art et son temps and it has been suggested that his dark depiction of this period was a suicide note of sorts. Both Debords depression and alcohol consumption had become problematic, resulting in a form of polyneuritis, perhaps in order to end the suffering caused by these conditions, Debord committed suicide by shooting himself in the head on November 30,1994
Guy Debord
Guy Debord
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Guy Louis Debord
69.
Hubert Dreyfus
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Hubert Lederer Dreyfus is an American philosopher and professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. His main interests include phenomenology, existentialism and the philosophy of psychology and literature, as well as the philosophical implications of artificial intelligence. Dreyfus is known for his exegesis of Martin Heidegger, which critics labeled Dreydegger, Dreyfus was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2001 and is a recipient of the Harbison Prize for Outstanding Teaching at UC Berkeley. He is featured in Tao Ruspolis film Being in the World and he is considered a leading interpreter of the work of Edmund Husserl, Michel Foucault, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, but especially of Martin Heidegger. His philosophical work has influenced Richard Rorty, Charles Taylor, John Searle, Dreyfus not only questioned the results they had so far obtained, but he also criticized their basic presupposition, and argued that the AI research program was doomed to failure. In 1965, he spent time at the Rand Corporation, while work on artificial intelligence was in progress there. His younger brother, Stuart Dreyfus, earned a Ph. D. in applied mathematics and is a professor of engineering and operations research at the University of California. Dreyfus critique of artificial intelligence concerns what he considers to be the four primary assumptions of AI research, the first two assumptions are what he calls the biological and psychological assumptions. The biological assumption is that the brain is analogous to computer hardware, the psychological assumption is that the mind works by performing discrete computations on discrete representations or symbols. Dreyfus claims that the plausibility of the psychological assumption rests on two others, the epistemological and ontological assumptions, the epistemological assumption is that all activity can be formalised in the form of predictive rules or laws. The ontological assumption is that reality consists entirely of a set of mutually independent, therefore, a truly scientific psychology is possible, which will detail the internal rules of the human mind, in the same way the laws of physics detail the external laws of the physical world. But it is this key assumption that Dreyfus denies, according to Dreyfus, a context-free psychology is a contradiction in terms. Dreyfuss arguments against this position are taken from the phenomenological and hermeneutical tradition, Heidegger argued that, contrary to the cognitivist views on which AI is based, our being is in fact highly context-bound, which is why the two context-free assumptions are false. Dreyfus doesnt deny that we can choose to see human activity as being law-governed, but it is a huge leap from that to state that because we want to or can see things in this way that it is therefore an objective fact that they are the case. In fact, Dreyfus argues that they are not the case, therefore, the current efforts of workers in the field are doomed to failure. Daniel Crevier writes, time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of Dreyfuss comments, had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they suggested might have been taken much earlier. These webcasts have attracted the attention of many, including non-academics, to Dreyfus, what Computers Cant Do, The Limits of Artificial Intelligence. What Computers Cant Do, The Limits of Artificial Intelligence, Michel Foucault, Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics
Hubert Dreyfus
–
Dreyfus 2011
70.
Frantz Fanon
–
In the course of his work as a physician and psychiatrist, Fanon supported the Algerian War of Independence from France, and was a member of the Algerian National Liberation Front. He wrote numerous books, including, most notably, The Wretched of the Earth and this focuses on the necessary role Fanon thinks violence must play in decolonization struggles. Frantz Fanon was born on the Caribbean island of Martinique, which was then a French colony and is now a French département and his father, Félix Casimir Fanon, was a descendant of enslaved Africans and indentured Indians and worked as a customs agent. His mother, Eléanore Médélice, was of black Martinician and white Alsatian descent, Fanon was the youngest of four sons in a family of eight children, two of whom died in childhood. They could afford the fees for the Lycée Schoelcher, then the most prestigious school in Martinique. After France fell to the Nazis in 1940, Vichy French naval troops were blockaded on Martinique, forced to remain on the island, French sailors took over the government from the Martiniquan people and established a collaborationist Vichy regime. In the face of economic distress and isolation under the blockade, they instituted a regime, Fanon described them as taking off their masks. Residents made many complaints of harassment and sexual misconduct by the sailors, the abuse of the Martiniquan people by the French Navy influenced Fanon, reinforcing his feelings of alienation and his disgust with colonial racism. At the age of seventeen, Fanon fled the island as a dissident and he enlisted in the Free French army and joined an Allied convoy that reached Casablanca. He was later transferred to a base at Béjaïa on the Kabylie coast of Algeria. Fanon left Algeria from Oran and served in France, notably in the battles of Alsace, in 1944 he was wounded at Colmar and received the Croix de guerre. When the Nazis were defeated and Allied forces crossed the Rhine into Germany along with photo journalists, Fanon and his fellow Afro-Caribbean soldiers were sent to Toulon. Later, they were transferred to Normandy to await repatriation, during the war, Fanon was exposed to severe European anti-black racism. For example, white women liberated by black soldiers often preferred to dance with fascist Italian prisoners, in 1945, Fanon returned to Martinique. He lasted a time there. He worked for the campaign of his friend and mentor Aimé Césaire. Césaire ran on the communist ticket as a delegate from Martinique to the first National Assembly of the Fourth Republic. Fanon stayed long enough to complete his baccalaureate and then went to France, Fanon was educated in Lyon, where he also studied literature, drama and philosophy, sometimes attending Merleau-Pontys lectures
Frantz Fanon
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Frantz Fanon
71.
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels and his thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, especially those working within contemporary sociology, cultural studies, and critical theory. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book and these first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called archaeology. In 1970 he was admitted to the Collège de France, membership of which he retained until his death and he also became active in a number of left-wing groups involved in anti-racist campaigns, anti-human rights abuses movements, and the struggle for penal reform. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, in these books he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role which power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France and he had been named after his father, Dr. His father was a local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-laws medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, in later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a delinquent, he claimed his father was a bully who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at arithmetic. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945, his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, in 1940, Foucaults mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the ordeal, but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, in 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor and these ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolites conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault
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In the early 1950s, Foucault came under the influence of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who remained a core influence on his work throughout his life.
Michel Foucault
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Foucault adored the work of Raymond Roussel and authored a literary study of it.
72.
Hans-Georg Gadamer
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Hans-Georg Gadamer was a German philosopher of the continental tradition, best known for his 1960 magnum opus Truth and Method on hermeneutics. Gadamer was born in Marburg, Germany, the son of Johannes Gadamer a pharmaceutical chemistry professor who also served as the rector of the University of Marburg. He resisted his fathers urging to take up the natural sciences and his mother, Emma Karoline Johanna Geiese died of diabetes while Hans-Georg was four years old, and he later noted that this may have had an effect on his decision to not pursue scientific studies. Jean Grondin describes Gadamer as finding in his mother a poetic, Gadamer did not serve during World War I for reasons of ill health and similarly was exempted from serving during World War II due to polio. He defended his dissertation—The Essence of Pleasure according to Platos Dialogues —in 1922, shortly thereafter, Gadamer moved to Freiburg University and began studying with Martin Heidegger, who was then a promising young scholar who had not yet received a professorship. It was Heideggers influence that gave Gadamers thought its distinctive cast and led him away from the earlier neo-Kantian influences of Natorp, Gadamer studied Aristotle both under Edmund Husserl and under Heidegger. Gadamer habilitated in 1929 and spent most of the early 1930s lecturing in Marburg, Gadamer did not join the Nazis, and he did not serve in the army because of the polio he had contracted in 1922. He joined the National Socialist Teachers League in August 1933, in 1933 Gadamer signed the Loyalty Oath of German Professors to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist State. In April 1937 he became a professor at Marburg, then in 1938 he received a professorship at Leipzig University. From an SS-point of view Gadamer was classified as neither supportive nor disapproving in the SD-Dossiers über Philosophie-Professoren that were set up by the SS-Security-Service, in 1946, he was found by the American occupation forces to be untainted by Nazism and named rector of the university. The level of Gadamers involvement with the Nazis has been disputed in the works of Richard Wolin, Orozco alleges, with reference to Gadamers published works, that Gadamer had supported the Nazis more than scholars had supposed. Gadamer also reduced his contact with Heidegger during the Nazi era and he remained in this position, as emeritus, until his death in 2002 at the age of 102. He was also an Editorial Advisor of the journal Dionysius, the debate was inconclusive, but marked the beginning of warm relations between the two men. It was Gadamer who secured Habermass first professorship in the University of Heidelberg, imamichi and Gadamer renewed contact four years later during an international congress. In 1981, Gadamer attempted to engage with Jacques Derrida at a conference in Paris, a last meeting between Gadamer and Derrida was held at the Stift of Heidelberg in July 2001, coordinated by Derridas students, Joseph Cohen and Raphael Zagury-Orly. This meeting marked, in ways, a turn in their philosophical encounter. Richard J. Bernstein said that genuine dialogue between Gadamer and Derrida has never taken place and this is a shame because there are crucial and consequential issues that arise between hermeneutics and deconstruction. On February 11,2000, the University of Heidelberg celebrated Gadamers one hundredth birthday with a ceremony, Gadamers last academic engagement was in the summer of 2001 at an annual symposium on hermeneutics that two of Gadamers American students had organised
Hans-Georg Gadamer
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Hans-Georg Gadamer
73.
Antonio Gramsci
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Antonio Francesco Gramsci was an Italian Marxist theorist and politician. He wrote on political theory, sociology and linguistics and he attempted to break from the economic determinism of traditional Marxist thought and so is considered a key neo-Marxist. He was a member and one-time leader of the Communist Party of Italy and was imprisoned by Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime. He wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3,000 pages of history and his Prison Notebooks are considered a highly original contribution to 20th century political theory. Gramsci drew insights from varying sources - not only other Marxists but also such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Vilfredo Pareto, Georges Sorel. The notebooks cover a range of topics, including Italian history and nationalism. The bourgeoisie in Gramscis view develops a hegemonic culture using ideology rather than violence, economic force, hegemonic culture propagates its own values and norms so that they become the common sense values of all and thus maintain the status quo. Hegemonic power is used to maintain consent to the capitalist order, rather than coercive power using force to maintain order. This cultural hegemony is produced and reproduced by the dominant class through the institutions that form the superstructure, Antonio Francesco Gramsci was born in Ales, on the island of Sardinia, the fourth of seven sons of Francesco Gramsci. The senior Gramsci was an official from Gaeta, who married Giuseppina Marcias. Gramscis father was of distant Arbëreshë descent, though Gramsci mistakenly believed his fathers family left Albania as recently as 1821 and his mother belonged to a local landowning family. The senior Gramscis financial difficulties and troubles with the police forced the family to move about through several villages in Sardinia until they settled in Ghilarza. In 1898 Francesco was convicted of embezzlement and imprisoned, reducing his family to destitution, the young Antonio had to abandon schooling and work at various casual jobs until his fathers release in 1904. As a boy, Gramsci suffered from problems, particularly a malformation of the spine that stunted his growth. Gramsci was also plagued by various internal disorders throughout his life, Gramsci completed secondary school in Cagliari, where he lodged with his elder brother Gennaro, a former soldier whose time on the mainland had made him a militant socialist. However, Gramscis sympathies then did not lie with socialism, but rather with the grievances of impoverished Sardinian peasants, in 1911, Gramsci won a scholarship to study at the University of Turin, sitting the exam at the same time as Palmiro Togliatti. At Turin, he read literature and took a keen interest in linguistics, Gramsci was in Turin as it was going through industrialization, with the Fiat and Lancia factories recruiting workers from poorer regions. Trade unions became established, and the first industrial social conflicts started to emerge, Gramsci frequented socialist circles as well as associating with Sardinian emigrants
Antonio Gramsci
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University of Turin: the Rectorate
Antonio Gramsci
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Gramsci in 1916
Antonio Gramsci
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L'Ordine Nuovo (1920)
Antonio Gramsci
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Antonio Gramsci (1922)
74.
Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)
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Walter Arnold Kaufmann was a German-American philosopher, translator, and poet. He served for over 30 years as a professor at Princeton University and he is renowned as a scholar and translator of Friedrich Nietzsche. He also wrote a 1965 book on Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, at age 11, finding that he believed neither in the Trinity nor in the divinity of Jesus, he converted to Judaism. Kaufmann subsequently discovered that his grandparents were all Jewish, Kaufmann left Germany and immigrated to America in 1939 and began studying at Williams College, where he majored in philosophy and took many religion classes. S. During World War II, he fought on the European front for 15 months, after the war, he completed a PhD in the philosophy of religion at Harvard in a mere two years. His dissertation was titled Nietzsches Theory of Values and eventually became a chapter in his Nietzsche, Philosopher, Kaufmann became a naturalized citizen of the United States of America in 1960. In their place, he praised moralists such as the prophets, the Buddha. He argued that critical analysis and the acquisition of knowledge were liberating and empowering forces, Kaufmann discussed many of these issues in his 1958 Critique of Religion and Philosophy. Kaufmann wrote a good deal on the existentialism of Søren Kierkegaard, Kaufmann had great admiration for Kierkegaards passion and his insights on freedom, anxiety, and individualism. Kaufmann wrote, Nobody before Kierkegaard had seen so clearly that the freedom to make a decision that may change our character. Kaufmann edited the anthology Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sartre, Kaufmann disliked Martin Heideggers thinking, along with his unclear writing. Michael Tanner called Kaufmanns commentaries on Nietzsche obtrusive, self-referential, and lacking insight, can deepen the insights of every discriminating student of literature, and The New Yorker wrote that Kaufmann has produced what may be the definitive study of Nietzsches. Thought—an informed, scholarly, and lustrous work, Kaufmann wrote that superficially. it also seems that as a philosopher represents a very sharp decline. Yet this argument is hardly cogent, not only can one defend Nietzsche on this score. But one must add that he had strong reasons for not having a system. Kaufmann also sympathized with Nietzsches acerbic criticisms of Christianity, however, Kaufmann faulted much in Nietzsche, writing that my disagreements with are legion. Kaufmann described his own ethic and his own philosophy of living in his books, including The Faith of a Heretic, what Do I Hope. and Without Guilt and Justice, From Decidophobia to Autonomy. He advocated living in accordance with what he proposed as the four virtues, ambition/humility, love, courage
Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)
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Walter Kaufmann, undated
75.
Niklas Luhmann
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Niklas Luhmann was a German sociologist, and a prominent thinker in systems theory, who is increasingly recognized as one of the most important social theorists of the 20th century. Luhmann was born in Lüneburg, Lower Saxony, where his fathers family had been running a brewery for several generations. After the war Luhmann studied law at the University of Freiburg from 1946 to 1949, when he obtained a law degree, during a sabbatical in 1961, he went to Harvard, where he met and studied under Talcott Parsons, then the worlds most influential social systems theorist. In later years, Luhmann dismissed Parsons theory, developing an approach of his own. 1965/66 he studied one semester of sociology at the University of Münster, two earlier books were retroactively accepted as a PhD thesis and habilitation at the University of Münster in 1966, qualifying him for a university professorship. Luhmann is probably best known to North Americans for his debate with the critical theorist Jürgen Habermas over the potential of social systems theory, Luhmanns systems theory focuses on three topics, which are interconnected in his entire work. Social systems are systems of communication, and society is the most encompassing social system, being the social system that comprises all communication, todays society is a world society. A system is defined by a boundary between itself and its environment, dividing it from a complex, or chaotic, exterior. The interior of the system is thus a zone of reduced complexity and this process is also called reduction of complexity. The criterion according to information is selected and processed is meaning. Both social systems and psychic systems operate by processing meaning, furthermore, each system has a distinctive identity that is constantly reproduced in its communication and depends on what is considered meaningful and what is not. If a system fails to maintain that identity, it ceases to exist as a system, Social systems are operationally closed in that while they use and rely on resources from their environment, those resources do not become part of the systems operation. Both thought and digestion are important preconditions for communication, but neither appears in communication as such, note, however, that Maturana argued very vocally that this appropriation of autopoietic theory was conceptually unsound, as it presupposes the autonomy of communications from actual persons. That is, by describing social systems as operationally closed networks of communications, autopoiesis only applies to networks of processes that reproduce themselves, but communications are reproduced by humans. For this reason, the analogy from biology to sociology does not, in this case, Luhmann likens the operation of autopoiesis to a program, making a series of logical distinctions. Here, Luhmann refers to the British mathematician G. Spencer-Browns logic of distinctions that Maturana, the supreme criterion guiding the self-creation of any given system is a defining binary code. This binary code, is not to be confused with the computers operation and this dilemma is framed with an ever-changing set of available choices, everyone of those potential choices can be the systems selection or not. The influence of Spencer-Browns book, Laws of Form, on Luhmann can hardly be overestimated, although Luhmann first developed his understanding of social systems theory under Parsons influence, he soon moved away from the Parsonian concept
Niklas Luhmann
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Niklas Luhmann
76.
Herbert Marcuse
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Herbert Marcuse was a German-American philosopher, sociologist, and political theorist, associated with the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory. Born in Berlin, Marcuse studied at the universities of Berlin and then at Freiburg and he was a prominent figure in the Frankfurt-based Institute for Social Research – what later became known as the Frankfurt School. He was married to Sophie Wertheim, Inge Neumann, and Erica Sherover, in his written works, he criticized capitalism, modern technology, historical materialism and entertainment culture, arguing that they represent new forms of social control. After his studies, in the late 1960s and the 1970s he became known as the preeminent theorist of the New Left and the student movements of Germany, France, and the United States. Between 1943 and 1950, Marcuse worked in U. S. Government service, celebrated as the Father of the New Left, his best known works are Eros and Civilization and One-Dimensional Man. His Marxist scholarship inspired many intellectuals and political activists in the 1960s and 1970s. Herbert Marcuse was born in Berlin, to Carl Marcuse and Gertrud Kreslawsky, in 1916 he was drafted into the German Army, but only worked in horse stables in Berlin during World War I. He then became a member of a Soldiers Council that participated in the aborted socialist Spartacist uprising and he completed his Ph. D. thesis at the University of Freiburg in 1922 on the German Künstlerroman after which he moved back to Berlin, where he worked in publishing. In 1924 he married Sophie Wertheim, a mathematician and he returned to Freiburg in 1928 to study with Edmund Husserl and write a Habilitation with Martin Heidegger, which was published in 1932 as Hegels Ontology and Theory of Historicity. This study was written in the context of the Hegel renaissance that was taking place in Europe with an emphasis on Hegels ontology of life and history, idealist theory of spirit and dialectic. With his academic career blocked by the rise of the Third Reich, in 1933 Marcuse joined the Institut für Sozialforschung, popularly known as the Frankfurt School and he went almost at once into exile with them, first briefly in Geneva, then in the United States. In 1933, Marcuse published his first major review, of Marxs Economic, in this review, Marcuse revised the interpretation of Marxism, from the standpoint of the works of the early Marx. This review helped the world see that Marcuse was becoming one of the most promising theorists of his generation, Marcuse worked closely with critical theorists while at the Institute. After emigrating from Germany in 1933, Marcuse immigrated to the United States in 1934, although he never returned to Germany to live, he remained one of the major theorists associated with the Frankfurt School, along with Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno. In 1940 he published Reason and Revolution, a dialectical work studying G. W. F. Hegel, during World War II, Marcuse first worked for the U. S. Office of War Information on anti-Nazi propaganda projects. In 1943, he transferred to the Research and Analysis Branch of the Office of Strategic Services, directed by the Harvard historian William L. Langer, the Research and Analysis Branch was in fact the biggest American research institution in the first half of the twentieth century. At its zenith between 1943 and 1945, it comprised over twelve hundred employees, four hundred of whom were stationed abroad and these men comprised the theoretical brain trust of the American war machine, which, according to its founder, William J. In March 1943, Marcuse joined his fellow Frankfurt School scholar Franz Neumann in R8cAs Central European Section as senior analyst and rapidly established himself as the leading analyst on Germany
Herbert Marcuse
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Marcuse in 1955 in
Newton, Massachusetts
Herbert Marcuse
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Grave in the
Dorotheenstädtischer cemetery, Berlin, where Marcuse's ashes were buried in 2003.
Herbert Marcuse
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Herbert Marcuse and his first wife, Sophie Marcuse in their New York apartment
77.
Marshall McLuhan
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Herbert Marshall McLuhan, CC was a Canadian professor, philosopher, and public intellectual. His work is viewed as one of the cornerstones of the study of theory, as well as having practical applications in the advertising. McLuhan is known for coining the expression the medium is the message and the global village. He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, in the years after his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles. With the arrival of the internet, however, interest has renewed in his work, Herbert Marshall McLuhan was born in Edmonton, Alberta to Elsie Naomi and Herbert Ernest McLuhan, both born in Canada. His brother Maurice was born two years later, Marshall was his maternal grandmothers surname. His mother was a Baptist schoolteacher who became an actress. That business failed when World War I broke out, and McLuhans father enlisted in the Canadian army, after a year of service, he contracted influenza and remained in Canada, away from the front. At Manitoba, McLuhan explored his relationship with religion and turned to literature to gratify his souls hunger for truth and beauty. After studying for one year as a student, he changed majors and earned a BA, winning a University Gold Medal in Arts. He took an MA in English from the University of Manitoba in 1934 and he had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and he was accepted to the University of Cambridge, having failed to secure a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford. He entered Trinity Hall, Cambridge in the autumn of 1934 and these studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms. He received the bachelors degree from Cambridge in 1936 and entered their graduate program. Later, he returned from England to take a job as an assistant at the University of Wisconsin–Madison that he held for the 1936–37 academic year. While studying the trivium at Cambridge, he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1937, in 1935, he wrote to his mother, ad I not encountered Chesterton, I would have remained agnostic for many years at least. At the end of March 1937, McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process, after consulting a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert. His mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable, McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter. He had a lifelong interest in the three and sometimes said that the Virgin Mary provided intellectual guidance for him
Marshall McLuhan
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Marshall McLuhan, c. 1936
Marshall McLuhan
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A portion of Toronto's St. Joseph Street is co-named Marshall McLuhan Way
Marshall McLuhan
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Topics and terminology
78.
Quentin Meillassoux
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Quentin Meillassoux is a French philosopher. He teaches at the Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, and is the son of the anthropologist Claude Meillassoux, Meillassoux is a former student of the philosophers Bernard Bourgeois and Alain Badiou. The book was translated into English by philosopher Ray Brassier, Meillassoux is associated with the speculative realism movement. In Meillassouxs view, this is a dishonest maneuver that allows philosophy to sidestep the problem of how to describe the world as it really is prior to all human access and he terms this pre-human reality the ancestral realm. This leads Meillassoux to proclaim that it is necessary that the laws of nature be contingent. The world is a kind of hyper-chaos in which the principle of sufficient reason is abandoned even while the principle of non-contradiction must be retained, for these reasons, Meillassoux rejects Kants so-called Copernican Revolution in philosophy. Since Kant makes the world dependent on the conditions by which humans observe it, several of Meillassouxs articles have appeared in English via the British philosophical journal Collapse, helping to spark interest in his work in the Anglophone world. His unpublished dissertation Linexistence divine is forthcoming in book form, in September 2011, Meillassouxs book on Stéphane Mallarmé was published in France under the title Le nombre et la sirène. Un déchiffrage du Coup de dés de Mallarmé, in this second book, he offers a detailed reading of Mallarmés famous poem Un Coup de Dés Jamais N’Abolira Le Hasard, in which he finds a numerical code at work in the text. Meillassoux clarified and revised some of the views exposed in After Finitude during his lectures at the Free University of Berlin in 2012, books After Finitude, An Essay On The Necessity Of Contingency, trans. Ray Brassier The Number and the Siren, A Decipherment of Mallarmes Coup De Des Science Fiction and Extro-Science Fiction, alyosha Edlebi Articles Potentiality and Virtuality, in Collapse, vol. Subtraction and Contraction, Deleuze, Immanence and Matter and Memory, in Collapse, regard philosophique sur Pierre Perrault, foreword by Jean-Daniel Lafond, Montréal, Éditions Nota bene, coll. Philosophie continentale,2016,210 p. Harman, Graham, Quentin Meillassoux, Philosophy in the Making. Difficult Atheism, Post-Theological Thinking in Alain Badiou, Jean-Luc Nancy, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, paperback, March 2013, hardback,2011. Meillassoux, Après la finitude, Essai sur la nécessité de la contingence, Paris, Seuil,2006 « Deuil à venir, dieu à venir », Critique, janvier-février 2006, « Potentialité et virtualité », Failles 2, Printemps 2006
Quentin Meillassoux
79.
Antonio Negri
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Antonio Toni Negri is an Italian Marxist sociologist and political philosopher, best known for his co-authorship of Empire, and secondarily for his work on Spinoza. Born in Padua, he became a philosophy professor in his hometown university. Negri founded the Potere Operaio group in 1969 and was a member of Autonomia Operaia. As one of the most popular theorists of Autonomism, he has published influential books urging revolutionary consciousness. He was wrongly suspected to have made a phone call on behalf of the BR. The question of Negris complicity with left-wing extremism is a controversial subject and he was indicted on a number of charges, including association and insurrection against the state, and sentenced for involvement in two murders. In 1997, after a plea-bargain that reduced his time from 30 to 13 years. Many of his most influential books were published while he was behind bars and he now lives in Venice and Paris with his partner, the French philosopher Judith Revel. Antonio Negri was born in Padua, Italy in 1933 and his father was an active communist, and although the father died when Negri was two years old, his political engagement made Negri familiar with Marxism from an early age. He began his career as a militant in the 1950s with the activist Roman Catholic youth organization Gioventú Italiana di Azione Cattolica, Negri became a communist in 1953–54 when he worked at a kibbutz in Israel for a year. The kibbutz was organised according to ideas of Zionist socialism and all the members were Jewish communists. He joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1956 and remained a member until 1963, while at the time becoming more and more engaged throughout the late 1950s. This might have been facilitated by his connections to politicians such as Raniero Panzieri and philosopher Norberto Bobbio. In the early 1960s Negri joined the group of Quaderni Rossi. In 1969, together with Oreste Scalzone and Franco Piperno, Negri was one of the founders of the group Potere Operaio, Potere Operaio disbanded in 1973 and gave rise to the Autonomia Operaia Organizzata movement. While they were holding him, forty-five days after the kidnapping, nine days later his body, shot in the head, was found dumped in a city lane. The conversation was recorded, and later broadcast and televised, on 7 April 1979, at the age of forty-six, Antonio Negri was arrested for his part in the Autonomy Movement, along with others. Padovas Public Prosecutor Pietro Calogero accused them of being involved in the wing of the Red Brigades
Antonio Negri
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Antonio Negri
Antonio Negri
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Antonio Negri with
Michael Hardt holding a copy of their co-written book
Commonwealth
80.
Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
Friedrich Nietzsche
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Nietzsche in Basel, c. 1875
Friedrich Nietzsche
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Nietzsche in 1861
Friedrich Nietzsche
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Schopenhauer 's philosophy strongly influenced Nietzsche's earliest philosophical thought.
Friedrich Nietzsche
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Mid-October 1871. From left:
Erwin Rohde, Karl von Gersdorff, Nietzsche.
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