1.
Museo del Prado
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The Prado Museum is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture in 1819, it contains important collections of other types of works. El Prado is one of the most visited sites in the world, and it is considered one of the greatest art museums in the world. The collection currently comprises around 8,200 drawings,7,600 paintings,4,800 prints, and 1,000 sculptures, in addition to a large number of other works of art and historic documents. As of 2012, the museum displayed about 1,300 works in the buildings, while around 3,100 works were on temporary loan to various museums. The museum received 2.8 million visitors in 2012 and it is one of the largest museums in Spain. The best-known work on display at the museum is Las Meninas by Velázquez, Velázquez and his keen eye and sensibility were also responsible for bringing much of the museums fine collection of Italian masters to Spain, now the largest outside of Italy. The museum is planning a 16% extension in the nearby Salón de Reinos and their efforts and determination led to the Royal Collection being enriched by some of the masterpieces now to be seen in the Prado. In addition to works from the Spanish royal collection, other holdings increased and enriched the Museum with further masterpieces, such as the two Majas by Goya. Among the now closed museums whose collections have been added to that of the Prado were the Museo del la Trinidad in 1872, in addition, numerous legacies, donations and purchases have been of crucial importance for the growth of the collection. Upon the deposition of Isabella II in 1868, the museum was nationalized and acquired the new name of Museo del Prado, the building housed the royal collection of arts, and it rapidly proved too small. The first enlargement to the museum took place in 1918, particularly important donations include Barón Emile dErlangers gift of Goyas Black Paintings in 1881. Between 1873 and 1900, the Prado helped decorate city halls, new universities, during the Second Spanish Republic from 1931 to 1936, the focus was on building up provincial museums. The art had to be returned across French territory in night trains to the museum upon the commencement of World War II, during the early years of the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, many paintings were sent to embassies. The main building was enlarged with short pavilions in the rear between 1900 and 1960, in 1993, an extension proposed by the Prados director at the time, Felipe Garin, was quickly abandoned after a wave of criticism. In the late 1990s, a $14 million roof work forced the Velázquez masterpiece Las Meninas to change galleries twice, in 1998, the Prado annex in the nearby Casón del Buen Retiro closed for a $10 million two-year overhaul that included three new underground levels. In 2007, the finally executed Rafael Moneos project to expand its exposition room to 16,000 square meters. A glass-roofed and wedge-shaped foyer now contains the shops and cafeteria
Museo del Prado
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Museo del Prado (Main wing)
Museo del Prado
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Museo Nacional del Prado
Museo del Prado
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In the main exhibition hall, first floor
Museo del Prado
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Francisco de Goya, La maja desnuda, oil on canvas, (circa 1797–1800)
2.
Regensburg
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Regensburg is a city in south-east Germany, situated at the confluence of the Danube, Naab and Regen rivers. With over 140,000 inhabitants, Regensburg is the fourth-largest city in the State of Bavaria after Munich, the city is the political, economic and cultural centre of Eastern Bavaria and the capital of the Bavarian administrative region Upper Palatinate. The medieval centre of the city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in 2014, Regensburg was among the top sights and travel attractions in Germany. Generally known in English as Ratisbon until well into the twentieth century, the first settlements in Regensburg date from the Stone Age. The Celtic name Radasbona was the oldest given to a settlement near the present city, around AD90, the Romans built a fort there. In 179, a new Roman fort Castra Regina was built for Legio III Italica during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It is believed that as early as in late Roman times the city was the seat of a bishop, from the early 6th century, Regensburg was the seat of a ruling family known as the Agilolfings. From about 530 to the first half of the 13th century, Regensburg remained an important city during the reign of Charlemagne. After the partition of the Carolingian Empire in 843, the city became the seat of the Eastern Frankish ruler, two years later, fourteen Bohemian princes came to Regensburg to receive baptism there. This was the point of Christianization of the Czechs. These events had a impact on the cultural history of the Czech lands, as they were consequently part of the Roman Catholic. A memorial plate at St Johns Church was unveiled a few years ago, commemorating the incident in the Czech, on 8 December 899 Arnulf of Carinthia, descendant of Charlemagne, died at Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany. In 800 AD the city had 23,000 inhabitants and by 1000 AD this had almost doubled to 40,000 people. In 1096, on the way to the First Crusade, Peter the Hermit led a mob of Crusaders that attempted to force the conversion of the Jews of Regensburg. Between 1135 and 1146, the Stone Bridge across the Danube was built at Regensburg and this bridge opened major international trade routes between northern Europe and Venice, and this began Regensburgs golden age as a residence of wealthy trading families. Regensburg became the centre of southern Germany and was celebrated for its gold work. In 1245 Regensburg became a Free Imperial City and was a centre before the shifting of trade routes in the late Middle Ages. At the end of the 15th century in 1486, Regensburg became part of the Duchy of Bavaria, the city adopted the Protestant Reformation in 1542 and its Town Council remained entirely Lutheran
Regensburg
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Regensburg
Regensburg
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The remains of the East Tower of the Porta Praetoria of Roman times
Regensburg
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Ceremonial arrival at the Imperial Diet, 1711
Regensburg
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UNESCO World Heritage Site
3.
Barbara Blomberg
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Barbara Blomberg was the mother of Don John of Austria. Blomberg was born in Ratisbon, the eldest daughter of Wolfgang Plumberger or Blomberg, a burgher, a singer, in 1546 she was for a short time the mistress of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who was in Regensburg for the meeting of the Imperial Diet. On 24 February 1547 Blomberg gave birth to John of Austria, shortly afterwards Blomberg married Hieronymus Kegel, an imperial official. In 1551 she moved to Brussels with her husband where Kegel was responsible for the equipment of the mercenary army. When Kegel died in 1569, Blomberg and her children were in reduced financial circumstances, at the request of the governor of the Netherlands, the Duke of Alba, she was granted a pension by King Philip II of Spain. In November 1576 Blomberg met her son John of Austria for the time since his birth. Subsequently she went into a Dominican convent in Castile,70 km south of Valladolid, after John of Austria died in 1578, Philip II allowed her to choose her own residence. She established herself first in the village of Colindres, in 1584 she purchased an estate in the village of Ambrosero in Cantabria. Blomberg died at the age of seventy at her estate in Ambrosero and she is buried in the Church of San Sebastian at the monastery of Montehano, between Ambrosero and Santoña. Blomberg has been the subject of a number of novels and plays, In 1837 Patricio de la Escosura y Morrogh wrote the Spanish-language play Barbara Blomberg, in 1897 Georg Ebers wrote the German-language novel Barbara Blomberg, ein historischer Roman. In 1934 Alice Goldberger Liebling wrote the English-language play An Emperors Great Love, in 1949 Carl Zuckmayer wrote the German-language play Barbara Blomberg, ein Stück in drei Akten. In 1953 Heinz Schauwecker wrote the German-language novella Die Sternenstunde der Barbara Blomberg, in 1999 Teresa Alvarez wrote the Spanish-language novel La pasión última de Carlos V. Panzer, Marita A. Barbara Blomberg, 1527-1597, Bürgerstochter und Kaisergeliebte, Die Geliebte des Kaisers, Kaiser Karl V. und Barbara Blomberg. Barbara Blomberg, die Geliebte Kaiser Karls V. und Mutter Don Juans de Austria, ein Kurtbild des 16
Barbara Blomberg
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Charles V and Barbara Blomberg
Barbara Blomberg
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Convento de Montehano +43° 25' 46.79", -3° 29' 23.65"
4.
Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal
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Joanna of Austria was the mother of Sebastian of Portugal, and later regent of Spain for her brother, Philip II of Spain. She was born in Madrid to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and her siblings were King Philip II of Spain and Maria, Holy Roman Empress. Among others, Joanna held the titles of an Archduchess of Austria, Infanta of Castile and of Aragon, joannas only child, Sebastian of Portugal, was born posthumously in 1554, a couple of weeks after her husbands death at the age of 16. Shortly after Sebastians birth, Joanna was called back to Madrid by her brother Philip to act as regent during his absence in England and she filled this role with intelligence and efficiency. Joanna never remarried and never returned to Portugal and she never saw her son Sebastian again, although she sent him letters and had portraits of him painted at various ages so she could see what he looked like. This convent is now a monument and holds an art collection. It was founded in the palace where Joanna was born. Joanna repeatedly intervened in favor of the new order of the Jesuits, in 1555, she is reputed to have been admitted surreptitiously to the male-only Jesuit order under the name of a pseudonym, Mateo Sánchez
Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal
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Joanna of Austria; Sánchez Coello, 1557.
Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal
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Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal; by Cristóvão de Morais, 1551.
5.
Margaret of Parma
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Margaret of Parma was Governor of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567 and from 1578 to 1582. She was the daughter of the then 22-year-old Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. She was a Duchess of Florence and a Duchess of Parma and her mother, Johanna Maria van der Gheynst, a servant of Charles de Lalaing, Seigneur de Montigny, was a Fleming. In 1527, in the year she turned five, she engaged to the Popes nephew, Alessandro de Medici, Duke of Florence. The marriage negotiations had been initiated in 1526, and in 1529 the agreement was signed by her father. Though she was multi-lingual, she was to prefer the Italian language for the rest of her life, in 1536, she married Alessandro, who was assassinated in 1537. On 4 November 1538, the 15-year-old widow married Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma, at first she refused to marry him. Although the union proved a one, it gave her years of experience in Rome. The couple lived separately for much of their lives, and Margaret maintained her own court and she was in a somewhat difficult position, as the Pope and the Emperor argued about authority over Parma. In 1555, the Farnese family were acknowledged as rulers of Parma by Spain in exchange for the custody of her son, in 1555, she left Italy for the Netherlands, where she left her son in the care of her half-brother Philip II. Like her aunts who trained her, Margaret had many abilities, Philip II appointed her Governor of the Netherlands when he left them in 1559 for Spain. In ordinary times she could probably have proved as successful a ruler as her two predecessors in that post, but her task was very different from theirs and she faced the rising storm of discontent against the Inquisition and Spanish despotism, and Philip left her but nominal authority. He was determined to pursue his own course, and the result was the revolt of the Netherlands. Margaret was forced to adjust herself to the advice of Cardinal Granvelle, Philips choice for her chief councillor, in 1565, an opposition party was forged from the Dutch nobility. Margaret received its complaints, and promised to stop religious repression since she had no army to put against the dissenters, in 1566, Iconoclastic riots took place all over the Netherlands but she managed to stop them. The next year, Philip sent her military help led by the Duke of Alba, actions by Alba, Margaret warned Philip, would lead to catastrophe. Instead however of trying to stop the Duke, Margaret resigned when she realized that his power of attorney from Philip superseded her own, in 1567 Margaret resigned her post into the hands of the Duke of Alba and retired to LAquila in Italy. She was appointed Governor of Abruzzo, where she had inherited a domain from her late husband and she acted as the adviser of her son and also her royal bastard half-brother, John of Austria
Margaret of Parma
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Margaret of Parma
Margaret of Parma
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Engraving of Margaret of Parma
6.
Carlos, Prince of Asturias
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Several of the Carlist pretenders to the Spanish throne were also known as Don Carlos. Carlos, Prince of Asturias, also known as Don Carlos, was the eldest son and his mother was Maria Manuela of Portugal, daughter of John III of Portugal. Carlos was mentally unstable and was imprisoned by his father in early 1568 and his fate was a theme in Spains Black Legend, and inspired a play by Friedrich Schiller and an opera by Giuseppe Verdi. Carlos was born at Valladolid on 8 July 1545 and his mother, María Manuela of Portugal, died four days later from a haemorrhage she had suffered after the birth. The young Infante Carlos was delicate and deformed and he grew up proud and willful and, as a young adult, began to show signs of mental instability. Many of his physical and psychological afflictions may have stemmed from the common to the House of Habsburg. Carlos had only four great-grandparents instead of the maximum of eight, in 1559 Prince Carlos was betrothed to Elizabeth of Valois, eldest daughter of King Henry II of France. However, for reasons, she instead married King Philip in 1560. It was agreed in 1564 that Carlos should marry Anna, Carlos was recognized in 1560 as the heir-apparent to the Castilian throne, and three years later as heir-apparent to the Crown of Aragon as well. He became also the 218th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece and he often attended meetings of the Council of State and was in correspondence with his aunt Margaret, who governed the Low Countries in his fathers name. In 1562 Carlos fell down a flight of stairs, which caused serious head injuries and his life was saved by a trepanation of the skull, performed by the eminent anatomist Andreas Vesalius. After his recovery, Carlos became wild and unpredictable in his behavior and he took a dislike to the Duke of Alba, who became the commander of Philips forces in the Netherlands, a position that had been promised to Carlos. Carlos possibly made contacts with representative of the Count Egmont from the Low Countries and he also exhibited an antipathy towards his father, whose murder, according to Carlos confessor, he supposedly contemplated at one time. In the autumn of 1567 he made preparations to flee to the Netherlands, however, John of Austria, whom Carlos tried to draw into his plans, revealed everything to King Philip. Carlos remained in confinement at the Alcázar of Madrid until his death six months later. It was later claimed that he was poisoned on the orders of King Philip, especially by William the Silent in his Apology, modern historians think that Don Carlos died of natural causes. He grew very thin and developed eating disorders during his imprisonment, Carlos left an unfavourable impression on some foreign ambassadors. Another Venetian, Paolo Tiepolo, wrote, He wished neither to study nor to take physical exercise, the idea of King Philip confining and murdering his own son later played a minor role in establishing the anti-Spanish Black Legend
Carlos, Prince of Asturias
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Portrait by Alonso Sánchez Coello, 1564.
Carlos, Prince of Asturias
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Portrait of Don Carlos by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1560
7.
Isabella Clara Eugenia
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Isabella Clara Eugenia was sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands in the Low Countries and the north of modern France, together with her husband Albert VII, Archduke of Austria. In some sources, she is referred to as Clara Isabella Eugenia, by birth, she was an infanta of Spain and Portugal. Isabella Clara Eugenia of Austria was born in the Palacio del bosque de Valsaín, Segovia on 12 August 1566, daughter of Philip II of Spain and her paternal grandparents were Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. Her maternal grandparents were Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici and her father, Philip II, was reportedly overjoyed at her birth and declared himself to be happier on the occasion than he would have been at the birth of a son. Isabellas mother, Elisabeth of Valois, had originally been betrothed to Don Carlos, despite the significant age difference between them, Philip was very attached to Elisabeth, staying close by her side even when she was ill with smallpox. Elisabeths first pregnancy in 1564 ended in a miscarriage of twin daughters and she later gave birth to Isabella Clara Eugenia on 12 August 1566, and then to Isabellas younger sister Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain 10 October 1567. Elisabeth miscarried a daughter in 1568 and died the same day, Isabella grew up with her sister Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain, beloved by her father and her stepmother Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain, Philips fourth wife. Philip ultimately fathered five children by Anna, all of whom died in childhood except his heir. Isabella was also the person whom Philip permitted to help him with his work, sorting his papers. Since 1568, at the age of two, Isabella Clara Eugenia was promised to marry Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, son of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, Maria was a daughter of her paternal grandparents Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Isabella of Portugal. Isabella Clara Eugenia, however, had to wait for more than 20 years before the eccentric Rudolf declared that he had no intention of marrying anybody, at any rate, Isabella Clara Eugenias mother had ceded any claim to the French crown with her marriage to Philip II. However the Parlement de Paris, in power of the Catholic party and her father decided to cede the Spanish Netherlands to her on condition that she marry her cousin, Albert VII, Archduke of Austria. They were to reign over the Netherlands jointly as duke/count and duchess/countess and it was also stipulated that, should they have no children, the Netherlands would revert to the King of Spain upon the death of either spouse. On 18 April 1599, being 33 years old, she married Albert, Albert was the joint sovereign of the Seventeen Provinces and the former viceroy of Portugal. As Albert also was the Archbishop of Toledo, he had to be released from his religious commitments by Pope Clement VIII before the wedding could take place. Shortly before Philip II died on 13 September 1598, he renounced his rights to the Netherlands in favor of his daughter Isabella and her fiancé. Beginning in 1601, the couple ruled the Spanish Netherlands together, a false anecdote links Isabella, the siege of Ostend, and the horse coat colour isabelline. The reign of Albert and Isabella is considered the Golden Age of the Spanish Netherlands, the reign of the Archduke Albert of Austria and Archduchess Isabella Clara Eugenia is a key period in the history of the Spanish Netherlands
Isabella Clara Eugenia
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Portrait by Frans Pourbus the Younger
Isabella Clara Eugenia
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Isabella and her dwarf, c. 1599
Isabella Clara Eugenia
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Isabella Clara Eugenia and Archduke Albert
Isabella Clara Eugenia
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Jeton with portraits of Albert VII, Archduke of Austria and Infanta Isabella of Spain, struck in Antwerp 1612. Obv: Portraits of Albert and Isabella. Rev: Eagle holding balance, date 1612.
8.
Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain
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Catherine Michelle of Spain was a Duchess consort of Savoy by marriage to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, she also served as Regent of Savoy several times during the absence of her spouse. She was the youngest surviving daughter of Philip II of Spain and Elisabeth of Valois, she was also the sister of Isabella Clara Eugenia, catherine Michelle was described as beautiful, intelligent, arrogant and well aware of her high social status. She had a relationship with her father and exchanged letters with him after her marriage. Charles Emmanuel I suggested the marriage as a way of gaining Spanish support for his plans to expand Savoy on the coast of the then weakened France, the wedding took place in Zaragoza on 11 March 1585 and the couple made their entrance to Turin in Savoy 10 August 1585. Catherine Michelle was initially unpopular because of her arrogance and attempts to introduce Spanish pomp, ceremony, however, she soon gained respect because of her political and diplomatic skill, which she used to defend the autonomy of Savoy against Spain. She refused the Spanish offer to install a Spanish garrison in Turin from Milan with the excuse of giving her a life guard and she is reported to have had great influence on Charles Emmanuel I and to have reformed him for the better. She also served as regent several times during the absence of the duke on military campaigns, catherine Michelle died near the end of 1597, she had miscarried earlier that year. Her father died the following year and her sister Isabella married Albert VII, Archduke of Austria, and later became Governess of the Netherlands. In 1584, she married Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and this marriage produced ten children, Philip Emanuel Victor Amadeus Emanuel Filibert of Savoy, Spanish Viceroy of Sicily
Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain
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Infanta Catherine Michelle
9.
Philip III of Spain
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Philip III of Spain was King of Spain and Portugal. A member of the House of Habsburg, Philip III was born in Madrid to King Philip II of Spain and his wife and niece Anna. Philip III later married his cousin Margaret of Austria, sister of Ferdinand II, V. Wedgwood, R. Stradling and J. H. Elliott. In particular, Philips reliance on his chief minister, the Duke of Lerma, drew much criticism at the time. For many, the decline of Spain can be dated to the difficulties that set in during the early years of his reign. After Philip IIIs older brother Don Carlos died insane, Philip II had concluded that one of the causes of Carlos condition had been the influence of the factions at the Spanish court. Philip II appointed Juan de Zúñiga, then Prince Diegos governor, to continue this role for Philip and they were joined by Cristóbal de Moura, a close supporter of Philip II. In combination, Philip believed, they would provide a consistent, stable upbringing for Prince Philip, nonetheless, Philip does not appear to have been naive – his correspondence to his daughters shows a distinctive, cautious streak in his advice on dealing with court intrigue. Philip first met the Marquis of Denia – the future Duke of Lerma – then, Lerma and Philip became close friends, but Lerma was considered unsuitable by the King and Philips tutors. Lerma was dispatched to Valencia as a Viceroy in 1595, with the aim of removing Philip from his influence, the prince received a new, conservative Dominican confessor. The following year, Philip II died after an illness, leaving the empire to his son. Philip married his cousin, Margaret of Austria, in 1599, Margaret, the sister of the future Emperor Ferdinand II, would be one of three women at Philips court who would apply considerable influence over the king. Margaret continued to fight a battle with Lerma for influence up until her death in 1611. Philip had an affectionate, close relationship with Margaret, and paid her additional attention after she bore him a son in 1605 and they were successful, for example, in convincing Philip to provide financial support to Ferdinand from 1600 onwards. Philip steadily acquired other religious advisors, similarly Mariana de San Jose, a favoured nun of Queen Margarets, was also criticised for her later influence over the Kings actions. The Spanish crown at the time ruled through a system of royal councils and these councils were then supplemented by small committees, or juntas, as necessary, such as the junta of the night through which Philip II exercised personal authority towards the end of his reign. As a matter of policy, Philip had tried to avoid appointing grandees to major positions of power within his government and relied heavily on the lesser nobles, the so-called service nobility. To his contemporaries, the degree of personal oversight he exercised was excessive, Philip first started to become engaged in practical government at the age of 15, when he joined Philip IIs private committee
Philip III of Spain
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Philip III of Spain Philip II of Portugal
Philip III of Spain
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Philip III of Spain
Philip III of Spain
Philip III of Spain
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Francisco Goméz de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma, Spanish statesman
10.
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria was queen consort of France and Navarre, regent for her son, Louis XIV of France, and a Spanish and Portuguese Infanta by birth. During her regency, Cardinal Mazarin served as Frances chief minister, born at Benavente Palace in Valladolid, Spain, and baptised Ana María Mauricia, she was the eldest daughter of King Philip III of Spain and his wife Margaret of Austria. She held the titles of Infanta of Spain and of Portugal, in spite of her birth in Spain, she was referred to as Anne of Austria because the rulers of Spain belonged to the House of Austria. Anne was raised mainly at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid, exceptionally for a royal princess, Anne grew up close to her parents, who were very religious. She was raised to be too, and was often taken to visit monasteries during her childhood. In 1611, she lost her mother, who died in childbirth, despite her grief, Anne did her best to take care of her younger siblings, who referred to her with affection as their mother. Anne was betrothed at age eleven to King Louis XIII of France and her father gave her a dowry of 500,000 crowns and many beautiful jewels. For fear that Louis XIII would die early, the Spanish court stipulated that she would return to Spain with her dowry, jewels, and wardrobe if he did die. On 24 November 1615, Louis and Anne were married by proxy in Burgos while Louiss sister, Elisabeth of France, Anne and Elisabeth were exchanged on the Isle of Pheasants between Hendaye and Fuenterrabía. She was lively and beautiful during her youth and she was also a noted equestrian, a taste her son, Louis, would inherit. At the time, Anne had many admirers, including the handsome Duke of Buckingham, Anne and Louis, both fourteen years old, were pressured to consummate their marriage in order to forestall any possibility of future annulment, but Louis ignored his bride. Louiss mother, Marie de Medici, continued to conduct herself as queen of France, Anne, surrounded by her entourage of high-born Spanish ladies-in-waiting, continued to live according to Spanish etiquette and failed to improve her French. During the years he was in the ascendancy, the Duke of Luynes attempted to remedy the formal distance between Louis and his queen, Anne began to dress in the French manner, and in 1619 Luynes pressed the king to bed his queen. Some affection developed, to the point where it was noted that Louis was distracted during an illness of the queen. A series of stillbirths disenchanted the king and served to chill their relations, on 14 March 1622, while playing with her ladies, Anne fell on a staircase and suffered her second stillbirth. Louis blamed her for the incident and was angry with the Duchess of Luynes for having encouraged the queen in what was seen as negligence. Henceforth, the king had less tolerance for the influence that the duchess had over Anne, Louis turned now to Cardinal Richelieu as his advisor. Under the influence of Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, the queen let herself be drawn into political opposition to Richelieu, in 1635, France declared war on Spain, placing the queen in an untenable position
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria by Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
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Anne at the age of six, 1607. The pleated ruff that surrounds her neck and frames her face was made of yards and yards of expensive lace stiffened with starch. It was probably held in position by a wire frame attached to the collar of her dress.
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria, coronation costume, by Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
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Louis XIII, Anne, and their son Louis XIV, flanked by Cardinal Richelieu and the Duchesse de Chevreuse.
11.
Philip IV of Spain
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Philip IV of Spain was King of Spain and Portugal as Philip III. He ascended the thrones in 1621 and reigned in Spain until his death, Philip is remembered for his patronage of the arts, including such artists as Diego Velázquez, and his rule over Spain during the challenging period of the Thirty Years War. Philip IV was born in Valladolid, and was the eldest son of Philip III and his wife, Philip had seven children by Elisabeth, with only one being a son, Balthasar Charles, who died at the age of sixteen in 1646. The death of his son deeply shocked the king, who appears to have been a father by the standards of the day. Philip remarried in 1646, following the deaths of both Elisabeth and his legitimate heir. Perceptions of Philips personality have altered considerably over time, victorian authors were inclined to portray him as a weak individual, delegating excessively to his ministers, and ruling over a debauched Baroque court. Victorian historians even attributed the death of Baltasar to debauchery. The doctors who treated the Prince at that time in fact diagnosed smallpox, Philip was idealised by his contemporaries as the model of Baroque kingship. Philip was a horseman, a keen hunter and a devotee of bull-fighting. Privately, Philip appears to have had a lighter persona, when he was younger, he was said to have a keen sense of humour and a great sense of fun. He privately attended academies in Madrid throughout his reign — these were lighthearted literary salons, aiming to analyse contemporary literature, a keen theatre-goer, he was sometimes criticised by contemporaries for his love of these frivolous entertainments. Others have captured his private personality as naturally kind, gentle and affable and those close to him claimed he was academically competent, with a good grasp of Latin and geography, and could speak French, Portuguese and Italian well. Like many of his contemporaries, including Olivares, he had a keen interest in astrology and his handwritten translation of Francesco Guicciardinis texts on political history still exists. Although Philips Catholic beliefs no longer attract criticism from English language writers, notably, from the 1640s onwards he sought the advice of a noted cloistered abbess, Sor María de Ágreda, exchanging many letters with her. By the end of the reign, and with the health of Carlos José in doubt, there was a possibility of Juan Josés making a claim on the throne. Philip IV came to power as the influence of the Sandovals was being undermined by a new noble coalition, over the course of at least a year, however, the relationship became very close, with Philips tendency towards underconfidence and diffidence counteracted by Olivares drive and determination. Philip retained Olivares as his confidant and chief minister for the twenty years. Philip himself argued that it was appropriate for the king himself to go house to house amongst his ministers to see if his instructions were being carried out
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Painting by Diego Velázquez, c.1644
Philip IV of Spain
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Spanish Netherlands, gold souverain or 'Lion d'or', struck 1633 in Tournai under King Philip IV of Spain. Obv: Crowned lion brandishing a sword, 1633. Rev: Crowned shield of Philip IV within Golden Fleece collar.
Philip IV of Spain
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Philip pictured with his older sister, Anne in 1612 by Bartolomé González y Serrano.
Philip IV of Spain
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Painting of a youthful Philip IV in 1623 by Diego Velázquez, displaying the prominent " Habsburg lip ".
12.
Maria Anna of Spain
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Maria Anna of Spain, was by birth Infanta of Spain and by marriage Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia as the wife of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor. Of her seven siblings, only four survived infancy, Anna, Philip IV of Spain, Charles, Maria Annas parents had a close kinship, her father was her mothers first cousin once-removed. From early childhood, Maria Anna has played an important role in the projects of her father. London and Madrid began active negotiations, the possible marriage between the Prince of Wales and the Spanish Infanta, was known in history under the name Spanish Match, and caused an internal political crisis in both England and Scotland. In 1623 the Prince of Wales, accompanied by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, however, Maria Anna did not wish to marry a Protestant and Charles would not convert to Catholicism. At the end, the wedding never took place not only for political reasons, Charles eventually married Henrietta Maria of France. At the end of 1626 Maria Anna was betrothed to the brother of her first fiance, Ferdinand. The formal engagement was preceded by a series of negotiations which were conducted in 1625 and that same year, Prince Ferdinand was crowned King of Hungary, and in 1627 King of Bohemia. In the negotiations were included all the aspects of the Infanta at the court of her future spouse. Despite the desire of the groom that Maria Annas confessor would be the Jesuit Ambrosio Penalosa, Maria Anna had left Madrid for Vienna in December 1629. The travel took more than a year, enroute by sea, in Genoa complications arose due to an epidemic of the plague that erupted in the Italian Peninsula. For this reason, the cortege was unable to stop in Bologna, the cortege moved to Naples, where Maria Anna finally received the award. Leaving the Kingdom of Naples, the Infanta crossed the Papal States, on this section of her journey Maria Anna was accompanied by Roman aristocracy, led by another nephew of Pope Urban VIII, Taddeo Barberini, Prince of Palestrina. On 26 January 1631 she arrived in Trieste, where she met Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria, her future brother-in-law and that day, Maria Anna was married to King Ferdinand of Hungria-Bohemia per procura with Archduke Leopold Wilhelm serving as the proxy. Before the official wedding, King Ferdinand, not trusting the previous portraits that he had seen of the Infanta, the Royal oberhofmeister asked for an audience with Maria Anna, on this visit, he was accompanied by some nobles, among whom was her groom. Struck by the beauty of the Infanta, King Ferdinand immediately revealed his identity, the love and respect that the future emperor felt for his wife lasted through all their marriage. He was never unfaithful to her or had illegitimate children, in Vienna on 20 February 1631 Maria Anna was formally married with King Ferdinand of Hungary-Bohemia, with festivities lasting a month. The marriage was described as friendly, Maria Anna was described as happy-tempered, friendly, and intelligent, and she able to ease the feelings of the melancholic Ferdinand
Maria Anna of Spain
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' Infanta Maria Anna of Austria, future Empress ' by Velazquez, 1630.
Maria Anna of Spain
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Maria Ana, Holy Roman Empress, by Frans Luycx, ca. 1638, Visitationist Monastery in Warsaw
Maria Anna of Spain
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Engraving of Maria Anna
Maria Anna of Spain
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Empress Maria Anna with her eldest son, Ferdinand, painting by Frans Luycx, 1634
13.
Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria
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Born at the Escorial near Madrid, Spain in 16091, he was the son of the King of Spain and Portugal, Philip III and II and Margaret of Austria, sister of Emperor Ferdinand II. His older siblings were King Philip IV and III and the French queen Anne of Austria, as his father wished that he pursue an ecclesiastical career, Ferdinand was elevated to the Primacy of Spain in 1619, becoming Archbishop of Toledo. Shortly afterwards he was created Cardinal, the style Cardinal-Infante was a combination of his dignity as Cardinal and his station as a royal Prince of Spain. Ferdinand was never ordained a priest, In 1630 the Cardinal Infantes aunt Isabella Clara Eugenia planned to make him her successor as governor of the Spanish Netherlands. To move to the Netherlands in a style befitting a governor and he met with an army from Milan for a planned march through the famous Spanish Way across Lombardy, Tyrol, and Swabia, and then following the Rhine to the Netherlands. Since disease delayed his travels, he sent half of his army ahead under the command of the Duke of Feria, however, this army was severely depleted during fighting with the Swedish army of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and Gustaf Horn. The Spanish requested 4000 cavalry from the Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein, but this being denied, the Cardinal-Infante was able to continue his travels in 1634, collecting in Bavaria the remains of the army of Gómez Suárez, who had died in January 1634. Meanwhile, Ferdinand of Hungary was able to defeat the Swedish army at Regensburg in July 1634 and this Ferdinand and his cousin the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand then raced to merge their armies. The Swedish forces of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and Gustaf Horn desperately tried to prevent this merger, the Cardinal-Infante crossed the Danube in August 1634. In September both armies were able to merge, and camped south of Nördlingen in Swabia, at that time Nördlingen was protected by a small Swedish garrison. Shortly thereafter, the armies of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and Gustaf Horn also reached Nördlingen, Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand and his nephew Ferdinand then prepared for battle, ignoring the advice of the more experienced generals, such as the Imperial general Matthias Gallas. Bernhard and Horn also prepared for battle, but they were by now rivals, Gustaf Horn was captured, the Swedish army was destroyed, and the remainder that fled to Heilbronn was only a shadow of the former glorious army. At the end of 1634 he entered Brussels with all the glory befitting a Governor-General, due to the unpopularity of the clergy in Brussels, he downplayed his religious status and instead emphasized his worldly ranks. Ferdinand was a politician and diplomat, and quickly reformed the government. He especially managed to win the support of the Flemings against France, however, his powers were secretly limited, and the leader of his army was instructed to follow Spanish orders instead of Ferdinands orders if necessary. In 1635 the French attacked Namur, planning to merge with the Dutch near Maastricht, however, the Dutch hesitated, and the French retreated. Ferdinand subsequently was able to capture Diest, Goch, Gennep, Limbourg, on October 10,1637, Breda was recaptured again after a 10-month siege by the Prince of Orange after being under Spanish control for 12 years. In the southern front Ferdinand lost the towns of La Capelle, Landrecies, and Damvillers to the French, in 1638 Ferdinands army successfully defended Antwerp, Saint-Omer and Geldern from the Dutch and French armies
Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria
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Portrait of Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand by Gaspar de Crayer, 1639.
Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria
Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria
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Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria as Actaeon
14.
Maria Theresa of Spain
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Maria Theresa of Spain, was by birth Infanta of Spain and Portugal and Archduchess of Austria as member of the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg and by marriage Queen of France and Navarre. Her marriage in 1660 with King Louis XIV was made with the purpose to end the war between France and Spain. Without any political influence in the French court or government, she died at the age of 44 from complications from an abscess on her arm. Born an Infanta of Spain at the Royal Monastery of El Escorial, she was the daughter of King Philip IV, and his wife Elisabeth of France, as a member of the House of Habsburg, Maria Theresa was entitled to use the title Archduchess of Austria. Unlike France, the kingdom of Spain had no Salic Law, when Maria Theresas brother Balthasar Charles died in 1646, she became heiress presumptive to the vast Spanish Empire and remained such until the birth of Philip Prospero, in 1657. She was heiress presumptive once more between 1 November and 6 November 1661– the death of Prince Philip and the birth of Prince Charles, who would later inherit the thrones of Spain as Charles II. In 1658, as war with France began to wind down, anne of Austria desired an end to hostilities between her native country of Spain and her adopted one, France. However, Spanish procrastination led to a scheme in which Frances prime minister, Cardinal Mazarin, pretended to seek a marriage for his master with Margaret Yolande of Savoy. When Philip IV of Spain heard of a meeting at Lyon between the Houses of France and Savoy in November 1658, he reputedly exclaimed of the Franco-Savoyard union that it cannot be, and will not be. Philip then sent an envoy to the French court to open negotiations for peace. The negotiations for the contract were intense. This was eventually done but, by the skill of Mazarin and his French diplomats, the renunciation and its validity were made conditional upon the payment of a large dowry. As it turned out, Spain, impoverished and bankrupt after decades of war, was unable to pay such a dowry, a marriage by proxy to the French king was held in Fuenterrabia. On 9 June the marriage took place in Saint-Jean-de-Luz at the rebuilt church of Saint Jean the Baptist. After the wedding, Louis wanted to consummate the marriage as quickly as possible, the new queens mother-in-law arranged a private consummation instead of the public one that was the custom. On 26 August 1660, the made the traditional Joyous Entry into Paris. Maria Theresa was very fortunate to have found a friend at court in her mother-in-law and she continued to spend much of her free time playing cards and gambling, as she had no interest in politics or literature. Consequently, she was viewed as not fully playing the part of queen designated to her by her marriage, but more importantly, she became pregnant in early 1661, and a long-awaited son was born on 1 November 1661
Maria Theresa of Spain
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Portrait of Maria Theresa of Spain as Queen of France
Maria Theresa of Spain
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Signature
Maria Theresa of Spain
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Maria Theresa as Infanta of Spain and Portugal
Maria Theresa of Spain
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Infanta Maria Theresa by Velázquez, 1653. Here, she wears her hair in a popular style at the Spanish royal court and a dress with wide panniers, also popular in Spain.
15.
Margaret Theresa of Spain
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Margaret Theresa of Spain, was by marriage Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Archduchess consort of Austria, Queen consort of Hungary and Bohemia. Margaret Theresa was born on 12 July 1651 in Madrid as the first child of King Philip IV of Spain born from his marriage with his niece Archduchess Mariana of Austria. Because of this marriage, Margarets mother was nearly thirty years younger than her father. On her fathers side, Margarets grandparents were King Philip III of Spain, on her mothers side her grandparents were Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor and his wife Infanta Maria Anna of Spain. The marriage of her parents was purely made for reasons, mainly the search for a new male heir for the Spanish throne after the early death of Balthasar Charles. Besides him, the only surviving child of Philip IVs first marriage was the Infanta Maria Theresa. After Margaret, between 1655 and 1661, four children were born from the marriage between Philip IV and Mariana of Austria, but only one survived infancy, the future King Charles II of Spain. Margaret didnt develop the health issues and disabilities that her younger brother showed since his birth. During her childhood she was seriously ill, but survived. According to contemporaries, Margaret had an appearance and lively character. Her parents and close friends called her the little angel and she grew up in the Queens chambers in the Royal Alcazar of Madrid surrounded by many maids and servants. The Infanta loved candies, which she hid from the physicians who cared for the health of her teeth. Margarets father and maternal grandfather Emperor Ferdinand III love her deeply, in his private letters King Philip IV called her my joy. At the same time, Margaret was brought up in accordance with the etiquette of the Madrid court. In the second half of the 1650s at the court in Vienna the necessity developed for another dynastic marriage between the Spanish and Austrian branches of the House of Habsburg. The union was needed to strengthen the position of countries, especially against the Kingdom of France. At first the proposals were for Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of Philip IV, to marry the heir of the Holy Roman Empire, then began discussion about a marriage between Margaret and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. However, the Madrid court hesitated to agree with this proposal, Philip IV already planned to give his younger daughter in marriage to King Charles II of England, in order to prevent his marriage with Catherine of Braganza
Margaret Theresa of Spain
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Margarita Teresa in 1667, by Jan Thomas van Ieperen, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
Margaret Theresa of Spain
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Las Meninas (1656) by Diego Velázquez, Prado Museum, Madrid.
Margaret Theresa of Spain
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Infanta Margarita Teresa in pink dress (1654) by Diego Velázquez, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Margaret Theresa of Spain
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Infanta Margarita Teresa in silver dress (1656) by Diego Velázquez, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
16.
Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias
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Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias was the first son of Philip IV of Spain and Mariana of Austria to survive infancy. After Balthasar Charless early demise, Philip was left with his daughter Maria Theresa as heir presumptive, in early 1657, astrologers assured Philip that another child was to be born to him and it would be a boy who would live. A strict and devout Roman Catholic, Philip ate nothing but eggs on the first day of the Vigil of the Presentation of the Virgin, in hopes of his wife delivering a male child. Indeed, at 11,30 in the morning on November 28 of the same year and she soon fell sick of the birthing fever, but nobody seemed to mind, they were all rejoicing upon the birth of a male heir. Barrionuevo, a chronicler of the time, wrote of this rejoicing, Following Roman Catholic custom, astrologers predicted nothing but greatness for his future, while Philip was still unsure that he had not thanked God enough for this immense joy. In a letter to his friend Sor María de Ágreda, he wrote that the newborn babe is doing well, but also made a reference to the bitter memory of his eldest sons demise. On December 6,1657, Philip rode into the streets of Madrid. The baptism took place one week later on December 13. The Holy Water was brought from the Jordan River by some friars who had returned from Jordan. The christening cost Philip 600,000 ducats, however, due to generations of inbreeding, Philip Prospero was severely epileptic. The inbreeding was so widespread in his case all of his eight great-grandparents were descendants of Joanna of Castile. Thus in 1658, Philip Prospero was sworn in as heir of his father, nevertheless, he did not enjoy good health and constantly had to carry an amulet with him, an amulet which is present in Velázquezs painting of him. The outcome of the negotiations was the Treaty of the Pyrenees, the first portrait of Philip Prospero to come down to us was painted by Velazquez in 1659, the year Philip felt he could safely agree to the terms of the treaty with France. This portrait and one of Margaret Theresa were made that year for the Emperor Leopold I, their mothers brother, in the painting the prince appears to be around three years old. He stands before a black background, the blackness of which is repeated in his eyes. His wrist limply rests over the back of a chair in which lies an equally limp. In Velazquezs honest depiction the babys eyes have a faint gray-blue-brown hollowness around them and his luminous face and hands and his white muslin smock are accented by the warm red of his gown and are a brightness against the subdued, somber background colors. By contrast nearly thirty years earlier Velazquez painted a robust Balthasar Charles at age two or three staff, sword, exuberant sash and plumed hat
Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias
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1659 portrait by Diego Velázquez
17.
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
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The battle was in essence an infantry battle on floating platforms. It was the largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the Age of Sail. It has long been compared to the Battle of Salamis both for tactical parallels and for its importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion. On 1 August, the Venetians had surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely, however, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, who had lost some 50,000 men in the siege, broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians. The members of the Holy League were the Republic of Venice, the Spanish Empire, the Papal States, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchies of Savoy, Urbino and Tuscany, the Knights Hospitaller and others. The banner for the fleet, blessed by the Pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples on 14 August 1571. There, in the Basilica of Santa Chiara, it was consigned to John of Austria. All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, the combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria with Marcantonio Colonna as his principal deputy. The various Christian contingents met the force, that of Venice, in July and August 1571 at Messina. John of Austria arrived on 23 August, see Battle of Lepanto order of battle for a detailed list of ships and commanders involved in the battle. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors, Ali Pasha, the Ottoman admiral, supported by the corsairs Mehmed Siroco of Alexandria and Uluç Ali, commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys,56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were deficient in their elite corps of Janissaries. The number of oarsmen was about 37,000, virtually all of them slaves, the Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors—generally drawn from the maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire, namely Berbers, Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians—and 34,000 soldiers. An advantage for the Christians was their numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships and it is estimated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition. The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, serious conflict had broken out between the Venetian and Spanish soldiers, and Venier enraged Don Juan by hanging a Spanish soldier for impudence. Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and, on 6 October, they reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia, early on 7 October, they sailed toward the Gulf of Patras, where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, on the morning of 7 October, after the decision to offer battle was made, the Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a north-south line. At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by Agostino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
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The Battle of Lepanto, unknown artist, late 16th century
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
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Depictions of the Ottoman Navy during the battle of Lepanto
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
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A sinking Ottoman Navy vessel, painting by Pieter Brünniche, 1762.
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
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The Victors of Lepanto (from left: John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna, Sebastiano Venier).
18.
Free imperial city
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The evolution of some German cities into self-ruling constitutional entities of the Empire was slower than that of the secular and ecclesiastical princes. In the course of the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities were promoted by the emperor to the status of Imperial Cities, essentially for fiscal reasons. The Free Cities were those, such as Basel, Augsburg, Cologne or Strasbourg, like the other Imperial Estates, they could wage war, make peace, and control their own trade, and they permitted little interference from outside. In the later Middle Ages, a number of Free Cities formed City Leagues, such as the Hanseatic League or the Alsatian Décapole, to promote and defend their interests. In the course of the Middle Ages, cities gained, and sometimes — if rarely — lost, some favored cities gained a charter by gift. Others purchased one from a prince in need of funds, some won it by force of arms during the troubled 13th and 14th centuries and other lost their privileges during the same period by the same way. Some cities became free through the created by the extinction of dominant families. Some voluntarily placed themselves under the protection of a territorial ruler, a few, like Protestant Donauwörth, which in 1607 was annexed to the Catholic Duchy of Bavaria, were stripped by the Emperor of their status as a Free City — for genuine or trumped-up reasons. There were approximately four thousand towns and cities in the Empire, during the late Middle Ages, fewer than two hundred of these places ever enjoyed the status of Free Imperial Cities, and some of those did so only for a few decades. The military tax register of 1521 listed eighty-five such cities, from the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 to 1803, their number oscillated at around fifty. These cities were located in small territories where the ruler was weak. They were nevertheless the exception among the multitude of territorial towns, Cities of both latter categories normally had representation in territorial diets, but not in the Imperial Diet. The cities divided themselves into two groups, or benches, in the Imperial Diet, the Rhenish and the Swabian Bench. To avoid the possibility that they would have the vote in case of a tie between the Electors and the Princes, it was decided that these should decide first and consult the cities afterward. Constitutionally, if in no way, the diminutive Free Imperial City of Isny was the equal of the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Instead, many found it more profitable to maintain agents at the Aulic Council in Vienna. At the opposite end, the authority of Cologne, Aachen, Worms, Goslar, Wetzlar and they were the most economically significant burgher families who had asserted themselves politically over time. The burgher status was usually a privilege renewed pro-forma in each generation of the family concerned
Free imperial city
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Rottweil, c. 1435. Swabian Rottweil maintained its independence up to the mediatization of 1802–03.
Free imperial city
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The Free Imperial Cities in the 18th century
Free imperial city
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Partial list of the Free Imperial Cities of Swabia based on the Reichsmatrikel of 1521. It indicates the number of horsemen (left hand column) and infantry (right hand column) which each Imperial Estate had to contribute to the defence of the Empire
Free imperial city
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Weissenburg-im-Nordgau in 1725
19.
Upper Palatinate
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The Upper Palatinate is one of the seven administrative districts of Bavaria, Germany, located in the east of Bavaria. Major tourist attractions include the former ducal residences Regensburg with the Walhalla nearby and Amberg, scenic attractions include the river Danube and the Upper Palatine Forest. At the beginning of the High Middle Ages the region now known as the Upper Palatinate was part of the Bavarian March of the Nordgau, the region took its current name no earlier than the early 14th century. From the mid 13th century much of the region was controlled by the Wittelsbach dynasty, by the 1329 Treaty of Pavia, the Wittelsbach territories were divided between two branches of the dynasty. By contrast, the territory to the east centred Amberg became known as the Upper Palatinate, cadet branches of the Wittelsbach dynasty also ruled over smaller territories in Neuburg and Sulzbach. After the founding of the Kingdom of Bavaria the state was reorganised and, in 1808, divided into 15 administrative districts. They were created in the fashion of the French departments, quite even in size and population, in the following years, due to territorial changes, the number of Kreise in the kingdom was reduced to 8. One of these was the Regenkreis, in 1837 king Ludwig I of Bavaria renamed the Kreise after historical territorial names and tribes of the area. This also involved some border changes or territorial swaps, thus the district name of Regenkreis changed to Upper Palatinate. The development of railroads in the area is covered in the book Eisenbahn in der Oberpfalz. genealogy. net
Upper Palatinate
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Walhalla
Upper Palatinate
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Map of Bavaria highlighting the Regierungsbezirk of Upper Palatinate
20.
Valladolid
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Valladolid is a city in Spain and the de facto capital of the autonomous community of Castile and León. It has a population of 309,714 people, making it Spains 13th most populous municipality and its metropolitan area ranks 20th in Spain with a population of 414,244 people in 23 municipalities. The city is situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within five winegrowing regions, Ribera del Duero, Rueda, Toro, Tierra de León, Valladolid was originally settled in pre-Roman times by the Celtic Vaccaei people, and later the Romans themselves. It remained a settlement until being re-established by King Alfonso VI of Castile as a Lordship for the Count Pedro Ansúrez in 1072. The Catholic Monarchs, Isabel I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, married in Valladolid in 1469 and established it as the capital of the Kingdom of Castile and later of united Spain. Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid in 1506, while authors Francisco de Quevedo, the city was briefly the capital of Habsburg Spain under Phillip III between 1601 and 1606, before returning indefinitely to Madrid. The city then declined until the arrival of the railway in the 19th century, among the events that are held each year in the city there is Holy Week, Valladolid International Film Week, and the Theatre Festival and street arts. There is no evidence for the origin of the modern name of Valladolid. Another theory suggests that the name derives from the Arabic expression Ballad Al-Walid بلد الوليد, yet a third claims that it derives from Vallis Olivetum, meaning valley of the olives. In texts from the ages the town is called Vallisoletum, meaning sunny valley. The city is popularly called Pucela, a nickname whose origin is not clear. Another theory is that Pucela comes from the fact that Pozzolana cement was sold there, the Vaccaei was a Celtic tribe, the first people with stable presence on the sector of the middle valley of the River Duero documented in historical times. Remains of Celtiberian and of a Roman camp have been excavated near the city, the nucleus of the city was originally located in the area of the current San Miguel y el Rosarillo square, and was surrounded by a palisade. Archaeological proofs of the existence of three ancient lines of walls have been found, the area was captured from the Moors in the 10th century, and Valladolid was a village until King Alfonso VI of León and Castile donated it to Count Pedro Ansúrez in 1072. He built a palace for himself and his wife, Countess Eylo, the Collegiate of St. Mary, in 1469 Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon were married in the city, by the 15th century Valladolid was the residence of the kings of Castile. In 1506 Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid still convinced that he had reached the Indies in a house that is now a Museum dedicated to him and it was made the capital of the kingdom again between 1601 and 1606 by Philip III. The city was damaged by a flood of the rivers Pisuerga. Despite the damage to the old city by the 1960s economic boom, the Science Museum is next to the river Pisuerga
Valladolid
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City Hall in the Plaza Mayor
Valladolid
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'A jousting tournament in the main square of Valladolid', historical ceiling preserved in Prado Museum
Valladolid
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Map of the territory of the Vaccaei
Valladolid
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Winter in the city gardens
21.
Codicil (will)
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A codicil is a testamentary document similar but not necessarily identical to a will. In some jurisdictions, it may serve to amend, rather than replace, in others, it may serve as an alternative to a will. In still others, there is no recognized distinction between a codicil and a will, the concept of a testamentary document similar to but distinct from a will had its origins in Roman law. In the pre-classical period, a testator was required to name an heir for a will to be valid, failure to name an heir or failure to follow the proper formalities for naming an heir would result in an estate divided by the rules of intestacy. However, if the will did not confirm the codicil, all directives in the codicil were considered fideicommissa, furthermore, a will that did not name an heir could be considered a codicil. Thus, where a testator did not name an heir, his will would be considered a codicil, by the time of the Codex Justinianus, the formal requirements related to wills had relaxed, while requirements for the codicil had become more stringent. There was thus little difference between the formalities for a will and for a codicil, and an invalid will – where, for example and it is acknowledged that classical Roman succession law was highly complicated and to a large extent perplexedly entangled. The codicil remained an entity to a will to varying degrees throughout the Roman-influenced legal world. The concept of heredis institutio was part of the jus commune up until modern times, in the United States, a codicil is a document that changes an existing will. Amendments made by a codicil may alter, explain, add to, subtract from, or confirm – and otherwise amend a will in any way, minor or major. It is subject to the formal requirements as a will
Codicil (will)
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Wills, trusts and estates
22.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
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Lady of Elche
Spain
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Flag
Spain
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Altamira Cave paintings, in Cantabria.
Spain
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Celtic castro in A Guarda, Galicia.
23.
Complutense University
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The Complutense University of Madrid is a public research university located in Madrid, and one of the oldest universities in the world. The university enrolls over 86,000 students, and consistently ranks as one of the top universities in Spain, according to the Spanish newspaper El Mundo, the university is widely regarded as the most prestigious academic institution in Spain. In the course of seven centuries, the University of Madrid has provided invaluable contributions in the sciences, fine arts. Alumni include renowned philosophers, writers, scientists, historians, military leaders, foreign leaders, in the year 1785, the University of Madrid became one of the first Universities in the world to grant a Doctorate degree to a female student. By Royal Decree of 1857, the University of Madrid was the institution in Spain authorized to grant doctorates throughout the Spanish Empire. On 13 April 1499, Cardinal Cisneros secured from Pope Alexander VI a Papal bull to expand Complutense into a full university and this Papal Bull conferred official recognition throughout Christendom to all degrees granted by the University. It also renamed the institution Universitas Complutensis, after Complutum, which was the Latin name of Alcalá de Henares, in the 1509–1510 school year, the Complutense University already operated with five major schools, Arts and Philosophy, Theology, Canon law, Philology and Medicine. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Complutense University became one of the greatest centers of Academic excellence in the world, many of the leading figures in science, arts and politics of that Age studied or taught in Complutenses classrooms. Special colleges were created for students of foreign origin, such as Flemish or Irish, in 1785, Complutense became one of the first Universities in the world to grant a Doctorate to a female student, María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda. In comparison, University of Oxford did not accept female scholars until the year 1920, in 1824, Francisco Tadeo Calomarde further expanded Complutense by merging it with the University of Sigüenza. The University would be known under this name until its name of Complutense was restored in the 1970s. The University of Madrid awarded Albert Einstein a Doctor of Science degree Honoris Causa on 28 February 1923 and this was the first Doctor of Science degree Honoris Causa that Albert Einstein accepted from a European University. However, as the situation began to deteriorate throughout Europe. The University greatly expanded during the 19th century, and its accommodations in central Madrid proved to be increasingly inadequate. This situation changed in 1927, when by royal decree King Alfonso XIII officially ceded state-held lands in the proximity of the Palace of La Moncloa to establish space for the University of Madrid. A council appointed by King Alfonso XIII had decided that the new University of Madrid would require the innovative architecture and planning. Indeed, the buildings, exemplary amongst them the Schools of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odontology, are an homage to structural functionalism. The city of Alcalá de Henares decided to open a university within the campus buildings
Complutense University
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Cardinal Cisneros expanded the existing Studium Generale into a large five-college University
Complutense University
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Complutense University of Madrid
Complutense University
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Paraninfo of the Complutense University.
Complutense University
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Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, with Faculty members of the University: Albert Einstein, José Rodríguez Carracido, Blas Cabrera y Felipe, among others, on 11 March 1923.
24.
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
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Alexander Farnese was Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Castro from 1586 to 1592, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. He is best known for his successful campaign 1578-1592 against the Dutch Revolt, in which he captured the cities in the south. His talents as a commander, strategist and organizer earned him the regard of his contemporaries. Alessandro was the son of Duke Ottavio Farnese of Parma and Margaret and he had a twin brother, Charles, who only lived one month. His mother was the half-sister of Philip II of Spain and John of Austria and he led a significant military and diplomatic career in the service of Spain under the service of his uncle the King. He fought in the Battle of Lepanto and then in the Netherlands against the rebels and he accompanied his mother to Brussels when she was appointed Governor of the Netherlands. In 1565 his marriage with Maria of Portugal was celebrated in Brussels with great splendour and it was seven years before he again had the opportunity to display his great military talents. During that time the provinces of the Netherlands had revolted against Spanish rule. In the autumn of 1577, Farnese was sent to join Don John at the head of reinforcements, shortly afterwards Don John, whose health had broken down, died. Phillip appointed Farnese to take his place, both as Captain-General of the Army of Flanders, and as Governor-General, Farnese was confronted with a difficult situation. Perceiving that his opponents were divided between Catholic and Protestant, Fleming and Walloon, he worked to exploit these divisions. By this means, he regained the allegiance of the Walloon provinces for the king, by the treaty of Arras, January 1579, he secured the support of the Malcontents for the royal cause. The rebels in the seven northern provinces then formed the Union of Utrecht, formally abjuring Phillips rule, as soon as he had secured a base of operations in Hainaut and Artois, Farnese set himself in earnest to the task of reconquering Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. Town after town fell under his control, tournai, Maastricht, Breda, Bruges, and Ghent opened their gates. In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, he proved his mettle and he finally laid siege to the great seaport of Antwerp. The town was open to the sea, strongly fortified, and defended with resolute determination and they were led by the famous Marnix van St. Aldegonde and assisted by an ingenious Italian engineer named Federigo Giambelli. The siege began in 1584 and called all of Farneses military genius. He cut off all access to Antwerp from the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt from Calloo to Oordam, the terms offered included the clause that all Protestants had to leave the city within four years
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
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Portrait of Farnese by Jean Baptiste de Saive
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
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Coat of Arms of the Farnese as dukes of Parma. Alexander did not use the inescutcheon of Portugal but his successors did.
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
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Engraving of Alexander Farnese. The Netherlands, 1614
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
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Arrival of the funeral procession of the Duke of Parma in Brussels 1592. Print from 'The Wars of Nassau' by Willem Baudartius.
25.
Malta
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Malta, officially known as the Republic of Malta, is a Southern European island country consisting of an archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. It lies 80 km south of Italy,284 km east of Tunisia, the country covers just over 316 km2, with a population of just under 450,000, making it one of the worlds smallest and most densely populated countries. The capital of Malta is Valletta, which at 0.8 km2, is the smallest national capital in the European Union, Malta has one national language, which is Maltese, and English as an official language. John, French and British, have ruled the islands, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to Malta in 1942 for the countrys bravery in the Second World War. The George Cross continues to appear on Maltas national flag, the country became a republic in 1974, and although no longer a Commonwealth realm, remains a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004, in 2008, Catholicism is the official religion in Malta. The origin of the term Malta is uncertain, and the modern-day variation derives from the Maltese language, the most common etymology is that the word Malta derives from the Greek word μέλι, meli, honey. The ancient Greeks called the island Μελίτη meaning honey-sweet, possibly due to Maltas unique production of honey, an endemic species of bee lives on the island. The Romans went on to call the island Melita, which can be considered either as a latinisation of the Greek Μελίτη or the adaptation of the Doric Greek pronunciation of the same word Μελίτα. Another conjecture suggests that the word Malta comes from the Phoenician word Maleth a haven or port in reference to Maltas many bays, few other etymological mentions appear in classical literature, with the term Malta appearing in its present form in the Antonine Itinerary. The extinction of the hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on Malta. Prehistoric farming settlements dating to the Early Neolithic period were discovered in areas and also in caves. The Sicani were the tribe known to have inhabited the island at this time and are generally regarded as being closely related to the Iberians. Pottery from the Għar Dalam phase is similar to found in Agrigento. A culture of megalithis temple builders then either supplanted or arose from this early period, the temples have distinctive architecture, typically a complex trefoil design, and were used from 4000 to 2500 BCE. Animal bones and a knife found behind an altar stone suggest that temple rituals included animal sacrifice. Tentative information suggests that the sacrifices were made to the goddess of fertility, the culture apparently disappeared from the Maltese Islands around 2500 BC. Archaeologists speculate that the builders fell victim to famine or disease
Malta
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Ġgantija megalithic temple complex
Malta
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Flag
Malta
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The temple complex of Mnajdra
Malta
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Roman mosaic from Rabat, Malta.
26.
Spanish Netherlands
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Spanish Netherlands, French, Pays-Bas espagnols) was the collective name of States of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries, held in personal union by the Spanish Crown from 1581 to 1714. This region comprised most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as parts of northern France, the Imperial fiefs of the former Burgundian Netherlands had been inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg from the extinct House of Valois-Burgundy upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482. The Seventeen Provinces formed the core of the Habsburg Netherlands which passed to the Spanish Habsburgs upon the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556. When part of the Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581 and his granddaughter Mary had confirmed a number of privileges to the States by the Great Privilege signed in 1477. After the government takeover by her husband Archduke Maximilian I of Austria, Maximilian prevailed with the support of Duke Albert III of Saxony and his son Philip the Handsome could assume the rule over the Habsburg Netherlands in 1493. The Habsburgs often used the term Burgundy to refer to their lands, actually until 1795. In 1522 Emperor Charles V concluded a treaty with his younger brother Archduke Ferdinand I of Habsburg, whereby the House of Habsburg split into an Austrian. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles declared the Seventeen Provinces a united, the Seventeen Provinces, de jure still fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, from that time on de facto were ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as part of the Burgundian heritage. Philips despotism and his stern Counter-Reformation measures sparked the Dutch Revolt in the mainly Calvinist Netherlandish provinces, the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs could only retain the rule over the partly Catholic Southern Netherlands, completed after the Fall of Antwerp in 1585. Better times came, when in 1598 the Spanish Netherlands passed to Philips daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia, in the early 17th century, there was a flourishing court at Brussels. Among the artists who emerged from the court of the Archdukes, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 the French annexed Artois and Cambrai, and Dunkirk was ceded to the English. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and Nijmegen, further territory up to the current Franco-Belgian border was ceded, including Walloon Flanders, later, in the War of the Reunions and the Nine Years War, France annexed other parts of the region. During the War of the Spanish Succession, in 1706 the Habsburg Netherlands became an Anglo-Dutch condominium for the remainder of the conflict. By the peace treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt in 1713/14 ending the war, the Southern Netherlands fell back to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy forming the Austrian Netherlands
Spanish Netherlands
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Jeton with portraits of the Archdukes Albert VII, Archduke of Austria and Infanta Isabella of Spain, struck in Antwerp 1612. Obv: Portraits of Albert and Isabella. Rev: Eagle holding balance, date 1612.
Spanish Netherlands
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Flag
27.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
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The Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of architecture and engineering of ancient history.
Italy
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Flag
Italy
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The Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the Kings of Italy.
Italy
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Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor Frederick II, UNESCO World Heritage site
28.
Galley
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A galley is a type of ship that is propelled mainly by rowing. The galley is characterized by its long, slender hull, shallow draft, virtually all types of galleys had sails that could be used in favorable winds, but human strength was always the primary method of propulsion. This allowed galleys to navigate independently of winds and currents, Galleys were the warships used by the early Mediterranean naval powers, including the Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans. They remained the dominant types of vessels used for war and piracy in the Mediterranean Sea until the last decades of the 16th century and they were the first ships to effectively use heavy cannons as anti-ship weapons. As highly efficient gun platforms they forced changes in the design of medieval seaside fortresses as well as refinement of sailing warships. The zenith of galley usage in warfare came in the late 16th century with battles like that at Lepanto in 1571, by the 17th century, however, sailing ships and hybrid ships like the xebec displaced galleys in naval warfare. From the mid-16th century galleys were in intermittent use in the Baltic Sea, with its short distances, there was a minor revival of galley warfare in the 18th century in the wars between Russia, Sweden and Denmark. The term galley derives from the medieval Greek galea, a version of the dromon. The origin of the Greek word is unclear but could possibly be related to galeos, the word galley has been attested in English from c. It was only from the 16th century that a unified galley concept came in use, before that, particularly in antiquity, there was a wide variety of terms used for different types of galleys. Ancient galleys were named according to the number of oars, the number of banks of oars or lines of rowers, the terms are based on contemporary language use combined with more recent compounds of Greek and Latin words. The earliest Greek single-banked galleys are called triaconters and penteconters, for later galleys with more than one row of oars, the terminology is based on Latin numerals with the suffix -reme from rēmus, oar. A monoreme has one bank of oars, a two and a trireme three. Since the maximum banks of oars was three, any expansion above that did not refer to additional banks of oars, but of additional rowers for every oar. Quinquereme was literally a five-oar, but actually meant that there were several rowers to certain banks of oars which made up five lines of oar handlers, for simplicity, they have by many modern scholars been referred to as fives, sixes, eights, elevens, etc. Anything above six or seven rows of rowers was not common, any galley with more than three or four lines of rowers is often referred to as a polyreme. Oared military vessels built on the British Isles in the 11th to 13th centuries were based on Scandinavian designs, many of them were similar to birlinns, close relatives of longship types like the snekkja. By the 14th century, they were replaced with balingers in southern Britain while longship-type Irish galleys remained in use throughout the Middle Ages in northern Britain, Medieval and early modern galleys used a different terminology than their ancient predecessors
Galley
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A model of a Maltese design typical of the 16th century, the last great era of the war galley
Galley
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The English-built Charles Galley, a "galley frigate" built in the 1670s. It was not a "true" galley, but the term still became part of its name due to its oars.
Galley
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Watercolor of United States ships at the battle of Valcour Island, depicting several " row galleys "; similar function, but based on very different designs than Mediterranean galleys.
Galley
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Assyrian warship, a bireme with pointed bow. 700 BC
29.
Cartagena, Spain
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Cartagena is a Spanish city and a major naval station located in the Region of Murcia, by the Mediterranean coast, south-eastern Spain. As of January 2011, it has a population of 218,210 inhabitants being the Region’s second largest municipality, the metropolitan area of Cartagena, known as Campo de Cartagena, has a population of 409,586 inhabitants. Cartagena has been inhabited for two millennia, being founded around 227 BC by the Carthaginian Hasdrubal the Fair as Qart Hadasht. The city had its heyday during the Roman Empire, when it was known as Carthago Nova and Carthago Spartaria and it was one of the important cities during the Umayyad invasion of Hispania, under its Arabic name of Qartayannat al-Halfa. Much of the weight of Cartagena in the past goes to its coveted defensive port. Cartagena has been the capital of the Spanish Navys Maritime Department of the Mediterranean since the arrival of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century, as far back as the 16th century it was one of the most important naval ports in Spain, together with Ferrol in the North. It is still an important naval seaport, the main military haven of Spain, Cartagena is now established as a major cruise ship destination in the Mediterranean and an emerging cultural focus. It is the first of a number of cities that eventually have been named Cartagena, the city of Cartagena is located in the southeastern region of Spain in the Campo de Cartagena. The dominant geology of the region is metamorphic and sedimentary, the city is located just at the end of the new AP-7 motorway. The following villages are part of Cartagena municipality, La Azohía, Isla Plana, Los Urrutias, the Old Town is limited by five small hills following the example of Rome. In the past, there was a sea between the hills called the Estero that eventually dried up. On this site, the Ensanche was built at the beginning of the 20th Century, the urban area is delimited or crossed by several watercourses, some of which go deep into the urban network during a large part of their courses. Cartagena has a hot semi-arid climate and its location near the ocean moderates the temperature, and annual precipitation typically does not surpass 300 mm. The annual average temperature goes up to around 20.4 °C, the coldest month is January, with an average of 13.7 °C. In August, the warmest month, the temperature is 28.7 °C. The wind is an important climatic factor in the region, part of its area is subject to different levels of legal protection. Cartagena’s coastal mountains have a concentration of one of the largest botanical biodiversities of the Iberian Peninsula, European and African species are both present, as well as a number of remarkable Ibero-African species, which are only found on the southern coasts of Spain and North Africa. In addition, the presence of the chameleon has been documented for about 30 years
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena, Spain
30.
Privateer
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A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare
Privateer
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East Indiaman Kent battling Confiance, a privateer vessel commanded by French corsair Robert Surcouf in October 1800, as depicted in a painting by Ambroise Louis Garneray.
Privateer
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Boarding of the Triton (a British East Indiaman) by the French corsair Hasard.
Privateer
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CSS Savannah, a Confederate privateer.
Privateer
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Woodes Rogers ' men search Spanish ladies for their jewels in Guayaquil, Ecuador, 1709
31.
Melilla
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Melilla is a Spanish autonomous city located on the north coast of Africa, sharing a border with Morocco with an area of 12.3 square kilometres. Melilla, along with Ceuta, is one of two permanently inhabited Spanish cities in mainland Africa and it was part of Málaga province until 14 March 1995 when the citys Statute of Autonomy was passed. Melilla, like Ceuta, was a port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2011, it had a population of 78,476 made up of ethnic Spaniards, ethnic Riffian Berbers, both Spanish and Riffian-Berber are the two most widely spoken languages, with Spanish as the only official language. Melilla is officially subject to a claim along with the city of Ceuta. The current Berber name of Melilla is Mřič or Mlilt which means the white one, Melilla was an ancient Berber village and a Phoenician and later Punic trade establishment under the name of Rusadir. Later it became a part of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana, rusaddir is mentioned by Ptolemy and Pliny who call it oppidum et portus, also by Mela, under the corrupted form Rusicada and by the Itinerarium Antonini. Rusaddir was supposed to have once been the seat of a bishop, but there is no record of any bishop of the supposed see, as centuries passed, it went through Vandal, Byzantine and Hispano-Visigothic hands. The political history is similar to that of towns in the region of the Moroccan Rif, local rule passed through Amazigh, Phoenician, Punic, Roman, Umayyad, Idrisid, Almoravid, Almohad, Marinid, and then Wattasid rulers. During the Middle Ages it was the Berber city of Mlila, Melilla was immediately threatened with reconquest and was besieged during 1694–1696 and 1774–1775. One Spanish officer reflected, an hour in Melilla, from the point of view of merit, was more than thirty years of service to Spain. The current limits of the Spanish territory around the fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859,1860,1861, and 1894. In the late 19th century, as Spanish influence expanded, Melilla became the authorized center of trade on the Rif coast between Tetuan and the Algerian frontier. The value of trade increased, goat skins, eggs and beeswax being the principal exports, and cotton goods, tea, sugar, in 1893, the Rif Berbers launched the First Melillan campaign and 25,000 Spanish soldiers had to be dispatched against them. The conflict was known as the Margallo War, after the Governor of Melilla and Spanish General Juan García y Margallo. In 1908 two companies, under the protection of Bou Hmara, a chieftain ruling the Rif region, started mining lead. A railway to the mines was begun, in October of that year the Bou Hmaras vassals revolted against him and raided the mines, which remained closed until June 1909. By July the workmen were again attacked and several of them killed, severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen followed, in the Second Melillan campaign
Melilla
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Port of Melilla
Melilla
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Illustration of the death of Spanish General Juan García y Margallo during the First Melillan campaign in 1893
Melilla
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Juan José Imbroda, current Mayor-President of Melilla
Melilla
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Old Town
32.
Alpujarras
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The Alpujarra is a natural and historical region in Andalusia, Spain, on the south slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the adjacent valley. The average elevation is 1,200 metres above sea level and it extends over two provinces, Granada and Almería, it is sometimes referred to in the plural as Las Alpujarras. There are several interpretations of this Arabic name, the most convincing is that it derives from al-basharāt, the Sierra Nevada runs west-to-east for about 80 km. It includes the two highest mountains in mainland Spain, the Mulhacén at 3479 m. and the Veleta, as the name implies, it is covered with snow in winter. The snow-melt in the spring and summer allows the slopes of the Sierra to remain green and fertile throughout the year. Water emerges from innumerable springs, human intervention has channeled it to terraced plots, there is also a developing production of quality wine on the hills between this valley and the sea, and almond trees thrive on its southern slopes. The eastern end of the Alpujarra, towards Ugijar in the province of Almería, is more arid. The terracing and the irrigation of the hillsides was the work of Berbers and they also created villages on the hillsides in the style to which they were accustomed in the mountains of North Africa, narrow, winding streets and small flat-roofed houses. Their attempts to force Christianity on the Muslim inhabitants led to revolts, the Rebellion of the Alpujarras. The revolt of 1568 was a struggle with the Spaniards deploying large forces against this rural population. The revolt ended with the death of the last Moorish leader in March 1571, the Catholic Monarchs ordered the expulsion of Moors from the territory of Granada, who were taken in forced marches to other parts of Spain. Only a few, considered to have converted to Christianity, were allowed to remain. Starting in 1571, settlers were brought in all over Spain. Though they were given financial incentives, the re-settlement provided difficult. The population of the Alpujarra, reckoned at about 40,000 before the revolt, was only about 7,000 by the end of the century. The isolation of this region caused it to remain poor and backward. The Civil War of 1936-39 was disastrous, as the opposing Nationalist, some villages changed hands more than once, and each time the victor exacted retribution over the vanquished. Even after the Nationalist victory in April 1939, guerrilla fighters in the mountains continued their struggle against the Guardia Civil and this conflict - which terrorized the villagers, caught between two fires - did not end till 1942 when the guerrilla leader was captured
Alpujarras
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The three villages of the Poqueira valley: Pampaneira, Bubión, Capileira; the Sierra Nevada in the background.
Alpujarras
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Location of las Alpujarras in Andalusia
Alpujarras
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Roofs and chimneys in Bubión; mountains of Morocco in the background
Alpujarras
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Another typical Alpujarran village. Busquístar
33.
Galera, Granada
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Galera is a municipality in the comarca of Huéscar, province of Granada, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain, roughly 150 kilometres from the provincial capital, Granada. The population of the municipality is distributed among the districts in the following manner, the other excavation involves the Iberian Necropolis of Tútugi which has several types of tombs. The most numerous of those types consists of a chamber, covered by a circular tumulus. Various objects have found in these tombs, such as ornaments, Phoenician, Ancient Greek and Iberian vases, weapons. These have been dated between the 6th and 3rd centuries BCE, the Lady of Galera or Goddess of Galera was found in the 5th century BCE tomb number 20, zone 1 of the Necropolis. It is a Phoenician figurine from the 7th century BCE, made of alabaster, the lady or goddess is seated between two sphinxes and has an opening through which liquid can be poured into it, which will emerge from small holes corresponding to the nipples of the breasts. The robust forms of the figure suggest Mesopotamian influences, the stylization of the clothing and it is believed that this sacred object was passed down for many generations before being used as part of a burial. The city maintained its importance in the Roman era as TVTVGI, but fell somewhat in population during the Visigothic period, the people of Galera participated in the Morisco Revolt of 1568. In Galera, the revolt was suppressed by Don John of Austria. All the 2500 inhabitants were slaughtered in what is known as the Galera Massacre In the 16th century, Galera was repopulated by families coming principally from Valencia, Murcia, and La Mancha
Galera, Granada
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The "Goddess" of Galera. National Archaeological Museum of Spain.
Galera, Granada
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Location of Galera in the province of Granada
34.
Salting the earth
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Salting the earth, or sowing with salt, is the ritual of spreading salt on conquered cities to symbolize a curse on their re-inhabitation. It originated as a practice in the ancient Near East. Various Hittite and Assyrian texts speak of ceremonially strewing salt, minerals, or plants over destroyed cities, including Hattusa, Taidu, Arinna, Hunusa, Irridu, and Susa. The Book of Judges says that Abimelech, the judge of the Israelites, sowed his own capital, Shechem, with salt, c.1050 BC and this may have been part of a ḥērem ritual. However, no ancient sources exist documenting the salting itself, the Carthage story is a later invention, probably modeled on the story of Shechem. The ritual of drawing a plow over the site of a city is, however, mentioned in ancient sources. When Pope Boniface VIII destroyed Palestrina in 1299, he ordered that it be plowed following the old example of Carthage in Africa, I have run the plough over it, like the ancient Carthage of Africa, and I have had salt sown upon it. The text is not clear as to whether he thought Carthage was salted, the English epic poem Siege of Jerusalem recounts that Titus commanded the sowing of salt on the Temple, but this episode is not found in Josephus. In Spain and the Spanish Empire, salt was poured onto the land owned by a traitor after his house was demolished. Likewise, in Portugal, salt was poured onto the land owned by a convicted traitor, the last known event of this sort was the destruction of the Duke of Aveiros palace in Lisbon in 1759, due to his participation in the Távora affair. His palace was demolished and his land was salted, put to Justice as one of the leaders of the most barbarous and execrable upheaval that. Was committed against the most royal and sacred person of the Lord Joseph I, in this infamous land nothing may be built for all time. In the Portuguese colony of Brazil, the leader of the Inconfidência Mineira, Tiradentes, was sentenced to death and his house was razed and salted, and even the floor will rise up a standard by which the memory is preserved the infamy of this heinous offender. An ancient legend says that Odysseus feigned madness by yoking a horse, jericho and Shechem, A Religio-Literary Aspect of City Destruction. To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt, The Destruction of Carthage, a Legend of the Destruction of Carthage. On the Destruction of Carthage Again, the Destruction of Carthage, A Retractatio
Salting the earth
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Stone memorial to the Duke of Aveiro 's punishment in Santa Maria de Belém, Lisbon.
Salting the earth
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History
35.
Marcantonio Colonna
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He is best remembered for his part as the admiral of the Papal fleet in the Battle of Lepanto. His parents were Ascanio Colonna, Duke of Tagliacozzo, and Giovanna dAragona, due to acts of rebellion, he was disinherited by his father, but in 1562 Colonna was able to regain the family fiefs for himself, largely thanks to the support of Pope Pius IV. However, he had to forfeit several possessions, such as Nemi, Ardea, in 1553–1554, during the war against Siena, Colonna was made commander of the Spanish cavalry. At the Battle of Lepanto, he commanded the papal Capitana as part of the Centre division, where he rescued the flagship of commander Don John of Austria, the Real. When the Real was almost taken by the Ottoman janissaries, Colonna came alongside with the bow of his galley, with the help of Colonna, the Turks were pushed off the Real and the Ottoman flagship of Ali Pasha was boarded and swept. The entire crew of Ali Pashas flagship was killed, including the commander himself, the banner of the Holy League was hoisted on the captured ship, breaking the morale of the Turkish galleys nearby. On Colonnas return to Rome, Pope Gregory XIII confirmed him as Captain General of the Church, in 1577 King Philip II named Colonna as Viceroy of Sicily. He was also Lord of Marino, then a village a few south of Rome. Colonna often stayed at Avezzano, where he had a fountain built and added a new floor in the castle, later in his life he moved to LAquila, where he lived in the house now called the Palazzo Porcinari. His son cardinal Ascanio Colonna had as secretary Phillipe I Rubens, brother of Peter Paul
Marcantonio Colonna
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Marcantonio Colonna.
Marcantonio Colonna
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The Victors of Lepanto (from left: John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna, Sebastiano Venier).
Marcantonio Colonna
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Coats of arms of Marcantonio Colonna.
36.
Sebastiano Venier
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Sebastiano Venier was Doge of Venice from 11 June 1577 to 3 March 1578. He is best remembered in his role as the Venetian admiral at the Battle of Lepanto, Venier was born in Venice around 1496. He was a son of Moisè Venier and Elena Donà, and he was a paternal grandson of Moisé Venier. He was the great-great-great-grandson of Pietro Venier, Governor of Cerigo and he worked as a lawyer from a very early age, though without holding formal qualifications, and subsequently was an administrator for the government of the Republic of Venice. In 1570 he was procurator and, in the December of the same year and he was the commander of the Venetian contingent at Battle of Lepanto, in which the Christian League decisively defeated the Turks. After the peace he returned to Venice as a popular figure. He was married to Cecilia Contarini, who bore him a daughter, Elena Venier, one of his sons, Francisco Venier, went to France. Sebastiano Venier died in 1578, allegedly of broken heart after a fire that had damaged the Doges Palace of Venice. He was interred in the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo and he sold her to the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in 1536 in order to counter the ascension of Roxelana. She became eventually the wife of his son Selim II and the mother of Murad III, from whom descend all succeeding Sultans
Sebastiano Venier
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Sebastiano Venier at the Battle of Lepanto. Painting by Tintoretto
Sebastiano Venier
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The Victors of Lepanto (from left: John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna, Sebastiano Venier)
Sebastiano Venier
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Funeral effigy in the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo
37.
Pope Pius V
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Pope Saint Pius V, born Antonio Ghislieri, was Pope from 8 January 1566 to his death in 1572. He is venerated as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church and he is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardization of the Roman rite within the Latin Church. Pius V declared Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church, as a cardinal, Ghislieri gained a reputation for putting orthodoxy before personalities, prosecuting eight French bishops for heresy. By means of the bull of 1570, Regnans in Excelsis, Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth I of England for heresy. He also arranged the formation of the Holy League, an alliance of Catholic states, although outnumbered, the Holy League famously defeated the Ottoman Empire, which had threatened to overrun Europe, at the Battle of Lepanto. Pius V attributed the victory to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, biographers report that as the Battle of Lepanto ended, Pius rose and went over to a window, where he stood gazing toward the East. Then, turning around, he exclaimed The Christian fleet is victorious. Antonio Ghislieri was born 17 January 1504 in Bosco in the Duchy of Milan, Italy. At the age of fourteen he entered the Dominican Order, taking the name Michele, passing from the monastery of Voghera to that of Vigevano, ordained priest at Genoa in 1528, he was sent by his order to Pavia, where he lectured for sixteen years. At Parma he advanced thirty propositions in support of the papal chair and he became master of novices and was on several occasions elected prior of more than one Dominican priory. During a time of moral laxity, he insisted on discipline. He fasted, did penance, passed long hours of the night in meditation and prayer, traveled on foot without a cloak in deep silence, in 1556 he was made Bishop of Sutri by Pope Paul IV and was selected as inquisitor of the faith in Milan and Lombardy. In 1557 he was made a cardinal and named inquisitor general for all Christendom and his defense of the Archbishop of Toledo, who had been suspected of heresy by the Spanish Inquisition in earned him a rebuff from the Pope. Under Pope Pius IV he became bishop of Mondovi in Piedmont, frequently called to Rome, he displayed his unflinching zeal in all the affairs on which he was consulted. Thus he offered an insurmountable opposition to Pius IV when the latter wished to admit Ferdinand de Medici, then thirteen years old. His opposition to the pontiff procured his dismissal from the palace, before Michele Ghislieri could return to his episcopate, Pope Pius IV died. On 8 January 1566, Ghislieri, with the influential backing Charles Borromeo was elected to the papal throne and he was crowned ten days later, on his 62nd birthday by the protodeacon. His pontificate saw him dealing with reform of the Church, the spread of Protestant doctrines in the West. Three national synods were held during his pontificate at Naples under Alfonso Cardinal Caraffa, at Milan under Saint Charles Borromeo, accordingly, in order to implement a decision of that council, he standardised the Holy Mass by promulgating the 1570 edition of the Roman Missal
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Pope Saint Pius V
Pope Pius V
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Portrait by Scipione Pulzone, c. 1578
Pope Pius V
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Pope Pius V by Palma il Giovane, Chianciano Museum of Art
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Pius V depicted in an early printed missal
38.
Republic of Venice
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It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
Republic of Venice
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Sack of Constantinople
Republic of Venice
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Flag
Republic of Venice
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Voyage of Marco Polo into the Far East during the Pax Mongolica
Republic of Venice
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The Piraeus Lion in Venice - a spoil from Constantinople
39.
Algiers expedition (1541)
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The Algiers expedition of 1541 occurred when Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire attempted to lead a fleet against the Ottoman Empires stronghold of Algiers, in modern Algeria. Largely because of weather, the expedition was a failure. Algiers had been under the control of the Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent since its capture in 1529 by Barbarossa. Barbarossa had left Algiers in 1535 to be named High Admiral of the Ottoman Empire in Constantinople, and was replaced as Governor by Hassan Agha, Hassan had in his service the well-known Ottoman naval commanders Dragut, Sālih Reïs and Sinān Pasha. Charles V embarked very late in the season, on 28 September 1541, delayed by troubles in Germany, the fleet was assembled in the Bay of Palma, at Majorca. It had more than 500 sails and 24,000 soldiers, after enduring difficult weather, the fleet only arrived in front of Algiers on 19 October. The most distinguished Spanish commanders accompanied Charles V on this expedition, including Hernán Cortés, troops were disembarked on 23 October, and Charles established his headquarters on a land promontory surrounded by German troops. German, Spanish, and Italian troops, accompanied by 150 knights of Malta, began to land while repelling Algerine opposition, soon surrounding the city, the fate of the city seemed to be sealed, however the following day the weather became severe with heavy rains. Many galleys lost their anchors and 15 were wrecked onshore, another 33 carracks sank, while many more were dispersed. As more troops were attempting to land, the Algerines started to make sorties, Charles V was surrounded, and was only saved by the resistance of the Knights of Malta. Andrea Doria managed to find a harbour for the remainder of the fleet at Cape Matifu,5 miles east of Algiers. He enjoined Charles V to abandon his position and join him in Matifu, from there, still oppressed by the weather, the remaining troops sailed to Bougie, still a Spanish harbour at that time. Charles could only depart for the sea on 23 November. Throwing his horses overboard, Charles abandoned his army and sailed home and he finally reached Cartagena, in southeast Spain, on 3 December. Losses amongst the invading force were heavy with 17 galleys and 130 carracks lost, a Turkish chronicler confirming that the Berber tribes were massacring the 12. The disaster considerably weakened the Spanish, and Hassan Agha took the opportunity to attack Mers-el-Kebir, garnier, Edith LAlliance Impie Editions du Felin,2008, Paris ISBN 978-2-86645-678-8 Interview
Algiers expedition (1541)
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Siege of Algiers in 1541. Engraving of 1555.
40.
Andrea Doria
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For the Italian ocean liner, see SS Andrea Doria. Andrea Doria was an Italian condottiero and admiral of the Republic of Genoa, Doria was born at Oneglia from the ancient Genoese family, the Doria di Oneglia branch of the old Doria, de Oria or de Auria family. His parents were related, Ceva Doria, co-lord of Oneglia, orphaned at an early age, he became a soldier of fortune, serving first in the papal guard and then under various Italian princes. In 1503 he was fighting in Corsica in the service of Genoa, at that time under French vassalage, and he took part in the rising of Genoa against the French, from that time onwards, he became famous as a naval commander. For several years he scoured the Mediterranean in command of the Genoese fleet, waging war on the Turks, in the meanwhile Genoa had been recaptured by the French, and in 1522 by the armies of the Holy Roman Emperor. Consequently, on the expiration of Dorias contract he entered the service of Emperor Charles V and he reformed the constitution in an aristocratic sense, most of the nobility being Imperialists, and put an end to the factions which divided the city, by creating 28 Alberghi or clans. The 28 Alberghi that formed this new ruling class included the Cybo, Doria, Fieschi, Giustiniani, Grimaldi, Imperiale, Pallavicino, and Spinola families. The title censor in this context was modeled on its meaning in the Roman Republic, i. e. a highly respected senior public official and he was given two palaces, many privileges, and the title of Liberator et Pater Patriae. As imperial admiral he commanded several expeditions against the Ottoman Empire, capturing Koroni and Patras, Charles found him an invaluable ally in the wars with Francis I, and through him extended his domination over the whole of Italy. This victory secured Turkish dominance over the eastern Mediterranean for the next 33 years and he accompanied Charles V on the ill-fated Algiers expedition of 1541, of which he disapproved, and which ended in disaster. For the next five years he continued to serve the emperor in various wars, in which he was successful and always active. After the Peace of Crépy between Francis and Charles in 1544, Doria hoped to end his days in quiet, giannettino was killed, but the conspirators were defeated, and Doria showed great vindictiveness in punishing them, seizing many of their fiefs for himself. He was also implicated in the murder of Pier Luigi Farnese, duke of Parma and Piacenza, other conspiracies followed, of which the most important was that of Giulio Cybo, but all failed. Nor did age lessen his energy, for in 1550, aged 84, he put to sea to confront the Barbary pirates. In 1552 the Ottoman fleet under the command of Turgut Reis defeated the Spanish-Italian fleet of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria in the Battle of Ponza. War between France and the Empire having broken out once more, the French seized Corsica in the Invasion of Corsica, Doria was again summoned, and he spent two years on the island fighting the French with varying fortune. Andrea Doria left his estates to Giovanni Andrea, the family of Doria-Pamphili-Landi is descended from Giovanni Andrea Doria and bears his title of Prince of Melfi. Several ships were named in honour of the Admiral, Two United States Navy ships named USS Andrew Doria, the battleship Andrea Doria, completed in 1916, which served in both World War I and World War II and was stricken in 1956
Andrea Doria
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Portrait of Andrea Doria, c. 1520, by Sebastiano del Piombo
Andrea Doria
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Natal home of Andrea Doria, in Oneglia
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Portrait of Andrea Doria as Neptune, by Agnolo Bronzino
41.
Nicosia
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Nicosia is the largest city on the island of Cyprus. It is located near the centre of the Mesaoria plain, on the banks of the River Pedieos, Nicosia is the capital and seat of government of the Republic of Cyprus, and as such is the farthest southeast of all EU member states capitals. It has been inhabited for over 4,500 years and has been the capital of Cyprus since the 10th century. The Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities of Nicosia segregated into the south and north of the city respectively in 1963, following the intercommunal violence that broke out in the city. Today, the part of the city is the capital of Northern Cyprus. Apart from its legislative and administrative functions, Nicosia has established itself as the financial capital. In 2012, Nicosia was the 5th richest city in the world in purchasing power. Nicosia has been in continuous habitation since the beginning of the Bronze Age 2500 years BC, Nicosia later became a city-state known as Ledra or Ledrae, one of the twelve kingdoms of ancient Cyprus built by Achaeans after the end of the Trojan War. Remains of old Ledra today can be found in the Ayia Paraskevi hill in the south east of the city and we only know about one king of Ledra, Onasagoras. The kingdom of Ledra was destroyed early, under Assyrian rule of Cyprus, Onasagoras was recorded as paying tribute to Esarhaddon of Assyria in 672 BC. By 330 BC, Ledra was recorded to be a small an unimportant town, according to tradition, the city was rebuilt by Leucus, claimed to be the son of Ptolemy I, around 300 BC or 200 BC, and named after him as Leucoton or Lefkotheon. The main activity of the inhabitants was farming. During this era, Ledra did not have the growth that the other Cypriot coastal towns had. In Byzantine times the town was referred to as Λευκωσία or as Καλληνίκησις. In the 4th century AD, the became the seat of bishopric, with bishop Saint Tryphillius. After the destruction of Salamis, the capital of Cyprus, by Arab raids in 647, Nicosia became the capital of the island around 965. The Byzantines moved the islands administration seat to Nicosia primarily for security reasons as coastal towns were often suffering from raids, from that point on it has remained as the capital of Cyprus. On his way to the Holy Land during the Third Crusade in 1187 and he himself stopped first at Crete and then at Rhodes
Nicosia
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From upper left: Nicosia city skyline, Ledra Street at night, courtyard of Nicosian houses, Venetian walls of Nicosia, a Nicosian door in the old town, the Buyuk Han, a quiet neighbourhood in the old town, Venetian houses, Nicosia Christmas fair, Makariou Avenue at night
Nicosia
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Selimiye Mosque, originally the Cathedral of Sainte Sophie, which was built during the Lusignan rule and later converted to a mosque, exemplifies the Gothic architecture in Nicosia.
Nicosia
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Venetian walls of Nicosia
42.
Tuscany
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Tuscany is a region in central Italy with an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. Tuscany is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, artistic legacy, Tuscany produces wines, including Chianti, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano and Brunello di Montalcino. Having a strong linguistic and cultural identity, it is considered a nation within a nation. Tuscany is traditionally a popular destination in Italy, and the main tourist destinations by number of tourist arrivals are Florence, Pisa, Montecatini Terme, Castiglione della Pescaia and Grosseto. The village of Castiglione della Pescaia is also the most visited destination in the region. Additionally, Siena, Lucca, the Chianti region, Versilia and Val dOrcia are also internationally renowned, Tuscany has over 120 protected nature reserves, making Tuscany and its capital Florence popular tourist destinations that attract millions of tourists every year. In 2012, the city of Florence was the worlds 89th most visited city, roughly triangular in shape, Tuscany borders the regions of Liguria to the northwest, Emilia-Romagna to the north and east, Umbria to the east and Lazio to the southeast. The comune of Badia Tedalda, in the Tuscan Province of Arezzo, has an exclave named Ca Raffaello within Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany has a western coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, containing the Tuscan Archipelago, of which the largest island is Elba. Tuscany has an area of approximately 22,993 square kilometres, surrounded and crossed by major mountain chains, and with few plains, the region has a relief that is dominated by hilly country used for agriculture. Hills make up nearly two-thirds of the total area, covering 15,292 square kilometres, and mountains. Plains occupy 8. 4% of the total area—1,930 square kilometres —mostly around the valley of the River Arno, many of Tuscanys largest cities lie on the banks of the Arno, including the capital Florence, Empoli and Pisa. The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the late Bronze and Iron Ages parallels that of the early Greeks, following this, the Villanovan culture saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms. City-states developed in the late Villanovan before Orientalization occurred and the Etruscan civilization rose, the Etruscans created the first major civilization in this region, large enough to establish a transport infrastructure, to implement agriculture and mining and to produce vibrant art. The Etruscans lived in Etruria well into prehistory, throughout their existence, they lost territory to Magna Graecia, Carthage and Celts. Despite being seen as distinct in its manners and customs by contemporary Greeks, the cultures of Greece, one reason for its eventual demise was this increasing absorption by surrounding cultures, including the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans. Soon after absorbing Etruria, Rome established the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, and Florence, endowed the area with new technologies and development, and ensured peace. These developments included extensions of existing roads, introduction of aqueducts and sewers, however, many of these structures have been destroyed by erosion due to weather. The Roman civilization in the West collapsed in the 5th century AD, in the years following 572, the Longobards arrived and designated Lucca the capital of their Duchy of Tuscia
Tuscany
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Hilly landscape in Val d'Orcia
Tuscany
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Tuscany Toscana
Tuscany
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Tuscan landscape near Siena
Tuscany
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Cinerary urns of the Villanovan culture
43.
Commander-in-chief
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A commander-in-chief is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nations military forces or significant elements of those forces. In the latter case, the element is those forces within a particular region. Often, a given countrys commander-in-chief need not be or have been an officer or even a veteran. This follows the principle of civilian control of the military, the role of commander-in-chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium powers, in its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War, a nations head of state usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the forces within their territory. A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship. The term is used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch. According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces, the incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Bujar Nishani. The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces, the Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. The Constitution states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. e, the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69. The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister and he retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh. Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the command of the President of the Republic. The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces, the powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all related to national defence
Commander-in-chief
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President Cristina Fernández of Argentina, as the Commander-in-chief of the Argentine Armed Forces.
Commander-in-chief
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Governor General The Lord Gowrie (right) signing the declaration of war against Japan with Prime Minister John Curtin (left) looking on. (8 December 1941)
Commander-in-chief
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Former President Lula, with his wife Marisa Letícia, reviews troops during Independence Day military parade in Brasília, Brazil.
Commander-in-chief
44.
Galleasses
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The galleass were ships developed from large merchant galleys. Converted for military use they were higher, larger and slower than regular galleys and they had up to 32 oars, each worked by up to 5 men. They usually had three masts and a forecastle and aftcastle, much effort was made in Venice to make these galleasses as fast as possible to compete with regular galleys. The gun-deck usually ran over the heads, but there are also pictures showing the opposite arrangement. Later, round ships and galleasses were replaced by galleons and ships of the line originated in Atlantic Europe. The first Venetian ship of the line was built in 1660, in the North Sea and western Baltic, the term refers to small commercial vessels similar to a flat-sterned herring Buss. Media related to Galleasses at Wikimedia Commons
Galleasses
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Engraving of a galleass from Plan de Plusieurs Batiments de Mer avec leurs Proportions (c. 1690) by Henri Sbonski de Passebon. Engraving by Claude Randon.
Galleasses
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A galleass of the Spanish Armada
45.
Gulf of Patras
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The Gulf of Patras is a branch of the Ionian Sea. On the east, it is closed by the Strait of Rion between capes Rio, Greece and Antirrio, near the Rio-Antirio bridge, that is the entrance of the Gulf of Corinth, on the west, it is bounded by a line from Oxeia island to Cape Araxos. To the north it is bounded by the shore of Aetolia-Acarnania in continental Greece and it is 40–50 km long, 10–20 km wide, and has an area of 350–400 km2. The port city of Patras lies to the southeast and is the major port on the gulf. It serves ferries to Ancona and Brindisi in Italy along with Kefallonia, on the northern shore Missolonghi also has a port. There are beaches in the south, the east and parts of the north, the old ports of Rio and Antirio lie east of the Gulf, and there is a ferry service which complements the traffic over the Rio-Antirio bridge. The gulf is rich in fish, a number of major naval battles took place in the Gulf of Patras, the Battle of Patras in 1772, and the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, one of the largest naval battles ever fought. Lepanto itself lies further east, in the Gulf of Corinth, application of a biomarker suite including evaluation of translation efficiency in Mytilus galloprovincialis cells
Gulf of Patras
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Gulf of Patras from space, March 1994
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Gulf of Patras
46.
Don Quixote
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Don Quixote, fully titled The history of the valorous and wittie Knight-Errant Don-Quixote of the Mancha, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. Published in two volumes, in 1605 and 1615, Don Quixote is considered the most influential work of literature from the Spanish Golden Age, the story follows the adventures of an hidalgo named Mr. He recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire, Don Quixote, in the first part of the book, does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story. Throughout the novel, Cervantes uses such techniques as realism, metatheatre. Arthur Schopenhauer cited Don Quixote as one of the four greatest novels written, along with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse. Cervantes wrote that the first chapters were taken from The Archive of La Mancha, and this metafictional trick appears to give a greater credibility to the text, implying that Don Quixote is a real character and that the story truly occurred several decades back. However, it was common practice in that era for fictional works to make some pretense of being factual. As a result, he is given to anger and believes every word of these fictional books of chivalry to be true. Imitating the protagonists of these books, he decides to become a knight-errant in search of adventure. He spends the night holding vigil over his armor and becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way. Don Quixote next frees a young boy tied to a tree and beaten by his master, and makes his master swear to treat the boy fairly, Don Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo, who insult the imaginary Dulcinea. He attacks them, only to be beaten and left on the side of the road. While Don Quixote is unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, a large part of this section consists of the priest deciding which books deserve to be burned and which to be saved. This gives an occasion for many comments on books Cervantes liked and disliked, for example, Cervantes own pastoral novel La Galatea is saved, while the rather unbelievable romance Felixmarte de Hyrcania is burned. After the books are dealt with, they seal up the room contained the library. After a short period of feigning health, Don Quixote requests his neighbor, Sancho Panza, to be his squire, Sancho, who is both greedy and unintelligent, agrees to the offer and sneaks away with Don Quixote in the early dawn. It is here that their famous adventures begin, starting with Don Quixotes attack on windmills that he believes to be ferocious giants, the two next encounter a group of friars accompanying a lady in a carriage
Don Quixote
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Title page of first edition (1605)
Don Quixote
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Don Quixote de la Mancha and Sancho Panza, 1863, by Gustave Doré.
Don Quixote
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Don Quixote by Honoré Daumier (1868)
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Don Quixote, his horse Rocinante and his squire Sancho Panza after an unsuccessful attack on a windmill. By Gustave Doré.
47.
Beylerbey
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Initially designating a commander-in-chief, it eventually came to be held by senior provincial governors. Its equivalents in Arabic were amir al-umara, and in Persian, the title was also used by the Khans of the Indian princely state of Kalat. The title originated with the Seljuqs, and was used in the Sultanate of Rum initially as an alternative for the Arabic title of malik al-umara, the Mamluks of Egypt possibly used it as an alternative title for the atabak al-asakir, the commander-in-chief of the army. The Ottomans used the title from the late 14th until the mid-19th century, with varying meanings, in addition, Lala Shahin was given military authority over the Ottoman territories in Europe. After Lala Shahins death, sometime in 1385–87 he was succeeded in the position of commander-in-chief in Rumelia by Çandarlı Kara Halil Hayreddin Pasha. In 1393, Sultan Bayezid I appointed Kara Timurtash as beylerbey and viceroy was in Anatolia, when Bayezid crossed over into Europe to campaign against Mircea I of Wallachia. This process marked the birth of the first two, and by far the most important, beylerbeyliks, of Rumelia and Anatolia, while the third beylerbeylik, that of Rûm, followed soon after. The size of new provinces varied enormously, some containing as many as twenty sanjaks. Among themselves, the various beylerbeys had an order of precedence based on the date of conquest or formation of their provinces. The beylerbey of Rumelia, however, retained his pre-eminence, ranking first among the other provincial governors-general, in addition, the post was occasionally held by the Sultans chief minister, the Grand Vizier himself. From the 16th century on, however, viziers could be appointed as provincial beylerbeys, enjoying precedence, under the Safavid dynasty of Persia, the title was used from ca. 1543/44 on for governors of the important provinces. The title was used for the governors of Herat, Azerbaijan, Ganja, Karabakh, Shirvan, Fars, Iraq. The Safavids also used the title of wali for provinces even more important than those of beylerbeys, towards the end of the Safavid period, the title of beylerbey had been eclipsed by that of wali, most notably being the walis of the shahs their Georgian lands. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, the Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume II, C–G. The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I, A–B
Beylerbey
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Depiction of the beylerbey of the Bosnia Eyalet (1657)
Beylerbey
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The eyalets of the Ottoman Empire in 1609
Beylerbey
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Daud Khan Undiladze, ghilman and the beylerbey of Ganja and Karabakh from 1625 to 1630.
48.
Kingdom of Castile
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The Kingdom of Castile was a large and powerful state on the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region and it began as the County of Castile, an eastern frontier lordship of the Kingdom of León in the 9th century. During the 10th century its counts increased their autonomy, but it was not until 1065 that it was separated from León, between 1072 and 1157 it was again united with León, and after 1230 this union became permanent. Throughout this period the Castilian kings made conquests in southern Iberia at the expense of the Islamic principalities. Castile and León, with their southern acquisitions, came to be known collectively as the Crown of Castile, according to the chronicles of Alfonso III of Asturias, the first reference to the name Castile can be found in a document written during AD800. The name reflects its origin as a march on the frontier of the Kingdom of Asturias, protected by castles. The County of Castile, bordered in the south by the northern reaches of the Spanish Sistema Central mountain system and it was re-populated by inhabitants of Cantabria, Asturias, Vasconia and Visigothic and Mozarab origins. It had its own Romance dialect and customary laws, the areas that they settled didnt extend far from the Cantabrian southeastern ridges, and not beyond the southern reaches of the high Ebro river valleys and canyon gores. Subsequently, the region was subdivided, separate counts being named to Alava, Burgos, Cerezo & Lantarón, the minority of Count García Sánchez led Castile to accept Sancho III of Navarre, married to the sister of Count García, as feudal overlord. García was assassinated in 1028 while in León to marry the princess Sancha, Sancho III, acting as feudal overlord, appointed his younger son Ferdinand as Count of Castile, marrying him to his uncles intended bride, Sancha of León. At the Battle of Tamarón Bermudo was killed, leaving no surviving offspring, in right of his wife, Ferdinand then assumed the royal title as king of León and Castile, for the first time associating the royal title with the rule of Castile. When Ferdinand I died in 1065, the territories were divided among his children, Sancho II became King of Castile, Alfonso VI, King of León and García, King of Galicia, while his daughters were given towns, Urraca, Zamora, and Elvira, Toro. Sancho II allied himself with Alfonso VI of León and together they conquered, Sancho later attacked Alfonso VI and invaded León with the help of El Cid, and drove his brother into exile, thereby reuniting the three kingdoms. Urraca permitted the greater part of the Leonese army to take refuge in the town of Zamora, Sancho laid siege to the town, but the Castilian king was assassinated in 1072 by Bellido Dolfos, a Galician nobleman. As a result, Alfonso VI recovered all his territory of León. This was the union of León and Castile, although the two kingdoms remained distinct entities joined only in a personal union. The sworn oath taken by El Cid before Alfonso VI in Santa Gadea de Burgos regarding the innocence of Alfonso in the matter of the murder of his brother is well known, under Alfonso VI, there was an approach to the rest of Europeans kingdoms, including France. He gave his daughters, Elvira, Urraca and Theresa, in marriage to Raymond of Toulouse, Raymond of Burgundy, in the Council of Burgos in 1080 the traditional Mozarabic rite was replaced by the Roman one
Kingdom of Castile
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Flag
49.
Kingdom of Leon
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The Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in AD910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León. The County of Portugal separated to become the independent Kingdom of Portugal in 1139, from 1296 to 1301, the Kingdom of León was again independent and after the re-union with Castile remained a Crown until 1833, but as part of a united Spain from 1479. In the Royal Decree of 30 November 1833, the Kingdom of León was considered one of the Spanish regions and divided into the provinces of León, Zamora and Salamanca. In 1978, these three provinces of the region of León were included along with six provinces of the region of Old Castile to create the autonomous community of Castile. The city of León was founded by the Roman Seventh Legion (usually written as Legio Septima Gemina and it was the headquarters of that legion in the late empire and was a centre for trade in gold, which was mined at Las Médulas nearby. In 540, the city was conquered by the Arian Visigothic king Liuvigild, in AD717, León fell again, this time to the Moors. However, León was one of the first cities retaken during the Christian reconquest of the Iberian peninsula, León was a small town during this time, but one of the few former Roman cities in the Kingdom of Asturias which still held significance. León was created as a kingdom when the Asturian king, Alfonso the Great. León was inherited by García I who moved the capital of the kingdom of Astures to León and his successor was Ordoño II of León. Ordoño II of León was also a leader who brought military expeditions from León south to Seville, Córdoba. After a few years of wars during the reign of Fruela II, Alfonso Fróilaz and Alfonso IV, Ramiro II assumed the throne. Ramiro II was nicknamed The Devil by Muslims because of his military skill. This migration of Leonese peoples greatly influenced the Leonese language, during the repoblación period, there arose a distinct form of art known as Mozarabic art. Mozarabic art is a mixing of Visigoth, Islamic, and Byzantine elements, notable examples of the Mozarabic style are the Leonese churches of San Miguel de Escalada and Santiago de Peñalba. During the early 10th century, León expanded to the south and east, fortified with numerous castles, Burgos remained within Leon until the 930s, at which time Count Ferdinand II of Castile began a campaign to expand Burgos and make it independent and hereditary. The Kingdom of León continued to be the most important of all those of the Iberian Peninsula, however, Sancho III of Navarre took over Castile in the 1020s, and managed León in the last year of his life, leaving Galicia to temporary independence. In the division of lands which followed his death, his son Fernando succeeded to the county of Castile
Kingdom of Leon
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Alfonso the Great (848-910), king of León, Galicia and Asturias
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The new kingdom of León, 910
Kingdom of Leon
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Spanish Christian kingdoms c. 925: Castile was a Leonese county and Galicia was a dependent kingdom.
50.
Kingdom of Sicily
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The Kingdom of Sicily was a state that existed in the south of the Apennine peninsula from its founding by Roger II in 1130 until 1816. It was a state of the County of Sicily, which had been founded in 1071 during the Norman conquest of the southern peninsula. Until 1282 the Kingdom covered not only the island of Sicily, but also the whole Mezzogiorno region of the southern Apennines, the island was divided into three regions, Val di Mazara, Val Demone and Val di Noto, val being the Arabic word meaning district. In 1282, a revolt against Angevin rule, known as the Sicilian Vespers, the island became a separate kingdom under the Crown of Aragon. After 1302 the island kingdom was called the Kingdom of Trinacria. Often the kingship was vested in another such as the King of Aragon. In 1816 the island Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1860 the Two Sicilies were amalgamated with Sardinia and several northern city-states and duchies to form the Kingdom of Sardinia which in 1861 renamed itself the Kingdom of Italy, after taking Apulia and Calabria, Roger occupied Messina with an army of 700 knights. In 1068, Roger I of Sicily and his men defeated the Muslims at Misilmeri but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo, which led to Sicily being completely under Norman control by 1091. The Norman Kingdom was created on Christmas Day,1130, by Roger II of Sicily, with the agreement of Pope Innocent II, Roger threw his support behind the Antipope Anacletus II, who enthroned him as King of Sicily on Christmas Day 1130. In 1136, the rival of Anacletus, Pope Innocent II, convinced Lothair III, Two main armies, one led by Lothair, the other by Duke of Bavaria Henry the Proud, invaded Sicily. On the river Tronto, William of Loritello surrendered to Lothair and this was followed by Count Hugh II of Molise. The two armies were united at Bari, from where in 1137 they continued their campaign, Roger offered to give Apulia as a fief to the Empire, which Lothair refused after being pressured by Innocent. At the same period the army of Lothair revolted, then Lothair, who had hoped for the complete conquest of Sicily, gave Capua and Apulia from the Kingdom of Sicily to Rogers enemies. Innocent protested, claiming that Apulia fell under papal claims, Lothair turned north, but died while crossing the Alps on December 4,1137. At the Second Council of the Lateran in April 1139, Innocent excommunicated Roger for maintaining a schismatic attitude, on March 22,1139, at Galluccio, Rogers son Roger III, Duke of Apulia ambushed the papal troops with a thousand knights and captured the pope. On March 25,1139, Innocent was forced to acknowledge the kingship and it was through his admiral George of Antioch that Roger then proceeded to conquer the Mahdia in Africa, taking the unofficial title King of Africa. At the same time Rogers fleet attacked the Byzantine Empire, making Sicily the leading power in the Mediterranean Sea for almost a century
Kingdom of Sicily
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Roger II the first king of Sicily
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Kingdom of Sicily
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The royal mantle
Kingdom of Sicily
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Imperial troops storming Salerno in 1194
51.
County of Flanders
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The County of Flanders was a historic territory in the Low Countries. From 862 onwards the Counts of Flanders were one of the twelve peers of the Kingdom of France. For centuries their estates around the cities of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres formed one of the most affluent regions in Europe, up to 1477, the area under French suzerainty was located west of the Scheldt River and was called Royal Flanders. Aside from this the Counts of Flanders from the 11th century on also held land east of the river as a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, an area called Imperial Flanders. Part of the Burgundian Netherlands from 1384, the county was removed from French to Imperial control after the Peace of Madrid in 1526. In 1795 the remaining territory within the Austrian Netherlands was incorporated by the French First Republic, the former County of Flanders, except for French Flanders, is the only part of the medieval French kingdom that is not part of modern-day France. Flanders and Flemish are likely derived from the Frisian *flāndra and *flāmisk, the Flemish people are first mentioned in the biography of Saint Eligius, the Vita sancti Eligii. This work was written before 684, but only known since 725 and this work mentions the Flanderenses, who lived in Flandris. The geography of the historic County of Flanders only partially overlaps with present-day region of Flanders in Belgium, though there it extends beyond West Flanders. Some of the county is now part of France and the Netherlands. The arms of the County of Flanders were allegedly created by Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders from 1168 to 1191, as a result, the arms of the county live on as arms of the Flemish Community. It is said that Philip of Alsace brought the flag with him from the Holy Land, where in 1177 he supposedly conquered it from a Saracen knight. The simple fact that the lion appeared on his personal seal since 1163, in reality Philip was following a West-European trend. In the same period also appeared in the arms of Brabant, Luxembourg, Holland, Limburg. It is curious that the lion as a symbol was mostly used in border territories. It was in all likelihood a way of showing independence from the emperor, in Europe the lion had been a well-known figure since Roman times, through works such as the fables of Aesop. The future county of Flanders had been inhabited since prehistory, during the Iron Age the Kemmelberg formed an important Celtic settlement. During the times of Julius Caesar, the inhabitants were part of the Belgae, for Flanders in specific these were the Menapii, the Morini, the Nervii and the Atrebates
County of Flanders
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Count Philip (2nd from right) as swordbearer at the coronation of King Philip II of France. The count of Flanders was one of the 12 ancient Peers of France or "equals" of the King of France. Panel painting by Jean Fouquet, 1455
County of Flanders
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Flag
County of Flanders
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map of the county of Flanders from 1609 by Matthias Quad, cartographer, and Johannes Bussemacher, engraver and publisher, Cologne
County of Flanders
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Institution of Baldwin I, the first count of Flanders by Charles the Bald, the Frankish king.
52.
Tunisia
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Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
Tunisia
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Ancient ruins of a Roman villa at Carthage
Tunisia
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Tunisia
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The Roman amphitheater in El Djem, built during the first half of the 3rd century AD
Tunisia
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Domes of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). It is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb.
53.
Butera, Italy
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Butera is an Italian town and a comune in the province of Caltanissetta, in the southern part of the island of Sicily. It is bounded by the comuni of Gela, Licata, Mazzarino, Ravanusa and it has a population of 4,821 and is 49 km from Caltanissetta, the provinces capital. The etymology of the name Butera is debated, one hypothesis is that the name is of Arabic origin. Butera was called Butirah by the Arabs, which means steep place, the Arabic demonym al-Buthayri was used to refer to a person from Butera. Another would suggest that the name Butera is of Greek origin and this is upheld by Giovan Battista Pellegrini, who claims that The Arabic form for Butera, always with the interdental, should be an indication of a Greek etymon with / d /. Upholders of a Greek origin for the Butera have suggested that the word may come from bothèr, boutherès, pace himself has asserted that the term, aside from boutherès, may derive also from the Graeco-Byzantine word patela, which refers Butera’s location. In the area of Piano fiera where a prehistoric necropolis still stands, is a construction called dolmen cysts made of stone slabs assembled in cubiform manner. The history of this territory, at the time of Greek colonization, is not documented by ancient historians, the origins of Butera date back to the Early Bronze Age. Butera, being situated close to Gela, one of the most prominent ancient Greek cities of Sicily under Magna Graecia, was settled by Greeks. The dialect spoken in the region was Doric Greek, Butera was captured by the Aghlabids during the Muslim conquest of Sicily, following a 5-month siege in 853. Out of the three valli of Sicily, it was part of the Val di Noto, in the corner of the island. Following the fall of Butera to the Normans in 1091, the towns Muslim leaders were resettled in Calabria to prevent them from fomenting rebellion among the rest of the population. However, a mosque in the town is recorded even in the 12th century, as certain other Sicilian cities such as Catania, Syracuse, Segesta. It was one of the last Muslim strongholds to fall, due to stubborn resistance, Butera itself was re-populated with Swabians from southern Germany following its destruction by William I as a reaction to anti-monarchical resistance in 1161. In 1392, the Alagona family lost possession of the County following their defeat by Martin I, in 1543, Ambrogio Santapa was nominated Prince of Butera, after defeating Hayreddin Barbarossa, the Ottoman pirate. Up until the 19th century, this was Sicilys main feudal title, in Butera, 12-13% of the population carries the sickle-cell trait, and its prevalence amongst the town’s citizens is believed to be due to selective pressure against malaria. While some sources claim that it was introduced by the Muslim conquerors, at present, approximately 7% of the surnames in the city are attributed to a possible Hellenic origin. Arab-Norman Castle, from the 9th century Cathedral, dedicated to Saint Thomas and found in the Piazza Duomo, giovanni Church of San Francesco, the oldest church in the town, it was founded by the first Norman Christians and became a church of Franciscan monks
Butera, Italy
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Butera
54.
Isaac Nathan
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Isaac Nathan was an English composer, musicologist, journalist and self-publicist, who ended an eventful career by becoming the father of Australian music. Isaac Nathan was born in 1790 in the English city of Canterbury to a hazzan born in Poland, Menahem Monash Polack and he was initially destined for his fathers career and went to the school of Solomon Lyon in Cambridge. Showing an enthusiasm for music, he was apprenticed to the London music publisher Domenico Corri and he also claimed to have had five years of voice lessons with Corri, who had studied with Nicola Porpora. In 1813 he conceived the idea of publishing settings of tunes from synagogue usage, the result was the poets famous Hebrew Melodies. Nathans setting of these remained in print for most of the century, many were European folk-tunes that had become absorbed into the synagogue service over the centuries with new texts. However they were the first attempt to set out the music of the synagogue, with which Nathan was well acquainted through his upbringing. The success of the Melodies gave Nathan some fame and notoriety, Nathan was later to claim that he had been appointed as singing teacher to the Princess Royal, Princess Charlotte, and music librarian to the Prince Regent, later George IV. There is no evidence for this, although his edition of the Hebrew Melodies was dedicated to the Princess by royal permission, in 1816, Byron left England, never to return. In 1817 Nathans royal pupil Princess Charlotte died in childbirth and he thus lost his two major patrons. Nathan undertook a runaway marriage with a pupil, and another after his first wifes early death. Both spouses were Christian, however for both, Nathan also undertook and arranged synagogue marriages after the church ceremony. His hot temper probably accounts for a duel he fought over the honour of Lady Caroline Lamb, the latter saw Nathan prosecuted, although he was acquitted. Nathan felt an attachment for Lady Caroline, she was godmother to one of his children and he wrote her an appreciative poem in Hebrew. Gambling on prize-fights was one cause of his financial problems and he may have spent at least some months in debtors prisons. He wrote frequently for the press in London on boxing. He wrote comic operas for the London stage, and four of these were produced between 1823 and 1833 and he attempted a publishing business in partnership with his brother Barnett Nathan, who later became proprietor of Rosherville Gardens. Nathan published a history of music, dedicated by permission to King George IV, Nathan also attracted some renown as a singing teacher. Nathan claimed to have some mysterious services for the Royal Family
Isaac Nathan
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Isaac Nathan c. 1820. Artist unknown, probably one of Lord Byron 's portraitists.
55.
Lepanto (poem)
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Lepanto is a poem by G. K. The poem tells of the defeat of the Ottoman fleet of Ali Pasha by the Christian crusader, the poem was written in 1911 and its stirring verses helped inspire soldiers such as John Buchan during World War I. Reilly praises the way that Chesterton artistically relieves the martial vigour with contrasting lines which are soft, Don John did more than save western Europe. He made it possible for men unborn to dwell in freedom and to share the kindly, in World War I, the Turkish Ottoman Empire had become an ally of the Prussian enemy whom Chesterton saw as the perfect epitome of Paganism, Germanism, Imperialism, and Determinist Materialism. Lepanto, the text of the poem on Wikisource. Lepanto public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Lepanto (poem)
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A painting of the battle.
56.
John, Prince of Asturias
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John, Prince of Asturias, was the only son of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon who survived to adulthood. John was born in Seville in 1478 to the sovereigns of Castile, Isabella I, at the time, his parents were involved in the War of Castilian Succession against Isabellas niece Joanna la Beltraneja, wife of King Afonso V of Portugal. Johns birth helped consolidate Isabellas position as sovereign as she had given birth to a male heir. At the time of his birth, he had one elder sister Isabella, he was joined by Joanna, Maria and his parents won the war against the King and Queen of Portugal. To negotiate a settlement with Isabella, King Afonso sent Infanta Beatrice. The two women met in March 1479, Beatrice was Afonsos sister-in-law and Isabella’s maternal aunt. Isabella I was quite an attentive mother for such a busy queen and it was commonly believed in the fifteenth century that a wetnurse could influence the character of the baby who she fed breast milk to. Therefore, a woman, with a placid disposition was ideal. He also suggested that Prince John be educated in Aragon as opposed to Castile, in 1492, Columbus named the newly discovered island of Cuba Isla Juana in deference to Prince John, at that time the heir apparent. Isabella and Ferdinand came to plan a double alliance with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, for the marriage of his children, Archduke Philip the Handsome and Archduchess Margaret of Austria. Around the same time, King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, Ferdinand II therefore was also against the French. With both powers angered at France, marriage was the way to seal the alliance between the two, on 20 January 1495 in Antwerp, a preliminary alliance, which included a wedding of Prince John with Maximilian’s daughter was agreed. Similarly, Maximilians son Philip and Johns sister Joanna were to be married, as heir to the throne Isabella and Ferdinand paid special attention to Johns education. His original tutor was the Dominican Fray Diego Deza who taught Theology at the University of Salamanca, Deza was also later remembered as the Grand Inquisitor of Spain, he taught the young Prince mainly in Theology as he was not a renaissance humanist. Eventually in the late 1480s, Isabella would ask the Italian humanist Peter Martyr dAnghiera to come, Isabella also worried that John would grow up pampered and wilful if he lacked peers and companions of his own age. Therefore, she invited the sons of aristocrats to live at court and she also invited a slightly older group of young aristocrats so that her son would see older young men and that he would aspire to be more like them. Johns education also insisted that he and his companions learned to ride and joust, to hawk and hunt, to chess and cards. John was also gifted in music and was able to play the flute, violin
John, Prince of Asturias
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John
John, Prince of Asturias
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Francisco Pradilla Ortiz 's painting Retinue of the Baptism of Don Juan, son of the Catholic Monarchs, Along the Streets of Seville, 1910
John, Prince of Asturias
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Tomb of Prince John at Real Monasterio de Santo Tomás in Ávila
57.
Philip I of Castile
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Philip I called the Handsome or the Fair, was the first member of the house of Habsburg to be King of Castile. He was the first Habsburg monarch in Spain, the future King Henry VIII of England met Philip the Handsome on a visit Philip made to Henrys fathers court in London and regarded him as providing a model of leadership towards which he aspired. The two would become brothers-in-law since Philip married Joanna of Castile, and Henry married Joannas youngest sister, in 1482, upon the death of his mother, he succeeded to her Burgundian possessions under the guardianship of his father. A period of turmoil ensued which witnessed sporadic hostilities between, principally, the towns of Flanders and the supporters of Maximilian. Both sides came to terms in the Treaty of Senlis in 1493 and this smoothed over the internal power struggle as the two sides agreed to make the 15-year-old Philip prince in the following year. On 20 October 1496, he married Joanna, daughter of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, in Lier, the matter became more urgent after Charles VIIIs invasion of Italy. Philips sister Margaret married John, Prince of Asturias, only son of Ferdinand and Isabella and heir apparent to the crowns of Castile. The double alliance was never intended to let the Spanish kingdoms fall under Habsburg control, at the time of her marriage to Philip, Joanna was third in line to the throne, with John and their sister Isabella married and hopeful of progeny. In 1500, shortly after the birth in Flanders of Joanna and Philips second child, the heir apparent, John, had died in 1497 very shortly after his marriage to Margaret of Austria. The crown thereby seemed destined to devolve upon his and Joannas elder sister Isabella, the succession to the Castilian and Aragonese crowns now fell to Joanna. Because Ferdinand could produce another heir, the Cortes of Aragon refused to recognize Joanna as heir presumptive to the Kingdom of Aragon, in the Kingdom of Castile, however, the succession was clear. Moreover, there was no Salic tradition which the Castilian Cortes could use to thwart the succession passing to Joanna. Philip and the majority of the returned to the Low Countries in the following year, leaving a pregnant Joanna behind in Madrid. Philips life with Joanna was rendered extremely unhappy by his infidelity and political insecurity, most historians now agree she was merely clinically depressed at the time, not insane as commonly believed. Before her mothers death, in 1504, husband and wife were living apart. In 1504, Philips mother-in-law, Queen Isabella of Castile, died, Isabella Is widower and former co-monarch, King Ferdinand II, endeavored to lay hands on the regency of Castile, but the nobles, who disliked and feared him, forced him to withdraw. Philip was summoned to Spain, where he was recognized as king, however, en route to Spain in January 1506, Philip and Joanna were caught in a tempest and shipwrecked off the Dorset coast, forcing them on shore near Melcombe Regis. The couple stayed as guests of Henry VII of England but were in fact hostages for the duration of their stay, after handing over Edmund, Philip and Joanna were allowed to leave England after a stay of six weeks
Philip I of Castile
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Philip I
Philip I of Castile
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Holland, gold florin 'Philippus Goudgulden', struck in Dordrecht under the reign of Philip the Fair
Philip I of Castile
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Philip by the Master of the Legend of the Magdalen
Philip I of Castile
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Engraving of Philip I of Castile
58.
Charles the Bold
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Charles the Bold, baptised Charles Martin, was Duke of Burgundy from 1467 to 1477. He was the last Duke of Burgundy from the House of Valois and is also known as Charles the Rash. His early death at the Battle of Nancy at the hands of Swiss mercenaries fighting for René II, Charles the Bold was born in Dijon, the son of Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal. Before the death of his father in 1467, he bore the title of Count of Charolais, afterwards, he assumed all of his fathers titles, including that of Grand Duke of the West. He was also made a Knight of the Golden Fleece just twenty days after his birth, invested by Charles I, Count of Nevers, Charles was brought up under the direction of Jean dAuxy and early showed great application alike to academic studies and warlike exercises. His fathers court was the most extravagant in Europe at the time, in 1440, at the age of seven, Charles was married to Catherine, daughter of King Charles VII of France and sister of the Dauphin. She was five years older than her husband, and she died in 1446 at the age of 18, in 1454, at the age of 21, Charles married a second time. He wanted to marry a daughter of his distant cousin Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York and his father chose Isabella of Bourbon, who was three years younger than he was. Isabella was the daughter of Philip the Goods sister Agnes and a distant cousin of Charles VII of France. Their daughter Mary of Burgundy was Charles only surviving child, she inherited all the Burgundian domains before her marriage to Maximilian of Hapsburg, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. Charles was on terms with his brother-in-law Louis, the Dauphin of France. For his third wife, Charles was offered the hand of Louis XIs daughter Anne, the wife he ultimately chose, however, was his second cousin Margaret of York. Upon the death of his father in 1467, Charles was no longer bound by the terms of the Treaty of Arras, and he decided to ally himself with Burgundys old ally England. Louis did his best to prevent or delay the marriage with Margaret, but in the summer of 1468, it was celebrated sumptuously at Bruges, the couple had no children, but Margaret devoted herself to her stepdaughter Mary. After Marys death many years later, she kept Marys two infant children as long as she was allowed. On 12 April 1465, Philip relinquished control of the government of his domains to Charles, who spent the next summer prosecuting the War of the Public Weal against Louis XI. Charles was left master of the field at the Battle of Montlhéry on 13 July 1465, during the negotiations for the treaty, his wife Isabella died suddenly at Les Quesnoy on 25 September, making a political marriage suddenly possible. As part of the treaty, Louis promised him the hand of his infant daughter Anne, with the territories of Champagne and Ponthieu as a dowry, in the meanwhile, Charles obtained the surrender of Ponthieu
Charles the Bold
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Rogier van der Weyden painted Charles the Bold as a young man in about 1460, wearing the Order of the Golden Fleece
Charles the Bold
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Double Briquet, struck under Charles the Bold in Bruges, 1475
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Charles as a boy stands next to his father, Philip the Good. Rogier van der Weyden 's frontispiece to the Chroniques de Hainaut, c. 1447–8 (Royal Library of Belgium)
Charles the Bold
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Engraving of Charles the Bold
59.
Duke of Burgundy
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Under the Ancien Régime, the Duke of Burgundy was the premier lay peer of the kingdom of France. Beginning with Robert II of France, the title was held by the Capetians and it was granted to Roberts younger son, Robert, who founded the House of Burgundy. When the senior line of the House of Burgundy became extinct, John granted the duchy as an appanage for his younger son, Philip the Bold. The Valois Dukes of Burgundy became dangerous rivals to the line of the House of Valois. When the male line of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy became extinct, today, the title is used by the House of Bourbon as a revived courtesy title. His descendants and their relatives by marriage ruled the duchy until its annexation over a century later by the French crown, their suzerain. Richard the Justiciar Rudolph, then King of France Hugh the Black Gilbert Otto Eudes Henry the Great Otto William In 1004, Burgundy was annexed by the king, Otto William continued to rule what would come to be called the Free County of Burgundy. His descendants formed another House of Ivrea, Robert Henry Robert, son of Robert II of France, received the Duchy as a peace settlement, having disputed the succession to the throne of France with his brother Henry. John II of France, the second Valois king, successfully claimed the Duchy after the death of Philip, John then passed the duchy to his youngest son Philip as an apanage. In 1477, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France, in the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, giving the Habsburgs control of the remainder of the Burgundian Inheritance. They often used the term Burgundy to refer to it, until the late 18th century, at the same time, various members of the French royal family, most notably Louis, Dauphin of France, the father of Louis XV of France, also used the title. Duchess of Burgundy Kingdom of Burgundy King of Burgundy Duchy of Burgundy County of Burgundy Count of Burgundy Dukes of Burgundy family tree Calmette, the Golden Age of Burgundy, the Magnificent Dukes and Their Courts. Les Origines du Duché de Bourgogne
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Robert I the Old (Robert I er le Vieux)
Duke of Burgundy
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Cross of Burgundy Flag
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Odo I Borel the Red (Eudes I er Borel le Roux)
Duke of Burgundy
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Hugh II (Hugues II)
60.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
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Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus to Spain).
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Flag
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The death of French general Gaston de Foix at the Battle of Ravenna (1512).
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Upon the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies.
61.
Catholic Monarchs
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The Catholic Monarchs is the joint title used in history for Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. They married on October 19,1469, in the city of Valladolid, Isabella was eighteen years old and it is generally accepted by most scholars that the unification of Spain can essentially be traced back to the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was constantly on the move, the title of Catholic King and Queen was bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella by Pope Alexander VI in 1494, in recognition of their defence of the Catholic faith within their realms. Catholic monarchs or kings can also be used in a generic sense, Isabella was named heir to the throne of Castile by her half brother Henry IV of Castile in the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando. She became Queen of Castile in 1474 and her niece, Joanna of Castile, attempted to gain the throne by bringing in the foreign help of Afonso V of Portugal, leading to the War of Castilian Succession. More recently, some speculate that Joanna was the legitimate successor, Isabellas supporters came out ahead in good part due to Aragons support through Ferdinand, and she officially won in 1479 via the Treaty of Alcáçovas. Ferdinand became the King of Aragon in 1479, the Catholic Monarchs set out to restore royal authority in Spain. To accomplish their goal, they first created a group named the Holy Brotherhood and these men were used as a judicial police force for Castile, as well as to attempt to keep Castilian nobles in check. To establish a more uniform system, the Catholic Monarchs created the Royal Council. This establishment of authority is known as the Pacification of Castile. Even after his death and the union of the crowns under one monarch, the Aragonese, Catalan, further, the monarchs continued ruling through a form of medieval contractualism, which made their rule pre-modern in a few ways. One of those is that they traveled from town to town throughout the kingdom in order to promote loyalty, another is that each community and region was connected to them via loyalty to the crown, rather than bureaucratic ties. Ferdinand and Isabella were noted for being the monarchs of the newly united Spain at the dawn of the modern era and they had a goal of conquering the Muslim kingdom of Granada and completing the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The beginnings of a series of known as the Granada War began with the attack on Alhama de Granada. The attack was led by two Andalusian nobles, Rodrigo Ponce de León and Diego de Merlo, the city fell to Andalusian forces in 1482. The Granada War was aided by Pope Sixtus IV by granting a tithe, after 10 years of fighting the Granada War ended in 1492 when Emir Boabdil surrendered the keys of the Alhambra Palace in Granada to the Castilian soldiers. After a number of revolts, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion from Spain of all Jews, the Inquisition had been created in the twelfth century by Pope Lucius III to fight heresy in the south of what is now France and was constituted in a number of European kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs decided to introduce the Inquisition to Castile, the bull gave the monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors
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Ferdinand on the left with Isabella on the right. The inscription above identifies them as "Lord Ferdinand and Lady Isabella, King and Queen of Castille and of Aragon".
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Isabella and Ferdinand, the Catholic Monarchs
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Ferdinand and Isabella with their subjects
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Christopher Columbus at the Court of the Catholic Monarchs by Juan Cordero, 1850.
62.
Spanish Golden Age
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The Spanish Golden Age is a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain, coinciding with the political rise of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty. El Siglo de Oro does not imply precise dates and is considered to have lasted longer than an actual century. Politically, it no later than 1659, with the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The last great writer of the period, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, died in 1681, the Habsburgs, both in Spain and Austria, were great patrons of art in their countries. El Escorial, the royal monastery built by King Philip II, invited the attention of some of Europes greatest architects. El Greco, another respected artist from the period, infused Spanish art with the styles of the Italian renaissance, some of Spains greatest music is regarded as having been written in the period. Spanish literature blossomed as well, most famously demonstrated in the work of Miguel de Cervantes, Spains most prolific playwright, Lope de Vega, wrote possibly as many as one thousand plays during his lifetime, of which over four hundred survive to the present day. Spain, in the time of the Italian Renaissance, had seen few great artists come to its shores, Luis de Morales, one of the leading exponents of Spanish mannerist painting, retained a distinctly Spanish style in his work, reminiscent of medieval art. Spanish rule of Naples was important for making connections between Italian and Spanish art, with many Spanish administrators bringing Italian works back to Spain. Known for his impact in bringing the Italian Renaissance to Spain, El Greco was not Spanish. He studied the great Italian masters of his time - Titian, Tintoretto, according to legend, he asserted that he would paint a mural that would be as good as one of Michelangelos, if one of the Italian artists murals was demolished first. El Greco quickly fell out of favor in Italy, but soon found a new home in the city of Toledo and he was influential in creating a style based on impressions and emotion, featuring elongated fingers and vibrant color and brushwork. Uniquely, his works featured faces that captured expressions of sombre attitudes and his paintings of the city of Toledo became models for a new European tradition in landscapes, and influenced the work of later Dutch masters. Spain at this time was an environment for the Venetian-trained painter. Art was flourishing in the empire and Toledo was a place to get commissions. He was born on June 6,1599, in Seville, both parents were from the minor nobility. He was the oldest of six children, diego Velázquez is widely regarded as one of Spains most important and influential artists. He was a painter for King Philip IV and found increasingly high demand for his portraits from statesmen, aristocrats
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Las Meninas (1656, English: The Maids of Honour) by Diego Velázquez
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In ictu oculi ("In the blink of an eye") a vanitas by Juan de Valdés Leal
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Toledo by El Greco
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The Birth of the Virgin by Francisco de Zurbarán
63.
Encomienda
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The encomienda was a labor system, rewarding conquerors with the labor of particular groups of people. It was first established in Spain during the Roman period, and it was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch and the award of an encomienda was a grant from the crown to a particular individual. In the encomienda, the Spanish crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a community, with the indigenous leaders in charge of mobilizing the assessed tribute. In return, the natives would provide tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, in the first decade of Spanish presence in the Caribbean, Spaniards divided up the natives, who in some cases were worked relentlessly. With the ouster of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish crown sent a governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando. In many cases natives were forced to do hard labor and subjected to extreme punishment, however, Queen Isabella of Castile had forbidden Indian slavery and deemed the indigenous free vassals of the crown, allowing many natives and Spaniards to appeal to the Real Audiencias. In the former Inca Empire, for example, the system continued the Incaic traditions of extracting tribute in the form of labor, the heart of encomienda and encomendero lies in the Spanish verb encomendar, to entrust. The encomienda was based on the Reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled. The encomienda system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution in that encomenderos did not own the land on which the natives lived, the system did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero, Indian lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown. The first grantees of the encomienda or encomenderos were usually conquerors who received grants of labor by virtue of participation in a successful conquest. Later, some receiving encomiendas in New Spain were not conquerors themselves but were well connected that they received grants. He designated as pobladores antiguos, a group of undetermined number of encomenderos in New Spain, holders of encomiendas also included women and indigenous notables. The daughter of Doña Marina and conqueror Juan Jaramillo, Doña Maria Jaramillo, two of Moctezumas daughters, Doña Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Doña Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by Hernan Cortes. Doña Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left the encomiendas to her daughter by her second husband, vassal Inca rulers established after the conquest also sought and were granted encomiendas. Indeed, the settler-conquistadors knew the fury of the aroused Indian lords, voyagers, explorers, initially, the encomienda system was devised to meet the needs of the early agricultural economies in the Caribbean. Later it was adopted to the economy of Peru and Upper Peru
Encomienda
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Francisco Hernández Giron was a Spanish encomendero in the Viceroyalty of Peru who protested the New Laws in 1553. These laws, passed in 1542, gave certain rights to indigenous peoples and protected them against abuses. Drawing by Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala.
64.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
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The Expulsion of the Moriscos was decreed by King Philip III of Spain on April 9,1609. The Moriscos were descendants of Spains Muslim population that converted to Christianity by coercion or by Royal Decree in the early 16th century, between 1609 through 1614, the Crown systematically expelled Moriscos through a number of decrees affecting Spains various kingdoms, meeting varying levels of success. Dadson estimates that, out of a total Morisco population of 500,000, of those permanently expelled, the majority finally settled in the Maghreb or the Barbary coast, with between 30,000 and 90,000 ultimately returning to Spain. Those who avoided expulsion or who managed to return to Spain merged into the dominant culture, the last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices took place in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. By the end of the 18th century, indigenous Islam and Morisco identity were considered to have been extinguished in Spain. While some Moriscos did hold influence and power, and even had positions in the clergy, others, particularly in Valencia, where sectarian conflict existed, old Christian communities suspected the Moriscos of not being sincere in their Christianity. The Moors who remained Muslims were known as Mudéjar, as such the conflict between Old Christians and New Christians was an ethnically inspired one. After the suppression of the revolt, Philip ordered the dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada to other areas, Philip expected that this would break down the Morisco community and facilitate their assimilation into the rest of the Christian population. This may have happened to a degree to Granadas Moriscos, but not in Valencia or Aragon, at around the same time, Spain recognized the loss of more than half of its holdings in the Low Countries to the Protestant Dutch Republic. The ruling class already thought of Spain as the defender of Catholic Christendom, and this helped lead to a radicalization of thinking. Some critiques of Spain from Protestant countries included insults of the Spanish as corrupted by the Muslims and crypto-Muslims amongst them, the situation further deteriorated in the early 17th century. A recession struck in 1604 as the amount of gold and treasure from Spains American holdings fell, the reduction in the standard of living led to increased tension between the Moriscos and Old Christians for precious jobs. The number of Moriscos in Spain at the time of expulsion is unknown, figures of between 300,000 and 400,000 are often cited. However, modern studies estimate between 500,000 and one million moriscos present in Spain at the beginning of the 17th century out of a population of 8.5 million. The rich and those who lived in the cities were mostly Christians, while the Moriscos occupied the outlying countryside, in the Crown of Castile, which included the Guadalquivir valley in present Andalusia the situation was considerably different. Local sympathies for Moriscos meant that Castile and Andalusia experienced only half-hearted efforts at identifying and expelling them, in the region of Valencia, which held the bulk of Aragons Morisco population, the situation was radically different to Castile. Valencian moriscos were the majority of the landless peasantry and lived segregated to Christian populations. Economic and social rivalry was a driver of resentment towards the them
Expulsion of the Moriscos
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Expulsion of the Moriscos at the port of Dénia, by Vincente Mostre.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
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Embarking of the Moriscos at Valencia, by Pere Oromig.
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Disembarking of the Moriscos at Oran port (1613, Vicente Mestre), Fundación Bancaja de Valencia
65.
Eighty Years' War
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The Eighty Years War or Dutch War of Independence was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against the political and religious hegemony of Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. After the initial stages, Philip II deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces, under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent, the northern provinces continued their resistance. They eventually were able to oust the Habsburg armies, and in 1581 they established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, after a 12-year truce, hostilities broke out again around 1619 which can be said to coincide with the Thirty Years War. An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster, in the decades preceding the war, the Dutch became increasingly discontented with Habsburg rule. A major cause of discontent was heavy taxation imposed on the population, while support. At that time, the Seventeen Provinces were known in the empire as De landen van herwaarts over, the presence of Spanish troops, under the command of the Duke of Alba, brought in to oversee order, further amplified this unrest. Spain also attempted a policy of religious uniformity for the Catholic Church within its domains. The Reformation meanwhile produced a number of Protestant denominations, which gained followers in the Seventeen Provinces and these included the Lutheran movement of Martin Luther, the Anabaptist movement of the Dutch reformer Menno Simons, and the Reformed teachings of John Calvin. This growth lead to the 1566 Beeldenstorm, the Iconoclastic Fury which saw many churches in northern Europe stripped of their Catholic statuary, in October 1555, Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire began the gradual abdication of his several crowns. The balance of power was heavily weighted toward the local and regional governments, Philip did not govern in person but appointed Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy as governor-general to lead the central government. When Philip left for Spain in 1559 political tension was increased by religious policies, not having the liberal-mindedness of his father Charles V, Philip was a fervent enemy of the Protestant movements of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and the Anabaptists. Towards the end of Charles reign enforcement had become lax. Philip, however, insisted on rigorous enforcement, which caused widespread unrest, the new hierarchy was to be headed by Granvelle as archbishop of the new archdiocese of Mechelen. The reform was unpopular with the old church hierarchy, as the new dioceses were to be financed by the transfer of a number of rich abbeys. Granvelle became the focus of the opposition against the new governmental structures, after the recall of Granvelle, Orange persuaded Margaret and the Council to ask for a moderation of the placards against heresy. Philip delayed his response, and in this interval the opposition to his religious policies gained more widespread support, Philip finally rejected the request for moderation in his Letters from the Segovia Woods of October 1565. This Compromise of Nobles was supported by about 400 nobles, both Catholic and Protestant, and was presented to Margaret on 5 April 1566, impressed by the massive support for the compromise, she suspended the placards, awaiting Philips final ruling. The first half of the Eighty Years War between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic was fought between 1566 and 1609, when the Twelve Years Truce was signed in 1609, ending this first phase of war, the northern Netherlands had achieved de facto independence
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Relief of Leiden after the siege, 1574
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Philip II of Spain berating William the Silent. Prince of Orange by Cornelis Kruseman, painting from 19th century. This scene was purported to have happened on the dock in Flushing when Philip departed the Netherlands.
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Disarming the waardgelders in Utrecht, 31 July 1618, by Joost Cornelisz. Droochsloot
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Detail from a pamphlet about the Winter King
66.
Portuguese Restoration War
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The revolution of 1640 ended the 60-year rule of Portugal by the Spanish Habsburgs. Spain was involved in the Thirty Years War until 1648 and the Franco–Spanish War until 1659, in the seventeenth century and afterwards, this period of sporadic conflict was simply known, in Portugal and elsewhere, as the Acclamation War. The war established the House of Braganza as Portugals new ruling dynasty and this ended the so-called Iberian Union. When Philip II of Portugal died, he was succeeded by Philip III, taxes on the Portuguese merchants were raised, the Portuguese nobility began to lose its influence at the Spanish Cortes, and government posts in Portugal were increasingly occupied by Spaniards. Ultimately, Philip III tried to make Portugal a Spanish province and this situation culminated in a revolution organized by the nobility and bourgeoisie, executed on 1 December 1640, sixty years after the crowning of Philip I, the first dual monarch. The plot was planned by Antão Vaz de Almada, Miguel de Almeida, the moment was well chosen, Philips troops were, at the time, fighting the Thirty Years War and also facing a revolution in Catalonia which became known as the Reapers War. By 2 December 1640, the day following the coup, John IV, the ensuing conflict with Spain brought Portugal into the Thirty Years War as, at least, a peripheral player. Immediately after assuming the Portuguese throne, João IV took several steps to strengthen his position, on 11 December 1640, a Council of War was created to organize all of the operations. Next, the created the Junta of the Frontiers to take care of the fortresses near the border, the hypothetical defense of Lisbon. A year later, in December 1641, he created a tenancy to assure that all of the fortresses would be upgraded. João IV also organized the army, re-established the Military Laws of King Sebastian, after gaining several small victories, João tried to make peace quickly. In 1640, Cardinal Richelieu, the adviser to Louis XIII of France, was fully aware of the fact that France was operating under strained circumstances. In addition, Philip IV controlled large territories in Italy, where he could, at will, Spain had enjoyed a reputation as having the most formidable military force in Europe, a reputation they had gained with the introduction of the arquebus and the so-called Spanish School. This reputation and tactic had however diminished with the Thirty Years War, nevertheless, the consummate statesman, Richelieu, decided to force Philip IV to look to his own internal problems. In order to divert the Spanish troops besieging France, Louis XIII, on the advice of Richelieu and this was done on the reasoning that a Portuguese war would drain Spanish resources and manpower. To fulfill the common interests of Portugal and France, a treaty of alliance between the two countries was concluded at Paris on 1 June 1641. The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed in 1659, under the terms of which France received the portion of Catalonia north of the Pyrenees, known as the Roussillon, most important to the Portuguese, the French recognised Philip IV of Spain as the legitimate king of Portugal. At the time of the revolution in Lisbon, the Portuguese had been at war with the Dutch for nearly forty years, Portugal was in a defensive posture throughout, and it received very little military help from Spain
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The Acclamation of the King John IV; Veloso Salgado.
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Philip II & III of Portugal and Spain.
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John II, Duke of Braganza would later become King John IV of Portugal.
Portuguese Restoration War
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Catherine of Braganza, Queen Consort of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
67.
Spanish American wars of independence
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These conflicts started in 1809 with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French invasion, in 1810, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish–American War in 1898. The new republics from the abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition. Slavery was not abolished immediately, but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century, criollos and mestizos replaced Spanish-born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions, both armies originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas. The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in former French colony of St-Domingue, Haiti, a more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period. Political independence was not necessarily the outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. There was little interest in outright independence, humphreys and John Lynch note, it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. Since by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, because Spanish American independence did occur, there are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from kingdoms with independent standing with the crown to colonies and this meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crowns upending long-standing practices of creole access to office holding. The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church, the crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. In the economic sphere, the sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo, in some areas—such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain—the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions, the Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire, the political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors
Spanish American wars of independence
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The Battle of San Lorenzo in 1813
Spanish American wars of independence
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Decisive events of the war: Cortes de Cádiz (1812) (top left); Congress of Cúcuta (1821) (bottom left); Crossing of the Andes (1817) (bottom right); Battle of Tampico (1829) (top right).
Spanish American wars of independence
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The Battle of Rancagua in 1814
Spanish American wars of independence
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The Battle of Ayacucho, in Peru, ensured the independence of South America in 1824
68.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was established on 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, Spains first national sovereign assembly, the Cortes Generales, in refuge in Cádiz during the Peninsular War. It established the principles of universal suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy and freedom of the press. This constitution, one of the most liberal of its time, was effectively Spains first, on 24 March 1814, six weeks after returning to Spain, Ferdinand VII abolished the constitution and had all monuments to it torn down. The Constitution Obelisk in Saint Augustine, Florida survived, the constitution was reinstated during the Trienio Liberal, and again briefly 1836—1837 while the Progressives prepared the Constitution of 1837. The Spaniards nicknamed the Constitution La Pepa, possibly because it was adopted on Saint Josephs Day, from a Spanish point of view, the Peninsular War was a war of independence against the French Empire and the king installed by Napoleon, his brother Joseph Bonaparte. While many in elite circles in Madrid were willing to accept Josephs rule, the war began on the night of 2 May 1808, and was immortalized by Francisco Goyas painting The Second of May 1808, also known as The Charge of the Mamelukes. The Junta first met on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez and later in Seville, in any event, Floridablancas strength failed him and he died on 30 December 1808. When the Cortes convened in Cádiz in 1810, there appeared to be two possibilities for Spains political future if the French could be driven out. The first, represented especially by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, was the restoration of the absolutist Antiguo Régimen, the origins of the Cortes did not harbor any revolutionary intentions, since the Junta saw itself simply as a continuation of the legitimate government of Spain. The opening session of the new Cortes was held on 24 September 1810 in the now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes. Few of the most conservative voices were at Cádiz, and there was no communication with King Ferdinand. Three basic principles were soon ratified by the Cortes, that sovereignty resides in the nation, the legitimacy of Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, and the inviolability of the deputies. Although the Cortes was not unanimous in its liberalism, the new Constitution reduced the power of the crown, the Catholic Church, the Cortes of Cádiz worked feverishly and the first written Spanish constitution was promulgated in Cádiz on 19 March 1812. The Constitution of 1812 is regarded as the document of liberalism in Spain. Suffrage, which was not determined by property qualifications, favored the position of the class in the new parliament. Repeal of traditional property restrictions gave liberals the freer economy they wanted, the first provincial government created under the Constitution was in the province of Guadalajara con Molina. Its deputation first met in the village of Anguita in April 1813, among the most debated questions during the drafting of the constitution was the status of the native and mixed-race populations in Spains possessions around the world. Most of the provinces were represented, especially the most populous regions
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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Plaza de España in Cadiz, commemorating the Spanish Constitution of 1812.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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Cortes of Cadiz Oath in 1810. Oil painting by José Casado del Alisal, 1863.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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Allegory of the Constitution of 1812, Francisco de Goya, Swedish National Museum.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
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The promulgation of the Constitution of 1812, oil painting by Salvador Viniegra (Museo de las Cortes de Cádiz).
69.
Sardinia
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Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy. It is located in the Western Mediterranean, just south of the French island of Corsica, the regions official name is Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, and its capital and largest city is Cagliari. It is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city and its indigenous language and the other minority languages spoken by the Sardinians enjoy equal dignity with Italian under regional law. The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *srd-, later romanised as sardus and it makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone, where the word Šrdn testifies to the names existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus, one of Platos dialogues, Sardinia and its people as well might have named after Sardò. There has also been speculation that identifies the ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden, in Classical antiquity, Sardinia was called Ichnusa, Σανδάλιον Sandal, Sardinia and Sardó. Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24,100 square kilometres and it is situated between 38°51 and 41°18 latitude north and 8°8 and 9°50 east longitude. To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea, to Sardinias east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, the nearest land masses are the island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia, the Balearic Islands, and Provence. The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula, the Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone and its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era. Due to long erosion processes, the highlands, formed of granite, schist, trachyte, basalt, sandstone and dolomite limestone. The highest peak is Punta La Marmora, part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of the island. The islands ranges and plateaux are separated by wide valleys and flatlands. Sardinia has few rivers, the largest being the Tirso,151 km long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia, the Coghinas. There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity, the main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. The only natural lake is Lago di Baratz. A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the 1,850 km of the coastline, the climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation. During the year there is a concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring
Sardinia
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Cala Goloritzé, Baunei
Sardinia
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Sardinia Sardegna (Italian) Sardìnnia (Sardinian) Sardenya (Catalan)
Sardinia
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View of Gennargentu, the highest massif of Sardinia
Sardinia
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Lake Omodeo, the largest reservoir in Italy
70.
Spanish East Indies
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The Spanish East Indies were the Spanish territories in Asia-Pacific from 1565 until 1899. They comprised the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, Cebu was the first seat of government, later transferred to Manila. From 1565 to 1821 these territories, together with the Spanish West Indies, were administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City, the King of Spain traditionally styled himself King of the East and West Indies. After Mexican independence, they were ruled directly from Madrid, administrative affairs of the Spanish East Indies were handled by the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Real Audiencia of Manila. The few remaining islands were ceded to the United States when the Treaty of Washington was ratified in 1901, Spanish contact began on 6 March 1521, when a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands. He named Guam and the other islands Islas de los Ladrones because the natives came aboard his galleon, the expedition later continued its journey west and reached the island of Homonhon in the eastern Philippines on 16 March, with only 150 crewmen. There they were able to communicate with the local peoples because the Malayan interpreter, Enrique of Malacca, Miguel López de Legazpi set out from Mexico, and established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines in 1565, which became the town of San Miguel in present-day Cebu. In 1571, the city of Manila was founded and made seat of the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines and these and other Asian territories claimed by the Spanish crown were to be governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City. The Manila-Acapulco galleons shipped products gathered from both Asia-Pacific and the Americas, such as silk, spices, silver, gold and other Asian-Pacific islander products to Mexico, in 1606, the Spaniards established some form of trade links with the Maluku Islands and remained until 1663. Contacts with Japan were also established and Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent as ambassador in 1611, on the north eastern coastal region of Taiwan, the Spaniards built Fort Santo Domingo near Keelung in 1626 and a mission in Tamsui in 1628, which they occupied until 1642. In 1668, Blessed Diego Luis de San Vitores established the first mission on Guam, in 1762 British troops briefly captured the city of Manila during the Seven Years War. The British promised support for an uprising led by Diego Silang and his wife Gabriela, under the peace settlement Manila was exchanged, along with British-occupied Havana, for Florida and Minorca. It was handed back to Spanish authorities in April 1764, the Seven Years War prompted Charles III to initiate extensive governmental reforms throughout the overseas possessions. An intendencia was established in Manila in 1784 to handle the government finances, in a similar vein, to promote innovation and education among the residents of the islands, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country. For over 256 years, the Spanish East Indies were governed by a general. All economic matters of the Philippines were managed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, in 1821 the New Spanish Viceroyalty collapsed following the Mexican War of Independence, which resulted in the First Mexican Empire. In 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Islas Carolinas Islas Marianas Islas Palau The Spanish used several names that are not currently used. Gran Moluca for the island of Mindanao and Nueva Castilla for Luzon, because Spanish interest in the region was primarily focused on its use as a base for trade with East Asia, direct Spanish control over the area expanded slowly
Spanish East Indies
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Map of the Spanish East Indies (1857)
Spanish East Indies
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Flag
Spanish East Indies
Spanish East Indies
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Routes of early Spanish expeditions in the Philippines.
71.
Spanish Formosa
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Spanish Formosa was a Spanish colony established in the north of Taiwan from 1626 to 1642. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the island of Taiwan in 1544, the colony was meant to protect Spanish in the region from interference by the Dutch base in the south of Taiwan. The Spanish colony was short-lived due to the unwillingness of Spanish colonial authorities in Manila to commit men, after seventeen years, the last fortress of the Spanish was besieged by Dutch forces and eventually fell, giving the Dutch control over most of the island. In 1566, the Dutch Revolt against King Philip II erupted, the Dutch Republic and its allies, England and France invaded and looted many of Phillip IIs overseas territories as part of the Eighty Years War. As a result of the union of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns in 1580, Spanish Habsburg Philip II of Spain ruled Portugal. The Dutch of the Seventeen Provinces in Dutch–Portuguese War as well as their allies England, the Dutch colonization of Formosa was part of a campaign designed to seize all the possessions of Philip II in Asia, including the Philippines. The Dutch began to take the string of fortresses that comprised Phillips Portuguese Asian possessions. The settlements were isolated, difficult to reinforce if attacked, and prone to being picked off one by one, pursuing their quest for alternative routes to Asia for trade, the first Dutch squadron to reach the Philippines on December 14,1600 was led by Olivier van Noort. The Dutch sought to dominate the sea trade in Southeast Asia. They disrupted trade by harassing the coasts of Manila bay and its environs, the Battles of La Naval de Manila were five naval battles fought in the waters off the Philippines in 1646, between the forces of Spain and the Dutch Republic, during the Eighty Years War. War with the Dutch led to invasions of many of Phillips Portuguese and Spanish possessions in Asia, including Ceylon, the Philippines, and commercial interests in Japan, Africa, and South America. Even though the Portuguese were unable to capture the island of Ceylon. Catholic Phillip II was in competition with Protestant Holland for trade, with the establishment of a Dutch colony at Tayouan, present-day Anping, in the south of Taiwan, the Dutch were able to threaten Spains trade in the region. As a counter to this threat, the Spanish decided to establish their own colony in the north of the island, landing at Cape Santiago in the north-east of Taiwan but finding it unsuitable for defensive purposes, the Spanish continued westwards along the coast until they arrived at Keelung. A deep and well-protected harbour plus a small island in the mouth of the harbour made it the ideal spot to build the first settlement, forts were built, both on the island and in the harbour itself. In 1629 the Spanish erected a second base, centered on Fort San Domingo, in 1641, the Spanish had become such an irritant to the Dutch in the south that it was decided to take northern Taiwan from the Spanish by force. In courteous terms, the Dutch Governor Paulus Traudenius informed the Spanish governor of their intentions, the Spanish governor was not inclined to give in so easily, and replied in kind. They returned, thwarted and humiliated, to the Dutch base at Fort Zeelandia, in August 1642, The Dutch returned to Keelung with four large ships, several smaller ships, and approximately 369 Dutch soldiers
Spanish Formosa
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Flag
72.
Tidore
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Tidore is a city, island, and archipelago in the Maluku Islands of eastern Indonesia, west of the larger island of Halmahera. In the pre-colonial era, the kingdom of Tidore was a regional political and economic power. Tidore Island consists of a stratovolcano which rises from the seafloor to an elevation of 1,730 m above sea level at the conical Kiematabu Peak on the south end of the island. The northern side of the island contains a caldera, Sabale and it has its own port, Goto, and it lies on the eastern edge of the island. It has a bus terminal and a market. The sultans palace was rebuilt with completion in 2010, Tidore was a spice-funded sultanate that was founded in 1109, and spent much of its history in the shadow of Ternate, another sultanate. The sultans of Tidore ruled most of southern Halmahera, and, at times, controlled Buru, Ambon, Tidore established an alliance with the Spanish in the sixteenth century, and Spain had several forts on the island. After the Spanish withdrawal it continued to resist direct control by the Dutch East India Company, particularly under Sultan Saifuddin, the Tidore court was skilled at using Dutch payment for spices for gifts to strengthen traditional ties with Tidores traditional peripheral territories. Tidore long remained an independent state, albeit with growing Dutch interference, like Ternate, Tidore allowed the Dutch spice eradication program to proceed in its territories. This program, intended to strengthen the Dutch spice monopoly by limiting production to a few places, impoverished Tidore, in 1781 Prince Nuku left Tidore and declared himself Sultan of the Papuan Islands. This was the beginning of a war which lasted for many years. The Papuans sided with the rebellious Prince Nuku, the British had sponsored Nuku as part of their campaign against the Dutch in the Moluccas. Captain Thomas Forrest was intimately connected with Nuku and represented the British as ambassador, the sultanate was abolished in the Sukarno era and re-established in 1999 with the 36th sultan. Tidore was largely spared from the conflict of 1999 across the Maluku Islands. The island constitutes a municipality within the province of North Maluku, the municipality covered an area of 1,643.5 square kilometres and had an Census population of 89,506 in 2010, the mainland part became the city of Sofifi, the new provincial capital. This leaves 53,309 as the population covering 129 km2 of land, the municipality includes the island of Tidore, together with two small islands, and the Oba section of Halmahera Island. It is divided into eight districts, namely Oba, Oba Selatan, Oba Tengah, Oba Utara, Tidore, Tidore Timur, Tidore Selatan, the four Obas cover the parts of the municipality on Halmahera, while the four Tidores cover Tidore Island and the two small islands. The world of Maluku, eastern Indonesia in the modern period
Tidore
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Tidore Island, as seen from Ternate Island.
Tidore
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Tidore Island featured in 1,000-rupiah banknote.
73.
History of Haiti
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It was inhabited by the Taíno, an Arawakan people, who variously called their island Ayiti, Bohio, or Kiskeya. Columbus promptly claimed the island for the Spanish Crown, naming it La Isla Española, successive waves of Arawak migrants, moving northward from the Orinoco delta in South America, settled the islands of the Caribbean. Around AD600, the Taíno Indians, an Arawak culture, arrived on the island and they were organized into cacicazgos, each led by a cacique. The Taíno people called the island Quisqueya and Ayiti, at the time of Columbuss arrival in 1492, the islands territory consisted of five chiefdoms, Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey. Two of these chiefdoms, Marien and Jaragua, were on the territory of present-day Haiti, guacanagarix, who ruled Marien from his capital El Guarico near present-day Cap-Haïtien, met Columbus and gave him permission to construct La Navidad. Jaragua was the largest caique on the island and ruled by Bohechío and his sister Anacaona, who ruled from its capital Yaguana near present-day Léogâne, christopher Columbus established the settlement, La Navidad, near the modern town of Cap-Haïtien. It was built from the timbers of his ship, Santa María. When he returned in 1493 on his voyage he found the settlement had been destroyed. Columbus continued east and founded a new settlement at La Isabela on the territory of the present-day Dominican Republic in 1493. The capital of the colony was moved to Santo Domingo in 1496, the Spanish returned to western Hispaniola in 1502, establishing a settlement at Yaguana, near modern-day Léogâne. A second settlement was established on the north coast in 1504 called Puerto Real near modern Fort-Liberté – which in 1578 was relocated to a nearby site and renamed Bayaha. Following the arrival of Europeans, La Hispaniolas indigenous population suffered greatly to near extinction, a commonly accepted hypothesis attributes the high mortality of this colony in part to Old World diseases to which the natives had no immunity. A small number of Taínos were able to survive and set up villages elsewhere, Spanish interest in Hispaniola began to wane in the 1520s, as more lucrative gold and silver deposits were found in Mexico and South America. Thereafter, the population of Spanish Hispaniola grew at a slow pace, the Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade. So large numbers of Dutch traders/pirates joined their English and French brethren trading on the coasts of Hispaniola. Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops including the two settlements on the territory of present-day Haiti, La Yaguana, and Bayaja. Although the Spanish destroyed the settlements in 1629,1635,1638 and 1654. In 1655, the newly established English administration on Jamaica sponsored the re-occupation of Tortuga under Elias Watts as governor, in 1660, the English made the mistake of replacing Watts as governor by a Frenchman Jeremie Deschamps, on condition he defended English interests
History of Haiti
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Christopher Columbus landing on the island of Hispaniola in 1492.
History of Haiti
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Although he unofficially led the nation politically during the revolution, Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the father of Haiti.
History of Haiti
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The Kingdom of Haiti in the North and the Republic of Haiti in the South
History of Haiti
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United States Marines and a Haitian guide patrolling the jungle in 1915 during the Battle of Fort Dipitie
74.
History of Trinidad and Tobago
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The history of Trinidad and Tobago begins with the settlements of the islands by Amerindians, specifically the Island Carib and Arawak peoples. Both islands were explored by Christopher Columbus on his voyage in 1498. Trinidad remained in Spanish hands until 1797, but it was settled by French colonists. Tobago changed hands between the British, French, Dutch, and Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands following the second Treaty of Paris, in 1889 the two islands were incorporated into a single crown colony. Trinidad and Tobago obtained its independence from the British Empire in 1962, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the island- then called Kairi- was inhabited by the indigenous Arawak people, and Carib people. The islands proximity to the continent makes it likely that it was among the first islands to be settled, the island probably was taken by three migration waves from the continent. The first contact with Europeans occurred when Christopher Columbus, who was on his voyage of exploration. Columbus discovery is significant because it marked the first sighting of the island by Europeans, Trinidad is reported to have been densely populated at the beginning of the colonial period. As a consequence of this, Trinidad and Tobago became the focus of Spanish slaving raids, in 1530 Antonio Sedeño was granted a contract to settle Trinidad, with an eye toward discovering long-rumored El Dorado and controlling the trade in slaves. In 1532 he attempted to establish a settlement, but was driven off the following the Battle of Cumucurapo. He withdrew to Margarita, but he returned a year later, after failing to attract more settlers to Trinidad, Sedeño was forced to withdraw in 1534. In 1553 Juan Sedeño was authorised to settle Trinidad, but the contract was never fulfilled, in 1569 Juan Troche Ponce de León built the town of the Circumcision, probably around modern Laventille. In 1570 this settlement was abandoned, in 1592 Antonio de Berrio established the first lasting settlement, the town of San José de Oruña. In Tobago, the first Dutch colony of Nieuw-Walcheren was short-lived,68 colonists established Fort Vlissingen near modern Plymouth in 1628. They were reinforced by a few hundred settlers from Zeeland in 1629 and 1632. The settlement was destroyed and its inhabitants were massacred by the Spanish on 1 January 1637, attempted colonies by Courland in 1637,1639, and 1642 and England in 1649,1642, and 1647 all failed. In May and September 1654, Courish and Dutch colonies were reestablished successfully, the Courish colony of Neu-Kurland was centered at Fort Jacob on Great Courland Bay. The Dutch colony on the side of the island had three forts, Lampsinsberg, Beveren, and Bellavista
History of Trinidad and Tobago
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Port of Spain Harbour, 1890s
History of Trinidad and Tobago
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Newly arrived indentured Indians in Trinidad and Tobago
75.
Banda Oriental
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It was the easternmost territory of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Before the arrival of the Spanish and the Portuguese, several tribes of people were living in this area as nomads. The principal ones were the Charrúas, the Chanás, the Guayanas, Juan Díaz de Solís discovered this territory in 1516. During the conquest of the Río de la Plata area by the Adelantados, the first ephemeral Spanish attempts to start populated centres in this territory happened between 1527 and 1577. These were the Fortín de San Lázaro and the Puerto de San Salvador by Sebastián Gaboto, the Real de San Juan and the Real de San Gabriel y Ciudad de San Salvador by Juan Ortiz de Zárate. In 1542 the Crown of Castile established the Viceroyalty of Peru, the Banda Oriental was therefore officially under the administration of the Viceroyalty of Peru from 1542 up to 1776. In the early 17th century the territory was called Banda Charrúa, later Otra Banda, later the name was extended to encompass Entre Ríos, to describe the territories in those latitudes that lead to the Mar del Nord. The area north of the Banda Oriental was the called by the Guaraní word Mbiaza or Ibiazá. In 1618, during the governance of Hernando Arias de Saavedra, starting around 1626, fathers of the Franciscan order attempted to establish reductions south of Río Negro. Some of them were short-lived missions like the San Francisco de los Olivares de los Charrúas, the San Antonio de los Chanáes and the San Juan de Céspedes. Although Spain claimed the territory of the Banda Oriental, based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, Spain took the city twice, in 1681 and in 1705, but had to give it back by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. The following years saw an expansion of the Portuguese settlements around Colonia del Sacramento, until 1723, in this way Montevideo became the center of Spanish control over the Banda Oriental. Its government was carried out by the Cabildo, in which criollos could participate, in 1750, the office of Governor of Montevideo was created, with jurisdiction in the southern departments of the modern Uruguay. The Treaty of Madrid between the kings of Spain and Portugal, allowed further expansion of the Portuguese Empire west of the 46th meridian, the treaty also stipulated that Spain would receive Colonia del Sacramento and Portugal would receive the Misiones Orientales. This, however, resulted in the Guaraní War, after which the Treaty of El Pardo repealed all aspects of the previous treaty, the Portuguese territories of Colonia del Sacramento were conquered by the Spanish and the Anglo-Portuguese forces were defeated and forced to surrender and retreat. Santa Tecla, San Miguel, Santa Teresa and Rio Grande de São Pedro, however, remained in Spanish hands, in this way the Banda Oriental became integrated into the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata. In 1796, the body of the Blandengues was formed to protect the ranchers and peasants from vagrancy, theft, the government, lacking resources, offered to pardon any outlaws that would join this body, and they in turn brought also their horses into it. A result of the Anglo-Spanish War in Europe, were the British invasions of the Río de la Plata of 1807-1808, the invasions occurred in two phases
Banda Oriental
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Map of 1574 showing the Portuguese Captaincies
Banda Oriental
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Monument to Hernandarias in Montevideo
Banda Oriental
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Tile panel depicting the foundation of Colonia del Sacramento in 1680.
Banda Oriental
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Monument to Bruno Mauricio de Zabala in Montevideo.
76.
History of the Falkland Islands
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The history of the Falkland Islands goes back at least five hundred years, with active exploration and colonisation only taking place in the 18th century. Nonetheless, the islands have been a matter of controversy, as they have been claimed by the French, British, Spaniards, the islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans. France established a colony on the islands in 1764, in 1765, a British captain claimed the islands for Britain. In early 1770 a Spanish commander arrived from Argentina with five ships and 1400 soldiers forcing the British to leave Port Egmont, Britain and Spain almost went to war over the islands, but the British government decided that it should withdraw its presence from many overseas settlements in 1774. Spain, which had a garrison at Puerto Soledad on East Falklands, in 1833, the British returned to the Falkland Islands. Argentina invaded the islands on 2 April 1982, the British responded with an expeditionary force that forced the Argentines to surrender. While Amerindians from Patagonia could have visited the Falklands, the islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans. Recent discoveries of arrowheads in Lafonia as well as the remains of a wooden canoe provide evidence that the Yaghan people of Tierra del Fuego may have made the journey to the islands. It is not known if these are evidence of one-way journeys, however, it is not certain that the discovery predates arrival of Europeans. A Patagonian Missionary Society mission station was founded on Keppel Island in 1856, yahgan Indians were at this station from 1856 to 1898 so this may be the source of the artifacts that have been found. The presence of the warrah, Dusicyon australis, has often cited as evidence of pre-European occupation of the islands.7 million years ago. This means it is likely that the warrah arrived in the islands long before humans, the islands had no native trees when discovered but there is some ambiguous evidence of past forestation, that may be due to wood being transported by oceanic currents from Patagonia. All modern trees have been introduced by Europeans, an archipelago in the region of the Falkland Islands appeared on Portuguese maps from the early 16th century. Researchers Pepper and Pascoe cite the possibility that an unknown Portuguese expedition may have sighted the islands, maps from this period show islands known as the Sanson islands in a position that could be interpreted as the Falklands. On 9 August 1592 a severe storm battered his ship, and Davis drifted under bare masts, Davis did not provide the latitude of these islands, indicating they were 50 leagues away from the Patagonian coast. However, the latitude given was off by at least 3 degrees, errors in the latitude measured can be attributed to a simple mistake reading a cross staff divided into minutes meaning the latitude measured could be 50°48. The description of bonfires can also be attributed to fires caused by lightning. In 1925, Conor OBrian analysed the voyage of Hawkins and concluded that the land he could have sighted was Steeple Jason Island
History of the Falkland Islands
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Map of the modern Falkland Islands
History of the Falkland Islands
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The extinct warrah is sometimes taken as evidence of pre-European discovery.
History of the Falkland Islands
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Richard Hawkins
77.
Spanish Guinea
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Spanish Guinea was a set of insular and continental territories controlled by Spain since 1778 in the Gulf of Guinea and on the Bight of Bonny, in Central Africa. It gained independence in 1968 and is known as Equatorial Guinea, the Spanish colony in the Guinea region was established in 1778, by the Treaty of El Pardo between the Spanish Empire and the Kingdom of Portugal. Between 1778 and 1810, Spain administered the territory of Equatorial Guinea via its colonial Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, from 1827 to 1843, the United Kingdom had a base on Bioko to combat the continuing Atlantic slave trade conducted by Spain and illegal traders. Based on an agreement with Spain in 1843, Britain moved its base to its own colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa, in 1844, on restoration of Spanish sovereignty, it became known as the Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea. Spain had never undertaken colonial settlement of the area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had treaty rights. The French expanded their occupation at the expense of the area claimed by Spain. By the treaty of Paris in 1900, Spain was left with the enclave of Rio Muni,26,000 km2 of the 300,000 stretching east to the Ubangi river. Toward the end of the 19th century Spanish, Portuguese, German, with the indigenous Bubi population decimated by disease and forced labour, the island’s economy came to depend on imported agricultural contract workers. A labour treaty was signed with the Republic of Liberia in 1914, the transport of up to 15,000 workers by sea was orchestrated by the German Woermann-Linie, the government prohibited recruiting of Liberian workers for Spanish Guinea. The persisting labour shortage in the cacao, coffee and logging led to a booming trade in illegal canoe-based smuggling of Igbo. The number of contract workers on the island of Fernando Po grew to 20,000 in 1942. A labour treaty was signed with the British Crown in the same year and this led to a continuous stream of Nigerian workers going to Spanish Guinea. By 1968 at the time of independence, almost 100,000 ethnic Nigerians were living and working in Spanish Guinea, between 1926 and 1959, the Crown united Bioko and Rio Muni as the colony of Spanish Guinea. The economy was based on exploitation of the commodity crops of cacao and coffee, produced at large plantations, owners of these companies hired mostly immigrant contract labour from Liberia, Nigeria, and Cameroon. Spain mounted military campaigns in the 1920s to subdue the indigenous Fang people, the Crown established garrisons of the colonial guard throughout the enclave by 1926, and the whole colony was considered pacified by 1929. Rio Muni had a population, officially put at a little over 100,000 in the 1930s. Its people could easily escape over the borders into Cameroon or Gabon, moreover, the timber companies needed growing amounts of labour, and the spread of coffee cultivation offered an alternative means of paying taxes. The island of Fernando Po continued to suffer labour shortages
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Flag (after 1945)
78.
Ifni
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Ifni was a Spanish province on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, south of Agadir and across from the Canary Islands. It had an area of 1,502 km². Spains presence in the area can be traced to a settlement called Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña, after attacks by the Berbers the Spanish decided to focus on colonizing other areas of North Africa and abandoned the region. This served as a pretext for a war with Morocco in 1859. During Francisco Francos dictatorship, the colony was made into a Spanish province in order to forestall United Nations criticism of continued colonization, after the Forgotten War most of the territory became occupied by Morocco. Spain formally returned the territory to Morocco on 30 June 1969, the territory was integrated into the Moroccan region of Souss-Massa-Drâa. Spain began issuing stamps for Ifni in 1941, initially overprinting Spanish stamps with TERRITORIO DE IFNI. Issues followed at the rate of ten per year with the last on 23 November 1968. Most are commonly available and are often seen unused than used. List of colonial governors of Ifni Ifni War Ifni Friends Association Ifni stamp gallery The Corner of Sidi Ifni Ifni today Jomabase photo album on Picasa Maps of Ifni
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Map sheet showing boundary of the former Ifni Province.
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Spanish Sahara
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Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was occupied and ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975. It had been one of the most recent acquisitions of the Spanish Empire, as well as one of its last remaining holdings, Spain gave up its Saharan possession following Moroccan demands and international pressure, mainly from United Nations resolutions regarding decolonisation. There was internal pressure from the native Sahrawi population and the claims of Morocco, Mauritania also claimed the territory for a number of years based on its history, and then dropped all claims. In 1991 the UN negotiated a ceasefire, and has tried to arrange negotiations, Morocco controls the entire Atlantic coast and most of the landmass, population, and natural resources of Western Sahara. Before and during the Spanish occupation, the territory was inhabited by Saharan Arabs who lived in many oases and they worked mainly in fishing and camel herding. They speak Hassaniya language, a Bedouin Arabic dialect, there is some dispute and ambiguity about whether the territory was under Moroccan royal sovereignty at the time when the Spanish claimed it in 1884. It officially informed the other powers in writing on 14 January 1885 and it began establishing trading posts and a military presence. In July 1885, the king appointed Emilio Bonelli commissioner of the Río de Oro with civil, on 6 April 1887, it was incorporated into the Captaincy General of the Canary Islands for military purposes. At the time, geographers had not mapped the territory and its features were not widely known and their trek is considered the first scientific expedition in that part of the Sahara. In 1886, Spain signed the Treaty of Idjil by which the emirate of Adrar ceded the land of the colony to Spain, the borders of the territory were not clearly defined until treaties between Spain and France in the early 20th century. Spanish Sahara was created from the Spanish territories of Río de Oro and it was not part of the areas known as Spanish Morocco and was administered separately from them. On entering the territory in 1884, Spain was immediately challenged by stiff resistance from the indigenous Sahrawi tribes, a 1904 rebellion led by the powerful Smara-based marabout, Shaykh Ma al-Aynayn, was put down by France in 1910, which ruled neighboring Algeria. This was followed by a wave of uprisings under Ma al-Aynayns sons, grandsons, tribal uprisings meant that Spain found it difficult to control parts of the territorys large hinterland until 1934. After gaining independence in 1956, Morocco laid claim on Spanish Sahara as part of its historic pre-colonial territory, in 1957, the Moroccan Army of Liberation nearly occupied the small territory of Sidi-Ifni, north of Spanish Sahara, during the Ifni War. The Spanish sent a regiment of paratroopers from the nearby Canary Islands and were able to repel the attacks, with the assistance of the French, Spain soon re-established control in the area through Operaciones Teide-Ecoubillon. It tried to suppress resistance politically and it forced some of the previously nomadic inhabitants of Spanish Sahara to settle in certain areas, and the rate of urbanization was increased. In the same year, Spain united the territories of Saguia el Hamra and Río de Oro to form the province of Spanish Sahara, while ceding the provinces of Tarfaya, in the 1960s, Morocco continued to claim Spanish Sahara. It gained agreement by the United Nations to add the territory to the list of territories to be decolonized, in 1969, Spain returned Ifni to Morocco, but continued to retain Spanish Sahara
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Postage stamp issued in 1924.
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Council of the Indies
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The Council of the Indies, officially, the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies, was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Americas and Asia. It was placed at start as a section under the jurisdiction of the Council of Castile and it had legislative, executive, the Crown of Castile incorporated the American and Asian territories into its domains by a papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI. Queen Isabella withdrew the authority granted to Christopher Columbus and the first conquistadors, rodríguez de Fonseca effectively became minister for the Indies and laid the foundations for the creation of a colonial bureaucracy. He presided over a council, which contained a number of members of the Council of Castile, emperor Charles V was already using the term Council of the Indies in 1519. The Council of the Indies was formally created on August 1,1524, civil suits of sufficient importance could be appealed from an audiencia in the New World to the Council, functioning as a court of last resort. The large volume of Council and Crowns decisions and legislation for the Indies were formally codified in the 1680 publication, with the ascension of a new dynasty at the start of the eighteenth century, a series of administrative changes, known as the Bourbon reforms, were introduced. Fifty years later Charles III set up a separate Secretary of State for the Indies, during the Peninsular War, the Cádiz Cortes abolished the Council, but it was restored upon Ferdinand VIIs restoration. The Council was finally abolished in 1834, a year after Ferdinand VIIs death, the archives of the Council, the Archivo General de Indias one of the major centers of documentation for European history, are housed in Seville. American Provincial Deputation of Spain Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish East Indies Burkholder, biographical Dictionary of Councilors of the Indies, 1717-1808
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Colonization
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Royal Decree of Graces of 1815
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Puerto Rico was largely undeveloped until 1830, when immigrants from the Spanish provinces of Catalonia, Majorca, and the Canary Islands began to arrive. They gradually developed the sugarcane, coffee, and tobacco plantations, at the beginning of the 19th century, the Spanish colonies in the western hemisphere fought for independence. In South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led colonists to victory against Spanish rule, in Mexico, by 1825, the Spanish Empire had lost control of all of its territories in the Americas with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. These two possessions were also demanding more autonomy, and pro-independence movements had been gathering strength, trying to forestall the loss of these colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. It printed the decree in English and French, as well as Spanish, the Crown offered free land on the condition that new settlers swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. They hoped to supplant the independence movement with new settlers, the decree encouraged the use of slave labor to revive agriculture on the islands. The new agricultural class immigrating from countries of Europe purchased slaves in large numbers. During the latter part of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, great economic, thousands of farm workers migrated to cities seeking industrial jobs and better opportunities. Cholera epidemics broke out and starvation was widespread in Europe, social and economic disruption also followed the European Revolutions of 1848, which erupted in Sicily and the German states. The French Revolution of 1848 contributed to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and these conditions led to a massive European immigration to the Americas. As soon as these settlers swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church, after five years, the settlers were granted a Letter of Naturalization that made them Spanish subjects. In 1870, to attract non-Catholic Europeans, the Spanish Courts passed a law granting the right of freedom in the islands. About 450,000 European immigrants settled in Puerto Rico during this period, the new settlers soon adopted the language and customs of their new homelands, and many intermarried with the local residents. Many became prominent business and political leaders, the Royal Decree ceased to have effect in 1898, when Spain finally lost her last two possessions in the New World to the United States under the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish–American War. The original Spanish Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 is kept in the General Archives of Puerto Rico in the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture in San Juan, Puerto Rico
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815
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Royal Decree of Graces, 1815
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Papal bull
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A Papal bull is a specific kind of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by a pope of the Roman Catholic Church. It is named after the seal that was traditionally appended to the end in order to authenticate it. Papal bulls have been in use at least since the 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the register of bulls, by the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of the bulls now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries. In an epoch when there was much fabrication of such documents, a Papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where the original deed had been lost or destroyed. Since the 12th century, Papal bulls have carried a seal with the heads of the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side. Papal bulls were issued by the Pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature. Papyrus seems to have used almost uniformly as the material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century. Popularly, the name is used for any Papal document that contains a metal seal, today, the bull is the only written communication in which the Pope will refer to himself as Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei. For example, when Pope Benedict XVI issued a decree in bull form, while Papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A Papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the Pope, the body of the text had no specific conventions for its formatting, it was often very simple in layout. For the most solemn bulls, the Pope signed the document himself, following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the Pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the seal, which was usually made of lead. On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome, the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus. Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti, and the rim of the seal was surrounded by a ring of such beads. On the reverse was the name of the issuing Pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters PP, for Pastor Pastorum
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Papal bull of Pope Urban VIII, 1637, sealed with a lead bulla.
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The Apostolic constitution Magni aestimamus issued as a Papal bull by Pope Benedict XVI in 2011 which instituted the Military Ordinariate of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Printed text of Pope Leo X 's Bull against the errors of Martin Luther, also known as Exsurge Domine, issued in June 1520
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Lead bulla (obverse and reverse) of Urban V, Pope 1362 to 1370
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Real Audiencia
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The Real Audiencia, or simply Audiencia, was an appellate court in Spain and its empire. The name of the institution literally translates as Royal Audience, the additional designation chancillería was applied to the appellate courts in early modern Spain. The first audiencia was founded in the Kingdom of Castile in 1371 at Valladolid, the Valladolid Audiencia functioned as the highest court in Castile for the next two centuries. Appeals from the Castilian audiencias could only be made to the Council of Castile after its creation in 1480, the second audiencia was moved to Granada in 1505. Under Charles V and Philip II, the system was extended first in Spain proper, with the Royal Audiencia of Aragon. Audiencias in cities and provinces that belong to Spain today included Seville, Las Palmas, Majorca, Asturias, the audiencias and viceroys of the Crown of Aragon were overseen by the Council of Aragon, which had been established in 1494. Audiencias in the Spanish possessions in Europe included the Italian domains of Sardinia, in Italy, the Castilian institution of the audiencia was united with the Aragonese institution of the viceroy. In 1555 a Council of Italy was created to oversee the viceroys, in the Indies, the two institutions were also united, but with a different power relationship. The Crown of Castile early on introduced the audiencia into the Americas as part of its campaign to bring the area and its Spanish settlers and conquerors under royal control. With the vast conquests on the American mainland, which began in the 1520s, viceroys were therefore introduced, but without the judicial powers the office had enjoyed under the Aragonese Crown. In the New World, instead, the audiencias were given a consultative and quasi-legislative role in the administration of the territories, both viceroys and audiencias were ultimately overseen by a Council of the Indies. Most of the dealing with the establishment of the 16th- and 17th-century audiencias can be found in Book II. The first audiencia in the Americas was established at Santo Domingo in 1511 with jurisdiction over the Caribbean islands and it was quickly suppressed due to opposition by the Spanish settlers, but was re-established permanently in 1526. As the Spanish conquest of the continent continued, more audiencias were founded in the new areas of settlement. The first mainland audiencia was set up in Mexico City in 1527, just six years after the fall of Tenochtitlan and this audiencia was followed by the Audiencia of Panama,1538, overseeing Central America and the littoral regions of northern South America until its abolishment in 1543. It later was reestablshed with jurisdiction only over Panama proper in 1564, venezuela, settled earlier, remained under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo until the establishment of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century. The last colonial audiencias were created under the Bourbon kings as part of their administrative reforms, the new dynasty found no need for the second Audiencia of Panama and abolished it in 1751, transferring its jurisdiction to the one in Bogotá. New audiencias were established in, Caracas,1786 Cusco,1787 Buenos Aires,1783 and this meant that at the moment of Spanish American independence in the early 19th century, the overseas possessions of the Spanish Monarchy were overseen by twelve audiencias
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Members of the Real Audiencia of Lima, the presidente, alcaldes de corte, fiscal and alguacil mayor. (Nueva Crónica y Buen Gobierno, p. 488)
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Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara
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The Real Audiencia of Guadalajara, was the highest tribunal of the Spanish crown in what is today northern Mexico and the southwestern United States in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It was created by decree on February 13,1548. Its president was the political and executive officer of the district. And we order that this law of ours be kept, as it is in it contained, and in regards to the government of war and the treasury, the orders, the Audiencia of New Galicia in the Sixteenth Century, A Study in Spanish Colonial Government
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Colonization
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Royal Audiencia of Mexico
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The Real Audiencia of Mexico or high court was the highest tribunal of the Spanish crown in the Kingdom of New Spain. The Audiencia was created by decree on December 13,1527. The First Audiencia was dissolved by the crown for its bungling and corruption, another Audiencia was created in Guadalajara in western Mexico in 1548. He initially established a government in the town of Coyoacán, south of Lake Texcoco, from here he governed with the title of Captain General and Justicia Mayor. The crown sent treasury officials to New Spain, asserting the right of the crown to the revenues from the conquered lands. During Cortéss expedition to Honduras, treasury officials were left in charge, after Cortéss return to Mexico City in 1526, the crown realized that to assert its power over him that a higher level of royal authority was needed and created the Audiencia of Mexico. The first Audiencia in Mexico was created in 1528 and headed by crown official Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán. Hernán Cortés, who as leader of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, had accrued considerable wealth, by setting up the Audiencia the crown sought to limit Cortéss personal power by creating the high court as an effective instrument of royal power. One scholar calls him a natural gangster, however, structurally the crown had set up a conflictive situation between the conquerors turned encomenderos and the high court determined to assert royal authority. The crowns choice of Nuño de Guzmán as president of the Audiencia was a major blunder, in 1532, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was created, although the first Viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza, would not arrive in Mexico until 1535. The Viceroy took over the functions of government from the Audiencia. In the following decade as more areas were conquered a second Audiencia was created in Guadalajara. Territorial evolution of Mexico History of New Spain Arregui Zamorano, Pilar, la Audiencia de México según los visitadores. México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, the Audiencia of New Galicia in the Sixteenth Century. Gobierno y sociedad en Nueva España, segunda audiencia y Antonio de Mendoza, zamora, Gobierno del Estado de Michoacán, El Colegio de Michoacán
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Colonization
86.
Captaincy General of Cuba
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The restructuring of the Captaincy General in 1764 was the first example of the Bourbon Reforms in America. The changes included adding the provinces of Florida and Louisiana and granting more autonomy for these provinces and this later change was carried out by the Count of Floridablanca under Charles III to strengthen the Spanish position vis-a-vis the British in the Caribbean. A new governor-captain general based in Havana oversaw the administration of the new district, the local governors of the larger Captaincy General had previously been overseen in political and military matters by the president of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo. This audiencia retained oversight of judicial affairs until the establishment of new audiencias in Puerto Príncipe, since the 16th century the island of Cuba had been under the control of the governor-captain general of Santo Domingo, who was at the same time, president of the audiencia there. He oversaw the governor and the Santo Domingo Audiencia heard appeals from the island. This legal move removed Velázquez and the settlers from under the authority of Colón and it was a precedent that would come back to haunt Velázquez during Hernán Cortéss conquest of Mexico. Other cities were founded under Velázquez, Bayamo in 1513, Santísima Trinidad, Sancti Spíritus and San Cristóbal de La Habana in 1514, Puerto Príncipe. After the conquest of Mexico, Cuba experienced an exodus of settlers, the Church played an important role in the Spanish settlement of the Americas. Furthermore, since governors, as representatives of the King, oversaw church administration due to the right of patronage. The first diocese was established in 1518 in Baracoa and was suffragan to the Diocese of Seville. The seat of the Diocese was transferred to Santiago de Cuba in 1522, in 1520 Pope Leo X established the short-lived Diocese of Santiago de la Florida. In 1546 the Diocese of Santo Domingo was elevated to an Archdiocese, in 1607 Philip III created the Captaincy General of Cuba as part of larger plans to defend the Caribbean against foreign threats. The first captain general was Pedro Valdés, around the same time other captaincies general were established in Puerto Rico and Central America. Cuba was divided into two governorships with capitals in Havana and Santiago de Cuba, the governor of Havana was Captain General of the island. In 1650 Cuba received an influx of refugees when the British conquered Jamaica. In 1756 the construction of ships for the Royal Navy began with the establishment of an Intendancy of the Navy was established in Havana, which functioned as a royal shipyard. The British conquest of the island in 1762 during the Seven Years War proved to be a point in the history of Cuba. The British captured Havana after a siege and controlled the western part of the island for a year
Captaincy General of Cuba
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Captaincy General of Cuba
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A Spanish frigate towing a British ship to Havana. Oil on canvas, c. 1770.
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Captaincy General of Guatemala
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The governor-captain general was also president of the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala. The colonization of the area became the future Captaincy General began in 1524. In the north, the brothers Gonzalo and Pedro de Alvarado, Hernán Cortés and others headed various expeditions into Guatemala, in the south Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, acting under the auspices of Pedrarias Dávila in Panama, moved into what is today Nicaragua. The capital of Guatemala has moved many times over the centuries, on 27 July 1524, Pedro de Alvarado declared the Kaqchikel city, Iximche, as the first regional capital, styled Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. However, hostilities between the Spaniards and the Kaqchikel soon made the city uninhabitable, in 1526, the Spanish founded a new capital settlement at Tecpán Guatemala, Tecpán being the Nahuatl word for palace. Tecpán is sometimes called the first capital because of its status as the first permanent Spanish military center, the Spaniards soon abandoned Tecpán due to continuous Kaqchikel attacks that made defense of the city untenable. In 1527, the capital was moved yet again to the Almolonga Valley to the east, being refounded on the site of todays San Miguel Escobar district of Ciudad Vieja, near Antigua Guatemala. This settlement was destroyed by a lahar from Volcan de Agua in 1541. In 1543, the capital was again refounded several miles away at Antigua Guatemala, over the next two centuries, this city would become one of the richest of the New World capitals. However, it too was destroyed, this time by a series of earthquakes. The final and current capital is the modern-day Guatemala City, the Church played an important role in the administration of the overseas possessions of the Spanish crown. The first dioceses were established in León, Nicaragua and Guatemala in 1534, another diocese was created in Chiapas in 1539. The dioceses of Guatemala and Chiapas were suffragan to the Archdiocese of Seville, the Diocese of León was made suffragan to Archdiocese of Lima in 1546. Another short-lived diocese was set up in Verapaz, Guatemala in 1559, in 1543 the territory of the kingdom was defined with the establishment of the Audiencia of Guatemala, which took most of Central America as its jurisdiction. This audiencia, along with the one in Lima, took over the territory of the first Audiencia of Panama and it was the first institution to define Central America as a region within the Spanish Empire. Around the same time Habsburg Spain created other captaincies general in Puerto Rico, Cuba, in the 17th century a process of uniting the church hierarchy of Central America also began. The dioceses of Comayagua and León were made suffragan to the Archdiocese of Mexico in 1620 and 1647, as part of the Bourbon Reforms in 1786 the crown established a series of intendancies in the area, which replaced most of the older corregimientos. The intendants were granted broad powers and were charged with promoting the local economy
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The Fort of San Fernando Omoa. Built by the Spaniards to defend against pirates.
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The Kingdom of Guatemala within the wider Spanish Americas, c.1600.
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Captaincy General of the Philippines
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The Captaincy General of the Philippines was an administrative district of the Spanish Empire. The Captaincy General encompassed the Spanish East Indies, which included the Philippine Islands and it was founded in 1565 with the first permanent Spanish settlements. However, in 1821, following the independence of Mexico, all control was transferred to Madrid, antonio Pigafetta, the expeditions chronicler and one of only 18 original crew members to survive Ferdinand Magellans circumnavigation of the globe, recorded all details of the voyage. On 5 June 1569, Guido de Lavezaris, the treasurer in the Archipelago. A letter from another official, Andres de Mirandaola, also described briefly this encounter with the Portuguese, the danger of another attack led the Spaniards to remove their camp from Cebu to Panay, which they considered a safer place. Legazpi himself, in his report to the Viceroy in New Spain and it was in Panay that the conquest of Luzon was planned, and launched on 8 May 1570. Two of Lepazpis Lieutenant-commanders, Martín de Goiti and Juan de Salcedo conquered Luzons northern region, in 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In 1584, the Real Audiencia of Manila is established by King Felipe II, the Captaincy had its capital in Cebu from 1565 to 1595, and in Manila from 1595 until 1898. Ciriaco González Carbajal was appointed as Oidor of the Audiencia of Manila and was instructed to abide by the Royal Ordinance of Mayors of 1782, a month earlier, on October 23, the Intendencia of Manila had been attached to the Captaincy General of the Philippines. Until 1822, all General Captains were civilians, but after that year they were chosen among the military. Mindanao, Caraga, Misamis, Zamboanga, Nueva Guipúzcoa sultanate of Sulu Joló Marianas, Marianas capital Agaña, palau Bonin Islands Spratly Islands Caroline Islands Marshall Islands Special Districts, Benguet, Ticao and Masbate, Comandancia del Corregidor, Lower territories of Agno. Spanish rule in the Philippines ceased in 1898 after the war with the United States, most of the remaining territories in the Pacific Ocean were sold to Germany during the German-Spanish Treaty of 1899. Spanish East Indies Governor-General of the Philippines Royal Audience of Manila Spanish Empire Viceroyalty of New Spain — centered in México History of the Philippines History of the Philippines
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Magellan landing site in Umatac Bay
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Captaincy General of Puerto Rico
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Its creation was part of the, ultimately futile, Habsburg attempt in the late 16th century to prevent incursion into the Caribbean by foreign powers. Spain also established Captaincies General in Cuba, Guatemala and Yucatán, the Captaincy General played a crucial role in the history of the Spanish Caribbean. In 1508 Juan Ponce de León was commissioned by the Crown to carry out the initial colonization of Puerto Rico, after successfully founding the city of Caparra, he was appointed as its first governor in 1509 by the regent of Castile, Ferdinand V. As a result, Ponce de León lost his position and left the island, the Columbus family appointed governors in Puerto Rico from then until 1536, when Diegos son, Luis Colón sold the rights to govern the Indies to the Crown. In 1511, when Diego Colón had won the right to appoint governors, from 1536 to 1545, the island was overseen by the president of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo, who was also Captain General of the Caribbean. The island territory was administered locally, not as one unit and these men were elected annually by the cabildos from among the local settler population. Since most of the settlers did not have the training to become governors, the islands Spanish residents complained to the Crown. Starting in 1545 governors with legal training were appointed by either the crown or the Santo Domingo Audiencia, filling the highest judicial office on the island, the governors heard cases in the first instance in their immediate districts, and in appeal from the regional alcaldes. The next court of appeal was the Audiencia in Santo Domingo, in addition to being the highest administrative office on the island, governors also derived power from their right to annually appoint two of the four regidores of the cabildos on the island. As with all other Spanish political officials, governors were subject to the juicio de residencia, since governors were the kings highest representative on the island, they had oversight over the Church because of the right of patronage that the monarchs of Spain had in the Americas. Due to Spains growing military conflicts with other European powers, both in Europe and in the New World, the Crown added the office of general to the governor in 1580. Following this, mostly men, rather than lawyers, were appointed as governors-captains general. They were assisted by an adviser in their judicial and administrative duties. Spain considered Puerto Rico as vital strategically as the gateway to the Caribbean and it was described as the key to the Indies. Given the sea currents and wind patterns of the Atlantic, Puerto Rico was usually the first port of call for ships arriving from Europe, despite this, or perhaps because of its negligible economic importance, the Spanish took a long time to build up the islands defenses. The first fortified building was the Ponce de León family home, in the next decade construction began on the first true fort, La Fortaleza, at the entrance of the bay. By 1539 construction began of a defensive complex around San Juan, which included Forts San Felipe del Morro, San Cristóbal. On the other side of the island, San Germán was left practically defenseless, with the creation of the Captaincy General in 1580, Governor-Captain General Diego Menéndez de Valdés continued to strengthen defenses around San Juan
Captaincy General of Puerto Rico
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Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
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The Captaincy General of Santo Domingo was the first colony in the New World and was claimed for Spain. The island was originally named La Española by Christopher Columbus, from 1511, the courts of the colony were placed under the jurisdiction of the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo. In the 17th century, after years of struggles with the French, the Spanish remained in control of the eastern two-thirds of the island, which later became the Dominican Republic. Columbus reached the island on his first voyage, on December 5,1492, believing that the Europeans were in some way supernatural, the Taínos welcomed them with all the honors available. This was a different society from the one the Europeans came from. Guacanagarí, the chief who hosted Christopher Columbus and his men, treated them kindly, yet the Taínos allegedly egalitarian system clashed with the Europeans feudalist system, with more rigid class structures. This led the Europeans to believe the Taínos to be weak or misleading. Columbus tried to temper this when he and his men departed from Ayiti—as the Taínos called the island—and they left on a good note, Columbus had cemented a firm alliance with Guacanagarix, who was a powerful chief on the island. After the shipwrecking of the Santa María, Columbus decided to establish a fort with a garrison of men that could help him lay claim to this possession. The fort was called La Navidad, since the events of the shipwrecking, the garrison, in spite of all the wealth and beauty on the island, was wracked by divisions that evolved into conflict amongst these first Europeans. The more rapacious ones began to terrorize the Taíno, Ciguayo, viewed as weak by the Spaniards and even some of his own people, Guacanagarix tried to come to an accommodation with the Spaniards, who saw his appeasement as the actions of someone who submitted. They treated him with contempt and even some of his wives. The powerful cacique of the Maguana, Caonabo, could brook no further affronts and attacked the Europeans, Guacanagarix was dismayed by this turn of events but did not try too hard to aid these guamikena, probably hoping that the troublesome outsiders would never return. In 1493, Christopher Columbus came back to the island on his voyage and founded the first Spanish colony in the New World. In 1496, his brother Bartholomew Columbus established the settlement of Santo Domingo de Guzmán on the southern coast, an estimated 400,000 Tainos living on the island were soon enslaved to work in gold mines. As a consequence of oppression, forced labor, hunger, disease, by 1535, only a few dozen were still alive. During this period, the Spanish leadership changed several times. When Columbus departed on another exploration, Francisco de Bobadilla became governor, settlers charges against Columbus of mismanagement added to the tumultuous political situation
Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
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Inspection and sale of African slaves.
Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
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91.
Provincias Internas
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The goal of its creation was to establish a unified government in political, military and fiscal affairs. Its creation was part of the Bourbon Reforms and was part of an effort to invigorate economic and population growth in the region to stave off encroachment on the region by foreign powers. During its existence, the Commandancy General encompassed the Provinces of Sonora y Sinaloa, Nueva Vizcaya, Las Californias, Nuevo México, Nuevo Santander, Nuevo Reyno de León, Coahuila, the Provincias Internas were the brainchild of José de Gálvez. He hit upon the idea during his time as royal Visitador General to New Spain from 1761 to 1772, instead the chief official of the area received the military title of commander or commandant general in addition to being the chief civil executive officer of the region. Due to objections from the viceroys of New Spain, Gálvez was unable to implement his plan during his time as visitador and this was essentially a new office created by King Charles III which made Gálvez, for all purposes, independent of the Council of the Indies. From his new position, Gálvez was able to implement his vision for Spanish America, in addition to the Provincias Internas, Gálvez also created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and the Captaincy General of Venezuela. He also recommenced the project of replacing the older corregimientos. Gálvez appointed Teodoro de Croix as the first Commander General of the Provinicas Internas, the greatest threat, however, were the incursions and indigenous rebellions. Teodoro de Croix arrived to Mexico City in December 1776 and from there he began his tenure as Captain general in February 1777, in Arizpe, Croix created a house Currency and in 1782 he created the Bank of San Carlos. Pedro Galindo Navarro was appointed as an advocate and adviser. Due to the extent of its jurisdiction in 1782 Croix requested the appointment of a commander, Brigadier Felipe de Neve. Las Californias were separated from the bishopric of Guadalajara, while the province of Sonora and Sinaloa was formerly under the bishopric of Durango. On May 21,1785 the districts of Saltillo and Parras were separated from the province of Nueva Vizcaya and were incorporated into Coahuila, rengel decided to move the capital to the town of Chihuahua. On August 26,1786 the Viceroy gave directions to Captain General to regulate the manner of governing the Interior Provinces, at the death of the viceroy Galvez on November 30,1786, the Captain General regained its autonomy from the new viceroy. The Inspector General Galvez proposed to Viceroy Croix in 1769 the creation of the Intendencies of the Californias, the viceroy appointed Matías de Armona and then Felipe de Barri for the former and Eusebio Ventura Beleña for the latter, but those projections never reached implementation. The viceroy was confirmed in all its powers, but had to leave the affairs of the Royal Treasury in the hands of a deputy superintendent of Real Property which depended on 11 provincial governors. Intendency governors gathered under his command causes of justice, police, finance and war, juan de Ugalde was appointed as the Captain general and Santa Rosa as the capital. In 1787 it was considered to create a real audiencia with jurisdiction over the Interior Provinces, but the project was not put into effect
Provincias Internas
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Teodoro de Croix, first Captain General of the Provincias Internas.
Provincias Internas
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Provincias Internas
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Map of the Eastern Internal Provinces created by Joaquín de Arredondo.
Provincias Internas
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1817 Spanish Map of the Internal Provinces of New Spain.
92.
Spanish dollar
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Its purpose was to correspond to the German thaler. The Spanish dollar was used by many countries as the first international currency because of its uniformity in standard. Some countries countersigned the Spanish dollar so it could be used as their local currency, the Spanish dollar was the coin upon which the original United States dollar was based, and it remained legal tender in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. Because it was used in Europe, the Americas. Diverse theories link the origin of the $ symbol to the columns, millions of Spanish dollars were minted over the course of several centuries. They were among the most widely circulating coins of the period in the Americas. In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as Joachimsthalers, named for Joachimsthal, the Joachimsthalers weighed 451 Troy grains of silver. So successful were these coins that similar thalers were minted in Burgundy, the Burgundian Cross Thaler depicted the Cross of Burgundy and was prevalent in the Burgundian Netherlands that were revolting against the Spanish king and Duke of Burgundy Philip II. After 1575, the Dutch revolting provinces replaced the currency with a daalder depicting a lion, specifically to facilitate export trade, the leeuwendaalder was authorized to contain 427.16 grains of.750 fine silver, lighter than the large denomination coins then in circulation. Clearly it was advantageous for a Dutch merchant to pay a foreign debt in leeuwendaalders rather than in other heavier. Thus, the leeuwendaalder or lion dollar became the coin of choice for foreign trade and it became popular in the Middle East, and colonies in the east and west. They also circulated throughout the English colonies during the Seventeenth and early Eighteenth centuries, from New Netherland the lion dollar spread to all thirteen colonies in the west. After the introduction of the Guldengroschen in Austria in 1486, the concept of a silver coin with high purity eventually spread throughout the rest of Europe. Monetary reform in Spain brought about the introduction of an 8-real coin in 1497, in 1537 the Spanish escudo gold coin was introduced, which was worth 16 reales. The later Gold Doubloon was worth 32 reales or 2 escudos and it is this divisibility into 8 which caused the silver coins to be named pieces of eight. In the following centuries, the coin was minted with different designs at various mints in Spain. In the 19th century, the denomination was changed to 20 reales. Spains adoption of the peseta in 1869 and its joining the Latin Monetary Union meant the end of the last vestiges of the Spanish dollar in Spain itself
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of Philip V of Spain, 1739
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of Ferdinand VI of Spain, 1753
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of Charles III of Spain, 1776
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of King Charles IV of Spain, 1806
93.
Columnarios
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Columnarios are silver coins that were minted by Spain from 1732 to 1773 throughout its new colonies in present-day Latin America. While the majority of columnarios were struck in Mexico, smaller mints existed in Guatemala, Lima, Peru, Santiago, Chile, Potosí, Bolivia, the base denomination is an 8 reales coin. Other minor denominations included 4 reales,2 reales,1 real, the 8 reales coin is the predecessor to the American dollar. Before the United States Mint was in production, columnarios circulated, along with other coinage, in the US colonies, prior to the columnario, Spanish coins were hammer struck. These rather crude looking coins were called cobs, clipping was a problem with cobs as it was easy to shave small amounts of silver from their edges, and although this action was punishable by death, it was still a widespread occurrence. The columnario, unlike the odd-shaped cob, is a coin with milled edges which makes clipping detectable. The design of the columnario consists on the reverse of two worlds — representing the new world and old world — with a crown above. The reverse also has the letters VTRAQUE VNUM, referring to the Old and New Worlds, Both are One, the obverse features the crowns name followed by D G HISPAN ET IND REX, meaning, By the Grace of God, King of Spain and the Indies. The assayers mark is on the left and the denomination on the right of a large Spanish shield which is adorned with a crown atop. Various florets, rosettes, stops, and other features are used to separate features, the edge has a repeating laurel leaf design which is very difficult to counterfeit and is often used for authentication purposes. Currently, the Mexican 8 reales columnario is worth $200USD or more, specimens from other mints fetch much higher values due to their rarity. Columnarios. com, a devoted to the columnario The Colonial Coinage of Spanish America
Columnarios
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A Spanish colonial silver coin, minted in Potosí in 1768, featuring the columns and the hemispheres.
94.
Manila galleon
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The name of the galleon changed to reflect the city that the ship sailed from. The term Manila Galleons is also used to refer to the route between Acapulco and Manila, which lasted from 1565 to 1815. The Manila Galleons were also known in New Spain as La Nao de la China because it carried largely Chinese goods, the Manila Galleon trade route was inaugurated in 1565 after Augustinian friar and navigator Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the tornaviaje or return route from the Philippines to Mexico. The first successful round trips were made by Urdaneta and by Alonso de Arellano that year, the route lasted until 1815 when the Mexican War of Independence ended Spanish control of Mexican ports. The Manila galleons sailed the Pacific for 250 years, bringing to Spain their cargoes of goods, economic benefits. In 1521, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed west across the Pacific using the trade winds. The expedition discovered the Mariana Islands and the Philippines and claimed them for Spain, although Magellan died there, one of his ships made it back to Spain by continuing westward. In order to settle and trade with these islands from the Americas, the first ship to try this a few years later failed. In 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón also tried sailing east from the Philippines, in 1543, Bernardo de la Torre also failed. In 1542, however, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo helped pave the way by sailing north from Mexico to explore the Pacific coast, reaching as far north as the Russian River, just north of the 38th parallel. The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade finally began when Spanish navigators Alonso de Arellano, sailing as part of the expedition commanded by Miguel López de Legazpi to conquer the Philippines in 1565, Arellano and Urdaneta were given the task of finding a return route. Most of his crew died on the initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned. Arellano, who had taken a more southerly route, had already arrived, the English privateer Francis Drake also reached the California coast, in 1579. After capturing a Spanish ship heading for Manila, Drake turned north and he failed in that regard, but staked an English claim somewhere on the northern California coast. Although the ships log and other records were lost, the location is now called Drakes Bay. The first motivation for land exploration of present-day California was to scout out possible way-stations for the seaworn Manila galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in 1769, the Portola expedition established Alta California ports at San Diego and Monterey, providing safe harbors for returning Manila galleons. In Manila, the safety of ocean crossings was commended to the virgin Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga in masses held by the Archbishop of Manila
Manila galleon
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The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Memorial at Plaza Mexico in Intramuros, Manila.
Manila galleon
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Andrés de Urdaneta
Manila galleon
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Pacific Ocean with Mauna Kea highlighted
95.
Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
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The Royal Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas was a Spanish Basque trading company in the 18th century, operating from 1728 to 1785, which had a monopoly on Venezuelan trade. It was renamed in 1785 the Royal Philippine Company, the Company was founded by a group of wealthy Basques from the province of Gipuzkoa in 1728. It was initially based in San Sebastián and received its royal decree on September 25,1728, the Venezuelan possessions and their managerial wealthy Creole class thus operated detached from the metropolis. The Venezuelan colonial system turned into an embarrassment and hardly productive for the Spanish-Castilian Crown in terms of revenue, between 1700 and 1728 only five vessels set sail from Spain to Venezuela. The government of Gipuzkoa in particular came up with a proposal for the re-establishment of commerce with Venezuela that would suit the Basque interests, the plan was approved, with the Basques getting total exclusivity on that commerce. The Guipuzcoana Company was the body entitled to sell European goods in Venezuela Province. The Company would in turn export iron commodities to Venezuela, the Guipuzcoana Company became the first shares based company in Spain, participated by Basque shareholders and the king of Spain. Since 1743, the Company got permission to charter vessels under the French flag, the main beneficiaries of that decision were no doubt the coast of the Basque province of Labourd, and Bayonne. It began operating in 1730—four ships departed from San Sebastián taking on board a crew of 561, the Basques started to settle down in Venezuelan territory on wealthy haciendas that boosted plantations and agricultural production. However, the move was resented by other established Creoles based on the fact that it brought down prices to be sold to the Company, the Basques established settlements, built dock facilities, and fortifications. The term un gran cacao became a nickname for a member of the new powerful class and it did not help smaller farmers who continued to participate in illegal trading. The Company was instrumental in the development of cocoa production along the valleys of the coast. The Companys control of the ports of La Guaira and Puerto Cabello meant that it effectively monopolized the legal trade of the other Venezuelan provinces. In addition, the Companys strict control of much needed manufactured imports naturally created a lot of resentment in a region which depended on these. Apart from breaking the Dutch monopoly and creating significant wealth in the Basque port cities, the Companys activity kept operative the gradually declining Basque forges in the face of growing competition from English industry, and fed indirectly the arms factories of Soraluze and Tolosa. Its model expanded to the Spanish heartland prompting the establishment of the Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País—a type of Enlightenment think tank, facing increasing hostility from English war vessels and weakened by the liberalization of commerce with Venezuela, the Companys monopoly came to an end. The Spanish crown terminated the charter in 1784. A key effect of the Caracas Company, despite its commercial failure, was that it guaranteed the place of Caracas in the Captaincy-General
Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
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Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
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The old buildings of the Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas in La Guaira
Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
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Stock certificate of the Guipuzcoana Company (Madrid, 1 June 1752
Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
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The Company's seat in Cagua (Venezuela)
96.
El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro
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El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail was a 1,600 mile long trade route between Mexico City and San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico, from 1598 to 1882. The 404 mile section of the route within the United States was proclaimed as a part of the United States National Historic Trail system on October 13,2000. The trail is overseen by both the National Park Service and the U. S. Bureau of Land Management with aid from El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Trail Assoc. also known as CARTA. Various sites and cities along the Mexican section of the trail were declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2010, a portion of the trail near San Acacia, New Mexico was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014. The trail was used for trade among native tribes since the earliest of times, in 1598, Oñate followed the trail while leading a group of settlers North during the era of Spanish conquest. The duration of the trip from the Rio Grande to the San Juan Pueblo was said to take, by wagon and by foot, according to journals kept by settlers they used common animals found along the trail to add to the food they brought along. The trail greatly improved trade among Spanish villages and helped the Spanish conquistadors spread Christianity throughout the conquered lands, the trail was used from 1598 through 1881 when the railroad replaced the need for wagons. Eventually, railroads replaced rutted trails and over time the trail and evidence of it faded from sight, the changes that the railways brought made trade along El Camino much easier and in some cases made travel quite luxurious and exciting. From the Texas-New Mexico border to San Juan Pueblo north of Española, portions of the trade route corridor also contain pedestrian, bicycle, and equestrian trails. These include the existing Paseo del Bosque Trail in Albuquerque and portions of the proposed Rio Grande Trail and its northern terminus, Santa Fe, is a terminus also of the Old Spanish Trail and the Santa Fe Trail. Along the trail, parajes that have been preserved today include El Rancho de las Golondrinas, Fort Craig and Fort Selden are also located along the trail. M. -Monuments. org – A Road Over Time
El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro
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El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail
97.
Tercio
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A tercio or tercio español was a Spanish infantry organization during the time that Habsburg Spain dominated Europe in the Early Modern era. The tercio was a unit with command of up to 3000 soldiers, subdivided originally into ten, later twelve compañías, made up of pikemen, swordsmen. These companies were deployed in battle and were subdivided into units of thirty soldiers. These smaller units could be deployed individually or brought together to form what were sometimes called Spanish squares and these powerful infantry squares were also much used by other European powers, especially the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Empire. Moreover, the tercios were the first to efficiently mix pikes, the use of massed pikes by Spanish armies began in the War of Granada. The conflicts at the end of the 15th century and early 16th century evolved into a unique combination of combined arms centered around armored infantry. To counter the French heavy cavalry, a colonelcy could theoretically have up to 6,000 men, armies using tercio companies of up to 300 generally intended to field them in brigades of at least three, with one in the front and two behind. The rearward formations echeloned off on either side so that a called a colunella. The Spanish tercios rarely had more than 1500 men and they were called tercios, meaning thirds, because they were, in theory, made up originally of 1/3 pikemen, 1/3 swordsmen, and 1/3 of firearms. In time, the number of swordsmen was reduced, the only tercio to have 3,000 men was the Tercio de Galeras or the Galleys Tercio, dedicated only for deployment in galleys and galleons and specialized in naval warfare and amphibious operations. It was assigned in 1537 by royal assent to the Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean and is the ancestor of todays Spanish Navy Marines, the arquebusiers were usually split up in several mobile groups called sleeves and deployed relative to the cuadro, typically with one manga at each corner. Groups of tercios were typically arrayed in dragon-toothed formation and this enabled enfilade lines of fire and somewhat defiladed the army units themselves. From their inception, tercio formations were meant to co-ordinate their field operations with cavalry, mirroring military organization today, the Tercio was led by a Maestre de Campo appointed by the King as the commanding officer and guarded by eight halberdiers. Assisting him was the sergeant major and a Furir Major in charge of logistics and armaments, with led by a Captain, also of royal appointment. Companies had Sergeants, Furirs and Corporals in them, each company had corps of drums made up of drummers and fifers, sounding duty calls in battle, with the drum major and Fife major being provided by the Tercio headquarters. The Tercio staff included a component, chaplains and preachers. They all reported to the Maestre de campo directly, during the actions in the Netherlands the Tercios were reorganized into three Colonelcies, led by Colonels, but subdivided into the same 12 companies of 250, two of arquebusiers and 10 of pikemen. Colonels were also of royal appointment and they were made up of volunteers and built up around a core of professional soldiers and were highly trained
Tercio
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Surrender of Breda by Velázquez, shows Ambrosio Spinola, commander of the Spanish tercio receiving the keys to the city from the defeated Dutch general in 1625.
Tercio
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The Battle of Pavia (1525).
Tercio
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A tercio in "bastioned square," in battle.
Tercio
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Portuguese terços in the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (1578).
98.
Spanish Armada
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The Armada finally dropped anchor off Calais. While awaiting communications from the Duke of Parmas army the Armada was scattered by an English fireship attack, in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines the Spanish fleet was damaged and forced to abandon its rendezvous with Parmas army, who were blockaded in harbour by Dutch flyboats. The Armada managed to regroup and, driven by southwest winds, the commander ordered a return to Spain, but the Armada was disrupted during severe storms in the North Atlantic and a large number of the vessels were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Of the initial 130 ships over a third failed to return, the expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The word armada is from the Spanish armada, which is a cognate with English army, originally from the Latin armāta, the past participle of armāre to arm, used in Romance languages as a noun, for armed force, army, navy, fleet. Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy, Armada was also the Portuguese traditional term of the Portuguese Navy. Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, a devout Catholic, Mary began to reassert Roman influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to over 260 people being burned at the stake, marys death in 1558 led to her half-sister, Elizabeth I, taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp, Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. Under Roman law, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate, Elizabeth retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic. In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth, the King was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land. A raid on Cadiz, led by Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed some thirty ships and great quantities of supplies, the Duke of Parma would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. Parma was uneasy about mounting such an invasion without any possibility of surprise and he was also alarmed by the costs that would be incurred, and advised Philip to postpone or abandon it. The Armadas appointed commander was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he died in February 1588, and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, while a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign, prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. The blessing of the Armadas banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, on 28 May 1588, the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. The fleet was composed of 130 ships,8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, the full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. It included twenty eight purpose-built warships, of twenty were galleons, four galleys
Spanish Armada
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The Spanish Armada and English ships in August 1588, by unknown painter (English School, 16th century)
Spanish Armada
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Philip II of Spain c. 1580, National Portrait Gallery, London
Spanish Armada
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Signal station built in 1588, above the Devon village of Culmstock, to warn when the Armada was sighted
Spanish Armada
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Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham
99.
Spanish Legion
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The Spanish Legion, informally known as the Tercio or the Tercios, is a unit of the Spanish Army and Spains Rapid Reaction Force. It was raised in the 1920s to serve as part of Spains Army of Africa, although it recruited some foreigners mostly from Spanish-speaking nations, it recruited predominantly from Spaniards. As a result, and since it existed to serve in Spanish Morocco, by the end of the Rif War it had expanded and again changed its name, to the Spanish Legion, with several tercios as sub-units. The Legion played a role in the Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War. In the 1920s the Spanish Legions five battalions were filled primarily by native Spaniards with most of its members coming from the Republic of Cuba. Historically there had been a Spanish Foreign Legion which preceded the modern Legions formation in 1920, the French Foreign Legion, with around 4,000 men, landed at Tarragona on 17 August 1835. This became the first Spanish Legion until it was dissolved on 8 December 1838, the British Legion of the Spanish Legion also fought during the First Carlist War. This Legion fought for the bridge of Arrigorriaga on 11 September 1835 The Spanish Legion was modelled on the French Foreign Legion. Its purpose was to provide a corps of troops to fight in Spains colonial campaigns in North Africa. The first commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel José Millán-Astray Terreros, referred to his unit as ‘La Legión’ from the start, in the original Tercio de Extranjeros there were, amongst others, one Chinese, three Japanese, one Maltese, one Russian, and one black American. However, soon the majority of its members were Spaniards who joined to fight outside of European Spain, Tercio is an old Spanish military term that roughly translates as ‘regiment. In the XVIIIth century tercios were replaced by regiments, there is no equivalent word in English. Dating from the 16th century, the name was chosen to evoke the era of Spains military supremacy as the leading Catholic power in Europe under the Habsburg Emperors, organised into tercios in 1534, the Spanish infantry gained a reputation for invincibility. In 1925, the title was changed to Tercio de Marruecos. This was soon abbreviated to ‘The Tercio’, in 1937 at the height of the Spanish Civil War, the Tercio de Marruecos was renamed La Legion, the name by which it is still known today. The Spanish Legions first major campaign was in Spanish North Africa, in 1920 Spain was facing a major rebellion in the Protectorate of Spanish Morocco, led by the able Rif leader Abdel Krim. On 2 September 1920, King Alfonso XIII conferred command of the new regiment on Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry José Millán-Astray, Millán-Astray was an able soldier but an eccentric and extreme personality. His style and attitude would become part of the mystique of the legion, on 20 September 1920 the first recruit joined the new legion, a date which is now celebrated annually
Spanish Legion
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Ceuta Garrison of the legion
Spanish Legion
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Badge of the Spanish Legion
Spanish Legion
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The legion on parade
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105mm L118 light gun of the Legion Artillery Group
100.
Alfonso d'Avalos
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Alfonso dAvalos dAquino, VI marquis of Pescara and II of Vasto, was a condottiero of Spanish-Italian origin. He was born in Ischia, the cousin of Francesco Ferdinando I d´Ávalos, inheriting his titles after 1525, fighting the French, during the period 1526-1528 he fought under Hugo of Moncada, being captured in 1528 by the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria. In July 1535 he was part of the naval troops reconquering the city of Tunis in North Africa, wars with French and North Italians ended for a while with the Treaty of Crespy. He also became a Knight in the Order of the Golden Fleece, having fought at the Battle of Pavia, he later represented Spain as Ambassador, in 1538, on the succession to the new Doge of the Republic of Venice, Pietro Lando. He commanded the Imperial army in Italy during the Italian War of 1542 and was defeated by the French at the Battle of Ceresole and he married in 1523 with Maria dAragona and had 5 children including Innico dAvalos dAragona, an Italian Cardinal. Francesco Ferdinando dÁvalos, commander in chief of the Spanish army in Lombardy, a History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century. London, Methuen & Co. Gran Enciclopedia de España,22 volumes,11,052 pages, vol 3, page 1,109 ISBN 84-87544-01-0
Alfonso d'Avalos
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Portrait of Alfonso d'Avalos and a page by Titian, c. 1533.
Alfonso d'Avalos
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From Guillaume Rouillé 's Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum
101.
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Emmanuel Philibert was Duke of Savoy from 1553 to 1580, KG. Born in Chambéry, Emmanuel Philibert was the child of Charles III, Duke of Savoy. Instead, he continued to serve the Habsburgs in hopes of recovering his lands, in this capacity he personally led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a brilliant victory at Saint-Quentin on 10 August 1557. He was also a suitor to Lady Elizabeth Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII of England and their only child was Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy. Following the death of his uncle, Henry I of Portugal, on 31 January 1580, however, he soon realised that he had quite a fragile position due to the claims of Philip II, who gained control of the country, thus uniting Spain and Portugal. Emmanuel Philibert spent his rule regaining what had been lost in the wars with France. A skilled political strategist, he took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin. Internally, he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin and he was attempting to acquire the marquisate of Saluzzo when he died in Turin. Later, he was buried in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud of the Turin Cathedral, where he did move the Sindone in 1578
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Emmanuel Philibert
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Engraving of Emmanuel Philibert
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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The Caval ëd Brons, monument to Emmanuel Philibert in Turin
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Representation of the tomb monument
102.
Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases
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He is often called Ambrosio by Spanish speaking people and is considered one of the greatest military commanders of his time and in the history of the Spanish army. Ambrogio Spinola was born in Genoa, the eldest son of Filippo Spinola, Marquis of Sesto and Venafro, the family of Spinola was of great antiquity, wealth and power in Genoa. Don Ambrogios sister Donna Lelia was married to Don Giulio Cesare Squarciafico, 2nd Marquess of Galatone, from whom descend the Princes of Belmonte. In the 16th century the Italian Republic of Genoa was in terms a protected state of the Spanish Empire. Several of the brothers of Ambrogio Spinola sought their fortune in Spain. The eldest brother Ambrogio remained at home to marry and continue the family, in 1592 he was married to Giovanna Bacciadonne, daughter of the count of Galerata. They had three children, Filippo, 2nd Marquis of Los Balbases and his successor, Polissena, married Diego Felipez de Guzmán, 1st Marquis of Leganés, Governor of Flanders. Agustin, Bishop of Tortosa 1625, Archbishop of Granada 1627, Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela 1630, the houses of Spinola and Doria were rivals for authority within the republic. Ambrogio Spinola continued the rivalry with the count of Tursi, then the chief of the Dorias, in 1602 he and his brother Federico entered into a contract with the Spanish government—a condotta on the old Italian model. It was a speculation on which Spinola risked the whole of the fortune of his house. Ambrogio Spinola undertook to raise 9.000 Lombard mercenaries for land service, several of Federicos galleys were destroyed by English war-ships on his way up the Channel. He himself was slain in an action with the Dutch on 24 May 1603, Ambrogio Spinola marched overland to Flanders in 1602 with the men he had raised at his own expense. During the first months of his stay in Flanders the Spanish government played with schemes for employing him on an invasion of England, at the close of the year he returned to Italy for more men. His experience as a soldier did not begin until, as General, despite failing to relieve Sluis under siege at the same time, the ruinous remains of Ostend fell into his hands on 22 September 1604. For this victory, he was appointed a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1605, at the close of the campaign he went to Spain to meet with the court, then in Valladolid, and make arrangements for the continuation of the war. At Valladolid he insisted on being appointed commander-in-chief in Flanders, by April he was back in Brussels to lead his first campaign. In 1606 he again went to Spain and he was received with much outward honour, and entrusted with a very secret mission to secure the government of Flanders in case of the death of the Archduke or his wife. As he was never repaid, he was in the end utterly ruined financially, the Spanish government began now to have recourse to devices for keeping him away from Spain
Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases
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Portrait of Ambrogio Spinola by Michiel van Mierevelt.
Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases
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The Siege of Breda.
Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases
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The conquests of Spinola (Crispijn van der Passe).
Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases
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The Surrender of Jülich, painted in 1635 by Jusepe Leonardo, Museum of Prado.
103.
Ferdinand Magellan
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Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the peaceful sea. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the reached the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan did not complete the voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east, by visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide-Mor of Aveiro and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, in March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India, although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu and he later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to an ending in retreat. Magellan had a role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan, after the conquest their ways parted, Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the Spice Islands in the Moluccas and he married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories, after taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp and he was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a member on a Portuguese ship
Ferdinand Magellan
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Ferdinand Magellan
Ferdinand Magellan
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The Nao Victoria Replica in the Nao Victoria Museum, Punta Arenas, Chile
Ferdinand Magellan
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The Strait of Magellan cuts through the southern tip of South America connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.
Ferdinand Magellan
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Monument in Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu in the Philippines.
104.
Alonso de Ojeda
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Alonso de Ojeda was a Spanish navigator, governor and conquistador. He travelled through Guyana, Venezuela, Trinidad, Tobago, Curaçao, Aruba and he was born in Torrejoncillo del Rey around 1468 to an impoverished noble family. He grew up in Ojeda, near Cristian Garrido Oña, in the merindad of Bureba in the present day province of Burgos in northern Spain, in his youth he served the Duke of Medinaceli, don Luis de la Cerda, as a page. Alonso de Ojeda was a relative of a member of the Court of the Inquisition. This relative presented him to the famous Archbishop of Burgos Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca who would become president of the Council of the Indies. He distinguished himself in the conquest of Grenada, with his abilities, his skill as a swordsman. The young Ojeda quickly won the patronage of the Archbishop, who offered his protection at the first opportunity, Alonso was slight of stature, surprisingly agile and extremely accomplished with all types of weapons. The Archbishop thought the youth had a soul and a generous heart. In September 1493, thanks to Rodríguez de Fonseca, he accompanied Christopher Columbus on his voyage to the Americas. In January 1494, Columbus gave him the task of finding the members of a number of crews that were lost in the hinterland of the island. Ojeda only had fifteen men at his command in his search of the Cibao region of the island, ciboa was an area that contained many gold mines and Ojeda returned to La Isabela to report his findings to the Admiral who he found was suffering from a fever. In March 1494 Columbus founded Fort Santo Tomás, with Pedro Margarit in command, Caonabo and his warriors attacked the fort and Ojeda and his men defeated them. Legend has it that Ojeda personally took Caonabo prisoner using golden shackles by making the cacique believe that they were items of royal clothing, Alonso de Ojeda also took part in the battle of Vega Real, in which, under his command, the Spanish were victorious. An account of the written by Father Bartolomé de las Casas states that the native army comprised ten thousand warriors. Of course it is possible that these figures have been exaggerated, Ojeda returned to Spain in 1496. On returning to Spain, Ojeda was commissioned by the Catholic Monarchs, without the permission of Columbus, to sail for America again and he travelled with the pilot and cartographer Juan de la Cosa and the Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci. This was the first of a series of what have become known as the minor journeys or Andalusian journeys that were made to the New World. On leaving Spain the flotilla sailed along the west coast of Africa to Cape Verde before taking the route that Columbus had used a year before on his third voyage
Alonso de Ojeda
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Alonso de Ojeda. This image may not be of Alonso de Ojeda as some authors claim it is of Diego de Almagro
Alonso de Ojeda
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Spanish colonization of the Americas
105.
Antonio de Ulloa
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Antonio de Ulloa y de la Torre-Giral was a Spanish general of the navy, explorer, scientist, author, astronomer, colonial administrator and the first Spanish governor of Louisiana. He was appointed to office after France ceded the territory to Spain in 1763. Ulloas rule was resisted by the French Creole colonists in New Orleans, Ulloa had already established an international reputation in science, having been part of the French Geodesic Mission in present-day Ecuador. He and a fellow Spaniard discovered the element platinum and Ulloa wrote the first scientific description of it and he published an extensive record of his observations and findings on the South American trip, which was published in French in 1848 and in English as A Voyage to South America. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Ulloa was born in Seville, Spain, Ulloa entered the navy in 1733. In 1735, he, along with fellow Spaniard Jorge Juan, was appointed to the French Geodesic Mission, the French Academy of Sciences was sending this scientific expedition to present-day Ecuador to measure a degree of meridian arc at the equator. Ulloa worked in Ecuador from 1736 to 1744, during which time the two Spaniards discovered the element platinum in the area, Ulloa was the first person to write a scientific description of the metal. The ship upon which Ulloa was travelling was captured by the British, in that country, through his scientific attainments, Ulloa gained the friendship of the men of science, and was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In a short time, through the influence of the president of society, he was released. He published an account of the people and countries he had encountered during the French Geodesic Mission, Ulloa became prominent as a scientist and was appointed to serve on various important scientific commissions. He is credited with the establishment of the first museum of history, the first metallurgical laboratory in Spain. In 1751, de Ulloa was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1758 he returned to South America as governor of Huancavelica in Peru and he held this position until 1764. After France was defeated by the English in the Seven Years War, Ulloa was appointed by the Spanish Crown to serve as the first Spanish governor of West Louisiana, and reached New Orleans, the major city and port, on 5 March 1766. The French colonists refused to recognize Spanish rule, and expelled Ulloa from Louisiana by a Creole uprising during the Louisiana Rebellion of 1768, for the remainder of his life, Ulloa served as a naval officer. In 1779 he became lieutenant-general of the naval forces, Ulloa died at Isla de Leon, Cádiz, in 1795. In collaboration with Jorge Juan mentioned above, he also wrote Noticias secretas de América and this work was published by David Barry in London,1826
Antonio de Ulloa
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Antonio de Ulloa
Antonio de Ulloa
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Bust of Antonio de Ulloa in Mitad del Mundo, Ecuador
106.
Diego Columbus
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Diego Columbus was a Portuguese navigator and explorer under the Kings of Castile and Aragón. He served as the 2nd Admiral of the Indies, 2nd Viceroy of the Indies and 4th Governor of the Indies as a vassal to the Kings of Castile and he was the eldest son of Christopher Columbus and wife Filipa Moniz Perestrelo. He was born in Portugal, either in Porto Santo in 1479/1480 and he spent most of his adult life trying to regain the titles and privileges granted to his father for his explorations and then denied him in 1500. He was greatly aided in this goal by his marriage to María de Toledo y Rojas, niece of the 2nd Duke of Alba, Diego was made a page at the Spanish court in 1492, the year his father embarked on his first voyage. Diego had a younger half-brother, Fernando, by Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, Ferdinand and Diego had been pages to Prince Don Juan, then became pages to Queen Isabella in 1497. In 1509, he was named Governor of the Indies, the post his father had held and he established his home, which still stands there, in Santo Domingo in what is now the Dominican Republic. Also on the expedition were his criados and his fathers old retainers, Marcos de Aguilar, his forthright alcalde mayor, Diego Mendez, his business manager, and Gerónimo de Agüero, his former tutor. Other loyal Colombistas met him at Santo Domingo - his uncle by marriage, Francisco de Garay, whom he named alguacil mayor, and Bartolomés criados, Miguel Díaz, Diego Velázquez, and Juan Cerón. His coming represented the permanent establishment of the most titled and notable family in the islands, in 1511, a royal council declared Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica and Cuba were under Diegos power by right of his fathers discovery. However, Uraba and Veragua were deemed excluded, since the council regarded them as being discovered by Rodrigo de Bastidas, the council further confirmed Diegos titles of Viceroy and admiral were hereditary, though honorific. Furthermore, Diego had the right to one-tenth of the net royal income, however, factions soon formed between those loyal to Diego and Ferdinands royal officials. Matters deteriorated to the point that Ferdinand recalled Diego in 1514, Diego then spent the next five years in Spain futilely pressing his claims. Finally, in 1520, Diegos powers were restored by Charles, Diego returned to Santo Domingo on 12 Nov.1520 in the midst of a native revolt in the area of the Franciscan missions on the Cumana River. This was also the area of the Spanish salt and pearl trade, Diego sent Gonzalo de Ocampo on a punitive expedition with 200 men and 6 ships. Then in 1521, Diego invested in Bartolomé de las Casas enterprise to settle the Cumana area and that failure, blamed on Diego, meant the loss of the kings confidence. That loss, plus Diegos defiance of royal power on Cuba, forced Charles to reprimand Diego in 1523 and recall him back to Spain. The first major revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo during 1522. Many of these managed to escape to the mountains where they formed independent maroon communities among the Tainos
Diego Columbus
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Diego Columbus
Diego Columbus
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El Alcázar de Colón
107.
Pedro de Alvarado
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Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras was a Spanish conquistador and governor of Guatemala. He participated in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalvas exploration of the coasts of the Yucatán Peninsula and the Gulf of Mexico and he is considered the conquistador of much of Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador. Historiography portrays that indigenous people, both Nahuatl-speakers and speakers of languages, called him Tonatiuh, meaning sun in the Nahuatl language. Yet he was also called Red Sun in Nahuatl, which allows a variety of interpretations, whether this epithet refers to Alvarados red hair, some esoteric quality attributed to him, or both, is disputed. Pedro de Alvarado was flamboyant and charismatic, and was both a brilliant military commander and a cruel, hardened man and his hair and beard were blond, which earned him the name of Tonatiuh from the Aztecs, the name of one of their sun gods. He was handsome, and presented an appearance, but was volatile. He was ruthless in his dealings with the peoples he set out to conquer. Historians judge that his greed drove him to excessive cruelty, and he was a poor governor of territories he had conquered, and restlessly sought out new adventures. His tactical brutality, such as the massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan and he was also accused of cruelty against fellow Spaniards. Alvarado was little suited to govern, when he held governing positions and his letters show no interest in civil matters, and he only discussed exploration and war. Alvarado stubbornly resisted attempts by the Spanish Crown to establish ordered taxation in Guatemala, american historian William H. Prescott described Alvarados character in the following terms, Alvarado was a cavalier of high family, gallant and chivalrous, and warm personal friend. He had talents for action, was possessed of firmness and intrepidity, while his frank, but, underneath this showy exterior, the future conqueror of Guatemala concealed a heart rash, rapacious, and cruel. He was altogether destitute of that moderation, which, in the position he occupied, was a quality of more worth than all the rest. Spanish chronicler Antonio de Remesal commented that Alvarado desired more to be feared than loved by his subjects, in his easy recourse to violence, Alvarado was a product of his time, and Alvarado was not the only conquistador to have resorted to such actions. Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro carried out deeds of similar cruelty, Pedro de Alvarado was born in 1485 in the town of Badajoz, Extremadura. His father was Gómez de Alvarado, and his mother was Leonor de Contreras, Pedro de Alvarado had a twin sister, Sarra, and four full-blood brothers, Jorge, Gonzalo, Gómez, and Juan. Pedro had a half brother, also named Juan, referred to in contemporary sources as Juan el Bastardo. Very little is known of Pedro de Alvarados early life before his arrival in the Americas, during the conquest of the Americas, tales of his youthful exploits in Spain became popular legends, but their veracity is doubtful
Pedro de Alvarado
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Pedro de Alvarado in a contemporaneous rendition.
Pedro de Alvarado
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Juan de Grijalva
Pedro de Alvarado
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The coast of Cozumel was Alvarado's first sight of Yucatán.
Pedro de Alvarado
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Hernán Cortés led the expedition against the Aztecs.
108.
Diego de Almagro
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Diego de Almagro, also known as El Adelantado and El Viejo, was a Spanish conquistador and a companion and later rival of Francisco Pizarro. He participated in the Spanish conquest of Peru and is credited as the first European discoverer of Chile, Almagro lost his left eye battling with coastal natives in the New World. In 1525 he joined the Pizarro brothers and Hernándo de Luque at Panama for the conquest of Peru, Diego de Almagro was born and raised in Almagro, Ciudad Real, Spain with parents Juan de Montenegro and Elvira Gutiérrez. He married twice, with Ana Martínez and Mencia and got two children, son Diego de Almagro II wih Ana Martínez and daughter Isabel with Mencia. Diego de Almagro arrived in the New World on June 30,1514, the expedition had landed in the city of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, Panama, where many other future conquistadors had already arrived, among them Francisco Pizarro. There are not many details of Almagros activities during this period, De Almagro eventually returned and settled in Darien, where he was granted an encomienda. He built a house and made a living from agriculture, De Almagro undertook his first conquest on November 1515, commanding 260 men as he founded Villa del Acla, named after the Indian place. Due to illness he had to leave behind this mission to the licenciate Gaspar de Espinosa, Espinosa decided to undertake a new expedition, which departed in December 1515 with 200 men, including De Almagro and Francisco Pizarro, who for the first time was designated as a captain. During this expedition, which lasted 14 months, De Almagro, Pizarro, also during this time De Almagro established a friendship with Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who was in charge of Acla. Current historians do not believe that De Almagro was expected to participate in Balboas expedition, De Almagro took part in the various expeditions that took place in the Gulf of Panama, taking part again in Espinosas parties. Espinosa was supported by using Balboas ships, De Almagro was recorded as a witness on the lists of natives whom Espinosa ordered to be carried. De Almagro remained as a settler in the newly founded city of Panama. For four years he stayed there, working at the management of his properties and he took Ana Martínez, an indigenous woman, as a common-law wife. In this period, his first son, el Mozo, was born to them, by 1524 an association of conquest regarding South America was formalized among Almagro, Pizarro and Luque. By the beginning of August 1524, they had received the permission to discover and conquer lands further south. De Almagro would remain in Panama to recruit men and gather supplies for the led by Pizarro. After several expeditions to South America, Pizarro secured his stay in Peru with the Capitulation on 6 July 1529, during Pizarros continued exploration of Incan territory, he and his men succeeded in defeating the Inca army under Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. De Almagro joined Pizarro soon afterward, bringing men and arms
Diego de Almagro
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Diego de Almagro
Diego de Almagro
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Almagro takes possession of Chile in the valley of Copiapo.
109.
Battle of Pavia
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The Battle of Pavia, fought on the morning of 24 February 1525, was the decisive engagement of the Italian War of 1521–26. In the four-hour battle, the French army was split and defeated in detail, the French suffered massive casualties, including many of the chief nobles of France. Francis himself was captured by Habsburg troops and imprisoned by Charles V and forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madrid, the outcome of the battle cemented Habsburg ascendancy in Italy. The French, in possession of Lombardy at the start of the Italian War of 1521–26, had forced to abandon it after their defeat at the Battle of Bicocca in 1522. Charles de Lannoy now launched an invasion of Provence under the command of Fernando dAvalos, Marquess of Pescara, in mid-October 1524, Francis himself crossed the Alps and advanced on Milan at the head of an army numbering more than 40,000. Bourbon and dAvalos, their troops not yet recovered from the campaign in Provence, were in no position to offer serious resistance. The French army moved in columns, brushing aside Imperial attempts to hold its advance. Having entered Milan and installed Louis II de la Trémoille as the governor, Francis advanced on Pavia, the main mass of French troops arrived at Pavia in the last days of October. By 2 November, Anne de Montmorency had crossed the Ticino River and invested the city from the south, inside were about 9,000 men, mainly mercenaries whom Antonio de Leyva was able to pay only by melting the church plate. A period of skirmishing and artillery bombardments followed, and several breaches had been made in the walls by mid-November, in early December, a Spanish force commanded by Ugo de Moncada landed near Genoa, intending to interfere in a conflict between pro-Valois and pro-Habsburg factions in the city. Francis dispatched a force under the Marquis of Saluzzo to intercept them. Confronted by the more numerous French and left without support by the arrival of a pro-Valois fleet commanded by Andrea Doria. Francis then signed a agreement with Pope Clement VII, who pledged not to assist Charles in exchange for Franciss assistance with the conquest of Naples. Against the advice of his commanders, Francis detached a portion of his forces under the Duke of Albany. In January 1525, Lannoy was reinforced by the arrival of Georg Frundsberg with 15,000 fresh landsknechts from Germany, by 2 February, Lannoy was only a few miles from Pavia. Francis had encamped the majority of his forces in the walled park of Mirabello outside the city walls. Skirmishing and sallies by the garrison continued through the month of February, the times given here are taken from Konstams reconstruction of the battle. On the evening of 23 February, Lannoys imperial troops, which had been encamped outside the east wall of the park, at the same time, the Imperial artillery began a bombardment of the French siege lines—which had become routine during the extended siege—in order to conceal Lannoys movement
Battle of Pavia
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Battle of Pavia by Joachim Patinir
Battle of Pavia
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Ruprecht Heller, The Battle of Pavia (1529), Nationalmuseum, Stockholm
Battle of Pavia
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The Battle of Pavía by Juan de la Corte.
Battle of Pavia
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Leather Box for the Pennant of Francis I at the Battle of Pavia The Walters Art Museum.
110.
Battle of St. Quentin (1557)
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The Battle of Saint-Quentin of 1557 was fought at Saint-Quentin in Picardy, during the Italian War of 1551–1559. The battle took place on the Feast Day of St. Lawrence, Spain, now under the rule of Philip II, was allied with England following Philips marriage to the queen of England, Mary I. Mary had declared war on France,7 June 1557, during the fighting the Saint-Quentin collegiate church was badly damaged by fire. After the victory over the French at St, the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis ended the war two years later. Being of a religious bent, Philip II was aware that 10 August is the Feast of St Lawrence. Known as El Escorial, it was completed in 1584. The greatest impact of this battle was not on France, England or Spain, duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, having won the victory, had also secured a place at the conference table when the terms of peace were deliberated, resulting in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis,1559. The duke was able to secure the independence of the Duchy of Savoy, as part of the peace terms, Emmanuel Philibert married Marguerite d’Angoulême, younger sister of King Henry II of France, in 1559
Battle of St. Quentin (1557)
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Map of Manuel Fileberto de Saboya's Dutch campaign.
111.
Battle of Lepanto
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The battle was in essence an infantry battle on floating platforms. It was the largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the Age of Sail. It has long been compared to the Battle of Salamis both for tactical parallels and for its importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion. On 1 August, the Venetians had surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely, however, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, who had lost some 50,000 men in the siege, broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians. The members of the Holy League were the Republic of Venice, the Spanish Empire, the Papal States, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchies of Savoy, Urbino and Tuscany, the Knights Hospitaller and others. The banner for the fleet, blessed by the Pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples on 14 August 1571. There, in the Basilica of Santa Chiara, it was consigned to John of Austria. All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, the combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria with Marcantonio Colonna as his principal deputy. The various Christian contingents met the force, that of Venice, in July and August 1571 at Messina. John of Austria arrived on 23 August, see Battle of Lepanto order of battle for a detailed list of ships and commanders involved in the battle. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors, Ali Pasha, the Ottoman admiral, supported by the corsairs Mehmed Siroco of Alexandria and Uluç Ali, commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys,56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were deficient in their elite corps of Janissaries. The number of oarsmen was about 37,000, virtually all of them slaves, the Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors—generally drawn from the maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire, namely Berbers, Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians—and 34,000 soldiers. An advantage for the Christians was their numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships and it is estimated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition. The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, serious conflict had broken out between the Venetian and Spanish soldiers, and Venier enraged Don Juan by hanging a Spanish soldier for impudence. Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and, on 6 October, they reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia, early on 7 October, they sailed toward the Gulf of Patras, where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, on the morning of 7 October, after the decision to offer battle was made, the Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a north-south line. At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by Agostino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support
Battle of Lepanto
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The Battle of Lepanto, unknown artist, late 16th century
Battle of Lepanto
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Depictions of the Ottoman Navy during the battle of Lepanto
Battle of Lepanto
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A sinking Ottoman Navy vessel, painting by Pieter Brünniche, 1762.
Battle of Lepanto
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The Victors of Lepanto (from left: John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna, Sebastiano Venier).
112.
Battle of Ponta Delgada
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The Spanish victory resulted in the rapid Spanish conquest of the Azores, completing the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. The only portion of the Portuguese overseas empire to resist the Habsburg King Philip II of Spain were the Azores Islands, the French crown sent a fleet under the command of the mercenary admiral Filipo Strozzi in order to help defend the islands. However, receiving the same replies the former envoy, Valdés was persuaded to attempt an assault on Terceira, meanwhile, António reached Calais and proceeded to England. In June 1582 Antónios French fleet left Belle-Isle, intending to subdue the two islands of São Miguel and Santa Maria and to capture the fleet which would probably put in at the Azores. However, on learning that Strozzi had sailed, Santa Cruz also made for the Azores with less ships but larger in size and arms than Strozzi and about an equal number of men. He arrived too late to prevent the French from landing on São Miguel, after an indecisive gunfight on 24 July 1582 the fleets met two days later in a fierce close battle south of the island of São Miguel. The Spanish were outnumbered two to one, the brunt of the French attack was borne by the Portuguese-built Spanish galleon San Mateo, although surrounded, battered by artillery and boarded by several French ships, her sailors held their ground and repulsed all attacks. They then took the fight to the enemy, boarding and capturing two French vessels before the battle ended, Santa Cruz began the action by arranging themselves in a line abreast. This was the tactic employed by the Spanish galleys, which carried its few cannon in the bow. Santa Cruz in his Portuguese-built flagship São Martinho sought out Strozzis ship amid the smoke and chaos and, having found her, Santa Cruz defeated the French through a combination of gunfire and boarding. Some thought that Strozzi had been unlucky to lose, the Spanish fleet suffered severe damage, Philip IIs commemorative mural in the Escorials Hall of Battles correctly depicts extensive shot damage on the Spanish side. The galleon San Martín barely managed to tow the captured enemy flagship back to port, on July 26, after a five-hour naval engagement, the French and English fleets weaker in battle-power, were routed, seventeen of their ships deserted. Men over seventeen who were captured were put to death as pirates, though larger, the improvised French fleet had not been sufficient to challenge the Spanish in the Atlantic triangle. The magnitude of French losses is uncertain but they were heavy, however, the battle shows that Strozzi tried, partly, an approximation to this tactic, by an attack by a group of naus engaged in formation. However, in the end, the battle was largely resolved in the old way of naval warfare. Santa Cruz had won a victory and jubilation at his triumphant return seems to have gripped the whole of Spain. Terceira remained in the Pretenders hands, and in the spring of 1583 he managed to reinforce his garrisons there with 800 fresh French troops, Santa Cruz, who now enjoyed command of the sea, reacted swiftly. The Terceirans expected the Spaniards to land at the harbours of Angra and Peggia, however, Santa Cruz decided to deliver his main thrust at Mole, a beach 10 miles from Angra defended only by light earthworks occupied by infantry with some artillery support
Battle of Ponta Delgada
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Fresco by Niccolò Granello showing the Battle of Ponta Delgada in the Hall of Battles at El Escorial.
Battle of Ponta Delgada
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Map of Terceira. By Jan Huygen van Linschoten.
Battle of Ponta Delgada
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The Spanish Tercios landing on Terceira. El Escorial Hall of Battles.
113.
Battle of White Mountain
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The Battle of White Mountain was an important battle in the early stages of the Thirty Years War. It was fought on 8 November 1620, the site is now part of the city of Prague. The battle marked the end of the Bohemian period of the Thirty Years War and its aftermath drastically changed the religious landscape of the Czech lands after two centuries of Protestant dominance. Roman Catholicism retained majority in the Czech lands until the late 20th century, Ferdinand saw Protestantism as inimical to the Empire, and wanted to impose absolutist rule on Bohemia while forcefully encouraging conversion to the Roman Catholic faith. Particularly galling to Protestants were perceived violations of Emperor Rudolf IIs 1609 Letter of Majesty and this incident, known as the Second Defenestration of Prague, triggered the Bohemian Revolt. In November 1619, Elector Palatine Frederick V, who many of the rebels was a Calvinist, was chosen as King of Bohemia by the Bohemian Electorate. In 1620, now established as Emperor, Ferdinand II set out to conquer Bohemia. Tillys army enjoyed the advantage of including two of the most successful leaders in European history - Tilly himself and the future General Wallenstein. Tillys force was made up of two groups, Imperial troops commanded by Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy. All of the armies of the day employed numerous mercenaries, including, by some definitions, serving with the Catholic League as an official observer was the future father of modern philosophy, René Descartes. After conquering most of western Bohemia, the Imperial army made for Prague, the Bohemians attempted to block them by setting up defensive positions, which the Imperial army simply bypassed. Force-marching his men, Christian of Anhalt managed to get ahead of the Imperial army just before Prague and he thus gained an advantageous position on the White Mountain, actually a low plateau, but had little time to set up defensive works. Enthusiasm for joining battle was low on both sides, on November 8 a small Imperial force was sent to probe the Protestant flank. To their surprise, the Bohemians retreated at their advance, Tilly quickly sent in reinforcements, and the Bohemian flank began to crumble. Anhalt tried to retrieve the situation by sending infantry and cavalry led by his son Christian II. The cavalry charged into the Imperial infantry, causing significant casualties, the Bohemian infantry, who were only now approaching the Imperial army, saw the cavalry retreating, at which they fired one volley at extreme range before retreating themselves. A small group of Imperial cavalry began circling the Protestant forces, with the Bohemian army already demoralized, company after company began retreating, most without having actually entered the battle. The Battle of White Mountain was more a skirmish than a full-fledged battle, the Bohemian army was no match for the Emperor Ferdinands troops
Battle of White Mountain
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The Battle of White Mountain (1620), where Spanish-Imperial forces under Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly won a decisive victory.
Battle of White Mountain
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Plan of the battle from Theatrum Europaeum: Bohemians above, Imperial and Bavarian forces below
Battle of White Mountain
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The 27 tributary crosses.
Battle of White Mountain
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Picture celebrating the Catholic victory. In the upper part there is Our Lady of Victory surrounded by saints, in the lower left-hand corner there is the victorious Emperor Ferdinand II with his son Ferdinand III and the Bohemian lion.
114.
Battle of Valenciennes (1656)
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It was the worst of only a few defeats that the French Marshal Vicomte de Turenne suffered in his long career campaigning and is regarded as Spains last great victory of the 17th century. The well organised siege began to exhaust the defenders, towards the end of June, Don Juan José de Austria, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands, took the decision to come to the aid of Valenciennes as its situation was becoming unsustainable. On the night of 15 July just as the fortress was about to surrender, Don Juans army dug in about a league from the enemy, preparing to launch an offensive. Four attacks were organised, The Spanish and Irish infantry commanded by Don Juan José de Austria, the nations under the command of the Prince of Ligne, the General leading the cavalry. Condés troops including himself and the Duke of Württemberg, the new army which would be led by the Count of Marsin. Condé came down on Marshals section with such vigour it surprised and destroyed the French resistance, Don Juan José de Austria stood out due to his brave action, unleashing his might on the French quarters. As for La Fertés division only 2,000 managed to escape after tossing their arms, however, Turenne had the presence of mind not to allow the French forces to be intimidated by the defeat. His rapid regrouping and redeployment of his forces prevented the Spanish from gaining an advantage on the front. Philip IV of Spain ordered a gold medal to be printed to commemorate the victory and he had it sent to Condé together with a saber, for the Spanish, the great victory at Valenciennes proved counterproductive. Emboldened by the success, the Habsburg court at Madrid refused to compromise with French demands, Philip IV of Spain Louis XIV of France Cardinal Mazarin Spanish Netherlands Martín Sanz, Francisco La política Internacional de Felipe IV. ISBN 978-987-561-039-2 Stanhope Philip Henry The life of Louis, Prince of Condé, hume, Martin Andrew Sharp Spain Its Greatness and Decay. ISBN 978-1-85285-089-0 Clodfelter, Micheal Warfare and armed Conflicts, A statistical reference to casualty, ISBN 978-0-7864-1204-4 Rodríguez, Ignacio Ruiz Don Juan José de Austria en la Monarquía Hispánica, Entre la política, el poder y la intriga. ISBN 978-84-9849-029-9 Israel, Jonathan Irvine Conflicts of Empires, Spain, the Low Countries and the struggle for World Supremacy 1585-1713
Battle of Valenciennes (1656)
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Don Juan José de Austria, commander of the Spanish army.
115.
Battle of Preveza
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It occurred in the same area in the Ionian Sea as the Battle of Actium,31 BC. It was one of the three largest sea battles that took place in the sixteenth century Mediterranean and he then unsuccessfully besieged the Venetian stronghold of Corfu and ravaged the Spanish-held Calabrian coast in southern Italy. Barbarossas fleet that summer numbered 122 galleys and galliots and that of the Holy League comprised 300 galleys and galleons. Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of Emperor Charles V was in overall command, the Holy League assembled its fleet near the island of Corfu. The Papal fleet under Admiral Marco Grimani and the Venetian fleet under Vincenzo Capello arrived first, Andrea Doria joined them with the Spanish-Genoese fleet on 22 September 1538. Prior to Doria’s arrival, Grimani attempted to land troops near the Fortress of Preveza, but he retreated to Corfu after suffering a number of casualties in the ensuing encounter with Ottoman forces. Barbarossa was still at the island of Kos in the Aegean Sea at that time, with the Turks holding the fortress at Actium, they could support Barbarossas fleet with artillery fire from there, while Doria had to keep his ships away from the coast. A Christian landing to take Actium probably would have been needed to ensure success, as Dorias ships kept their distance from the coast, much concerned about adverse winds driving them onto a hostile shore, Barbarossa had the advantageous interior position. During the night of 27–28 September, Doria therefore sailed 30 miles south and, during the night, he and his commanders decided that their best option was to stage an attack towards Lepanto and force Barbarossa to fight. At dawn, however, Doria was surprised to see that the Turks were coming towards his ships, Barbarossa had taken his fleet out of the anchorage and headed south as well. Turgut Reis was in the van with six large fustas, not expecting such a daring offensive from the numerically inferior Ottoman fleet, it took Doria three hours to give the order to weigh anchor and ready for battle—pressed by Grimani and Capello. The two fleets finally engaged on 28 September 1538 in the Gulf of Arta, near Preveza, the lack of wind was not in Dorias favor. The huge Venetian flagship Galeone di Venezia with her guns was becalmed four miles from land. While the Christian ships struggled to come to her assistance, she was surrounded by enemy galleys and engaged in a furious battle that lasted hours. When the wind rose, the Christian fleet finally approached the action, ferrante Gonzaga, the Viceroy of Sicily, was at the left wing of the combined fleet, while the Maltese Knights were at the right wing. Doria placed four of his fastest galleys under the command of his nephew Giovanni Andrea Doria who was positioned in the center front, Dorias galleys formed a long line behind them, in front of the Papal and Venetian galleys of Grimani and Capello. The Turks swiftly engaged the Venetian, Papal and Maltese ships, but Doria hesitated to bring his center into action against Barbarossa, Barbarossa wanted to take advantage of the lack of wind which immobilized the Christian barques that accounted for most of the numerical difference between the two sides. These barques fell as easy prey to the Turks who boarded them from their more mobile galleys
Battle of Preveza
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The "Battle of Preveza" (1538) by Ohannes Umed Behzad, painted in 1866.
Battle of Preveza
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A satellite view of Lefkada and the Gulf of Arta. Preveza is located at the entrance of the Gulf.
Battle of Preveza
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Barbarossa.
Battle of Preveza
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Deployment of the opposing fleets
116.
Siege of Castelnuovo
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Castelnuovo had been conquered by elements of various Spanish tercios the year before during the failed campaign of the Holy League against the Ottoman Empire in Eastern Mediterranean waters. The walled town was besieged by land and sea by a powerful Ottoman army under Hayreddin Barbarossa, during the siege the Barbarossas army suffered heavy losses due to the stubborn resistance of Sarmientos men. However, Castelnuovo eventually fell into Ottoman hands and almost all the Spanish defenders, the loss of the town ended the Christian attempt to regain control of the Eastern Mediterranean. The courage displayed by the Old Tercio of Naples, however, was praised and admired throughout Europe and was the subject of numerous poems, in 1538 the main danger to Christianity in Europe was the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. The armies of the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent had been stopped at Vienna in 1529, Barbarossa captured the islands of Syros, Aegina, Ios, Paros, Tinos, Karpathos, Kasos, Naxos, and besieged Corfu. The Italian cities of Otranto and Ugento and the fortress of Castro, in February 1538, Pope Paul III succeeded in creating a league which united the Papacy itself, the Republic of Venice, the Empire of Charles V, the Archduchy of Austria and the Knights of Malta. The Allied fleet for the campaign was supposed to consist of 200 galleys and another 100 auxiliary ships, but only 130 galleys and an army of around 15,000 infantry, mostly Spaniards, were all that could be gathered. The commander of the army was unquestionably Hernando Gonzaga, Viceroy of Sicily, differences among the commanders of the fleet diminished its effectiveness against an experienced opponent like Barbarossa. This was seen in the Battle of Preveza, fought in the Gulf of Arta, but the Holy League fleet provided support to the land forces that landed on the Dalmatian coast and captured the town of Castelnuovo. This small town was a strategic fortress between the Venetian possessions of Cattaro and Ragusa in the known as Venetian Albania. Venice therefore claimed ownership of the city, but Charles V refused to cede it and this was the beginning of the end of the Holy League. The town of Castelnuovo was garrisoned with approximately 4,000 men, the main force was a tercio of Spanish veteran soldiers numbering about 3,500 men under the experienced Maestro de Campo Francisco Sarmiento de Mendoza y Manuel. This tercio, named Tercio of Castelnuovo, was formed by 15 flags belonging to other tercios, among them the Old Tercio of Lombardy, dissolved the year before after a mutiny for lack of pay. The chaplain of Andrea Doria, named Jeremías, also remained in Castelnuovo along with 40 clerics, the reason for the garrisons large size was that Castelnuovo was projected to be the beachhead for a great offensive against the heart of the Ottoman Empire. However, the fate of the troops who were in the fortress depended entirely on the support of the fleet, moreover, in a short time Venice withdrew from the Holy League after accepting a disadvantageous agreement with the Ottomans. Without Venetian ships, the Allied fleet had no chance to defeat the Ottoman fleet commanded by Barbarossa, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ordered Barbarossa to reorganize and rearm his fleet during the winter months to have it ready for the battle in the spring of 1539. 10,000 infantry soldiers and 4,000 Janissaries were embarked aboard the warships to reinforce the troops of the galleys, Sarmiento, meanwhile, used the peaceful months prior to the siege to improve the defenses of the town, repairing walls and bastions and building new fortifications. In the event he could not do due to a lack of available means
Siege of Castelnuovo
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View of Castelnuovo in the 16th century. Engraving of an unknown 17th-century artist.
Siege of Castelnuovo
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Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza (1538). Painting from 1866 by Ohannes Umed Behzad.
Siege of Castelnuovo
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Portrait of Andrea Doria, c. 1520, by Sebastiano del Piombo.
Siege of Castelnuovo
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Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha, 16th century contemporary painting, Louvre Museum, Paris.
117.
Battle of Djerba
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The Battle of Djerba took place in May 1560 near the island of Djerba, Tunisia. The Ottomans under Piyale Pashas command overwhelmed a large joint Christian Alliance fleet, composed chiefly of Spanish, Papal, Maltese, the allies lost 27 galleys and some smaller vessels as well as the fortified island of Djerba. This victory marked perhaps the point of Ottoman power in the Mediterranean Sea. Until about 1573 the Mediterranean headed the list of Spanish priorities under Philip II of Spain, under his leadership the Habsburg galley fleet increased to about 100 ships, and more in wartime. Spain sent a fleet against the Turks in 1560, aiming for the island of Djerba off the coast west of Tripoli. The Ottoman fleet won a victory, killing more than 10,000 men. However, typically of the aftermath of Mediterranean battles, they did not follow up the victory, Spain was able to rebuild its fleet in the next two years and prepared a new offensive in 1563-64 with nearly 100 ships. Despite the Ottomans being victorious in the battle, they were unable to attack the Venetian center of gravity, indeed, by 1558 Piyale Pasha had captured the Balearic Islands and together with Turgut Reis raided the Mediterranean coasts of Spain. The historian William H. Prescott wrote that the sources describing the Djerba campaign were so contradictory it was impossible to reconcile them. Most historians believe that the fleet assembled by the allied Christian powers in 1560 consisted of between 50 and 60 galleys and between 40 and 60 smaller craft, for example, Giacomo Bosio, the official historian of the Knights of St John writes that there were 54 galleys. Fernand Braudel also gives 54 warships plus 36 supply vessels, one of the most detailed accounts is by Carmel Testa who evidently has access to the archives of the Knights of St. John. He lists precisely 54 galleys,7 brigs,17 frigates,2 galleons,28 merchant vessels and 12 small ships and these were supplied by a coalition that consisted of Genoa, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Papal States, and the Knights of S. John. Matthew Carr gives the number of 200 ships for the Christian Alliance, the joint fleet was assembled at Messina under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria. It first sailed to Malta, where bad weather forced it to remain for two months, during this time some 2,000 men were lost to sickness. On 10 February 1560, the fleet set sail for Tripoli, the precise numbers of soldiers aboard are not known. Braudel gives 10, 000-12,000, Testa 14,000, the Viceroy of Sicily, Juan de la Cerda, 4th Duke of Medinaceli, ordered a fort to be built on the island, and construction was begun. By that time an Ottoman fleet of about 86 galleys and galliots under the command of the Ottoman admiral Piyale Pasha was already underway from Istanbul, piyales fleet arrived at Djerba on 11 May 1560, much to the surprise of the Christian forces. The battle was over in a matter of hours, with half the Christian galleys captured or sunk
Battle of Djerba
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Historic map of Djerba by Piri Reis.
118.
Battle of Rocroi
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The battle is considered by many to be the turning point of the perceived invincibility of the Spanish tercio. The Habsburg Spanish army of about 27,000 men advanced from Flanders, through the Ardennes, the Spanish troops set siege to Rocroi, which lay athwart the route to the valley of the Oise. The French, under the command of 21-year-old Louis, duc dEnghien, reacted quickly, the Spanish failed to block the route to Rocroi, which passed through a defile bordered by woods and marsh. Enghien advanced through the defile and assembled his force along a ridge looking down on the town of Rocroi. The Spanish quickly formed up between the town and the ridge, the French army, some 23,000 strong, was arranged with two lines of infantry in the center, squadrons of cavalry on each wing and with a thin line of artillery at the front. The Spanish army was arranged, but with its infantry in their traditional tercios. The two armies bivouacked in their positions for the night, the French army attacked, but the French infantry in the centre were bested by the Spanish. The cavalry on the French left, advancing against Enghiens orders, was thrown back. But the cavalry on the French right, under the command of Jean de Gassion, Enghien was able to follow this up by attacking the exposed left flank of the Spanish infantry. Spanish cavalry made a successful counter-attack to drive off the French cavalry, the Spanish horse was put to flight, leaving the Spanish infantry to carry on the fight. The French were twice repulsed by the stubborn Spanish squares, so Enghien arranged for his artillery, Enghien then offered surrender conditions just like those obtained by a besieged garrison in a fortress. Having agreed to terms, the remains of the two tercios left the field with deployed flags and weapons. The total Spanish losses were about 7,000 dead, wounded, despite this, the battle was of great symbolic importance because of the high reputation of the Army of Flanders. They were given the treatment usually given to a garrison and retired from the field with their arms, flags. With the end of the Fronde, Cardinal Mazarin slowly turned the tide against the Spanish in France and in the Low Countries. Mazarins alliance with England resulted in the defeat of the Spanish at the Battle of the Dunes and consequently the taking of Dunkirk in 1658, although Spain looked to be all-powerful in 1652, the peace settlement reflected the demise of Spains mastery of Europe in the late 1650s. A2006 Spanish movie, Alatriste, directed by Agustín Díaz Yanes, the sedan chair belonging to the elderly Spanish infantry general Fontaines was taken as a trophy by the French and may be seen in the museum of Les Invalides in Paris. Fontaines was killed in the battle, Enghien is reported to have said, Had I not won the day I wish I had died like him
Battle of Rocroi
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The duc d'Enghien ordering his troops to stop fighting the Spanish, who have come to him to surrender (Galerie des Batailles)
Battle of Rocroi
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Duc d'Enghien at the Battle of Rocroi
Battle of Rocroi
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Rocroi, the last tercio, by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau
119.
Battle of Somosierra
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The Battle of Somosierra occurred November 30,1808, in the Peninsular War, when a French army under Napoleon I forced a passage through the Sierra de Guadarrama shielding Madrid. Napoleon overwhelmed the Spanish positions in a combined attack, sending the Polish Chevau-légers of the Imperial Guard at the Spanish guns while French infantry advanced up the slopes. The victory removed the last obstacle barring the road to Madrid, by late November 1808 the French Grande Armée had overwhelmed and destroyed both wings of the Spanish popular army. To complete his reconquest of Spain, Napoleon advanced on Madrid with 40,000 men, Gen. San Juan mustered an ad hoc army of militia, reservists and various regular regiments still reeling from earlier defeats--in all about 12,000 men--to defend Madrid. In order to screen the many approaches to the city, San Juan dispersed his already greatly outnumbered forces. Under his orders,9,000 men were sent west to guard the Guadarrama pass while 3,000 occupied an advanced post at Sepulveda, the nature of the terrain and the tenacity of the Spaniards initially worked in their favor. On the evening of November 29 the brigade at Sepulveda repulsed a French attack, inflicted heavy casualties, the following morning Napoleon advanced his infantry directly toward the pass while small detachments crept up the flanks. Exchanging musket volleys with the defenders, the French made slow, to that number must be added members of other squadrons, totaling some 450 men, but these entered the battle later. The charge of 125 against the batteries was joined by Niegolewskis platoon returning from reconnaissance and it is not clear, however, whether the number included only front-line troops or all the soldiers in the units. The decision, arguably callous and imprudent, has been the subject of historical controversy. Jan Kozietulski, who commanded the 3rd squadron that day, mentioned that he called, and, passing the little bridge, added, En avant, Vive lEmpereur. Some western authors have assumed that Napoleon had gone out of his mind in ordering the Poles to charge batteries of 16 cannon over several kilometers of extremely difficult terrain. Others, however, think Napoleon ordered only the closest battery to be taken, in order to open the way for his infantry, and they took the second and third batteries but only a few chevaux-légers reached the last battery, and the Spanish attempted to recapture it. It was then that Napoleon saw his chance and immediately committed the other squadrons, benito de San Juan had 16 cannon at his disposal, arranged in four batteries. Some accounts, based mostly on recollections of French officers, assume that the Spaniards placed all their guns at the peak of Somosierra pass. The first battery defended the entrance to the Somosierra pass, the two covered the pass at its angles and the fourth, only, stood by the heights. It was assumed that all batteries had four cannons, and later theories that the pass was too narrow for that to be possible should be treated as legends, 13th Bulletin of the Army of Spain mentioned that chevau-légers were commanded by Gen. Louis Pierre, Count Montbrun. However, both Polish charge participants mentioned above and Lt. Col. Pierre Dautancourt, one of the French tutors of the unit, datancourt mentioned that Montbrun in conversations with him had laughed at that idea
Battle of Somosierra
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La bataille de Somo-Sierra, by Baron Lejeune, 1810, oil on canvas.
Battle of Somosierra
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Somosierra, by January Suchodolski, 1875
Battle of Somosierra
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Surrender of Madrid, by Antoine-Jean Gros, 1810, oil on canvas. Madrid fell in the aftermath of Somosierra.
120.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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The Battle of Cartagena de Indias was an amphibious military engagement between the forces of Britain under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral Blas de Lezo. It took place at the city of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741, the battle was a significant episode of the War of Jenkins Ear and a large-scale naval campaign. The war later was subsumed into the conflict of the War of the Austrian Succession. The battle resulted in a defeat for the British Navy. The defeat caused heavy losses for the British, Disease, rather than deaths in combat, the War of Jenkins Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748. The Asiento allowed Britain a monopoly to supply 5,000 slaves a year to the Spanish colonies, the Navio de Permiso permitted a single yearly trading ship, the Annual Ship, which could carry 1000 tons of imports to the yearly trade fair in Porto Bello. Upon receiving these concessions from Spain, the British government granted a monopoly for both to the South Sea Company. The merchants and bankers in Britain, who were the force behind Britains international commerce and trading. In turn, the Spanish colonists desired British-made goods, so a black market of smuggled goods developed. By the terms of the treaty, the Spanish were permitted to board British vessels in Spanish waters, after one such boarding in 1731, Robert Jenkins, captain of the ship Rebecca, claimed that a Spanish coast guard officer had severed his ear. The legend that Jenkins exhibited his pickled ear to the House of Commons appears to have no basis in fact and this served to heighten the war fever developing against Spain, which was also driven by the British desire for commercial and military domination of the Atlantic basin. On November 22,1739 the British captured Portobelo in the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the British attack was part of an attempt to damage Spains finances. The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon, the relative ease of this capture, although the city was abandoned immediately after its capture, caused jubilation in Britain. Vernon was given command of the large naval force, which was one quarter of the British Royal Navy, of a major land. Lord Cathcart died en route and it remained unclear who was in command overall, cathcarts untimely demise resulted in dissension in the British command, preventing the coordination needed for this complex operation. The Duke of Newcastle advocated the publics demands before Parliament, Vice-Admiral Vernon was an active and ardent supporter of war against Spain and advocated offensive action both in Parliament and before the Admiralty. The decision to mount a large West Indies expedition was reached in December 1739, Walpole, who opposed the war categorically, and Vernon, who favored small squadron actions, were dissatisfied with the situation. He feared, particularly, that a siege would lead to heavy attrition from disease
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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British attack on Cartagena de Indias by Luis Fernández Gordillo. Oil on canvas, Naval Museum of Madrid.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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Map of Cartagena de Indias from Gentleman's Magazine 1740.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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Sir Robert Walpole, Prime Minister of Great Britain, from the studio of Jean-Baptiste van Loo, 1740.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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British soldier of the 15th Regiment of Foot 1740s from the Cloathing Book of 1740
121.
Cuerno Verde
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Cuerno Verde was a leader of the Comanche in the late 18th century. Cuerno Verde, which translates to Green Horn in English, is the Spanish name given to Tabivo Naritgant because of the green tinted horns that he wore on his head-dress in battle, the English translation of the original Comanche name is Dangerous Man. He inherited both his name and his distinctive head dress from his father, who was killed in combat against the Spanish at Ojo Caliente, in what is now New Mexico, in October 1768. The success of a series of raids led by the younger Tabivo Naritgant into Nuevo Mexico during the mid to late 1770s called him to the attention of the Spanish Viceroy in Mexico. The Viceroy offered Juan Bautista de Anza the governorship of Nuevo Mexico in exchange for him dealing with Tabivo Naritgant, de Anza moved to Nuevo Mexico and assumed the Governorship and for a year, studied past expeditions against and encounters with Cuerno Verde. A year later, in August 1779, de Anza led a force of 500 to 800 Spanish troops and Ute, Apache. Hostilities in the area decreased following his death, the green horn headress of Cuerno Verde was taken from the battlefield and presented to the Viceroy by de Anza. The Viceroy in turn presented the headress to the King of Spain, the King, in turn presented the headress to the Pope. The headress remains on display at the Vatican museum in Rome, Tabivo Naritgant gave the English translation of his Spanish name to Greenhorn Mountain and the Greenhorn valley in south-central Colorado. Martinez, Wilfred O. Anza and Cuerno Verde, Decisive Battle and they All Came To Pueblo, A Social History. Juan Bautista de Anza and the Battle of Greenhorn, archived from the original on February 8,2007. Juan Bautista de Anza & Cuerno Verde
Cuerno Verde
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Cuerno Verde marker at Cuerno Verde Rest Area
122.
Siege of Pensacola
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The Siege of Pensacola was a siege fought in 1781, the culmination of Spains conquest of the British province West Florida during the American Revolutionary War. When Spain entered the War in 1779, Bernardo de Gálvez and he followed up these successes with the capture of Mobile on March 14,1780, after a brief siege. Gálvez began planning an assault on Pensacola, West Floridas capital, using forces from Havana, British reinforcements arriving in Pensacola in April 1780 delayed the expedition, however, and when an invasion fleet finally sailed in October, it was dispersed by a hurricane a few days later. Gálvez spent nearly a month regrouping the fleet at Havana, following the outbreak of hostilities with Spain 1779, General John Campbell, concerned over the condition of the defenses, requested reinforcements, and began construction of additional defenses. By early 1781, the Pensacola garrison consisted of the 16th Regiment, a battalion from the 60th and these were augmented by the Third Regiment of Waldeck and The Maryland Loyalist Battalion, as well as the Pennsylvania Loyalists. These troops were provincial soldiers, rather than militia, in addition to the Loyalist soldiers, many Native Americans supported the British. After the fall of Mobile in March 1780, between 1, 500-2,000 Indians had come at various points to Pensacola to join in its defense and these included Choctaws and Creeks, with Creeks being the most numerous. Just before the Spanish attack only 800 Native American warriors remained in Pensacola, as Campbell, the majority of the Native Americans still present during the siege were Choctaw. Pensacolas defensive works in early 1781 consisted of Fort George, an earthen works topped by a palisade that was rebuilt under Campbells directions in 1780. North of the fort he had built the Prince of Wales Redoubt, Campbell erected a battery called Fort Barrancas Colorada near the mouth of the bay. Gálvez embarked his flag with the Spanish fleet, under the command of Captain José Calvo de Irazabal. With about 1,300 men, the troops included a Majorcan regiment and Arturo ONeill commanding 319 men of Spains Irish Hibernia Regiment. Gálvez had also ordered troops from New Orleans and Mobile to assist. The Spanish expeditionary force sailed from Havana on February 13, arriving outside Pensacola Bay on March 9, Gálvez landed some troops on Santa Rosa Island, the barrier island protecting the bay. ONeills Hibernians landed at the battery, which he found undefended, and landed artillery. However, bringing the Spanish ships into the bay turned out to be difficult, furthermore, some British guns seemed to have the range to fire on the bays entrance. Gálvez used his authority as Governor of Louisiana to commandeer the ships that were from Louisiana and he boarded the Gálveztown, and on March 18 he sailed her through the channel and into the bay. The three other Louisiana ships followed him, under what proved to be ineffective British artillery fire, after sending Calvo a detailed description of the channel, his captains his all insisted on making the crossing, which they did the next day
Siege of Pensacola
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Spanish grenadiers and militia pour into Fort George. Oil on canvas, United States Army Center of Military History.
Siege of Pensacola
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A 1763 map depicting Pensacola Bay
Siege of Pensacola
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A 1783 engraving depicting the exploding magazine
Siege of Pensacola
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José Solano y Bote in front of Santa Rosa Bay coming to the rescue of General Gálvez
123.
Battle of Tucapel
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This battle happened in the context of the first stage of the Arauco War, named the offensive war within a larger uprising by Araucanians against the Spanish conquest of Chile. It was a defeat for the Spaniards, resulting in the capture, the Arauco War was a large scale war that took place in what is now Chilean territory between Spanish conquerors and Mapuches. Pedro de Valdivia was the Spanish conqueror, who founded the first cities in Chilean territory, around 1550, he took a Mapuche man who had offered his services as his servant. The conqueror baptized him as Felipe Lautaro, under Pedro de Valdivias wing, Lautaro quickly learned horse-riding and Spanish military techniques that he would use later in the war that was taking place at the moment. Once he had learned this knowledge, he went back to his village. At the same time, Pedro de Valdivia was using a policy of founding cities. His forces also built forts, like Tucapel and Purén. Valdivia went on an tour of a group of forts constructed to secure the Chilean interior for the Spanish. He left Concepción in December 1553 and worked his way south to Quilacoya, Mapuche spies observed his column from the hills, but merely followed and did not present themselves for battle. Meanwhile, the Mapuche leader Lautaro kept the forces of Gómez de Almagro bottled up in the fort of Purén through various trickery. He learned through his spies of the movements of Valdivia. Valdivia became perturbed by the lack of news from Tucapel and by the lack of hostility on the road, on December 24, he decided that he would make for the fort, hoping to find Almagro and his troops there. Tucapel fort was located on a hill in the mountain range. In December 1553, Mapuche forces, under the command of the vice toqui Lautaro attacked and destroyed the fort using the battle tactics learned from the Spanish, Pedro de Valdivia had left Concepción with only 50 soldiers and sent a message to Purén fort to send reinforcements. The message, however, was intercepted by Lautaros men, Valdivia received no reports from his leading element, and spent the night a half days journey from Tucapel. On Christmas Day, December 25,1553, he early in the morning for the fort. Neither Gómez de Almagro nor Bobadilla was anywhere to be found and he decided to make camp amidst the damp ruins of the fort, but the contingent had hardly begun to make preparations when there were shouts from the surrounding forest. Without advance warning, a mass of Mapuche warriors charged out towards the Spanish enclave, a veteran soldier, Valdivia had time to form and arm his defensive line and repulsed the first attack
Battle of Tucapel
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Pedro de Valdivia
Battle of Tucapel
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Bust of Lautaro in the square of Cañete.
124.
Battle of Chacabuco
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The Battle of Chacabuco, fought during the Chilean War of Independence, occurred on February 12,1817. The Army of the Andes of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata led by General Captain José de San Martín defeated the Spanish force led by Rafael Maroto. It was a defeat for the Captaincy General of Chile, the royalist government established after the division of the Viceroyalty of Peru. He realized that the first step would be to them from Chile. In just under two years, he had an army of some 6,000 men,1,200 horses and 22 cannons, on January 17,1817, he set out with this force and began the crossing of the Andes. Careful planning on his part had meant that the royalist forces in Chile were deployed to meet threats that did not exist, and his crossing went unopposed. Nonetheless, the Army of the Andes suffered heavy losses during the crossing, losing as much as one-third of its men, San Martin found himself allying with Chilean patriot Bernardo OHiggins, who commanded his own army. The royalists rushed north in response to their approach, and a force of about 1,500 under Brigadier Rafael Maroto blocked San Martins advance at a valley called Chacabuco, near Santiago. In the face of the disintegration of the royalist forces, Maroto proposed abandoning the capital and retreating southward, all Maroto and his troops had to do was delay San Martin, as he knew that further royalist reinforcements were on the way from Santiago. San Martin was well aware of this as well and opted to attack while he still had the numerical advantage, San Martín received numerous reports of the Spanish plans from a spy dressed as a roto, a poverty-stricken peasant of Chile. The roto told him that the Spanish general, Marcó, knew of fighting in the mountains and told his army to run to the field, which refers to Chacabuco. He also told San Martín the plan of General Rafael Maroto, the leader of the Talavera Regiment and his plan was to take the mountainside and launch an attack against San Martín. On February 11, three days before his date of attack, San Martín called a war council to decide on a plan. Their main goal was to take the Chacabuco Ranch, the royalist headquarters and he decided to split his 2,000 troops into two parts, sending them down two roads on either side of the mountain. The right contingent was led by Miguel Estanislao Soler, and the left by O’Higgins, the plan was for Soler to attack their flanks, while at the same time surrounding their rear guard in order to prevent their retreat. San Martín expected that both leaders would attack at the time, so the royalists would have to fight a battle on two fronts. San Martín sent his troops down the mountain starting at midnight of the 11th to prepare for an attack at dawn, at dawn, his troops were much closer to the royalists than anticipated, but fought hard and heroically. Meanwhile, Solers troops had to go down a path that proved long and arduous
Battle of Chacabuco
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Patriot troops marching towards the Battle of Chacabuco, 1817, during the Chilean War of Independence
Battle of Chacabuco
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Political career
125.
Battle of Carabobo
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The Battle of Carabobo,24 June 1821, was fought between independence fighters, led by Venezuelan General Simón Bolívar, and the Royalist forces, led by Spanish Field Marshal Miguel de la Torre. Bolívars decisive victory at Carabobo led to the independence of Venezuela, there were several events that led to the Battle of Carabobo. Francisco Miranda, famed patriot that tried to free many Latin American countries alongside Simón Bolívar, had control of Caracas from 1810 to 1812. The Spanish took back control and Miranda was handed to the royalists because Bolívar, in one of his most questionable decisions of his life, Bolívar then fled from Venezuela, after which he organized the Admirable Campaign in 1813 and re-established the Second Republic of Venezuela. Bolívar would lose Venezuela again in 1814 and he would re-establish the Venezuelan Republic one more time before uniting with the New Granada to form the Gran Colombia union. In 1820, an armistice was made between the Spanish, under General Pablo Morillo, and the Patriots, under Bolívar, during the years after he fled from Venezuela, Bolívar spent a lot of time regrouping his forces. He stationed his men on Lake Maracaibo, an area that was occupied by the loyalists, Bolívar had numerical superiority over the loyalists but it would still be a challenge. The Royalists occupied the leading from Valencia to Puerto Cabello. As Bolívars force of 6,500 approached the Royalist position, Bolívar divided his force and sent half on a flanking maneuver through rough terrain, Bolívar led the attack through the center while Gen. José Antonio Páez went around to the right flank. But before they would do it, the 2 Spanish field guns fired on the lines, Gen. Miguel de la Torre, commander of the Spanish, also split his force and sent half to deal with this flank attack. Hitting the Patriots, led by the Apure Braves Battalion, with musket fire, the Venezuelan infantry failed and retreated, but the men of the British Legions, among them many members of the former Kings German Legion, fought hard and took the hills. They played very pivotal roles in several of the battles and were very crucial in this battle. The legion troops were led by Colonel Thomas Ilderton Ferrier and they defended strategically important hills while being greatly outnumbered and low on supplies. Col. Ferrier was among the dead, Bolívar praised the Legion troops and called them the Saviors of my Fatherland and also said that they had distinguished themselves among other armies. Páez, watching him in retreat, told him that he was a coward, to which, with his breath, Camejo responded, No. My general, I have to tell you goodbye, because now I am dead, the Spanish infantry formed squares and fought to the end under the attack of the Patriot cavalry, but one battalion retreated in the face of the enemy. The rout was so bad that only some 400 of one infantry regiment managed to reach safety at Puerto Cabello, with the main Royalist force in Venezuela crushed, independence was ensured. The victory was a hard won one for the independence forces, both Ambrosio Plaza and Manuel Cedeno, commanders of the 2nd and 3rd Divisions, were killed in the battle by the enemy
Battle of Carabobo
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Detail of La Batalla de Carabobo by Martín Tovar y Tovar. Oil on canvas.
Battle of Carabobo
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Painting by Martín Tovar y Tovar
Battle of Carabobo
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Simon Bolivar
Battle of Carabobo
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Battle of Carabobo Day
126.
Battle of Ayacucho
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The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. It was the battle that secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America, as of late 1824, Royalists still had control of most of the south of Peru as well as of Real Felipe Fort in the port of Callao. On 9 December 1824, the Battle of Ayacucho took place at Pampa de Ayacucho, Independentist forces were led by Simón Bolívars lieutenant Sucre. Viceroy José de la Serna was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the capitulation of the Royalist army. The modern Peruvian Army celebrates the anniversary of this battle, in 1820 Spain began what would shortly become a political disaster. An expedition of 20,000 soldiers waiting to be sent to Río de la Plata to help the royalists of America revolted under the encouragement of General Rafael Riego. In the subsequent weeks the revolt spread and King Ferdinand VII was forced to restore the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, the royalists in each viceroyalty, however, took different paths. In Peru Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela was discredited after a royalist expedition to Chile under Mariano Osorio was defeated and advances in Peru were made by José de San Martín. The viceroy was overthrown on 29 January 1821, in Asnapukyu, in a coup by General José de la Serna, the independentists started the new year with a promising victory. At Cerro de Pasco they defeated a Peruvian royalist army commanded by Viceroy La Serna, however, the royalists had received solid military training. Their first victory came against the independentist army commanded by Domingo Tristán, a year later, San Martin had withdrawn from the scene after the Interview of Guayaquil and royalist forces had smashed Rudecindo Alvarados Liberating Expedition in campaigns in Torata and Moquegua. After scattering Santa Cruzs isolated troops, La Serna recaptured Arequipa after beating Antonio José de Sucres Gran Colombian force on 10 October. Sucre decided to evacuate the Gran Colombian troops, setting sail on 10 October 1823, saving himself and his troops, Viceroy La Serna ended the campaign after reaching Oruro in Upper Peru. On the political front, the last remnants of optimism among patriots faded away with accusations of treason against Peruvian presidents José de la Riva Agüero, Riva Agüero deported deputies of the Peruvian Congress and organized another congress in Trujillo. After being found guilty of treason by the Peruvian Congress he was banished to Chile. This act, in turn, was considered by Simón Bolívar to be treasonous, Tagle, who had earlier ordered all armies under his command to support Bolívar against the royalist enemy, was now pursued by Bolívar, who was looking to capture and execute him. Tagle took shelter with the royalists in the fortress of Callao, nevertheless, by the end of 1823, the situation had started to become critical for those who defended the kings cause. In spite of the military triumphs, Bolívars request for reinforcements from Colombia made him a threat to the royalist army
Battle of Ayacucho
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The Battle of Ayacucho, by Antonio Herrera Toro from studies by Martín Tovar y Tovar
Battle of Ayacucho
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Last Viceroy of Perú, José de la Serna e Hinojosa, Count of the Andes.
Battle of Ayacucho
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Grand Marshal of Ayacucho, Antonio José de Sucre.
Battle of Ayacucho
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Battle of Ayacucho
127.
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
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Cuban revolutionaries had staged revolts against Spanish colonial authority in the Ten Years War, the Little War, and the Cuban War of Independence. As a consequence, many Cubans died of disease and malnutrition, enrique Dupuy de Lȏme was appointed the Spanish Minister to the United States in 1892. In this capacity, it was his duty to refrain from allowing his personal beliefs to intervene with his duty to support peaceful diplomatic relations between the United States and Spain. However, a letter that expressed his opposition to McKinley’s foreign policy decisions was exposed, many Americans considered it an insult to the nation and to the president. Although Spain apologized, on February 13,1898, the Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor, Cuba, after a hasty naval court of inquiry, the American press blamed Spain and accused them of planting a mine that sank the battleship. The war with Spain became known as the “Correspondents’ War”, journalists not only wrote stories about the conflict, but took part in the fight. In 1898, the prestige of the press ran high, American society was changing as literacy rates increased. There was a new revolution of readers, as war zones became more open to the press, journalists wrote eyewitness accounts of what was happening. In an era before radio and television, newspapers were the source of information, opinion. You furnish the pictures and Ill furnish the war, newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst declared, in New York City, where the population was about 2,800,000, the combined circulation of daily papers was about 2,000,000. In response to the outcry, McKinley took action against Spain. On April 25, the United States declared war, moreover, the United States sought to expand economic ties with Cuba for its resources in sugar and tobacco, all of which influenced America’s decision to intervene. It was evident that gaining territories across the globe would increase the strength and influence of the United States, Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta did not seek war with the United States. He did not expect victory, but he knew Spanish citizens would revolt if he conceded to American demands in Cuba. Meanwhile, Spanish naval leaders tried to employ a strategy where they would not win the war outright, on May 1,1898, American and Spanish naval forces met in the Philippines at the Battle of Manila Bay, which resulted in a decisive victory for the United States. The Spanish government sent their fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete to defend Cuba and keep a line of communication with the Spanish garrison there. Indeed, that surprise is well justified, for nothing can be expected of this expedition except the total destruction of the fleet or its hasty and demoralized return. Lacking a clear strategy, the Spanish may have hoped to end the war quickly in a defeat against the more powerful U. S. Navy
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
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Illustration of the July 1898 battle
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
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Fernando Villaamil, c.1897
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
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Cristóbal Colón
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
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USS Brooklyn
128.
Puerto Rican Campaign
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The Puerto Rican Campaign was an American military sea and land operation on the island of Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War. The offensive began on May 12,1898, when the United States Navy attacked the archipelagos capital, though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a blockade in the citys harbor, San Juan Bay. On June 22, the cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack, but were unable to break the blockade and the Terror was damaged. The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Major General Nelson A. Miles disembarked off the coast of Guánica, after controlling the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to Coamo, where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. The battle concluded when the soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side, and four on the American side. The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards the islands interior. They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo, both of which were inconclusive as the soldiers retreated. A battle in San Germán concluded in a fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares. On August 9,1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito and they returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. In the subsequent crossfire, confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured, all military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U. S. This idea was not new, since William H, the idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U. S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U. S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba. To provide resting places for them where they can coal and repair, since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain. By 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included operations in Puerto Rican waters. Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked. On February 15,1898 the USS Maine exploded and sunk in Havana Harbor, however, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba following the sinking of the Maine. In response, Spain broke off relations with the United States. On April 25, the U. S. Congress declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20. On April 27, U. S. ships, the monitor USS Puritan, the armored cruisers USS New York, and the USS Cincinnati, bombarded the Spanish fortifications at Matanzas Bay in Cuba
Puerto Rican Campaign
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Alfred T. Mahan
Puerto Rican Campaign
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Map of the Puerto Rican Campaign illustrating operations July 25 – August 12, 1898, and showing municipality borders in 1898. {Blue} are US Naval forces, {red} are US land forces, and {green} are Spanish ground forces. Map of Puerto Rico under the USA and Spanish flags from August 14 til September 19, 1898. The 23 blue-colored municipalities are under USA flag and the 55 yellow-colored municipalities are under Spanish flag
Puerto Rican Campaign
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Flag of the Batallón Provisional No. 3 de Puerto Rico (3rd Provisional Battalion of Puerto Rico)
Puerto Rican Campaign
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Manuel Macías y Casado
129.
Conquest of the Canary Islands
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The conquest of the Canary Islands by the Crown of Castille took place between 1402 and 1496. The ties between the Canaries and the Mediterranean world which had existed since antiquity were interrupted by the decline, although these linkages were weakened, they were not totally severed, and the Canaries isolation was not total. During the Middle Ages, the first reports on the Canaries come from Arabic sources, what does seem clear is that this knowledge of the islands did not signify the end of the cultural isolation of the native inhabitants. Ideological and political motives, the monarchies of Southern Europe entered an expansive phase, in the case of the Iberian royalty, their territorial expansion was spurred by the Reconquista against the Moors in Spain. For this reason, territorial expansion represented a reinforcement of royal power, the first visit by a European to the Canary Islands since antiquity was by Genoese captain Lanceloto Malocello traditionally dated 1312. Malocellos motives were unclear - it is believed he might have been searching for traces of the Vivaldi brothers who had disappeared off Morocco, Malocello made landfall on Lanzarote island, and remained there for nearly twenty years. Malocello may have attempted to erect himself as a ruler among the aboriginal peoples, according to some sources, shortly after his return to Europe, in 1336, Malocello led a return expedition to the Canaries, sponsored by King Dinis of Portugal. However, the existence of this expedition has been dismissed by most modern historians, although earlier maps had shown fantastical depictions of the Fortunate Islands, this is the first European map where the actual Canary islands make a solid appearance. Cruising the archipelago for five months, the expedition mapped thirteen islands and surveyed the primeval aboriginal inhabitants, European interest in the Canaries picked up quickly after the 1341 mapping expedition. The descriptions of the primeval Guanches, in particular, drew the attention of European merchants, the results of these expeditions are uncertain. The Catholic Church was also drawn by the news, the Portuguese king Afonso IV immediately lodged a protest, claiming priority of discovery, but conceded to the authority of the pope. Despite their formal concessions, preparations were stalled by the opposition of the Iberian monarchs and these expeditions were almost wholly commercial, with the primary purpose of capturing native islanders to sell as slaves in European markets. But there was also some trade with the locals, particularly for orchil and dragons blood. The pope did not give up on his hope of converting the natives, whether this expedition ever set out is uncertain. More confidently is the bull issued in July 1369 by the Avignon Pope Urban V erecting the diocese of Fortuna, but whether this actually set out or just remained a paper project is also uncertain. We have a reliable record of a Majorcan expedition in 1386 carried out by Pauperes Heremite, sponsored by Peter IV Aragon. Although their exact fate is unknown, there is a report that thirteen Christian friars who had been preaching in the Canaries for seven years were massacred in an uprising during 1391. At least five missionary expeditions would be sent between 1352 and 1386, geographic knowledge of the Canary islands coalesced with these expeditions
Conquest of the Canary Islands
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Portolan of Angelino Dulcert (1339) showing Lanzarote island
Conquest of the Canary Islands
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Catalan Atlas (1375)
Conquest of the Canary Islands
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Jean de Béthencourt.
Conquest of the Canary Islands
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Le Canarien.
130.
Spanish conquest of the Maya
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The conquest of the Maya was hindered by their politically fragmented state. Spanish and native tactics and technology differed greatly, among the Maya, ambush was a favoured tactic, in response to the use of Spanish cavalry, the highland Maya took to digging pits and lining them with wooden stakes. Spanish weaponry included broadswords, rapiers, lances, pikes, halberds, crossbows, matchlocks, Maya warriors fought with flint-tipped spears, bows and arrows, stones, and wooden swords with inset obsidian blades, and wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves. Before the conquest, Maya territory contained a number of competing kingdoms, many conquistadors viewed the Maya as infidels who needed to be forcefully converted and pacified, disregarding the achievements of their civilization. Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519, making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast, the Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair, the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries. In Mexico, the Maya occupied territory now incorporated into the states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Quintana Roo, the Yucatán Peninsula is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east and by the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west. It incorporates the modern Mexican states of Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Campeche, the portion of the state of Tabasco, most of the Guatemalan department of Petén. Most of the peninsula is formed by a vast plain with few hills or mountains, in contrast, the northeastern portion of the peninsula is characterised by forested swamplands. The northern portion of the peninsula lacks rivers, except for the Champotón River – all other rivers are located in the south, a chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén. The largest lake is Lake Petén Itza, it measures 32 by 5 kilometres, a broad savannah extends south of the central lakes. To the north of the lakes region bajos become more frequent, to the south the plain gradually rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands. Dense forest covers northern Petén and Belize, most of Quintana Roo, southern Campeche, further north, the vegetation turns to lower forest consisting of dense scrub. Chiapas occupies the extreme southeast of Mexico, it possesses 260 kilometres of Pacific coastline, Chiapas features two principal highland regions, to the south is the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and in central Chiapas are the Montañas Centrales. They are separated by the Depresión Central, containing the drainage basin of the Grijalva River, the Sierra Madre highlands gain altitude from west to east, with the highest mountains near the Guatemalan border. The Central Highlands of Chiapas rise sharply to the north of the Grijalva, to an altitude of 2,400 metres. They are cut by valleys running parallel to the Pacific coast. At the eastern end of the Central Highlands is the Lacandon Forest, the littoral zone of Soconusco lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and consists of a narrow coastal plain and the foothills of the Sierra Madre. The Maya had never been unified as an empire, but by the time the Spanish arrived Maya civilization was thousands of years old and had already seen the rise
Spanish conquest of the Maya
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Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado led the initial efforts to conquer Guatemala.
Spanish conquest of the Maya
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One of a series on the Spanish conquest of the Maya
Spanish conquest of the Maya
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Satellite view of the Yucatán Peninsula
Spanish conquest of the Maya
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European-introduced smallpox devastated the indigenous populations of the Americas
131.
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
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Soconusco had been incorporated into the Aztec Empire, centred in Valley of Mexico, and paid the Aztecs tribute. News of strangers first arrived in the region as the Spanish penetrated, in the early 1520s, several Spanish expeditions crossed Chiapas by land, and Spanish ships scouted the Pacific coast. The first highland colonial town in Chiapas, San Cristóbal de los Llanos, was established by Pedro de Portocarrero in 1527, within a year, Spanish dominion extended over the upper drainage basin of the Grijalva River, Comitán, and the Ocosingo valley. Encomienda rights were established, although in the stages of conquest these amounted to little more than slave-raiding rights. Excessive Spanish demands for tribute and labour caused a rebellion by the indigenous inhabitants, the conquistadores launched punitive raids, but the natives abandoned their towns and fled to inaccessible regions. The Mexican state of Chiapas occupies the extreme southeast of Mexico, to the west, it borders with the Mexican states of Oaxaca and Veracruz, and to the north with Tabasco. It borders on the east with Guatemala, the border consists of 260 kilometres of Pacific coastline. Chiapas is geographically and culturally diverse and it features two principal highland regions, to the south is the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and in central Chiapas are the Montañas Centrales. They are separated by the Depresión Central, containing the drainage basin of the Grijalva River, the Sierra Madre highlands gain altitude from west to east, with the highest mountains near the Guatemalan border. The littoral zone of Soconusco lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and consists of a coastal plain. Although the entire coastal strip is referred to as Soconusco, Soconusco proper is the southeastern portion characterised by a humid tropical climate. The northwestern portion of the coastal strip featuring a drier climate was historically referred to as El Despoblado, the Depresión Central consists of a drainage basin some 200 kilometres long and varying in width from 30 to 60 kilometres. The Grijalva River is fed by drainage from the Cuchumatanes mountains of Guatemala, the wide plains feature a hot climate with moderate rainfall. This region of high plains blocks the passage of the Grijalva River, los Chimalapas is another highland region at the northern extreme of the Meseta Central and bordering with Oaxaca, it is considered the first upthrust of the Sierra Madre. The Central Highlands rise sharply to the north of the Grijalva, to an altitude of 2,400 metres. They are cut by valleys running parallel to the Pacific coast. At the eastern end of the Central Highlands is the Lacandon Forest, the earliest human inhabitants of Chiapas were foragers living in the northern highlands and along the coastal strip from approximately 6000 BC until about 2000 BC. For approximately the last two millennia BC, the majority of the territory that is now covered by the state of Chiapas was occupied by Zoque-speaking peoples
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
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The Sumidero Canyon is formed as the Grijalva River cuts across the central plateau of Chiapas
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
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One of a series on the Spanish conquest of the Maya
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
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Pedro de Alvarado passed through Soconusco with a large army in 1523
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
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Santiago Matamoros was a readily identifiable image of Spanish military superiority
132.
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
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Before the conquest, this territory contained a number of competing Mesoamerican kingdoms, the majority of which were Maya. Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as infidels who needed to be converted and pacified. Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519, making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast, the Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair, the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries. Pedro de Alvarado arrived in Guatemala from the newly conquered Mexico in early 1524, commanding a force of Spanish conquistadors and native allies. Geographic features across Guatemala now bear Nahuatl placenames owing to the influence of these Mexican allies, the Kaqchikel Maya initially allied themselves with the Spanish, but soon rebelled against excessive demands for tribute and did not finally surrender until 1530. In the meantime the other major highland Maya kingdoms had each been defeated in turn by the Spanish and allied warriors from Mexico, Spanish and native tactics and technology differed greatly. The Spanish viewed the taking of prisoners as a hindrance to outright victory, whereas the Maya prioritised the capture of live prisoners and of booty. The Maya preferred raiding and ambush to large-scale warfare, using spears, arrows and wooden swords with inset obsidian blades, in response to the use of Spanish cavalry, the highland Maya took to digging pits and lining them with wooden stakes. These letters were despatched to Tenochtitlan, addressed to Cortés but with an audience in mind. Gonzalo wrote an account that mostly supports that of Pedro de Alvarado, Pedro de Alvarados brother Jorge wrote another account to the king of Spain that explained it was his own campaign of 1527–1529 that established the Spanish colony. His account was finished around 1568, some 40 years after the campaigns it describes, Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación, in which he details his crossing of what is now Guatemalas Petén Department. Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote a critical account of the Spanish conquest of the Americas. The Brevísima Relación de la Destrucción de las Indias was first published in 1552 in Seville, other accounts were in the form of questionnaires answered before colonial magistrates to protest and register a claim for recompense. A letter from the defeated Tzutujil Maya nobility of Santiago Atitlán to the Spanish king written in 1571 details the exploitation of the subjugated peoples, Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán was a colonial Guatemalan historian of Spanish descent who wrote La Recordación Florida, also called Historia de Guatemala. The book was written in 1690 and is regarded as one of the most important works of Guatemalan history, field investigation has tended to support the estimates of indigenous population and army sizes given by Fuentes y Guzmán. Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile, private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule. In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands and they heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west and, in 1519, Hernán Cortés set sail with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast. By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish, a single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
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Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado led the initial efforts to conquer Guatemala.
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
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One of a series on the Spanish conquest of the Maya
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
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A page from the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, showing a Spanish conquistador accompanied by Tlaxcalan allies and a native porter
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
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Q'umarkaj was the capital of the K'iche' kingdom until it was burnt by the invading Spanish.
133.
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572. The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin-off campaigns into present-day Chile and Colombia, when the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area, by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations. In less than a century, the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km² in 1448, to 1,800,000 km² in 1528 and this vast area of land varied greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the control of. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire numbered more than 16,000,000, in 1528, Emperor Huayna Capac ruled the Inca Empire. He could trace his lineage back to a king named Manco Cápac, the mythical founder of the Inca clan. On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by conquest, while he had to put down a number of rebellions during his reign, by the time of his death, his legitimacy was as unquestioned as was the primacy of Inca power. However, expansion had resulted in its own problems, many parts of the empire maintained distinctive cultures and these were at best resistive participants in the imperial project. Huayna Capac relied on his sons to support his reign, while he had many legitimate and illegitimate children, two sons are historically important. Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa, also known as Huáscar, was the son of Coya Mama Rahua Occllo of the royal line and these two sons would play pivotal roles in the final years of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquistador Pizarro and his men were greatly aided in their enterprise by invading when the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador, Atahualpa was thus closer to, and had better relations with the army and its leading generals. Huayna had died before he could nominate the new heir, at the time of Huayna Capacs death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the main body of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself proclaimed Sapa Inca in Cuzco, but the army declared loyalty to Atahualpa, the resulting dispute led to the Inca Civil War. The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Atahualpa appeared to be popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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Inca Empire
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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Francisco Pizarro meets with Atahualpa, 1532
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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The Inca–Spanish confrontation in the Battle of Cajamarca left thousands of natives dead
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
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Pizarro and his followers founding Lima
134.
Spanish Colonial architecture
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These two visible aspects of the city are connected and complementary. The 16th century Laws of the Indies included provisions for the layout of new settlements in the Americas. The new churches and mission stations, for example, aimed for maximum effect in terms of their imposition and domination of the buildings or countryside. In order for that to be achievable, they had to be strategically located - at the center of a square or at a higher point in the landscape. The Spanish Colonial style of architecture dominated in the early Spanish colonies of North and South America and it is sometimes marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center of New Spain - and the richest province of Spains colonial empire - has some of the most renowned buildings built in this style. With twenty-nine sites, Mexico has more sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list than any country in the Americas. Some of the most famous cities in Mexico built in the Colonial style are Puebla, Zacatecas, Querétaro, Guanajuato, the historic center of Mexico City is a mixture of architectural styles from the 16th century to the present. The Metropolitan Cathedral – built from 1563 to 1813 in a variety of including the Renaissance, Baroque. The rich interior is mostly Baroque, during the late 17th century to 1750, one of Mexicos most popular architectural styles was Mexican Churrigueresque. These buildings were built in an ultra-Baroque, fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic style, Antigua Guatemala in Guatemala is also known for its well preserved Spanish colonial style architecture. The city of Antigua is famous for its well-preserved Spanish Mudéjar-influenced Baroque architecture as well as a number of ruins of colonial churches dating from the 16th century. It has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Ciudad Colonial of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, founded in 1498, is the oldest city in the New World and a prime example of this architectural style. San Juan was founded by the Spaniards in 1521, where Spanish colonial architecture can be found like the Historic Hotel El Convento, also, Old San Juan with its walled city and buildings are very good examples, and in excellent condition. According to UNESCO, Quito, Ecuador has the largest, best-preserved and it was the first city that was inscribed onto the UNESCO World Heritage List, along with Kraków, Poland in 1978. The historic district of city is the sole largest and best preserved area of Spanish Colonial architecture in the world. The idea of laying out a city in a pattern is not unique to the Spanish. In fact, it never started out with the Spanish colonizers and it has been traced back to some ancient civilizations especially the ancient cities of the Aztec and Maya, and also Ancient Greeks
Spanish Colonial architecture
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The Colonial Cathedral of Mexico City.
Spanish Colonial architecture
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The Hispanic city of Vigan, Philippines
Spanish Colonial architecture
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Colonial Cathedral of Lima, in Peru
Spanish Colonial architecture
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Spanish Colonial Style in San Juan, Puerto Rico
135.
Cuzco School
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The Cuzco School was a Roman Catholic artistic tradition based in Cusco, Peru during the Colonial period, in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. It was not limited to Cuzco only, but spread to cities in the Andes, as well as to present day Ecuador. The tradition originated after the 1534 Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Cusqueña paintings were a form of religious art whose main purpose was didactic. The Spanish, who aimed to convert the Incas to Catholicism and these artists formed a school for Quechua people and mestizos, teaching them drawing and oil painting. The designation Cusqueña, however, is not limited to the city of Cusco or to indigenous artists, a major patron of the Cuzco artists was Bishop Manuel de Mollinedo y Angulo, who collected European art and made his collection available to Peruvian artists. He promoted and financially assisted such Cusqueña artists such as Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, Antonio Sinchi Roca Inka, in 1688 Spanish-born and mestizo members of the Cuzco painting guild chose to break ranks with the Indian painters. This split led to the far more numerous Quechua Indian painters developing their own styles and they also created a tradition of painting I – a departure from Christian religious themes and an expression of cultural pride. The defining characteristics of the Cusqueña style are believed to have originated in the art of Quechua painter Diego Quispe Tito, Cusqueña paintings are characterized by their use of exclusively religious subjects, their lack of perspective, and the predominance of red, yellow and earth colors. They are also remarkable for their use of gold leaf. They often adapted the topics to depict their native flora and fauna as a backdrop in their works, warrior angels became a popular motif in Cusqueña paintings. Most Cusqueña paintings were created anonymously because of Pre-Columbian traditions that define art as communal, an exception is one of the last members of the Cuzco School, Marcos Zapata. Other known artists of the Cuzco School include Diego Cusihuamán, Gregorio Gamarra, Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, related to the school is the Master of Calamarca, in 18th century, Bolivia. The largest collection of paintings from the Cuzco school is in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo, the Lima Art Museum and the Inca Museum also house important collections. A large number of works were destroyed in the 18th century so there is a supply of Cuzco school paintings. In recent years there has been a significant increase in demand from both Latin American art collectors and certain museums for paintings from the Cuzco school period. In 2010, the American government repatriated two Cusco and Lima style paintings to Peru that had been brought into the United States in 2005. Master of Calamarca, 18th century, Bolivia Basilio de Santa Cruz Pumacallao, 1635–1710, Peru Antonio Sinchi Roca Inka, 17th century, Peru Diego Quispe Tito, 1611—1681, Peru Marcos Zapata, c
Cuzco School
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Virgin of Carmel Saving Souls in Purgatory, Circle of Diego Quispe Tito, 17th century, collection of the Brooklyn Museum
Cuzco School
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Rare painting showing Jesus Christ figure for three times, representing the sacred trinity, 16th century, private collection - Brazil
Cuzco School
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The Marriage of Captain Martin de Loyola to Beatriz Ñusta, detail, c. 1675-1690, Church of la Compañía de Jesús, Cuzco
Cuzco School
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Our Lady of Bethelem, anonymous, 18th century
136.
Quito School
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It is especially associated with the 17th and 18th centuries and was almost exclusively focused on the religious art of the Catholic Church in the country. As a product of syncretism and miscegenation, the works of the Quito School are characterized by the combination and adaptation of European. In its development, it reflected the styles prevailing in each period of Spain and thus contains renaissance, during its height, it was eminently baroque, concluding with a short rococo period leading to an incipient neoclassicism until the transition to the republican period. The Quito School also incorporated Flemish, Italian, and Moorish influences, one of the common characteristics of the school is the technique of encarnado — the simulation of the color of the flesh of the human body — that makes the skin of sculptures appear more natural. Once the piece was cut and sanded, an artisan covered the wood with several layers of gesso with glue. Each layer was highly polished to achieve a smooth finish. Next, color was applied in various transparent layers, allowing a mix of overlapping colors. This began with the colors of shadows, then colors were applied. And finally highlight colors were added
Quito School
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La Virgen alada del Apocalípsis ("Winged Virgin of the Apocalypse") by Miguel de Santiago (17th century)
Quito School
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Retrato de una señora principal con su negra esclava ("Portrait of a Quiteña Matron with Her Black Slave") by Vicente Albán, 1783.
137.
List of the oldest schools in the Philippines
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This is a list of educational institutions in the Philippines arranged according to the dates of their foundation. It comprises the list of the oldest schools in the Philippines sorted in various categories, to be included in this list, an institution must satisfy a traditional definition of a formal educational institution at the time of its founding. Chronologically, an institution can only be included in the top ten in a certain category only if no other school has been proven, with reliable sources. Moreover, an addendum shall be attached in a category where an entry is disputed or defunct, the oldest universities, colleges, vocational schools and the first modern public education system in Asia were created during the Spanish colonial period. The earliest schools were founded by Spanish Catholic missionaries, by the time Spain was replaced by the United States as the colonial power, Filipinos were among the most educated subjects in all of Asia. USC celebrated its quadricentennial in 1995, notable scholars including Dr. Jose Victor Torres, professor of history at the De La Salle University, Fr. Aloysius Cartagenas STD, professor at the Seminario Mayor de San Carlos of Cebu, fidel Villarroel, OP, eminent historian and former archivist of Santo Tomas have also questioned San Carlos claim of tracing its roots to the 16th Century Colegio de San Ildefonso. A claim in the first ten is disputed, accordingly, an addendum with the next undisputed claim is listed here. Note, Centro Escolar University was established as Centro Escolar de Señoritas by Doña Librada Avelino, the university is still continuously operating, but now as a co-educational institution
List of the oldest schools in the Philippines
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The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, established by the Dominican missionaries in 1611 and raised to the rank of a University in 1645 by Pope Innocent X through the petition of Philip IV of Spain, is currently the educational institution with the oldest extant University charter in Asia.
138.
General Archive of the Indies
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The building itself, an unusually serene and Italianate example of Spanish Renaissance architecture, was designed by Juan de Herrera. This structure and its contents were registered in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, the origin of the structure dates to 1572 when Philip II commissioned the building from Juan de Herrera, the architect of the Escorial to house the Consulado de mercaderes of Seville. Until then, the merchants of Seville had been in the habit of retreating to the recesses of the cathedral to transact business. The building encloses a central patio with ranges of two storeys, the windows set in slightly sunken panels between flat pilasters. Plain square tablets float in the space above each window, the building is surmounted by a balustrade, with rusticated obelisks standing at the corners. The building was begun in 1584 by Juan de Mijares, using Herreras plans, work on completing the structure proceeded through the 17th century, directed until 1629 by the archbishop Juan de Zumárraga and finished by Pedro Sanchez Falconete. Responsibility for the project was delegated to José de Gálvez y Gallardo, Secretary for the Indies and it was decided that, for the time being, documents evolved after 1760 would remain with their primary institutions. The first cartloads of the arrived in October 1785. Some restructuring of the Casa Lonja to accommodate the materials was required, the archives are rich with autograph material from the first of the Conquistadores to the end of the 19th century. As of 2005, its 15 million pages are in the process of being digitized
General Archive of the Indies
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The Archivo de Indias, Seville
General Archive of the Indies
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View of the main courtyard.
General Archive of the Indies
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View of a corridor with a cannon.
139.
Spanish Inquisition
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The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition, was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition and it became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Christian Inquisition along with the Roman Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition. The Inquisition was originally intended primarily to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism, the regulation of the faith of the newly converted was intensified after the royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1502 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert or leave Spain. The Inquisition was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabella II, the Spanish Inquisition is often stated in popular literature and history as an example of Catholic intolerance and repression. Modern historians have tended to question earlier accounts concerning the severity of the Inquisition, Henry Kamen asserts that the myth of the all-powerful, torture-mad inquisition is largely an invention of nineteenth century Protestant authors with an agenda to discredit the Papacy. Although records are incomplete, about 150,000 persons were charged with crimes by the Inquisition and about 3,000 were executed. The Inquisition was created through papal bull, Ad Abolendam, issued at the end of the century by Pope Lucius III as a way to combat the Albigensian heresy in southern France. There were a number of tribunals of the Papal Inquisition in various European kingdoms during the Middle Ages. In the Kingdom of Aragon, a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of Excommunicamus of Pope Gregory IX, in 1232, during the era of the Albigensian heresy. With time, its importance was diluted, and, by the middle of the fifteenth century, there was never a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition in Castile. Members of the episcopate were charged with surveillance of the faithful, during the Middle Ages, in Castile, little attention was paid to heresy by the Catholic ruling class. Jews and Muslims were tolerated and generally allowed to follow their traditional laws, however, by law, they were considered inferior to Catholics and were subject to discriminatory legislation. The Spanish Inquisition can be seen as an answer to the nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors. After invading in 711, large areas of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by Muslims until 1250, when they were restricted to Granada, which fell in 1492. However, the Reconquista did not result in the expulsion of Muslims from Spain, since they. The Jews, who had previously thrived under Muslim rule, now suffered similar maltreatment, however, as Henry Kamen notes, so-called convivencia was always a relationship between unequals. Despite their legal inequality, there was a tradition of Jewish service to the crown of Aragon and Jews occupied many important posts. Castile itself had an unofficial rabbi, ferdinands father John II named the Jewish Abiathar Crescas to be Court Astronomer
Spanish Inquisition
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The burning of a 16th-century Dutch Anabaptist Anneken Hendriks, who was charged with heresy
Spanish Inquisition
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Seal for the Tribunal in Spain.
Spanish Inquisition
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Auto-da-fé, Plaza Mayor in Lima, Viceroyalty of Peru, 17th century
Spanish Inquisition
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Diego Mateo López Zapata in his cell before his trial by the Inquisition Court of Cuenca
140.
Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies
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The Spanish colonists provided the Americas with a colonial precedent for slavery and influenced the development of modern racial ideologies, such as limpieza de sangre. Spaniards regarded some indigenous people as tribute under the system during the late 1400s. Spanish slavery in the Americas did not diverge drastically from that in other European colonies and it reshuffled the Atlantic Worlds populations through forced migrations, helped transfer American wealth to Europe, and promoted racial and social hierarchies throughout the empire. In fact, Spanish colonization set some records in the field of slavery. The Asiento, the contract for trading in slaves in the vast Spanish territories was a major engine of the Atlantic slave trade. When Spain first enslaved Native Americans on Hispaniola, and then replaced them with captive Africans, the tale of Spanish exploits in the Americas, amplified for propagandistic reasons, earned such notoriety that European rivals called it the Black Legend. Enslaved people challenged their captivity in ways that ranged from introducing non-European elements into Christianity to mounting alternative societies outside of the plantation system, the first open black rebellion occurred in Spanish plantations in 1521. Resistance, particularly to the enslavement of people, also came from Spanish religious. The first speech in the Americas for the universality of human rights and against the abuses of slavery was also given on Hispaniola, resistance to Amerindian captivity in the Spanish colonies produced the first modern debates over race and the legitimacy of slavery. And uniquely in the Spanish American colonies, laws like the New Laws of 1542, were enacted early in the period to protect natives from bondage. Altogether, the struggle against slavery in the Spanish American colonies left a tradition of opposition that set the stage for current conversations about human rights. The Spanish had established precedents for regimes of forced labor prior to their encounter with New World peoples, over centuries in Iberia, Muslims had enslaved Christians, and with the Christian reconquest, the victors enslaved the Moors. Slavery was an institution that was economic in function, but it had strong social dimensions as well, enslaved persons were outsiders of some kind, by ethnicity, language, or religion or some combination. In Iberia, slaves were considered human and possessed some rights, there were some Muslim slaves remaining in Christian Spain after 1492, but increasingly enslaved Africans via the Portuguese slave trade became part of Spains social mosaic. Black slaves in Spain were overwhelmingly domestic servants, and increasingly became prestigious property for elite Spanish households, artisans acquired black slaves and trained them in their trade, increasing the artisans output. Both the Spanish and the Portuguese colonized the Atlantic islands off the coast of Africa, the sugar complex consisted of slave labor for cultivation and processing, with the sugar mill and equipment established with investor capital. When plantation slavery was established in Spanish America and Brazil, they replicated the elements of the complex in the New World on a larger scale. Another form of forced labor used in the New World with origins in Spain was the encomienda and this institution of forced labor was employed by the Spaniards in the Canary Islands following their conquest
Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies
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Slavery
141.
Fort Mose Historic State Park
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The original site of the 18th-century fort was uncovered in a 1986 archeological dig. The 24-acre site is now protected as a Florida State Park, Fort Mose is the premier site on the Florida Black Heritage Trail. The fort has also known as Fort Moosa or Fort Mossa. As early as 1687, the Spanish government had begun to offer asylum to slaves from British colonies. In 1693, the Spanish Crown officially proclaimed that runaways would find freedom in Florida, in return for converting to Catholicism, in effect, Spain created a maroon settlement in Florida as a front-line defense against English attacks from the north. Spain also intended to destabilize the economy of the British colonies by creating a free black community to attract slaves seeking escape. In 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano, ordered construction of the Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mosé military fort about 2 miles north of St. Augustine, slaves escaped from the British colonies were directed there. They were recognized as free, and men who passed inspection were taken into the Spanish militia, the military leader at the fort, who also served as mayor of the community, was an African-European Creole, baptized as Francisco Menendez. He became established as a leader when helping the defense of St. Augustine in 1727, Fort Mose was the first free African settlement legally sanctioned in what would become the United States and had a total population of about 100. The village had a wall around it, with dwellings inside, plus a church, word of the settlement reached the colonies of South Carolina and Georgia to the north, attracting escaping slaves. Charlestown was approximately 200 miles north of the Florida border, the attraction of Fort Mose is believed to have helped inspire the Stono Rebellion in September 1739. This was led by slaves who were fresh from Africa, during the Stono revolt, several dozen Africans believed to be from the Kingdom of Kongo tried unsuccessfully to reach Spanish Florida. Some did make it, where they rapidly adjusted to life there, as they were already baptized Catholics, following the murder of some inhabitants at the fort by British Indian allies, Montiano ordered it abandoned and its inhabitants resettled in St. Augustine. In 1740, British forces led by James Oglethorpe of Georgia attacked and captured the fort in the Siege of Fort Mose, Oglethorpe was eventually forced to withdraw his forces to Georgia. Because the fort was destroyed, its inhabitants stayed in St. Augustine, by 1752, the Spanish had rebuilt Fort Mose. The new governor forcibly relocated most of the free blacks back into the settlement, from the more cosmopolitan. After East Florida was ceded to the British in the Peace of Paris of 1763, at that time, the black population at St. Augustine and Fort Mose totaled about 3,000, of whom about one-quarter were free. A haven for escaped slaves from the British colonies to the north, the National Park Service highlights it as a precursor site of the Underground Railroad
Fort Mose Historic State Park
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Fort Mose Historic State Park
Fort Mose Historic State Park
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The entrance of Fort Mose Historic State Park.
Fort Mose Historic State Park
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A panorama of the hammocks and salt marsh at the site of Fort Mose.
142.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot
143.
Biografisch Portaal
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The Biografisch Portaal is an initiative based at the Huygens Institute for Dutch History in The Hague, with the aim of making biographical texts of the Netherlands more accessible. As of 2011, only information about deceased people is included. The system used is based on the standards of the Text Encoding Initiative, access to the Biografisch Portaal is available free through a web-based interface. The project is an undertaking by ten scientific and cultural bodies in the Netherlands with the Huygens Institute as main contact. In February 2012, a new project was started called BiographyNed to build a tool for use with the Biografisch Portaal that will link biographies to events in time. The main goal of the project is to formulate ‘the boundaries of the Netherlands’. List of Dutch people Official website
Biografisch Portaal
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The Huygens Institute is housed in the same building as the RKD, the National Archives, the Nederlands Letterkundig Museum (LM), the Netherlands Music Institute (NMI) and the Koninklijke Bibliotheek.
144.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
National Diet Library
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Tokyo Main Library of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Main building in Tokyo
145.
John of Austria
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He became a military leader in the service of his half-brother, King Philip II of Spain and is best known for his role as the admiral of the Holy Alliance fleet at the Battle of Lepanto. The date of his birth is unknown, with sources indicating that he was born in the year 1545 and others, like G. Parker or P. Pierson. Pierson makes mention that some contemporaries affirmed that he was born in 1545, but that the oldest evidence found in France with regards to public ceremonies, supports the date of 1547. It is likely that John of Austria was conceived in May 1546, when Emperor Charles V was then in Regensburg and it is possible that John had deliberately chosen the 24th of February as his birthday, which was the month and day of his father Charles Vs birth. Shortly after giving birth, Barbara Blomberg was quickly married to Hieronymus Kegel, John of Austrias original name as a child, Geronimo or Jeromín, was an allusion to his stepfather. Charles V then decided that his son should be raised in Spain away from his mother and his Majordomo, Luis de Quijada, had reached an agreement with Francisco Massy, a violist of the imperial court, and married to a Spanish woman, Ana de Medina. In exchange for an income of 50 ducats, the couple had agreed to raise the child. In mid-1551 they together had arrived in Leganés, where Ana de Medina had property, in the summer of 1554, the boy was taken to the castle of Luis de Quijada in Villagarcía de Campos, Valladolid. His wife, Magdalena de Ulloa, took charge of his education, assisted by the Latin teacher Guillén Prieto, the chaplain García de Morales and the squire Juan Galarza. Charles V wrote a codicil, dated 6 June 1554, in which he recognized, For since I was in Germany, after being widowed, I had a child of one unmarried woman. In the summer of 1558, Charles V had ordered Luis de Quijada, his wife Magdalena de Ulloa, the Emperor was already residing nearby at the Monastery of Yuste. From that time forward, and until his own death in September of that year, Charles Vs only surviving legitimate son and heir, now King Philip II after his fathers abdication, was then outside of Spain. Rumors had spread about the paternity of the child, which de Quijada had denied, Charles V replied with a note written by his personal secretary Eraso, in whose erasures and amendments were expressed, the Emperors thoughts about how best to deal with such a delicate matter. It was recommended to wait for Philip IIs return to Spain, Philip II returned from Brussels in 1559, aware of his fathers will. Once he had settled in Valladolid, he had summoned de Quijada to bring along Jeromín to a hunt, the first meeting between the two of them took place on 28 September in the Monastery of Santa María de La Santa Espina. When the King appeared, Luis de Quijada told Jeromín to dismount, when Jeromín did so, Philip II asked him if he knew the identity of his father. When the boy did not know, the King embraced him and explained that they had the same father, in formal style he was your excellency, the address used for a Spanish grandee, and known as Don Juan de Austria. John did not live in a palace, but rather maintained a separate household with Luis de Quijada as the head
John of Austria
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John of Austria
John of Austria
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Portrait, 1559-60 by Alonso Sánchez Coello
John of Austria
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Battle of Lepanto
John of Austria
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The Victors of Lepanto (from left: Don Juan de Austria, Marcantonio Colonna, Sebastiano Venier)
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Media related to Don Juan de Austria at Wikimedia Commons
Ward, A. W. (1881). "John, Don". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (9th ed.).
