1.
Museo del Prado
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The Prado Museum is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture in 1819, it contains important collections of other types of works. El Prado is one of the most visited sites in the world, and it is considered one of the greatest art museums in the world. The collection currently comprises around 8,200 drawings,7,600 paintings,4,800 prints, and 1,000 sculptures, in addition to a large number of other works of art and historic documents. As of 2012, the museum displayed about 1,300 works in the buildings, while around 3,100 works were on temporary loan to various museums. The museum received 2.8 million visitors in 2012 and it is one of the largest museums in Spain. The best-known work on display at the museum is Las Meninas by Velázquez, Velázquez and his keen eye and sensibility were also responsible for bringing much of the museums fine collection of Italian masters to Spain, now the largest outside of Italy. The museum is planning a 16% extension in the nearby Salón de Reinos and their efforts and determination led to the Royal Collection being enriched by some of the masterpieces now to be seen in the Prado. In addition to works from the Spanish royal collection, other holdings increased and enriched the Museum with further masterpieces, such as the two Majas by Goya. Among the now closed museums whose collections have been added to that of the Prado were the Museo del la Trinidad in 1872, in addition, numerous legacies, donations and purchases have been of crucial importance for the growth of the collection. Upon the deposition of Isabella II in 1868, the museum was nationalized and acquired the new name of Museo del Prado, the building housed the royal collection of arts, and it rapidly proved too small. The first enlargement to the museum took place in 1918, particularly important donations include Barón Emile dErlangers gift of Goyas Black Paintings in 1881. Between 1873 and 1900, the Prado helped decorate city halls, new universities, during the Second Spanish Republic from 1931 to 1936, the focus was on building up provincial museums. The art had to be returned across French territory in night trains to the museum upon the commencement of World War II, during the early years of the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, many paintings were sent to embassies. The main building was enlarged with short pavilions in the rear between 1900 and 1960, in 1993, an extension proposed by the Prados director at the time, Felipe Garin, was quickly abandoned after a wave of criticism. In the late 1990s, a $14 million roof work forced the Velázquez masterpiece Las Meninas to change galleries twice, in 1998, the Prado annex in the nearby Casón del Buen Retiro closed for a $10 million two-year overhaul that included three new underground levels. In 2007, the finally executed Rafael Moneos project to expand its exposition room to 16,000 square meters. A glass-roofed and wedge-shaped foyer now contains the shops and cafeteria
Museo del Prado
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Museo del Prado (Main wing)
Museo del Prado
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Museo Nacional del Prado
Museo del Prado
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In the main exhibition hall, first floor
Museo del Prado
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Francisco de Goya,
La maja desnuda, oil on canvas, (circa 1797–1800)
2.
Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
Madrid
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From upper left: view of business districts of
AZCA and
CTBA,
Gran Vía street and
Metropolis Building, the
Palace of Communication, view of
Royal Palace and
Almudena Cathedral.
Madrid
Madrid
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Plaza Mayor
Madrid
–
Puerta de Alcalá
3.
Namur (city)
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Namur is a city and municipality in Wallonia, Belgium. It is both the capital of the province of Namur and of Wallonia, hosting the Walloon Parliament, Namur stands at the confluence of the Sambre and Meuse rivers and straddles three different regions – Hesbaye to the north, Condroz to the south-east, and Entre-Sambre-et-Meuse to the south-west. The city of Charleroi is located to the west, the town began as an important trading settlement in Celtic times, straddling east-west and north-south trade routes across the Ardennes. The Romans established a presence after Julius Caesar defeated the local Aduatuci tribe, Namur came to prominence during the early Middle Ages when the Merovingians built a castle or citadel on the rocky spur overlooking the town at the confluence of the two rivers. In the 10th century, it became a county in its own right, in 1262, Namur fell into the hands of the Count of Flanders, and was purchased by Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1421. After Namur became part of the Spanish Netherlands in the 1640s, louis XIV of France invaded in 1692, capturing the town and annexing it to France. His renowned military engineer Vauban rebuilt the citadel, french control was short-lived, as William III of Orange-Nassau captured Namur only three years later in 1695 during the War of the Grand Alliance. Thus, although the Austrians ruled the town, the citadel was controlled by the Dutch and it was rebuilt again under their tenure. France invaded the region again in 1794, annexing Namur and imposing a repressive regime, after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Congress of Vienna incorporated what is now Belgium into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Belgium broke away from the Netherlands in 1830 following the Belgian Revolution, the citadel was rebuilt yet again in 1887. Namur was a target of the German invasion of Belgium in 1914. On August 21,1914, the Germans bombarded the town of Namur without warning, despite being billed as virtually impregnable, the citadel fell after only three days fighting and the town was occupied by the Germans for the rest of the war. Namur fared little better in World War II, it was in the front lines of both the Battle of the Ardennes in 1940 and the Battle of the Bulge in 1944, the town suffered heavy damage in both wars. Namur continued to host the Belgian Armys paratroopers until their departure in 1977, after the creation of the Walloon Region, Namur was chosen as the seat of its executive and parliament. In 1986, Namur was officially declared capital of Wallonia and its position as regional capital was confirmed by the Parliament of Wallonia in 2010. Namur is an important commercial and industrial centre, located on the Walloon industrial backbone and it produces machinery, leather goods, metals and porcelain. Its railway station is also an important junction situated on the line between Brussels and Luxembourg City, and the east-west line between Lille and Liège. River barge traffic passes through the middle of the city along the Meuse, Namur has taken on a new role as the capital of the federal region of Wallonia
Namur (city)
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Namur Namen (Dutch)
Namur (city)
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Namur in 1838
4.
Habsburg Spain
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Habsburg Spain refers to the history of Spain over the 16th and 17th centuries, when it was ruled by kings from the House of Habsburg. The Habsburg rulers reached the zenith of their influence and power and this period of Spanish history has also been referred to as the Age of Expansion. The Habsburg years were also a Spanish Golden Age of cultural efflorescence, in some cases, these individual kingdoms themselves were confederations, most notably, the Crown of Aragon. Isabella and Ferdinand were bestowed the title of Most Catholic Monarchs by Pope Alexander VI in 1496, the Habsburg period is formative of the notion of Spain in the sense that was institutionalized in the 18th century. Her husband Philip I was the Habsburg son of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, shortly thereafter Joanna began to lapse into insanity, though how mentally ill she actually was the topic of some debate. In 1506, Philip I was declared jure uxoris king, but he died later that year under mysterious circumstances, possibly poisoned by his father-in-law, Ferdinand II. Since their oldest son Charles was only six, the Cortes reluctantly allowed Joannas father Ferdinand II to rule the country as the regent of Joanna, Spain was now in personal union under Ferdinand II of Aragon. He also attempted to enlarge Spains sphere of influence in Italy, as ruler of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and the Republic of Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. The war was less of a success than that against Venice, Ferdinand would die later that year. Ferdinands death led to the ascension of young Charles to the throne as Charles I of Castile and Aragon and his Spanish inheritance included all the Spanish possessions in the New World and around the Mediterranean. Upon the death of his Habsburg father in 1506, Charles had inherited the Netherlands and Franche-Comté, in 1519, with the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I, Charles inherited the Habsburg territories in Germany, and was duly elected as Holy Roman Emperor that year. At that point, Emperor and King Charles was the most powerful man in Christendom, the accumulation of so much power by one man and one dynasty greatly concerned Francis I of France, who found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories. In 1521 Francis invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy and Navarre, the war was a disaster for France, which suffered defeats at Biccoca, Pavia, and Landriano before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain once more. Charless victory at the Battle of Pavia surprised many Italians and Germans, Pope Clement VII switched sides and now joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor, in the War of the League of Cognac. Henry VIII of England, who bore a grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce. Although the Spanish army was defeated at the Battle of Ceresole, in Savoy Henry fared better. The Austrians, led by Charless younger brother Ferdinand, continued to fight the Ottomans in the east, with France defeated, Charles went to take care of an older problem, the Schmalkaldic League. The Protestant Reformation had begun in Germany in 1517, the German Peasants War broke out in Germany in 1524 and ravaged the country until it was brutally put down in 1526, Charles, even as far away from Germany as he was, was committed to keeping order
Habsburg Spain
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1570 map of the Iberian peninsula
Habsburg Spain
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Cross of Burgundy Flag
Habsburg Spain
–
Family tree
Habsburg Spain
–
Joanna of Castile
5.
Philip II of Spain
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Philip II of Spain, called the Prudent, was King of Spain, King of Portugal, King of Naples and Sicily, and jure uxoris King of England and Ireland. He was also Duke of Milan, from 1555, he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Known in Spain as Felipe el Prudente, his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, during his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. This is sometimes called the Golden Age, the expression, the empire on which the sun never sets, was coined during Philips time to reflect the extent of his dominion. During Philips reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1569,1575 and this was partly the cause of the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581. The Ambassador went on to say He dresses very tastefully, the culture and courtly life of Spain were an important influence in his early life. He was tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo – the future Archbishop of Toledo, Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arms and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella, Philip, though he had good command over Latin, Spanish and Portuguese, never managed to equal his father, Charles V, as a polyglot. Despite being also a German archduke from the House of Habsburg, Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish, he had been born in Spain and raised in the Castilian court, his native tongue was Spanish, and he preferred to live in Spain. This would ultimately impede his succession to the imperial throne, Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens, the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, Philips martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by the Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars, Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542, but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. The king-emperors interactions with his son during his stay in Spain convinced him of Philips precocity in statesmanship, Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen. Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos, Philip was also left with extensive written instructions which emphasised piety, patience, modesty, and distrust. These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed, personally, Philip spoke softly, and had an icy self-mastery, in the words of one of his ministers, he had a smile that cut like a sword. After living in the Netherlands in the years of his reign. Although sometimes described as a monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority
Philip II of Spain
–
'The Baptism of Phillip II' in
Valladolid, Spain. Historical ceiling preserved in Palacio de Pimentel (
Valladolid).
Philip II of Spain
Philip II of Spain
–
Portrait of Philip II on 1/5 Philipsdaalder, struck 1566, Guelders, Low Countries.
Philip II of Spain
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Titian 's portrait of Philip as prince, aged about twenty-four dressed in a magnificent, lavishly decorated set of armour. The whiteness of his skin corresponds to his white stockings and the greenish golden sheen on his armour. In this way, the prince's pale complexion appears more distinguished.
6.
Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal
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Joanna of Austria was the mother of Sebastian of Portugal, and later regent of Spain for her brother, Philip II of Spain. She was born in Madrid to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and her siblings were King Philip II of Spain and Maria, Holy Roman Empress. Among others, Joanna held the titles of an Archduchess of Austria, Infanta of Castile and of Aragon, joannas only child, Sebastian of Portugal, was born posthumously in 1554, a couple of weeks after her husbands death at the age of 16. Shortly after Sebastians birth, Joanna was called back to Madrid by her brother Philip to act as regent during his absence in England and she filled this role with intelligence and efficiency. Joanna never remarried and never returned to Portugal and she never saw her son Sebastian again, although she sent him letters and had portraits of him painted at various ages so she could see what he looked like. This convent is now a monument and holds an art collection. It was founded in the palace where Joanna was born. Joanna repeatedly intervened in favor of the new order of the Jesuits, in 1555, she is reputed to have been admitted surreptitiously to the male-only Jesuit order under the name of a pseudonym, Mateo Sánchez
Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal
–
Joanna of Austria;
Sánchez Coello, 1557.
Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal
–
Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal; by
Cristóvão de Morais, 1551.
7.
Carlos, Prince of Asturias
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Several of the Carlist pretenders to the Spanish throne were also known as Don Carlos. Carlos, Prince of Asturias, also known as Don Carlos, was the eldest son and his mother was Maria Manuela of Portugal, daughter of John III of Portugal. Carlos was mentally unstable and was imprisoned by his father in early 1568 and his fate was a theme in Spains Black Legend, and inspired a play by Friedrich Schiller and an opera by Giuseppe Verdi. Carlos was born at Valladolid on 8 July 1545 and his mother, María Manuela of Portugal, died four days later from a haemorrhage she had suffered after the birth. The young Infante Carlos was delicate and deformed and he grew up proud and willful and, as a young adult, began to show signs of mental instability. Many of his physical and psychological afflictions may have stemmed from the common to the House of Habsburg. Carlos had only four great-grandparents instead of the maximum of eight, in 1559 Prince Carlos was betrothed to Elizabeth of Valois, eldest daughter of King Henry II of France. However, for reasons, she instead married King Philip in 1560. It was agreed in 1564 that Carlos should marry Anna, Carlos was recognized in 1560 as the heir-apparent to the Castilian throne, and three years later as heir-apparent to the Crown of Aragon as well. He became also the 218th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece and he often attended meetings of the Council of State and was in correspondence with his aunt Margaret, who governed the Low Countries in his fathers name. In 1562 Carlos fell down a flight of stairs, which caused serious head injuries and his life was saved by a trepanation of the skull, performed by the eminent anatomist Andreas Vesalius. After his recovery, Carlos became wild and unpredictable in his behavior and he took a dislike to the Duke of Alba, who became the commander of Philips forces in the Netherlands, a position that had been promised to Carlos. Carlos possibly made contacts with representative of the Count Egmont from the Low Countries and he also exhibited an antipathy towards his father, whose murder, according to Carlos confessor, he supposedly contemplated at one time. In the autumn of 1567 he made preparations to flee to the Netherlands, however, John of Austria, whom Carlos tried to draw into his plans, revealed everything to King Philip. Carlos remained in confinement at the Alcázar of Madrid until his death six months later. It was later claimed that he was poisoned on the orders of King Philip, especially by William the Silent in his Apology, modern historians think that Don Carlos died of natural causes. He grew very thin and developed eating disorders during his imprisonment, Carlos left an unfavourable impression on some foreign ambassadors. Another Venetian, Paolo Tiepolo, wrote, He wished neither to study nor to take physical exercise, the idea of King Philip confining and murdering his own son later played a minor role in establishing the anti-Spanish Black Legend
Carlos, Prince of Asturias
–
Portrait by
Alonso Sánchez Coello, 1564.
Carlos, Prince of Asturias
–
Portrait of Don Carlos by
Sofonisba Anguissola, 1560
8.
Isabella Clara Eugenia
–
Isabella Clara Eugenia was sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands in the Low Countries and the north of modern France, together with her husband Albert VII, Archduke of Austria. In some sources, she is referred to as Clara Isabella Eugenia, by birth, she was an infanta of Spain and Portugal. Isabella Clara Eugenia of Austria was born in the Palacio del bosque de Valsaín, Segovia on 12 August 1566, daughter of Philip II of Spain and her paternal grandparents were Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. Her maternal grandparents were Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici and her father, Philip II, was reportedly overjoyed at her birth and declared himself to be happier on the occasion than he would have been at the birth of a son. Isabellas mother, Elisabeth of Valois, had originally been betrothed to Don Carlos, despite the significant age difference between them, Philip was very attached to Elisabeth, staying close by her side even when she was ill with smallpox. Elisabeths first pregnancy in 1564 ended in a miscarriage of twin daughters and she later gave birth to Isabella Clara Eugenia on 12 August 1566, and then to Isabellas younger sister Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain 10 October 1567. Elisabeth miscarried a daughter in 1568 and died the same day, Isabella grew up with her sister Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain, beloved by her father and her stepmother Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain, Philips fourth wife. Philip ultimately fathered five children by Anna, all of whom died in childhood except his heir. Isabella was also the person whom Philip permitted to help him with his work, sorting his papers. Since 1568, at the age of two, Isabella Clara Eugenia was promised to marry Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, son of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, Maria was a daughter of her paternal grandparents Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Isabella of Portugal. Isabella Clara Eugenia, however, had to wait for more than 20 years before the eccentric Rudolf declared that he had no intention of marrying anybody, at any rate, Isabella Clara Eugenias mother had ceded any claim to the French crown with her marriage to Philip II. However the Parlement de Paris, in power of the Catholic party and her father decided to cede the Spanish Netherlands to her on condition that she marry her cousin, Albert VII, Archduke of Austria. They were to reign over the Netherlands jointly as duke/count and duchess/countess and it was also stipulated that, should they have no children, the Netherlands would revert to the King of Spain upon the death of either spouse. On 18 April 1599, being 33 years old, she married Albert, Albert was the joint sovereign of the Seventeen Provinces and the former viceroy of Portugal. As Albert also was the Archbishop of Toledo, he had to be released from his religious commitments by Pope Clement VIII before the wedding could take place. Shortly before Philip II died on 13 September 1598, he renounced his rights to the Netherlands in favor of his daughter Isabella and her fiancé. Beginning in 1601, the couple ruled the Spanish Netherlands together, a false anecdote links Isabella, the siege of Ostend, and the horse coat colour isabelline. The reign of Albert and Isabella is considered the Golden Age of the Spanish Netherlands, the reign of the Archduke Albert of Austria and Archduchess Isabella Clara Eugenia is a key period in the history of the Spanish Netherlands
Isabella Clara Eugenia
–
Portrait by
Frans Pourbus the Younger
Isabella Clara Eugenia
–
Isabella and her
dwarf, c. 1599
Isabella Clara Eugenia
–
Isabella Clara Eugenia and Archduke Albert
Isabella Clara Eugenia
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Jeton with portraits of
Albert VII, Archduke of Austria and Infanta Isabella of Spain, struck in Antwerp 1612. Obv: Portraits of Albert and Isabella. Rev: Eagle holding balance, date 1612.
9.
Philip IV of Spain
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Philip IV of Spain was King of Spain and Portugal as Philip III. He ascended the thrones in 1621 and reigned in Spain until his death, Philip is remembered for his patronage of the arts, including such artists as Diego Velázquez, and his rule over Spain during the challenging period of the Thirty Years War. Philip IV was born in Valladolid, and was the eldest son of Philip III and his wife, Philip had seven children by Elisabeth, with only one being a son, Balthasar Charles, who died at the age of sixteen in 1646. The death of his son deeply shocked the king, who appears to have been a father by the standards of the day. Philip remarried in 1646, following the deaths of both Elisabeth and his legitimate heir. Perceptions of Philips personality have altered considerably over time, victorian authors were inclined to portray him as a weak individual, delegating excessively to his ministers, and ruling over a debauched Baroque court. Victorian historians even attributed the death of Baltasar to debauchery. The doctors who treated the Prince at that time in fact diagnosed smallpox, Philip was idealised by his contemporaries as the model of Baroque kingship. Philip was a horseman, a keen hunter and a devotee of bull-fighting. Privately, Philip appears to have had a lighter persona, when he was younger, he was said to have a keen sense of humour and a great sense of fun. He privately attended academies in Madrid throughout his reign — these were lighthearted literary salons, aiming to analyse contemporary literature, a keen theatre-goer, he was sometimes criticised by contemporaries for his love of these frivolous entertainments. Others have captured his private personality as naturally kind, gentle and affable and those close to him claimed he was academically competent, with a good grasp of Latin and geography, and could speak French, Portuguese and Italian well. Like many of his contemporaries, including Olivares, he had a keen interest in astrology and his handwritten translation of Francesco Guicciardinis texts on political history still exists. Although Philips Catholic beliefs no longer attract criticism from English language writers, notably, from the 1640s onwards he sought the advice of a noted cloistered abbess, Sor María de Ágreda, exchanging many letters with her. By the end of the reign, and with the health of Carlos José in doubt, there was a possibility of Juan Josés making a claim on the throne. Philip IV came to power as the influence of the Sandovals was being undermined by a new noble coalition, over the course of at least a year, however, the relationship became very close, with Philips tendency towards underconfidence and diffidence counteracted by Olivares drive and determination. Philip retained Olivares as his confidant and chief minister for the twenty years. Philip himself argued that it was appropriate for the king himself to go house to house amongst his ministers to see if his instructions were being carried out
Philip IV of Spain
–
Painting by
Diego Velázquez, c.1644
Philip IV of Spain
–
Spanish Netherlands, gold souverain or 'Lion d'or', struck 1633 in Tournai under King Philip IV of Spain. Obv: Crowned lion brandishing a sword, 1633. Rev: Crowned shield of Philip IV within
Golden Fleece collar.
Philip IV of Spain
–
Philip pictured with his older sister,
Anne in 1612 by Bartolomé González y Serrano.
Philip IV of Spain
–
Painting of a youthful Philip IV in 1623 by
Diego Velázquez, displaying the prominent "
Habsburg lip ".
10.
Maria Anna of Spain
–
Maria Anna of Spain, was by birth Infanta of Spain and by marriage Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia as the wife of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor. Of her seven siblings, only four survived infancy, Anna, Philip IV of Spain, Charles, Maria Annas parents had a close kinship, her father was her mothers first cousin once-removed. From early childhood, Maria Anna has played an important role in the projects of her father. London and Madrid began active negotiations, the possible marriage between the Prince of Wales and the Spanish Infanta, was known in history under the name Spanish Match, and caused an internal political crisis in both England and Scotland. In 1623 the Prince of Wales, accompanied by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, however, Maria Anna did not wish to marry a Protestant and Charles would not convert to Catholicism. At the end, the wedding never took place not only for political reasons, Charles eventually married Henrietta Maria of France. At the end of 1626 Maria Anna was betrothed to the brother of her first fiance, Ferdinand. The formal engagement was preceded by a series of negotiations which were conducted in 1625 and that same year, Prince Ferdinand was crowned King of Hungary, and in 1627 King of Bohemia. In the negotiations were included all the aspects of the Infanta at the court of her future spouse. Despite the desire of the groom that Maria Annas confessor would be the Jesuit Ambrosio Penalosa, Maria Anna had left Madrid for Vienna in December 1629. The travel took more than a year, enroute by sea, in Genoa complications arose due to an epidemic of the plague that erupted in the Italian Peninsula. For this reason, the cortege was unable to stop in Bologna, the cortege moved to Naples, where Maria Anna finally received the award. Leaving the Kingdom of Naples, the Infanta crossed the Papal States, on this section of her journey Maria Anna was accompanied by Roman aristocracy, led by another nephew of Pope Urban VIII, Taddeo Barberini, Prince of Palestrina. On 26 January 1631 she arrived in Trieste, where she met Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria, her future brother-in-law and that day, Maria Anna was married to King Ferdinand of Hungria-Bohemia per procura with Archduke Leopold Wilhelm serving as the proxy. Before the official wedding, King Ferdinand, not trusting the previous portraits that he had seen of the Infanta, the Royal oberhofmeister asked for an audience with Maria Anna, on this visit, he was accompanied by some nobles, among whom was her groom. Struck by the beauty of the Infanta, King Ferdinand immediately revealed his identity, the love and respect that the future emperor felt for his wife lasted through all their marriage. He was never unfaithful to her or had illegitimate children, in Vienna on 20 February 1631 Maria Anna was formally married with King Ferdinand of Hungary-Bohemia, with festivities lasting a month. The marriage was described as friendly, Maria Anna was described as happy-tempered, friendly, and intelligent, and she able to ease the feelings of the melancholic Ferdinand
Maria Anna of Spain
–
'
Infanta Maria Anna of Austria, future Empress ' by Velazquez, 1630.
Maria Anna of Spain
–
Maria Ana, Holy Roman Empress, by
Frans Luycx, ca. 1638, Visitationist Monastery in
Warsaw
Maria Anna of Spain
–
Engraving of Maria Anna
Maria Anna of Spain
–
Empress Maria Anna with her eldest son, Ferdinand, painting by Frans Luycx, 1634
11.
Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias
–
The only son of King Philip IV of Spain and his first wife, Elisabeth of France. He was baptized on November 4,1629 in the Parish of St. Juan, after the Catalan revolt of 1640, Philip IV tried to win over Aragon to raise money and men for the new war front. One of the steps taken towards this end was to bring the Prince Balthasar Charles to be sworn as crown prince of the Kingdom of Aragón. The oath was held on 20 August 1645, when the prince was sixteen years old, in the Cathedral of the Savior and this titled him as Prince of Gerona, Governor General of Aragon, Duke of Montblanc, Count of Cervera and Lord of the City of Balaguer. Meanwhile, on 13 November of that year, Balthasar Charles was also sworn as heir to the Kingdom of Valencia, after the ceremony, the royal family moved to Zaragoza. On October 5, the eve of second anniversary of the death of Queen Elisabeth, Philip IV and that evening, the prince was ill and the next day, Saturday October 6, he had to stay in bed while the king went to the funeral. The disease, smallpox, spread rapidly, and on Tuesday, October 9, at eight in the morning, at nine pm that same day, October 9, Prince Balthasar Charles died. His remains were kept in Zaragoza until the night of October 16, when they were transferred to the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial. The king fell into a deep unease as noted in a letter his spiritual advisor, Sister Maria de Agreda, not agreeing owed him or us otherwise. Moreover, many authors devoted their works to the young prince, / AND / DEDICATED TO / HIS / SERENE HIGHNESS / Don Baltasar Carlos / Prince of Spain / Y / From the New World. Media related to Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias at Wikimedia Commons
Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias
–
Portrait of Prince Balthasar Charles (c. 1642) by
Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo,
Porczyński Gallery in
Warsaw
Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias
Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias
–
Balthasar Charles with a court dwarf, by Velázquez, 1631
Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias
–
Balthasar Charles, in his hunting attire, by Velázquez, 1635
12.
Margaret Theresa of Spain
–
Margaret Theresa of Spain, was by marriage Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Archduchess consort of Austria, Queen consort of Hungary and Bohemia. Margaret Theresa was born on 12 July 1651 in Madrid as the first child of King Philip IV of Spain born from his marriage with his niece Archduchess Mariana of Austria. Because of this marriage, Margarets mother was nearly thirty years younger than her father. On her fathers side, Margarets grandparents were King Philip III of Spain, on her mothers side her grandparents were Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor and his wife Infanta Maria Anna of Spain. The marriage of her parents was purely made for reasons, mainly the search for a new male heir for the Spanish throne after the early death of Balthasar Charles. Besides him, the only surviving child of Philip IVs first marriage was the Infanta Maria Theresa. After Margaret, between 1655 and 1661, four children were born from the marriage between Philip IV and Mariana of Austria, but only one survived infancy, the future King Charles II of Spain. Margaret didnt develop the health issues and disabilities that her younger brother showed since his birth. During her childhood she was seriously ill, but survived. According to contemporaries, Margaret had an appearance and lively character. Her parents and close friends called her the little angel and she grew up in the Queens chambers in the Royal Alcazar of Madrid surrounded by many maids and servants. The Infanta loved candies, which she hid from the physicians who cared for the health of her teeth. Margarets father and maternal grandfather Emperor Ferdinand III love her deeply, in his private letters King Philip IV called her my joy. At the same time, Margaret was brought up in accordance with the etiquette of the Madrid court. In the second half of the 1650s at the court in Vienna the necessity developed for another dynastic marriage between the Spanish and Austrian branches of the House of Habsburg. The union was needed to strengthen the position of countries, especially against the Kingdom of France. At first the proposals were for Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of Philip IV, to marry the heir of the Holy Roman Empire, then began discussion about a marriage between Margaret and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. However, the Madrid court hesitated to agree with this proposal, Philip IV already planned to give his younger daughter in marriage to King Charles II of England, in order to prevent his marriage with Catherine of Braganza
Margaret Theresa of Spain
–
Margarita Teresa in 1667, by
Jan Thomas van Ieperen,
Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna
Margaret Theresa of Spain
–
Las Meninas (1656) by
Diego Velázquez,
Prado Museum,
Madrid.
Margaret Theresa of Spain
–
Infanta Margarita Teresa in pink dress (1654) by
Diego Velázquez,
Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna.
Margaret Theresa of Spain
–
Infanta Margarita Teresa in silver dress (1656) by
Diego Velázquez,
Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna.
13.
Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias
–
Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias was the first son of Philip IV of Spain and Mariana of Austria to survive infancy. After Balthasar Charless early demise, Philip was left with his daughter Maria Theresa as heir presumptive, in early 1657, astrologers assured Philip that another child was to be born to him and it would be a boy who would live. A strict and devout Roman Catholic, Philip ate nothing but eggs on the first day of the Vigil of the Presentation of the Virgin, in hopes of his wife delivering a male child. Indeed, at 11,30 in the morning on November 28 of the same year and she soon fell sick of the birthing fever, but nobody seemed to mind, they were all rejoicing upon the birth of a male heir. Barrionuevo, a chronicler of the time, wrote of this rejoicing, Following Roman Catholic custom, astrologers predicted nothing but greatness for his future, while Philip was still unsure that he had not thanked God enough for this immense joy. In a letter to his friend Sor María de Ágreda, he wrote that the newborn babe is doing well, but also made a reference to the bitter memory of his eldest sons demise. On December 6,1657, Philip rode into the streets of Madrid. The baptism took place one week later on December 13. The Holy Water was brought from the Jordan River by some friars who had returned from Jordan. The christening cost Philip 600,000 ducats, however, due to generations of inbreeding, Philip Prospero was severely epileptic. The inbreeding was so widespread in his case all of his eight great-grandparents were descendants of Joanna of Castile. Thus in 1658, Philip Prospero was sworn in as heir of his father, nevertheless, he did not enjoy good health and constantly had to carry an amulet with him, an amulet which is present in Velázquezs painting of him. The outcome of the negotiations was the Treaty of the Pyrenees, the first portrait of Philip Prospero to come down to us was painted by Velazquez in 1659, the year Philip felt he could safely agree to the terms of the treaty with France. This portrait and one of Margaret Theresa were made that year for the Emperor Leopold I, their mothers brother, in the painting the prince appears to be around three years old. He stands before a black background, the blackness of which is repeated in his eyes. His wrist limply rests over the back of a chair in which lies an equally limp. In Velazquezs honest depiction the babys eyes have a faint gray-blue-brown hollowness around them and his luminous face and hands and his white muslin smock are accented by the warm red of his gown and are a brightness against the subdued, somber background colors. By contrast nearly thirty years earlier Velazquez painted a robust Balthasar Charles at age two or three staff, sword, exuberant sash and plumed hat
Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias
–
1659 portrait by
Diego Velázquez
14.
Charles II of Spain
–
Charles II of Spain was the last Habsburg ruler of Spain. His realm included Southern Netherlands, Italian territories, several cities in north Africa and Spains overseas empire, known as the Bewitched, he is noted for his extensive physical, intellectual, and emotional disabilities and his consequent ineffectual rule. He died in 1700, childless and heirless, with all potential Habsburg successors having predeceased him, in his will, Charles named as his successor the almost 17-year-old Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Charles half-sister Maria Theresa of Spain, the first wife of Louis XIV. Charles was born in the Spanish capital, Madrid, the son of Philip IV of Spain and his second wife, Mariana of Austria. As the only surviving heir of his fathers two marriages, Charles was named Prince of Asturias, the title given to the person first in line to the Spanish throne. The Spanish branch of the Habsburg royal family was noted for extreme consanguinity, well aware that they owed their power to fortunate marriages, they married between themselves to protect their gains. Philip and Mariana were actually uncle and niece, therefore, Charles was not only their son, Charles was physically and mentally disabled and infertile, possibly due to this massive inbreeding. Due to the deaths of his brothers, he was the last member of the male Spanish Habsburg line. Charles did not learn to speak until the age of four nor to walk until eight and his jaw was so badly deformed that he could barely speak or chew. Fearing the frail child would be overtaxed, his caretakers did not force Charles to attend school, the indolence of the young Charles was indulged to such an extent that at times he was not expected to be clean. The only vigorous activity in which Charles is known to have participated was shooting and he occasionally indulged in the sport in the preserves of El Escorial. The years of Charless reign were difficult for Spain, the economy was stagnant, there was hunger in the land, and the power of the monarchy over the various Spanish provinces was extremely weak. Spain’s finances were perpetually in crisis, Charles unfitness for rule meant he was often ignored, and power during his reign became the subject of court intrigues and foreign influence, particularly French and Austrian. Charles was three years old when his father, Philip IV, died on 17 September 1665, the Council of Castile appointed Philips second wife and Charles mother, Mariana of Austria, regent for the minor king. Charles inherited the Portuguese Restoration War and soon after his accession Spain was plunged into the War of Devolution with France in Spanish Netherlands, as regent, Mariana managed the countrys affairs through a series of favourites, whose merits usually amounted to no more than meeting her fancy. From then on he was the de facto prime minister or valido of Spain, the sheer size of the kingdom at that time made this kind of government increasingly damaging to the realms affairs. The treaty ceded the North African enclave of Ceuta to Spain, but marked the loss of Portugal, to end the War of Devolution, Nithard signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. However, the members of the Councils and in particular Charles illegitimate half-brother, in February 1669, a military revolt in Aragon and Catalonia led by Juan José, who then proceeded to march toward Madrid, brought about Nithards dismissal
Charles II of Spain
–
Charles II
Charles II of Spain
–
Charles wearing the robes of the
Order of the Golden Fleece, in about 1673, by
Juan Carreño de Miranda
Charles II of Spain
–
Charles II in his twenties
Charles II of Spain
–
Spanish gold coin minted in 1700, the last year of the reign of Charles II.
15.
Upper Palatinate
–
The Upper Palatinate is one of the seven administrative districts of Bavaria, Germany, located in the east of Bavaria. Major tourist attractions include the former ducal residences Regensburg with the Walhalla nearby and Amberg, scenic attractions include the river Danube and the Upper Palatine Forest. At the beginning of the High Middle Ages the region now known as the Upper Palatinate was part of the Bavarian March of the Nordgau, the region took its current name no earlier than the early 14th century. From the mid 13th century much of the region was controlled by the Wittelsbach dynasty, by the 1329 Treaty of Pavia, the Wittelsbach territories were divided between two branches of the dynasty. By contrast, the territory to the east centred Amberg became known as the Upper Palatinate, cadet branches of the Wittelsbach dynasty also ruled over smaller territories in Neuburg and Sulzbach. After the founding of the Kingdom of Bavaria the state was reorganised and, in 1808, divided into 15 administrative districts. They were created in the fashion of the French departments, quite even in size and population, in the following years, due to territorial changes, the number of Kreise in the kingdom was reduced to 8. One of these was the Regenkreis, in 1837 king Ludwig I of Bavaria renamed the Kreise after historical territorial names and tribes of the area. This also involved some border changes or territorial swaps, thus the district name of Regenkreis changed to Upper Palatinate. The development of railroads in the area is covered in the book Eisenbahn in der Oberpfalz. genealogy. net
Upper Palatinate
–
Walhalla
Upper Palatinate
–
Map of Bavaria highlighting the Regierungsbezirk of Upper Palatinate
16.
Valladolid
–
Valladolid is a city in Spain and the de facto capital of the autonomous community of Castile and León. It has a population of 309,714 people, making it Spains 13th most populous municipality and its metropolitan area ranks 20th in Spain with a population of 414,244 people in 23 municipalities. The city is situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within five winegrowing regions, Ribera del Duero, Rueda, Toro, Tierra de León, Valladolid was originally settled in pre-Roman times by the Celtic Vaccaei people, and later the Romans themselves. It remained a settlement until being re-established by King Alfonso VI of Castile as a Lordship for the Count Pedro Ansúrez in 1072. The Catholic Monarchs, Isabel I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, married in Valladolid in 1469 and established it as the capital of the Kingdom of Castile and later of united Spain. Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid in 1506, while authors Francisco de Quevedo, the city was briefly the capital of Habsburg Spain under Phillip III between 1601 and 1606, before returning indefinitely to Madrid. The city then declined until the arrival of the railway in the 19th century, among the events that are held each year in the city there is Holy Week, Valladolid International Film Week, and the Theatre Festival and street arts. There is no evidence for the origin of the modern name of Valladolid. Another theory suggests that the name derives from the Arabic expression Ballad Al-Walid بلد الوليد, yet a third claims that it derives from Vallis Olivetum, meaning valley of the olives. In texts from the ages the town is called Vallisoletum, meaning sunny valley. The city is popularly called Pucela, a nickname whose origin is not clear. Another theory is that Pucela comes from the fact that Pozzolana cement was sold there, the Vaccaei was a Celtic tribe, the first people with stable presence on the sector of the middle valley of the River Duero documented in historical times. Remains of Celtiberian and of a Roman camp have been excavated near the city, the nucleus of the city was originally located in the area of the current San Miguel y el Rosarillo square, and was surrounded by a palisade. Archaeological proofs of the existence of three ancient lines of walls have been found, the area was captured from the Moors in the 10th century, and Valladolid was a village until King Alfonso VI of León and Castile donated it to Count Pedro Ansúrez in 1072. He built a palace for himself and his wife, Countess Eylo, the Collegiate of St. Mary, in 1469 Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon were married in the city, by the 15th century Valladolid was the residence of the kings of Castile. In 1506 Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid still convinced that he had reached the Indies in a house that is now a Museum dedicated to him and it was made the capital of the kingdom again between 1601 and 1606 by Philip III. The city was damaged by a flood of the rivers Pisuerga. Despite the damage to the old city by the 1960s economic boom, the Science Museum is next to the river Pisuerga
Valladolid
–
City Hall in the Plaza Mayor
Valladolid
–
'A
jousting tournament in the main square of Valladolid', historical ceiling preserved in Prado Museum
Valladolid
–
Map of the territory of the
Vaccaei
Valladolid
–
Winter in the city gardens
17.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
18.
House of Habsburg
–
The House of Habsburg, also called House of Hapsburg, or House of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740, from the sixteenth century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they maintained close relations. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbot of Klettgau. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the name as his own. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, by 1276, Count Radbots seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the familys power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. A series of dynastic marriages enabled the family to expand its domains to include Burgundy, Spain and its colonial empire, Bohemia, Hungary. In the 16th century, the separated into the senior Habsburg Spain and the junior Habsburg Monarchy branches. The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century, the senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine, the new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. His grandson Radbot, Count of Habsburg founded the Habsburg Castle, the origins of the castles name, located in what is now the Swiss canton of Aargau, are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German Habichtsburg, or from the Middle High German word hab/hap meaning ford, the first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. The Habsburg Castle was the seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, in the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other families such as the House of Kyburg. By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV had become one of the most influential territorial lords in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance
House of Habsburg
–
House of Habsburg
House of Habsburg
–
Growth of the Habsburg Empire in Central Europe.
House of Habsburg
–
A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the
Battle of Mühlberg (1547) as depicted in The Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green, but do not include the lands of the
Holy Roman Empire over which they presided, nor the vast Castilian holdings outside of Europe, particularly in the
New World.
House of Habsburg
–
Spanish branch's family tree with connections to Emperors' branch
19.
Grandee of Spain
–
Grandees of Spain are the highest-ranking members of the Spanish nobility. They comprise nobles who hold the most important historical landed titles in Spain or its former colonies, many such hereditary titles are held by heads of families, having been acquired via strategic marriages between landed families. All Grandees, of which there were three ranks, are now deemed to be of equal status, this designation is nowadays titular. A grandeza de España can be regardless of possession of a title of nobility. Almost without exception, grandezas have been granted with Spanish ducal titles, Grandees and their consorts are entitled to the honorific prefix of The Most Excellent. In written form, their names are followed by the post-nominals GdeE, grandee Spanish nobility Hidalgo Fidalgo www. diputaciondelagrandeza. es
Grandee of Spain
–
Coronet of a Grandee of Spain
20.
Complutense University
–
The Complutense University of Madrid is a public research university located in Madrid, and one of the oldest universities in the world. The university enrolls over 86,000 students, and consistently ranks as one of the top universities in Spain, according to the Spanish newspaper El Mundo, the university is widely regarded as the most prestigious academic institution in Spain. In the course of seven centuries, the University of Madrid has provided invaluable contributions in the sciences, fine arts. Alumni include renowned philosophers, writers, scientists, historians, military leaders, foreign leaders, in the year 1785, the University of Madrid became one of the first Universities in the world to grant a Doctorate degree to a female student. By Royal Decree of 1857, the University of Madrid was the institution in Spain authorized to grant doctorates throughout the Spanish Empire. On 13 April 1499, Cardinal Cisneros secured from Pope Alexander VI a Papal bull to expand Complutense into a full university and this Papal Bull conferred official recognition throughout Christendom to all degrees granted by the University. It also renamed the institution Universitas Complutensis, after Complutum, which was the Latin name of Alcalá de Henares, in the 1509–1510 school year, the Complutense University already operated with five major schools, Arts and Philosophy, Theology, Canon law, Philology and Medicine. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Complutense University became one of the greatest centers of Academic excellence in the world, many of the leading figures in science, arts and politics of that Age studied or taught in Complutenses classrooms. Special colleges were created for students of foreign origin, such as Flemish or Irish, in 1785, Complutense became one of the first Universities in the world to grant a Doctorate to a female student, María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda. In comparison, University of Oxford did not accept female scholars until the year 1920, in 1824, Francisco Tadeo Calomarde further expanded Complutense by merging it with the University of Sigüenza. The University would be known under this name until its name of Complutense was restored in the 1970s. The University of Madrid awarded Albert Einstein a Doctor of Science degree Honoris Causa on 28 February 1923 and this was the first Doctor of Science degree Honoris Causa that Albert Einstein accepted from a European University. However, as the situation began to deteriorate throughout Europe. The University greatly expanded during the 19th century, and its accommodations in central Madrid proved to be increasingly inadequate. This situation changed in 1927, when by royal decree King Alfonso XIII officially ceded state-held lands in the proximity of the Palace of La Moncloa to establish space for the University of Madrid. A council appointed by King Alfonso XIII had decided that the new University of Madrid would require the innovative architecture and planning. Indeed, the buildings, exemplary amongst them the Schools of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odontology, are an homage to structural functionalism. The city of Alcalá de Henares decided to open a university within the campus buildings
Complutense University
–
Cardinal Cisneros expanded the existing Studium Generale into a large five-college University
Complutense University
–
Complutense University of Madrid
Complutense University
–
Paraninfo of the Complutense University.
Complutense University
–
Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, with Faculty members of the University:
Albert Einstein, José Rodríguez Carracido,
Blas Cabrera y Felipe, among others, on 11 March 1923.
21.
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
–
Alexander Farnese was Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Castro from 1586 to 1592, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. He is best known for his successful campaign 1578-1592 against the Dutch Revolt, in which he captured the cities in the south. His talents as a commander, strategist and organizer earned him the regard of his contemporaries. Alessandro was the son of Duke Ottavio Farnese of Parma and Margaret and he had a twin brother, Charles, who only lived one month. His mother was the half-sister of Philip II of Spain and John of Austria and he led a significant military and diplomatic career in the service of Spain under the service of his uncle the King. He fought in the Battle of Lepanto and then in the Netherlands against the rebels and he accompanied his mother to Brussels when she was appointed Governor of the Netherlands. In 1565 his marriage with Maria of Portugal was celebrated in Brussels with great splendour and it was seven years before he again had the opportunity to display his great military talents. During that time the provinces of the Netherlands had revolted against Spanish rule. In the autumn of 1577, Farnese was sent to join Don John at the head of reinforcements, shortly afterwards Don John, whose health had broken down, died. Phillip appointed Farnese to take his place, both as Captain-General of the Army of Flanders, and as Governor-General, Farnese was confronted with a difficult situation. Perceiving that his opponents were divided between Catholic and Protestant, Fleming and Walloon, he worked to exploit these divisions. By this means, he regained the allegiance of the Walloon provinces for the king, by the treaty of Arras, January 1579, he secured the support of the Malcontents for the royal cause. The rebels in the seven northern provinces then formed the Union of Utrecht, formally abjuring Phillips rule, as soon as he had secured a base of operations in Hainaut and Artois, Farnese set himself in earnest to the task of reconquering Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. Town after town fell under his control, tournai, Maastricht, Breda, Bruges, and Ghent opened their gates. In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, he proved his mettle and he finally laid siege to the great seaport of Antwerp. The town was open to the sea, strongly fortified, and defended with resolute determination and they were led by the famous Marnix van St. Aldegonde and assisted by an ingenious Italian engineer named Federigo Giambelli. The siege began in 1584 and called all of Farneses military genius. He cut off all access to Antwerp from the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt from Calloo to Oordam, the terms offered included the clause that all Protestants had to leave the city within four years
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
–
Portrait of Farnese by Jean Baptiste de Saive
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
–
Coat of Arms of the Farnese as dukes of Parma. Alexander did not use the inescutcheon of Portugal but his successors did.
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
–
Engraving of Alexander Farnese. The Netherlands, 1614
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
–
Arrival of the funeral procession of the Duke of Parma in Brussels 1592. Print from 'The Wars of Nassau' by
Willem Baudartius.
22.
Parma
–
Parma listen is a city in the northern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna famous for its prosciutto, cheese, architecture, music and surrounding countryside. It is home to the University of Parma, one of the oldest universities in the world, Parma is divided into two parts by the stream of the same name. The district on the far side of the river is Oltretorrente, Parmas Etruscan name was adapted by Romans to describe the round shield called Parma. The Italian poet Attilio Bertolucci wrote, As a capital city it had to have a river, as a little capital it received a stream, which is often dry. Parma was already an area in the Bronze Age. In the current position of the city rose a terramare, the terramare were ancient villages built of wood on piles according to a defined scheme and squared form, constructed on dry land and generally in proximity to the rivers. During this age the first necropolis were constructed, diodorus Siculus reported that the Romans had changed their rectangular shields for round ones, imitating the Etruscans. Whether the Etruscan encampment was so named because it was round, like a shield, the Roman colony was founded in 183 BC, together with Mutina,2,000 families were settled. Parma had an importance as a road hub over the Via Aemilia. It had a forum, in what is today the central Garibaldi Square, in 44 BC, the city was destroyed, and Augustus rebuilt it. During the Roman Empire, it gained the title of Julia for its loyalty to the imperial house, the city was subsequently sacked by Attila, and later given by the Germanic king Odoacer to his followers. During the Gothic War, however, Totila destroyed it and it was then part of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna and, from 569, of the Lombard Kingdom of Italy. Under Frankish rule, Parma became the capital of a county, like most northern Italian cities, it was nominally a part of the Holy Roman Empire created by Charlemagne, but locally ruled by its bishops, the first being Guibodus. In the subsequent struggles between the Papacy and the Empire, Parma was usually a member of the Imperial party, two of its bishops became antipopes, Càdalo, founder of the cathedral, as Honorius II, and Guibert, as Clement III. An almost independent commune was created around 1140, a treaty between Parma and Piacenza of 1149 is the earliest document of a comune headed by consuls, the struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines was a feature of Parma too. In 1213, her podestà was the Guelph Rambertino Buvalelli, then, after a long stance alongside the emperors, the Papist families of the city gained control in 1248. The city was besieged in 1247–48 by Emperor Frederick II, who was crushed in the battle that ensued. Parma fell under the control of Milan in 1341, after a short-lived period of independence under the Terzi family, the Sforza imposed their rule through their associated families of Pallavicino, Rossi, Sanvitale and Da Correggio
Parma
–
Palazzo del Governatore, Parma
Parma
–
Baptistery of Parma, 1196-1270
Parma
–
Parma in the 15th century
23.
List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
The Governor or Governor-General ruled the Habsburg Netherlands as a representative of the Dukes of Burgundy, the Kings of Castile, and the Archdukes of Austria. Thereafter, the French revolutionaries occupied the Low Countries until 1815, the Emperor formally recognized the loss of these territories by the Treaty of Lunéville of 1801. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the Low Countries were re-united in a union under the House of Orange-Nassau. In 1830, Belgium declared its independence, List of plenipotentiaries of Austrian Netherlands List of rulers of the Netherlands
List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
William de Croÿ (1458-1521)
List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Margaret of Austria (1480-1530)
List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Mary of Austria (1505-1558)
List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy (1528-1580)
24.
Habsburg Netherlands
–
Habsburg Netherlands is the collective name of Holy Roman Empire fiefs in the Low Countries held by the House of Habsburg and later by the Spanish Empire, also known as the Spanish Netherlands. Then known as Seventeen Provinces, they were held by the Spanish Empire from 1556, in 1581, the Seven United Provinces seceded to form the Dutch Republic, the remaining Spanish Southern Netherlands eventually passed on to Habsburg Austria. Finally the Austrian Netherlands were annexed by the French First Republic in 1795, the Habsburg Netherlands was a geo-political entity covering the whole of the Low Countries from 1482 to 1581. The centre of the Burgundian possessions was the Duchy of Brabant, deeply disappointed, he entered into the disastrous Burgundian Wars and was killed in the Battle of Nancy. Upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482, her possessions including the Burgundian Netherlands passed to her son. Through his father Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor from 1493, Philip was a Habsburg scion, the period 1481–1492 saw the Flemish cities revolt and Utrecht embroiled in civil war, but by the turn of the century both areas had been pacified by the Spanish rulers. Philips son Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, born in Ghent, succeeded his father in 1506 and his grandfather Emperor Maximilian I incorporated the Burgundian heritage into the Burgundian Circle, whereafter the territories in the far west of the Empire developed a certain grade of autonomy. Attaining full age in 1515, Charles went on to rule his Burgundian heritage as a native Netherlander and he acquired the lands of Overijssel and the Bishopric of Utrecht, purchased Friesland from Duke George of Saxony and regained Groningen and Gelderland. His Seventeen Provinces were re-organised in the 1548 Burgundian Treaty, whereby the Imperial estates represented in the Imperial Diet at Augsburg acknowledged a certain autonomy of the Netherlands. It was followed by a sanction by the Emperor the next year. By a 1522 inheritance treaty with his younger brother Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria, Emperor Charles V had established the Austrian, upon his abdication in 1556, the Seventeen Provinces fell to the Spanish Crown. Charless son and successor King Philip II of Spain by his despotism and Catholic persecutions sparked the Dutch Revolt, the Spanish hold on the northern provinces was more and more tenuous. In 1579 the northern provinces established the Protestant Union of Utrecht, after the secession of 1581, the southern provinces, called t Hof van Brabant remained with the House of Habsburg until the French Revolutionary Wars. After the extinction of the Spanish Habsburgs and the War of the Spanish Succession, the southern provinces were also known as the Austrian Netherlands from 1715 onwards
Habsburg Netherlands
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Flag
25.
Malta
–
Malta, officially known as the Republic of Malta, is a Southern European island country consisting of an archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. It lies 80 km south of Italy,284 km east of Tunisia, the country covers just over 316 km2, with a population of just under 450,000, making it one of the worlds smallest and most densely populated countries. The capital of Malta is Valletta, which at 0.8 km2, is the smallest national capital in the European Union, Malta has one national language, which is Maltese, and English as an official language. John, French and British, have ruled the islands, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to Malta in 1942 for the countrys bravery in the Second World War. The George Cross continues to appear on Maltas national flag, the country became a republic in 1974, and although no longer a Commonwealth realm, remains a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004, in 2008, Catholicism is the official religion in Malta. The origin of the term Malta is uncertain, and the modern-day variation derives from the Maltese language, the most common etymology is that the word Malta derives from the Greek word μέλι, meli, honey. The ancient Greeks called the island Μελίτη meaning honey-sweet, possibly due to Maltas unique production of honey, an endemic species of bee lives on the island. The Romans went on to call the island Melita, which can be considered either as a latinisation of the Greek Μελίτη or the adaptation of the Doric Greek pronunciation of the same word Μελίτα. Another conjecture suggests that the word Malta comes from the Phoenician word Maleth a haven or port in reference to Maltas many bays, few other etymological mentions appear in classical literature, with the term Malta appearing in its present form in the Antonine Itinerary. The extinction of the hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on Malta. Prehistoric farming settlements dating to the Early Neolithic period were discovered in areas and also in caves. The Sicani were the tribe known to have inhabited the island at this time and are generally regarded as being closely related to the Iberians. Pottery from the Għar Dalam phase is similar to found in Agrigento. A culture of megalithis temple builders then either supplanted or arose from this early period, the temples have distinctive architecture, typically a complex trefoil design, and were used from 4000 to 2500 BCE. Animal bones and a knife found behind an altar stone suggest that temple rituals included animal sacrifice. Tentative information suggests that the sacrifices were made to the goddess of fertility, the culture apparently disappeared from the Maltese Islands around 2500 BC. Archaeologists speculate that the builders fell victim to famine or disease
Malta
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Ġgantija megalithic temple complex
Malta
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Flag
Malta
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The temple complex of
Mnajdra
Malta
–
Roman mosaic from
Rabat, Malta.
26.
Barcelona
–
Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. Barcelona has a cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre. Particularly renowned are the works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona, the city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments. It is a cultural and economic centre in southwestern Europe, 24th in the world. In 2008 it was the fourth most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union, in 2012 Barcelona had a GDP of $170 billion, it is leading Spain in both employment rate and GDP per capita change. In 2009 the city was ranked Europes third and one of the worlds most successful as a city brand, since 2011 Barcelona has been a leading smart city in Europe. During the Middle Ages, the city was known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelonaa. Internationally, Barcelonas name is abbreviated to Barça. However, this refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club. The common abbreviated form used by locals is Barna, another common abbreviation is BCN, which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport. The city is referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan. The origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear, the ruins of an early settlement have been excavated in the El Raval neighbourhood, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends, the first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules. In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum centred on the Mons Taber, under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia, or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens, the city minted its own coins, some from the era of Galba survive. Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, also known as the Basilica La Seu, is said to have founded in 343
Barcelona
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Central business district,
Sagrada Família,
Camp Nou stadium,
The Castle of the Three Dragons,
Palau Nacional,
W Barcelona hotel and beach
Barcelona
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A marble plaque in the Museu d'Història de la Ciutat de Barcelona, dated from around 110-130 AD and dedicated to the Roman colony of Barcino
Barcelona
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Basilica of La Mercè (Mare de Déu de la Mercè)
Barcelona
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Barcelona in 1563
27.
Spanish Netherlands
–
Spanish Netherlands, French, Pays-Bas espagnols) was the collective name of States of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries, held in personal union by the Spanish Crown from 1581 to 1714. This region comprised most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as parts of northern France, the Imperial fiefs of the former Burgundian Netherlands had been inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg from the extinct House of Valois-Burgundy upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482. The Seventeen Provinces formed the core of the Habsburg Netherlands which passed to the Spanish Habsburgs upon the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556. When part of the Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581 and his granddaughter Mary had confirmed a number of privileges to the States by the Great Privilege signed in 1477. After the government takeover by her husband Archduke Maximilian I of Austria, Maximilian prevailed with the support of Duke Albert III of Saxony and his son Philip the Handsome could assume the rule over the Habsburg Netherlands in 1493. The Habsburgs often used the term Burgundy to refer to their lands, actually until 1795. In 1522 Emperor Charles V concluded a treaty with his younger brother Archduke Ferdinand I of Habsburg, whereby the House of Habsburg split into an Austrian. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles declared the Seventeen Provinces a united, the Seventeen Provinces, de jure still fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, from that time on de facto were ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as part of the Burgundian heritage. Philips despotism and his stern Counter-Reformation measures sparked the Dutch Revolt in the mainly Calvinist Netherlandish provinces, the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs could only retain the rule over the partly Catholic Southern Netherlands, completed after the Fall of Antwerp in 1585. Better times came, when in 1598 the Spanish Netherlands passed to Philips daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia, in the early 17th century, there was a flourishing court at Brussels. Among the artists who emerged from the court of the Archdukes, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 the French annexed Artois and Cambrai, and Dunkirk was ceded to the English. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and Nijmegen, further territory up to the current Franco-Belgian border was ceded, including Walloon Flanders, later, in the War of the Reunions and the Nine Years War, France annexed other parts of the region. During the War of the Spanish Succession, in 1706 the Habsburg Netherlands became an Anglo-Dutch condominium for the remainder of the conflict. By the peace treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt in 1713/14 ending the war, the Southern Netherlands fell back to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy forming the Austrian Netherlands
Spanish Netherlands
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Jeton with portraits of the Archdukes
Albert VII, Archduke of Austria and
Infanta Isabella of Spain, struck in Antwerp 1612. Obv: Portraits of Albert and Isabella. Rev: Eagle holding balance, date 1612.
Spanish Netherlands
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Flag
28.
Galley
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A galley is a type of ship that is propelled mainly by rowing. The galley is characterized by its long, slender hull, shallow draft, virtually all types of galleys had sails that could be used in favorable winds, but human strength was always the primary method of propulsion. This allowed galleys to navigate independently of winds and currents, Galleys were the warships used by the early Mediterranean naval powers, including the Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans. They remained the dominant types of vessels used for war and piracy in the Mediterranean Sea until the last decades of the 16th century and they were the first ships to effectively use heavy cannons as anti-ship weapons. As highly efficient gun platforms they forced changes in the design of medieval seaside fortresses as well as refinement of sailing warships. The zenith of galley usage in warfare came in the late 16th century with battles like that at Lepanto in 1571, by the 17th century, however, sailing ships and hybrid ships like the xebec displaced galleys in naval warfare. From the mid-16th century galleys were in intermittent use in the Baltic Sea, with its short distances, there was a minor revival of galley warfare in the 18th century in the wars between Russia, Sweden and Denmark. The term galley derives from the medieval Greek galea, a version of the dromon. The origin of the Greek word is unclear but could possibly be related to galeos, the word galley has been attested in English from c. It was only from the 16th century that a unified galley concept came in use, before that, particularly in antiquity, there was a wide variety of terms used for different types of galleys. Ancient galleys were named according to the number of oars, the number of banks of oars or lines of rowers, the terms are based on contemporary language use combined with more recent compounds of Greek and Latin words. The earliest Greek single-banked galleys are called triaconters and penteconters, for later galleys with more than one row of oars, the terminology is based on Latin numerals with the suffix -reme from rēmus, oar. A monoreme has one bank of oars, a two and a trireme three. Since the maximum banks of oars was three, any expansion above that did not refer to additional banks of oars, but of additional rowers for every oar. Quinquereme was literally a five-oar, but actually meant that there were several rowers to certain banks of oars which made up five lines of oar handlers, for simplicity, they have by many modern scholars been referred to as fives, sixes, eights, elevens, etc. Anything above six or seven rows of rowers was not common, any galley with more than three or four lines of rowers is often referred to as a polyreme. Oared military vessels built on the British Isles in the 11th to 13th centuries were based on Scandinavian designs, many of them were similar to birlinns, close relatives of longship types like the snekkja. By the 14th century, they were replaced with balingers in southern Britain while longship-type Irish galleys remained in use throughout the Middle Ages in northern Britain, Medieval and early modern galleys used a different terminology than their ancient predecessors
Galley
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A model of a Maltese design typical of the 16th century, the last great era of the war galley
Galley
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The English-built
Charles Galley, a "galley frigate" built in the 1670s. It was not a "true" galley, but the term still became part of its name due to its oars.
Galley
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Watercolor of United States ships at the
battle of Valcour Island, depicting several "
row galleys "; similar function, but based on very different designs than Mediterranean galleys.
Galley
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Assyrian warship, a
bireme with pointed bow. 700 BC
29.
El Escorial
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It is one of the Spanish royal sites and functions as a monastery, basilica, royal palace, pantheon, library, museum, university and hospital. It is situated 2.06 km up the valley from the town of El Escorial, El Escorial was, at once, a monastery and a Spanish royal palace. Originally a property of the Hieronymite monks, it is now a monastery of the Order of Saint Augustine and it is also a boarding school. Philip engaged the Spanish architect, Juan Bautista de Toledo, to be his collaborator in the design of El Escorial, Philip appointed him architect-royal in 1559, and together they designed El Escorial as a monument to Spains role as a center of the Christian world. On 2 November 1984, UNESCO declared The Royal Seat of San Lorenzo of El Escorial a World Heritage Site and it is a popular tourist attraction, often visited by day-trippers from Madrid – more than 500,000 visitors come to El Escorial every year. El Escorial is situated at the foot of Mt. Abantos in the Sierra de Guadarrama, Quentin in Picardy against Henry II, king of France. He also intended the complex to serve as a necropolis for the interment of the remains of his parents, Charles I and Isabella of Portugal, himself, in addition, Philip envisioned El Escorial as a center for studies in aid of the Counter-Reformation cause. The buildings cornerstone was laid on 23 April 1563, the design and construction were overseen by Juan Bautista de Toledo, who did not live to see the completion of the project. With Toledos death in 1567, direction passed to his apprentice, Juan de Herrera, under whom the building was completed in 1584, to this day, la obra de El Escorial is a proverbial expression for a thing that takes a long time to finish. Since then, El Escorial has been the site for most of the Spanish kings of the last five centuries. Two Bourbon kings, Philip V and Ferdinand VI, as well as King Amadeus, are not buried in the monastery, the floor plan of the building is in the form of a gridiron. The traditional belief is that design was chosen in honor of St. Lawrence. St. Lawrence’s feast day is 10 August, the date as the 1557 Battle of St. Quentin. In fact, however, the origin of the layout is quite controversial. The grill-like shape, which did not fully emerge until Herrera eliminated from the conception the six interior towers of the facade, was, by no means. In fact, palaces of this design were commonplace in the Byzantine. Statues of David and Solomon on either side of the entrance to the basilica of El Escorial lend further weight to the theory that this is the origin of the design. A more personal connection can be drawn between the David-warrior figure, representing Charles V, and his son, the stolid and solomonically prudent Philip II
El Escorial
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A distant view of the Royal Seat of San Lorenzo de El Escorial
El Escorial
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West facade of the monastery.
El Escorial
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El Escorial: floor plan, based on the floorplan of
Solomon's Temple.
El Escorial
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Courtyard of the Kings and the Basilica.
30.
Cartagena, Spain
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Cartagena is a Spanish city and a major naval station located in the Region of Murcia, by the Mediterranean coast, south-eastern Spain. As of January 2011, it has a population of 218,210 inhabitants being the Region’s second largest municipality, the metropolitan area of Cartagena, known as Campo de Cartagena, has a population of 409,586 inhabitants. Cartagena has been inhabited for two millennia, being founded around 227 BC by the Carthaginian Hasdrubal the Fair as Qart Hadasht. The city had its heyday during the Roman Empire, when it was known as Carthago Nova and Carthago Spartaria and it was one of the important cities during the Umayyad invasion of Hispania, under its Arabic name of Qartayannat al-Halfa. Much of the weight of Cartagena in the past goes to its coveted defensive port. Cartagena has been the capital of the Spanish Navys Maritime Department of the Mediterranean since the arrival of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century, as far back as the 16th century it was one of the most important naval ports in Spain, together with Ferrol in the North. It is still an important naval seaport, the main military haven of Spain, Cartagena is now established as a major cruise ship destination in the Mediterranean and an emerging cultural focus. It is the first of a number of cities that eventually have been named Cartagena, the city of Cartagena is located in the southeastern region of Spain in the Campo de Cartagena. The dominant geology of the region is metamorphic and sedimentary, the city is located just at the end of the new AP-7 motorway. The following villages are part of Cartagena municipality, La Azohía, Isla Plana, Los Urrutias, the Old Town is limited by five small hills following the example of Rome. In the past, there was a sea between the hills called the Estero that eventually dried up. On this site, the Ensanche was built at the beginning of the 20th Century, the urban area is delimited or crossed by several watercourses, some of which go deep into the urban network during a large part of their courses. Cartagena has a hot semi-arid climate and its location near the ocean moderates the temperature, and annual precipitation typically does not surpass 300 mm. The annual average temperature goes up to around 20.4 °C, the coldest month is January, with an average of 13.7 °C. In August, the warmest month, the temperature is 28.7 °C. The wind is an important climatic factor in the region, part of its area is subject to different levels of legal protection. Cartagena’s coastal mountains have a concentration of one of the largest botanical biodiversities of the Iberian Peninsula, European and African species are both present, as well as a number of remarkable Ibero-African species, which are only found on the southern coasts of Spain and North Africa. In addition, the presence of the chameleon has been documented for about 30 years
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena, Spain
31.
Alpujarras
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The Alpujarra is a natural and historical region in Andalusia, Spain, on the south slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the adjacent valley. The average elevation is 1,200 metres above sea level and it extends over two provinces, Granada and Almería, it is sometimes referred to in the plural as Las Alpujarras. There are several interpretations of this Arabic name, the most convincing is that it derives from al-basharāt, the Sierra Nevada runs west-to-east for about 80 km. It includes the two highest mountains in mainland Spain, the Mulhacén at 3479 m. and the Veleta, as the name implies, it is covered with snow in winter. The snow-melt in the spring and summer allows the slopes of the Sierra to remain green and fertile throughout the year. Water emerges from innumerable springs, human intervention has channeled it to terraced plots, there is also a developing production of quality wine on the hills between this valley and the sea, and almond trees thrive on its southern slopes. The eastern end of the Alpujarra, towards Ugijar in the province of Almería, is more arid. The terracing and the irrigation of the hillsides was the work of Berbers and they also created villages on the hillsides in the style to which they were accustomed in the mountains of North Africa, narrow, winding streets and small flat-roofed houses. Their attempts to force Christianity on the Muslim inhabitants led to revolts, the Rebellion of the Alpujarras. The revolt of 1568 was a struggle with the Spaniards deploying large forces against this rural population. The revolt ended with the death of the last Moorish leader in March 1571, the Catholic Monarchs ordered the expulsion of Moors from the territory of Granada, who were taken in forced marches to other parts of Spain. Only a few, considered to have converted to Christianity, were allowed to remain. Starting in 1571, settlers were brought in all over Spain. Though they were given financial incentives, the re-settlement provided difficult. The population of the Alpujarra, reckoned at about 40,000 before the revolt, was only about 7,000 by the end of the century. The isolation of this region caused it to remain poor and backward. The Civil War of 1936-39 was disastrous, as the opposing Nationalist, some villages changed hands more than once, and each time the victor exacted retribution over the vanquished. Even after the Nationalist victory in April 1939, guerrilla fighters in the mountains continued their struggle against the Guardia Civil and this conflict - which terrorized the villagers, caught between two fires - did not end till 1942 when the guerrilla leader was captured
Alpujarras
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The three villages of the Poqueira valley: Pampaneira, Bubión, Capileira; the Sierra Nevada in the background.
Alpujarras
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Location of las Alpujarras in Andalusia
Alpujarras
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Roofs and chimneys in Bubión; mountains of Morocco in the background
Alpujarras
–
Another typical Alpujarran village.
Busquístar
32.
Pope Pius V
–
Pope Saint Pius V, born Antonio Ghislieri, was Pope from 8 January 1566 to his death in 1572. He is venerated as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church and he is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardization of the Roman rite within the Latin Church. Pius V declared Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church, as a cardinal, Ghislieri gained a reputation for putting orthodoxy before personalities, prosecuting eight French bishops for heresy. By means of the bull of 1570, Regnans in Excelsis, Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth I of England for heresy. He also arranged the formation of the Holy League, an alliance of Catholic states, although outnumbered, the Holy League famously defeated the Ottoman Empire, which had threatened to overrun Europe, at the Battle of Lepanto. Pius V attributed the victory to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, biographers report that as the Battle of Lepanto ended, Pius rose and went over to a window, where he stood gazing toward the East. Then, turning around, he exclaimed The Christian fleet is victorious. Antonio Ghislieri was born 17 January 1504 in Bosco in the Duchy of Milan, Italy. At the age of fourteen he entered the Dominican Order, taking the name Michele, passing from the monastery of Voghera to that of Vigevano, ordained priest at Genoa in 1528, he was sent by his order to Pavia, where he lectured for sixteen years. At Parma he advanced thirty propositions in support of the papal chair and he became master of novices and was on several occasions elected prior of more than one Dominican priory. During a time of moral laxity, he insisted on discipline. He fasted, did penance, passed long hours of the night in meditation and prayer, traveled on foot without a cloak in deep silence, in 1556 he was made Bishop of Sutri by Pope Paul IV and was selected as inquisitor of the faith in Milan and Lombardy. In 1557 he was made a cardinal and named inquisitor general for all Christendom and his defense of the Archbishop of Toledo, who had been suspected of heresy by the Spanish Inquisition in earned him a rebuff from the Pope. Under Pope Pius IV he became bishop of Mondovi in Piedmont, frequently called to Rome, he displayed his unflinching zeal in all the affairs on which he was consulted. Thus he offered an insurmountable opposition to Pius IV when the latter wished to admit Ferdinand de Medici, then thirteen years old. His opposition to the pontiff procured his dismissal from the palace, before Michele Ghislieri could return to his episcopate, Pope Pius IV died. On 8 January 1566, Ghislieri, with the influential backing Charles Borromeo was elected to the papal throne and he was crowned ten days later, on his 62nd birthday by the protodeacon. His pontificate saw him dealing with reform of the Church, the spread of Protestant doctrines in the West. Three national synods were held during his pontificate at Naples under Alfonso Cardinal Caraffa, at Milan under Saint Charles Borromeo, accordingly, in order to implement a decision of that council, he standardised the Holy Mass by promulgating the 1570 edition of the Roman Missal
Pope Pius V
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Pope Saint Pius V
Pope Pius V
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Portrait by Scipione Pulzone, c. 1578
Pope Pius V
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Pope Pius V by
Palma il Giovane,
Chianciano Museum of Art
Pope Pius V
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Pius V depicted in an early printed missal
33.
Republic of Venice
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It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
Republic of Venice
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Sack of Constantinople
Republic of Venice
–
Flag
Republic of Venice
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Voyage of
Marco Polo into the Far East during the
Pax Mongolica
Republic of Venice
–
The
Piraeus Lion in
Venice - a spoil from Constantinople
34.
Sicily
–
Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
Sicily
–
Mount Etna rising over suburbs of Catania
Sicily
–
Sicily Sicilia
Sicily
–
Sicilian landscape
Sicily
–
Location of the
Salso
35.
Algiers
–
Algiers is the capital and largest city of Algeria. In 2011, the population was estimated to be around 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population of the metropolitan city to be around 5,000,000. Algiers is located on the Mediterranean Sea and in the portion of Algeria. The casbah and the two form a triangle. A Phoenician commercial outpost called Ikosim which later developed into a small Roman town called Icosium existed on what is now the quarter of the city. The rue de la Marine follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street, Roman cemeteries existed near Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. The city was given Latin rights by Emperor Vespasian, the bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present-day city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri and he had earlier built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algiers. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohads in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids. As early as 1302 the islet of Peñón in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards, thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, in 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards, Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers. Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen, was the founder of the pashaluk, Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 16th century Algiers turned to piracy, repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. The United States fought two wars over Algiers attacks on shipping, among the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes, who was captive in Algiers almost five years, and who wrote two plays set in Algiers of the period
Algiers
–
Clockwise: Buildings along the
Mediterranean coast of Algiers,
Martyrs Memorial,
Notre Dame d'Afrique,
Ketchaoua Mosque,
Casbah, the Grand Post Office and the
Ministry of Finance of Algeria
Algiers
–
Old Algiers in the 16th century, with the Spanish-built Peñón of Algiers in the forefront.
Algiers
–
Abraham Duquesne delivering Christian captives in Algiers after the bombing in 1683.
Algiers
–
Historic map of Algiers by
Piri Reis
36.
Andrea Doria
–
For the Italian ocean liner, see SS Andrea Doria. Andrea Doria was an Italian condottiero and admiral of the Republic of Genoa, Doria was born at Oneglia from the ancient Genoese family, the Doria di Oneglia branch of the old Doria, de Oria or de Auria family. His parents were related, Ceva Doria, co-lord of Oneglia, orphaned at an early age, he became a soldier of fortune, serving first in the papal guard and then under various Italian princes. In 1503 he was fighting in Corsica in the service of Genoa, at that time under French vassalage, and he took part in the rising of Genoa against the French, from that time onwards, he became famous as a naval commander. For several years he scoured the Mediterranean in command of the Genoese fleet, waging war on the Turks, in the meanwhile Genoa had been recaptured by the French, and in 1522 by the armies of the Holy Roman Emperor. Consequently, on the expiration of Dorias contract he entered the service of Emperor Charles V and he reformed the constitution in an aristocratic sense, most of the nobility being Imperialists, and put an end to the factions which divided the city, by creating 28 Alberghi or clans. The 28 Alberghi that formed this new ruling class included the Cybo, Doria, Fieschi, Giustiniani, Grimaldi, Imperiale, Pallavicino, and Spinola families. The title censor in this context was modeled on its meaning in the Roman Republic, i. e. a highly respected senior public official and he was given two palaces, many privileges, and the title of Liberator et Pater Patriae. As imperial admiral he commanded several expeditions against the Ottoman Empire, capturing Koroni and Patras, Charles found him an invaluable ally in the wars with Francis I, and through him extended his domination over the whole of Italy. This victory secured Turkish dominance over the eastern Mediterranean for the next 33 years and he accompanied Charles V on the ill-fated Algiers expedition of 1541, of which he disapproved, and which ended in disaster. For the next five years he continued to serve the emperor in various wars, in which he was successful and always active. After the Peace of Crépy between Francis and Charles in 1544, Doria hoped to end his days in quiet, giannettino was killed, but the conspirators were defeated, and Doria showed great vindictiveness in punishing them, seizing many of their fiefs for himself. He was also implicated in the murder of Pier Luigi Farnese, duke of Parma and Piacenza, other conspiracies followed, of which the most important was that of Giulio Cybo, but all failed. Nor did age lessen his energy, for in 1550, aged 84, he put to sea to confront the Barbary pirates. In 1552 the Ottoman fleet under the command of Turgut Reis defeated the Spanish-Italian fleet of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria in the Battle of Ponza. War between France and the Empire having broken out once more, the French seized Corsica in the Invasion of Corsica, Doria was again summoned, and he spent two years on the island fighting the French with varying fortune. Andrea Doria left his estates to Giovanni Andrea, the family of Doria-Pamphili-Landi is descended from Giovanni Andrea Doria and bears his title of Prince of Melfi. Several ships were named in honour of the Admiral, Two United States Navy ships named USS Andrew Doria, the battleship Andrea Doria, completed in 1916, which served in both World War I and World War II and was stricken in 1956
Andrea Doria
–
Portrait of Andrea Doria, c. 1520, by
Sebastiano del Piombo
Andrea Doria
–
Natal home of Andrea Doria, in Oneglia
Andrea Doria
–
Portrait of Andrea Doria as Neptune, by
Agnolo Bronzino
37.
Nicosia
–
Nicosia is the largest city on the island of Cyprus. It is located near the centre of the Mesaoria plain, on the banks of the River Pedieos, Nicosia is the capital and seat of government of the Republic of Cyprus, and as such is the farthest southeast of all EU member states capitals. It has been inhabited for over 4,500 years and has been the capital of Cyprus since the 10th century. The Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities of Nicosia segregated into the south and north of the city respectively in 1963, following the intercommunal violence that broke out in the city. Today, the part of the city is the capital of Northern Cyprus. Apart from its legislative and administrative functions, Nicosia has established itself as the financial capital. In 2012, Nicosia was the 5th richest city in the world in purchasing power. Nicosia has been in continuous habitation since the beginning of the Bronze Age 2500 years BC, Nicosia later became a city-state known as Ledra or Ledrae, one of the twelve kingdoms of ancient Cyprus built by Achaeans after the end of the Trojan War. Remains of old Ledra today can be found in the Ayia Paraskevi hill in the south east of the city and we only know about one king of Ledra, Onasagoras. The kingdom of Ledra was destroyed early, under Assyrian rule of Cyprus, Onasagoras was recorded as paying tribute to Esarhaddon of Assyria in 672 BC. By 330 BC, Ledra was recorded to be a small an unimportant town, according to tradition, the city was rebuilt by Leucus, claimed to be the son of Ptolemy I, around 300 BC or 200 BC, and named after him as Leucoton or Lefkotheon. The main activity of the inhabitants was farming. During this era, Ledra did not have the growth that the other Cypriot coastal towns had. In Byzantine times the town was referred to as Λευκωσία or as Καλληνίκησις. In the 4th century AD, the became the seat of bishopric, with bishop Saint Tryphillius. After the destruction of Salamis, the capital of Cyprus, by Arab raids in 647, Nicosia became the capital of the island around 965. The Byzantines moved the islands administration seat to Nicosia primarily for security reasons as coastal towns were often suffering from raids, from that point on it has remained as the capital of Cyprus. On his way to the Holy Land during the Third Crusade in 1187 and he himself stopped first at Crete and then at Rhodes
Nicosia
–
From upper left: Nicosia city skyline,
Ledra Street at night, courtyard of Nicosian houses,
Venetian walls of Nicosia, a Nicosian door in the old town, the
Buyuk Han, a quiet neighbourhood in the old town, Venetian houses, Nicosia Christmas fair,
Makariou Avenue at night
Nicosia
–
Selimiye Mosque, originally the Cathedral of Sainte Sophie, which was built during the Lusignan rule and later converted to a mosque, exemplifies the
Gothic architecture in Nicosia.
Nicosia
–
Venetian walls of Nicosia
38.
Famagusta
–
Famagusta /ˌfæməˈɡʊstə, ˌfɑː-/, is a city on the east coast of Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia, and possesses the deepest harbour of the island, the old walled city and parts of the modern town presently fall within the de facto Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in Gazimağusa District of which it is the capital. In antiquity, the town was known as Arsinoe, after Arsinoe II of Egypt, in Greek it is called Ammochostos, meaning hidden in sand. This name developed into Famagusta, used in Western European languages, in Turkish, the city is also called Gazimağusa, Gazi means veteran in Turkish, and the city has been officially awarded with the title after 1974. The old town is nicknamed the city of 365 churches owing to a legend that at its peak, the city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named Arsinoe after his sister. Arsinoe was described as a town by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. It remained a fishing village for a long time. Later, as a result of the evacuation of Salamis due to the Arab invasion led by Muawiyah I. The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule and it was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and this development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre in Palestine transformed it from a village into one of the richest cities in Christendom. In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice and this commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. The belief that wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as the district of churches, the development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the Cathedral, the Square and the harbour. In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha and it resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pashas son, with the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a decrease in the population of Famagusta
Famagusta
–
Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque
Famagusta
–
Church of Sts. Peter and Paul (1359) was converted into a mosque in 1571 and renamed as the Sinan Pasha Mosque.
Famagusta
–
Palazzo del Provveditore (the Royal Palace) entrance, Famagusta.
Famagusta
–
The port of Famagusta, engraving from the book of Olfert Dapper "Description exact des iles des l'Archipel", Amsterdam, 1703.
39.
Tuscany
–
Tuscany is a region in central Italy with an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. Tuscany is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, artistic legacy, Tuscany produces wines, including Chianti, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano and Brunello di Montalcino. Having a strong linguistic and cultural identity, it is considered a nation within a nation. Tuscany is traditionally a popular destination in Italy, and the main tourist destinations by number of tourist arrivals are Florence, Pisa, Montecatini Terme, Castiglione della Pescaia and Grosseto. The village of Castiglione della Pescaia is also the most visited destination in the region. Additionally, Siena, Lucca, the Chianti region, Versilia and Val dOrcia are also internationally renowned, Tuscany has over 120 protected nature reserves, making Tuscany and its capital Florence popular tourist destinations that attract millions of tourists every year. In 2012, the city of Florence was the worlds 89th most visited city, roughly triangular in shape, Tuscany borders the regions of Liguria to the northwest, Emilia-Romagna to the north and east, Umbria to the east and Lazio to the southeast. The comune of Badia Tedalda, in the Tuscan Province of Arezzo, has an exclave named Ca Raffaello within Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany has a western coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, containing the Tuscan Archipelago, of which the largest island is Elba. Tuscany has an area of approximately 22,993 square kilometres, surrounded and crossed by major mountain chains, and with few plains, the region has a relief that is dominated by hilly country used for agriculture. Hills make up nearly two-thirds of the total area, covering 15,292 square kilometres, and mountains. Plains occupy 8. 4% of the total area—1,930 square kilometres —mostly around the valley of the River Arno, many of Tuscanys largest cities lie on the banks of the Arno, including the capital Florence, Empoli and Pisa. The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the late Bronze and Iron Ages parallels that of the early Greeks, following this, the Villanovan culture saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms. City-states developed in the late Villanovan before Orientalization occurred and the Etruscan civilization rose, the Etruscans created the first major civilization in this region, large enough to establish a transport infrastructure, to implement agriculture and mining and to produce vibrant art. The Etruscans lived in Etruria well into prehistory, throughout their existence, they lost territory to Magna Graecia, Carthage and Celts. Despite being seen as distinct in its manners and customs by contemporary Greeks, the cultures of Greece, one reason for its eventual demise was this increasing absorption by surrounding cultures, including the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans. Soon after absorbing Etruria, Rome established the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, and Florence, endowed the area with new technologies and development, and ensured peace. These developments included extensions of existing roads, introduction of aqueducts and sewers, however, many of these structures have been destroyed by erosion due to weather. The Roman civilization in the West collapsed in the 5th century AD, in the years following 572, the Longobards arrived and designated Lucca the capital of their Duchy of Tuscia
Tuscany
–
Hilly landscape in
Val d'Orcia
Tuscany
–
Tuscany Toscana
Tuscany
–
Tuscan landscape near
Siena
Tuscany
–
Cinerary urns of the
Villanovan culture
40.
Commander-in-chief
–
A commander-in-chief is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nations military forces or significant elements of those forces. In the latter case, the element is those forces within a particular region. Often, a given countrys commander-in-chief need not be or have been an officer or even a veteran. This follows the principle of civilian control of the military, the role of commander-in-chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium powers, in its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War, a nations head of state usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the forces within their territory. A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship. The term is used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch. According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces, the incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Bujar Nishani. The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces, the Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. The Constitution states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. e, the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69. The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister and he retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh. Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the command of the President of the Republic. The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces, the powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all related to national defence
Commander-in-chief
–
President Cristina Fernández of
Argentina, as the Commander-in-chief of the
Argentine Armed Forces.
Commander-in-chief
–
Governor General The Lord Gowrie (right) signing the
declaration of war against
Japan with
Prime Minister John Curtin (left) looking on. (8 December 1941)
Commander-in-chief
–
Former
President Lula, with his wife
Marisa Letícia, reviews troops during
Independence Day military parade in
Brasília, Brazil.
Commander-in-chief
41.
Uluj Ali
–
Occhiali was a corsair who later became an Ottoman admiral, Bey of the Regency of Algiers, and finally Grand Admiral of the Ottoman Fleet in the 16th century. Born Giovanni Dionigi Galeni, he was known by several other names in the Christian countries of the Mediterranean. Miguel de Cervantes called him Uchali in chapter XXXIX of his Don Quixote de la Mancha, elsewhere he was simply called Ali Pasha. John Wolf, in his The Barbary Coast, refers to him as Euldj Ali, Uluj Ali was born to the seaman Birno Galeni and his wife Pippa de Cicco, in the village of Le Castella in Calabria, southern Italy. As an oar slave in an Ottoman galley, he participated in the Battle of Preveza in 1538, within a few years, he converted to Islam and became a corsair in the fleet of Turgut Reis by 1541. This was by no means unusual, many Muslim corsairs were captured slaves who converted to Islam. He was a very able mariner and soon rose in the ranks, further success soon enabled him to become the captain and owner of a galley, and he gained a reputation as one of the boldest corsair reis on the Barbary Coast. Uluj Ali was in the fleet of Turgut Reis, one of the most famous corsairs in the Mediterranean, as well as an Ottoman admiral, sailing with Turgut Reis, he also impressed the Ottoman admiral Piyale Pasha, with whom Turgut joined forces on a number of occasions. Due to his success in battles, the administration of the island of Samos in the Aegean Sea was awarded to him in 1550, in 1560, he was among the forces of Turgut Reis and Piyale Pasha during the Battle of Djerba. In 1565 he was promoted to the rank of Beylerbey of Alexandria, Uluj took Turguts body to Tripoli for burial, assumed control of the province, and was subsequently confirmed as Pasha of Tripoli by Sultan Suleiman I. In the following years he conducted raids on the coasts of Sicily, Calabria. In October 1569 he turned upon the Hafsid Sultan Hamid of Tunis, marching overland with an army of some 5000, he quickly sent Hamid and his forces fleeing and made himself ruler of Tunis. Hamid found refuge in the Spanish fort at La Goulette outside Tunis and this victory caused Uluj to change his mind and return to Algiers in order to celebrate. There, in early 1571, he was faced with a mutiny of the janissaries who demanded overdue pay and he decided to put to sea, leaving the mutinous soldiers to take their pay from anyone they could find and rob. Having learned of the presence of a large Ottoman fleet at Coron in the Morea and it was the fleet commanded by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha that was to meet disaster at Lepanto a few months later. On 7 October 1571, Uluj Ali commanded the left flank of Ali Pashas fleet in the Battle of Lepanto and he kept his squadron together in the melee, outmaneuvered his direct opponent, Giovanni Andrea Doria, and captured the flagship of the Maltese Knights with its great banner. He was subsequently known as Kılıç Ali Pasha, Piyale Pasha and Kılıç Ali Pasha immediately began to rebuild the Ottoman fleet. In June 1572, now Kapudan Pasha, he set out with 250 galleys, in 1573 Kılıç Ali Pasha commanded the naval campaign on the coasts of Italy
Uluj Ali
–
Pasha Uluç Ali
Uluj Ali
–
Statue of Uluç Ali Reis in his hometown of La Castella, Italy.
Uluj Ali
–
Ottoman troops (about 5,000
janissaries) led by Uluç Ali, then
Pasha of
Algiers, marching on
Tunis in 1569.
Uluj Ali
–
Uluç Ali Reis bust at
Mersin Naval Museum.
42.
Beylerbey
–
Initially designating a commander-in-chief, it eventually came to be held by senior provincial governors. Its equivalents in Arabic were amir al-umara, and in Persian, the title was also used by the Khans of the Indian princely state of Kalat. The title originated with the Seljuqs, and was used in the Sultanate of Rum initially as an alternative for the Arabic title of malik al-umara, the Mamluks of Egypt possibly used it as an alternative title for the atabak al-asakir, the commander-in-chief of the army. The Ottomans used the title from the late 14th until the mid-19th century, with varying meanings, in addition, Lala Shahin was given military authority over the Ottoman territories in Europe. After Lala Shahins death, sometime in 1385–87 he was succeeded in the position of commander-in-chief in Rumelia by Çandarlı Kara Halil Hayreddin Pasha. In 1393, Sultan Bayezid I appointed Kara Timurtash as beylerbey and viceroy was in Anatolia, when Bayezid crossed over into Europe to campaign against Mircea I of Wallachia. This process marked the birth of the first two, and by far the most important, beylerbeyliks, of Rumelia and Anatolia, while the third beylerbeylik, that of Rûm, followed soon after. The size of new provinces varied enormously, some containing as many as twenty sanjaks. Among themselves, the various beylerbeys had an order of precedence based on the date of conquest or formation of their provinces. The beylerbey of Rumelia, however, retained his pre-eminence, ranking first among the other provincial governors-general, in addition, the post was occasionally held by the Sultans chief minister, the Grand Vizier himself. From the 16th century on, however, viziers could be appointed as provincial beylerbeys, enjoying precedence, under the Safavid dynasty of Persia, the title was used from ca. 1543/44 on for governors of the important provinces. The title was used for the governors of Herat, Azerbaijan, Ganja, Karabakh, Shirvan, Fars, Iraq. The Safavids also used the title of wali for provinces even more important than those of beylerbeys, towards the end of the Safavid period, the title of beylerbey had been eclipsed by that of wali, most notably being the walis of the shahs their Georgian lands. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, the Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume II, C–G. The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I, A–B
Beylerbey
–
Depiction of the beylerbey of the
Bosnia Eyalet (1657)
Beylerbey
–
The eyalets of the Ottoman Empire in 1609
Beylerbey
–
Daud Khan Undiladze,
ghilman and the beylerbey of
Ganja and
Karabakh from 1625 to 1630.
43.
Knights Hospitaller
–
It was headquartered variously in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Rhodes and Malta, until it became known by its current name. Some scholars, however, consider that the Amalfitan order and hospital were different from Gerard Thoms order and it regained strength during the early 19th century as it redirected itself toward religious and humanitarian causes. In 1834, the order, by this time known as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, acquired new headquarters in Rome, in 800, Emperor Charlemagne enlarged Probus hospital and added a library to it. About 200 years later, in 1005, Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah destroyed the hospital, in 1023, merchants from Amalfi and Salerno in Italy were given permission by the Caliph Ali az-Zahir of Egypt to rebuild the hospital in Jerusalem. The hospital, which was built on the site of the monastery of Saint John the Baptist and it was served by the Order of Saint Benedict. Gerard acquired territory and revenues for his order throughout the Kingdom of Jerusalem, under his successor, Raymond du Puy de Provence, the original hospice was expanded to an infirmary near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Initially the group cared for pilgrims in Jerusalem, but the order extended to providing pilgrims with an armed escort. Thus the Order of St. John imperceptibly became military without losing its charitable character. Raymond du Puy, who succeeded Gerard as Master of the Hospital in 1118, organised a militia from the orders members, in 1130, Pope Innocent II gave the order its coat of arms, a silver cross in a field of red. The Hospitallers and the Knights Templar became the most formidable military orders in the Holy Land, frederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor, pledged his protection to the Knights of St. John in a charter of privileges granted in 1185. The statutes of Roger de Moulins deal only with the service of the sick, the order numbered three distinct classes of membership, the military brothers, the brothers infirmarians, and the brothers chaplains, to whom was entrusted the divine service. In 1248 Pope Innocent IV approved a military dress for the Hospitallers to be worn during battle. Instead of a closed cape over their armour, they wore a red surcoat with a cross emblazoned on it. Many of the more substantial Christian fortifications in the Holy Land were built by the Templars, at the height of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Hospitallers held seven great forts and 140 other estates in the area. The two largest of these, their bases of power in the Kingdom and in the Principality of Antioch, were the Krak des Chevaliers, the property of the Order was divided into priories, subdivided into bailiwicks, which in turn were divided into commanderies. As early as the late 12th century the order had begun to achieve recognition in the Kingdom of England, as a result, buildings such as St Johns Jerusalem and the Knights Gate, Quenington in England were built on land donated to the order by local nobility. An Irish house was established at Kilmainham, near Dublin, after the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1291, the Knights were confined to the County of Tripoli and, when Acre was captured in 1291, the order sought refuge in the Kingdom of Cyprus. His successor, Foulques de Villaret, executed the plan, and on 15 August 1310, after four years of campaigning
Knights Hospitaller
–
Grand Master and senior Knights Hospitaller in the 14th century
Knights Hospitaller
–
Knights Hospitaller
Knights Hospitaller
–
Street of Knights in Rhodes
Knights Hospitaller
–
The Knights' castle at Rhodes
44.
Kingdom of Leon
–
The Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded in AD910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León. The County of Portugal separated to become the independent Kingdom of Portugal in 1139, from 1296 to 1301, the Kingdom of León was again independent and after the re-union with Castile remained a Crown until 1833, but as part of a united Spain from 1479. In the Royal Decree of 30 November 1833, the Kingdom of León was considered one of the Spanish regions and divided into the provinces of León, Zamora and Salamanca. In 1978, these three provinces of the region of León were included along with six provinces of the region of Old Castile to create the autonomous community of Castile. The city of León was founded by the Roman Seventh Legion (usually written as Legio Septima Gemina and it was the headquarters of that legion in the late empire and was a centre for trade in gold, which was mined at Las Médulas nearby. In 540, the city was conquered by the Arian Visigothic king Liuvigild, in AD717, León fell again, this time to the Moors. However, León was one of the first cities retaken during the Christian reconquest of the Iberian peninsula, León was a small town during this time, but one of the few former Roman cities in the Kingdom of Asturias which still held significance. León was created as a kingdom when the Asturian king, Alfonso the Great. León was inherited by García I who moved the capital of the kingdom of Astures to León and his successor was Ordoño II of León. Ordoño II of León was also a leader who brought military expeditions from León south to Seville, Córdoba. After a few years of wars during the reign of Fruela II, Alfonso Fróilaz and Alfonso IV, Ramiro II assumed the throne. Ramiro II was nicknamed The Devil by Muslims because of his military skill. This migration of Leonese peoples greatly influenced the Leonese language, during the repoblación period, there arose a distinct form of art known as Mozarabic art. Mozarabic art is a mixing of Visigoth, Islamic, and Byzantine elements, notable examples of the Mozarabic style are the Leonese churches of San Miguel de Escalada and Santiago de Peñalba. During the early 10th century, León expanded to the south and east, fortified with numerous castles, Burgos remained within Leon until the 930s, at which time Count Ferdinand II of Castile began a campaign to expand Burgos and make it independent and hereditary. The Kingdom of León continued to be the most important of all those of the Iberian Peninsula, however, Sancho III of Navarre took over Castile in the 1020s, and managed León in the last year of his life, leaving Galicia to temporary independence. In the division of lands which followed his death, his son Fernando succeeded to the county of Castile
Kingdom of Leon
–
Alfonso the Great (848-910), king of León, Galicia and Asturias
Kingdom of Leon
–
Flag
Kingdom of Leon
–
The new kingdom of León, 910
Kingdom of Leon
–
Spanish Christian kingdoms c. 925: Castile was a Leonese county and Galicia was a dependent kingdom.
45.
Duchy of Burgundy
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Upon the extinction of the line with the death of Duke Philip I in 1361, the duchy fell back to King John II of France and the royal House of Valois. The Burgundian duchy rose to a complex of a European scale after in 1363 King John II of France ceded the duchy to his younger son Philip of Valois. By his marriage with Countess Margaret of Flanders, he laid the foundation for a Burgundian realm further north in the Low Countries collectively known as the Burgundian Netherlands. The Burgundian sphere, in its own right, was one of the largest ducal territories that existed at the time of the emergence of Early Modern Europe. Including the thriving regions of Flanders and Brabant, it was a centre of trade. After about one hundred years of Valois-Burgundy rule, however, the last duke Charles the Bold rushed to the Burgundian Wars and was killed in the 1477 Battle of Nancy. With the abdication of the Habsburg emperor Charles V in 1556, the Burgundians settled in the area around Dijon, Chalon-sur-Saône, Mâcon, Autun and Châtillon-sur-Seine, and gave the name to the region. The Kingdom of the Burgundians was annexed by the Merovingian Kings of the Franks Childebert I in 534 following their defeat by the Franks and it was recreated, however, on several occasions when Frankish territories were redivided between the sons on the death of a Frankish king. As part of the Kingdom of the Franks, Burgundy maintained a semi-autonomous existence, with the Burgundians maintaining their own law code, however, southern Burgundy was pillaged by the Saracen invasion of the 8th century. When Charles Martel drove the invaders out, he divided Burgundy into four commands, Arles-Burgundy, Vienne-Burgundy, Alamanic Burgundy and he appointed his brother Childebrand governor of Frankish Burgundy. Under the Carolingians, Burgundian separatism lessened and Burgundy became a geographical term. As a vital military defender of the West Frankish border, Guerin was sometimes known by the Latin term for leader – Dux or Duke, by the time of Richard the Justiciar, the Duchy of Burgundy was beginning to emerge. Richard was officially recognised by the king as a duke, he stood as individual count of each county he held. As Duke of Burgundy, he was able to wield an increasing amount of power over his territory, to the collective body of his territory there came to be applied the term ducatus. Included in the ducatus of Richard were the regions of Autunais, Beaunois, Avalois, Lassois, Dijonais, Memontois, Attuyer, Oscheret, under Richard, these territories were given law and order, protected from the Normans, and served as a haven for persecuted monks. It was from his territories in Burgundy that he drew the resources needed to fight those who challenged his right to rule, under Hugh the Black came the beginning of what would be a long and troubled saga for Burgundy. His neighbours were the Robertian family, who held the title of Duke of Francia and this family, wanting to improve their standing in France and against the Carolingian kings, attempted to subject the duchy to the suzerainty of their own duchy. They failed, eventually, when they appeared close to success, they were forced to scrap the scheme, two brothers of Hugh Capet, the first Capetian King of France, took up the rule of Burgundy as duke
Duchy of Burgundy
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Flag
46.
County of Flanders
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The County of Flanders was a historic territory in the Low Countries. From 862 onwards the Counts of Flanders were one of the twelve peers of the Kingdom of France. For centuries their estates around the cities of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres formed one of the most affluent regions in Europe, up to 1477, the area under French suzerainty was located west of the Scheldt River and was called Royal Flanders. Aside from this the Counts of Flanders from the 11th century on also held land east of the river as a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, an area called Imperial Flanders. Part of the Burgundian Netherlands from 1384, the county was removed from French to Imperial control after the Peace of Madrid in 1526. In 1795 the remaining territory within the Austrian Netherlands was incorporated by the French First Republic, the former County of Flanders, except for French Flanders, is the only part of the medieval French kingdom that is not part of modern-day France. Flanders and Flemish are likely derived from the Frisian *flāndra and *flāmisk, the Flemish people are first mentioned in the biography of Saint Eligius, the Vita sancti Eligii. This work was written before 684, but only known since 725 and this work mentions the Flanderenses, who lived in Flandris. The geography of the historic County of Flanders only partially overlaps with present-day region of Flanders in Belgium, though there it extends beyond West Flanders. Some of the county is now part of France and the Netherlands. The arms of the County of Flanders were allegedly created by Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders from 1168 to 1191, as a result, the arms of the county live on as arms of the Flemish Community. It is said that Philip of Alsace brought the flag with him from the Holy Land, where in 1177 he supposedly conquered it from a Saracen knight. The simple fact that the lion appeared on his personal seal since 1163, in reality Philip was following a West-European trend. In the same period also appeared in the arms of Brabant, Luxembourg, Holland, Limburg. It is curious that the lion as a symbol was mostly used in border territories. It was in all likelihood a way of showing independence from the emperor, in Europe the lion had been a well-known figure since Roman times, through works such as the fables of Aesop. The future county of Flanders had been inhabited since prehistory, during the Iron Age the Kemmelberg formed an important Celtic settlement. During the times of Julius Caesar, the inhabitants were part of the Belgae, for Flanders in specific these were the Menapii, the Morini, the Nervii and the Atrebates
County of Flanders
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Count Philip (2nd from right) as swordbearer at the coronation of King
Philip II of France. The count of Flanders was one of the 12 ancient
Peers of France or "equals" of the King of France. Panel painting by
Jean Fouquet, 1455
County of Flanders
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Flag
County of Flanders
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map of the county of Flanders from 1609 by
Matthias Quad, cartographer, and
Johannes Bussemacher, engraver and publisher, Cologne
County of Flanders
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Institution of Baldwin I, the first count of Flanders by Charles the Bald, the Frankish king.
47.
County of Tyrol
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The Princely County of Tyrol, until 1493, County of Tyrol, was a State of the Holy Roman Empire established about 1140. Originally a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of the Counts of Tyrol, it was inherited by the Counts of Gorizia in 1253, today the territory of the historic crown land is divided between the Italian autonomous region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and the Austrian state of Tyrol. Both parts are today associated again in the Tyrol–South Tyrol–Trentino Euroregion, the German monarchs regularly travelled across Brenner or Reschen Pass on their Italian expeditions aiming at papal coronation or the consolidation of Imperial rule. In 1004 King Henry II of Germany separated the estates of Trent from the North Italian March of Verona, especially the Brixen bishops remained loyal supporters of the Salian rulers in the Investiture Controversy and in 1091 also received the Puster Valley from the hands of Emperor Henry IV. Documented from about 1140 onwards, the comital dynasty residing in Tyrol Castle near Meran held the office of Vogts in the Trent diocese and they extended their territory over much of the region and came to surpass the power of the bishops, who were nominally their feudal lords. After the deposition of the Welf duke Henry X of Bavaria in 1138, when Henry the Lion was again enfeoffed with the Bavarian duchy by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the 1154 Imperial Diet in Goslar, his possessions no longer comprised the Tyrolean lands. The Counts maintained that independence under the rising Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty, in 1210, Count Albert IV of Tyrol also took over the Vogt office in the Bishopric of Brixen, prevailing against the rivalling Counts of Andechs. In 1253 Count Meinhard of Gorizia inherited the Tyrolean lands by his marriage to Adelheid, when their sons divided their estate in 1271, the elder Meinhard II took Tyrol, for which he was recognized as an immediate lordship. He supported the German king Rudolph of Habsburg against his rival King Ottokar II of Bohemia, in reward, he received the Duchy of Carinthia with the Carniolan march in 1286. In 1307 Meinhards son Henry was elected King of Bohemia, After his death, he had one surviving daughter, Margaret Maultasch, in 1342 she married Louis V of Wittelsbach, then Margrave of Brandenburg. Louis V died in 1361, followed by Margarets son Meinhard III two years later, lacking any descendants to succeed her, she bequeathed the county to Rudolph IV of Habsburg, Duke of Austria in 1363. He was recognized by the House of Wittelsbach in 1369, from that time onward, Tyrol was ruled by various lines of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, who held the title of Count. After the Habsburg hereditary lands had been divided by the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, after a second division within the Leopoldinian line in 1406, Duke Frederick IV of the Empty Pockets ruled them. In 1420 he made Innsbruck the Tyrolean residence, in 1490 his son and heir Sigismund renounced Tyrol and Further Austria in favour of his cousin German king Maximilian I of Habsburg. By then Maximilian I had re-united all Habsburg lands under his rule, in 1500 he also acquired the remaining Gorizia territories around Lienz and the Puster Valley. When Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg died in 1564, he bequeathed the rule over Tyrol, both territories thereafter fell to the younger sons of the Habsburg Emperors, Archduke Matthias in 1608 and Maximilian III in 1612. After the death of Archduke Sigismund Francis in 1665, all Habsburg lands were again under the rule of the Emperor Leopold I. From the time of Maria Theresa of Austria onward, Tyrol was governed by a government of the Habsburg Monarchy at Vienna in all matters of major importance
County of Tyrol
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Map of the County of Tyrol (1799)
County of Tyrol
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Flag
County of Tyrol
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Castle Tyrol was the seat of the Counts of Tyrol and gave the region its name
County of Tyrol
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Andreas Hofer led the
Tyrolean Rebellion 1809 against the invading
Napoleon I
48.
Tunisia
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Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
Tunisia
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Ancient ruins of a
Roman villa at
Carthage
Tunisia
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Flag
Tunisia
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The Roman amphitheater in
El Djem, built during the first half of the 3rd century AD
Tunisia
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Domes of the
Great Mosque of Kairouan. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). It is the oldest mosque in the
Maghreb.
49.
Abbess
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In Christianity, an abbess is the female superior of a community of nuns, which is often an abbey. In the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Coptic and Anglican abbeys, the mode of election, position, rights and she must be at least 40 years old and have been a nun for 10 years. The age requirement in the Catholic Church has evolved over time, the requirement of 10 years as a nun is only 8 in Catholicism. In the rare case of not being a nun with the qualifications. The office is elective, the choice being by the votes of the nuns belonging to the community. Unlike the abbot, the abbess receives only the ring, the crosier, and she does not receive a mitre as part of the ceremony. An abbess serves for life, except in Italy and some adjacent islands, Abbesses are, like abbots, major superiors according to canon law, the equivalents of abbots or bishops. They have full authority in its administration and they may not administer the sacraments, whose celebration is reserved to bishops, priests, deacons, namely, those in Holy Orders. They may not serve as a witness to a marriage except by special rescript and they may not administer Penance, Anointing of the Sick, or function as an ordained celebrant or concelebrant of the Mass. They may preside the Liturgy of the Hours which they are obliged to say with their community, speak about Scripture to their community, on the other hand, they may not ordinarily give a homily or read the Gospel during a Mass. Also granted exceptional rights was the Abbess of the Cistercian order in Conversano Italy and she was granted the ability to appoint her own vicar-general, select and approve the confessors, along with the practice of receiving the public homage of her clergy. This practice continued until some of the duties were modified due to an appeal by the clergy to Rome, finally in 1750, the public homage was abolished. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France, Spain, in 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon and Saumur, France, committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. In Lutheran churches, the title of abbess has in some cases survived to designate the heads of abbeys which since the Protestant Reformation have continued as monasteries or convents and these positions continued merely changing from Catholic to Lutheran. The first to make this change was the Abbey of Quedlinburg and these are collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses or more usually Stiftsdamen or Kapitularinnen. The office of abbess is of social dignity, and in the past, was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. The last such ruling abbess was Sofia Albertina, Princess of Sweden, in the Hradčany of Prague is a Catholic institute whose mistress is titled an Abbess. It was founded in 1755 by the Empress Maria Theresa, the Abbess is required to be an Austrian Archduchess
Abbess
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Xaveria Gasser, abbess of the Elisabeth Sisters Convent in Klagenfurt, Carinthia, Austria in 1756
Abbess
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Princess Maria Theresia Isabella of Austria, a noble abbess with her crozier
50.
Butera, Italy
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Butera is an Italian town and a comune in the province of Caltanissetta, in the southern part of the island of Sicily. It is bounded by the comuni of Gela, Licata, Mazzarino, Ravanusa and it has a population of 4,821 and is 49 km from Caltanissetta, the provinces capital. The etymology of the name Butera is debated, one hypothesis is that the name is of Arabic origin. Butera was called Butirah by the Arabs, which means steep place, the Arabic demonym al-Buthayri was used to refer to a person from Butera. Another would suggest that the name Butera is of Greek origin and this is upheld by Giovan Battista Pellegrini, who claims that The Arabic form for Butera, always with the interdental, should be an indication of a Greek etymon with / d /. Upholders of a Greek origin for the Butera have suggested that the word may come from bothèr, boutherès, pace himself has asserted that the term, aside from boutherès, may derive also from the Graeco-Byzantine word patela, which refers Butera’s location. In the area of Piano fiera where a prehistoric necropolis still stands, is a construction called dolmen cysts made of stone slabs assembled in cubiform manner. The history of this territory, at the time of Greek colonization, is not documented by ancient historians, the origins of Butera date back to the Early Bronze Age. Butera, being situated close to Gela, one of the most prominent ancient Greek cities of Sicily under Magna Graecia, was settled by Greeks. The dialect spoken in the region was Doric Greek, Butera was captured by the Aghlabids during the Muslim conquest of Sicily, following a 5-month siege in 853. Out of the three valli of Sicily, it was part of the Val di Noto, in the corner of the island. Following the fall of Butera to the Normans in 1091, the towns Muslim leaders were resettled in Calabria to prevent them from fomenting rebellion among the rest of the population. However, a mosque in the town is recorded even in the 12th century, as certain other Sicilian cities such as Catania, Syracuse, Segesta. It was one of the last Muslim strongholds to fall, due to stubborn resistance, Butera itself was re-populated with Swabians from southern Germany following its destruction by William I as a reaction to anti-monarchical resistance in 1161. In 1392, the Alagona family lost possession of the County following their defeat by Martin I, in 1543, Ambrogio Santapa was nominated Prince of Butera, after defeating Hayreddin Barbarossa, the Ottoman pirate. Up until the 19th century, this was Sicilys main feudal title, in Butera, 12-13% of the population carries the sickle-cell trait, and its prevalence amongst the town’s citizens is believed to be due to selective pressure against malaria. While some sources claim that it was introduced by the Muslim conquerors, at present, approximately 7% of the surnames in the city are attributed to a possible Hellenic origin. Arab-Norman Castle, from the 9th century Cathedral, dedicated to Saint Thomas and found in the Piazza Duomo, giovanni Church of San Francesco, the oldest church in the town, it was founded by the first Norman Christians and became a church of Franciscan monks
Butera, Italy
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Butera
51.
Isaac Nathan
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Isaac Nathan was an English composer, musicologist, journalist and self-publicist, who ended an eventful career by becoming the father of Australian music. Isaac Nathan was born in 1790 in the English city of Canterbury to a hazzan born in Poland, Menahem Monash Polack and he was initially destined for his fathers career and went to the school of Solomon Lyon in Cambridge. Showing an enthusiasm for music, he was apprenticed to the London music publisher Domenico Corri and he also claimed to have had five years of voice lessons with Corri, who had studied with Nicola Porpora. In 1813 he conceived the idea of publishing settings of tunes from synagogue usage, the result was the poets famous Hebrew Melodies. Nathans setting of these remained in print for most of the century, many were European folk-tunes that had become absorbed into the synagogue service over the centuries with new texts. However they were the first attempt to set out the music of the synagogue, with which Nathan was well acquainted through his upbringing. The success of the Melodies gave Nathan some fame and notoriety, Nathan was later to claim that he had been appointed as singing teacher to the Princess Royal, Princess Charlotte, and music librarian to the Prince Regent, later George IV. There is no evidence for this, although his edition of the Hebrew Melodies was dedicated to the Princess by royal permission, in 1816, Byron left England, never to return. In 1817 Nathans royal pupil Princess Charlotte died in childbirth and he thus lost his two major patrons. Nathan undertook a runaway marriage with a pupil, and another after his first wifes early death. Both spouses were Christian, however for both, Nathan also undertook and arranged synagogue marriages after the church ceremony. His hot temper probably accounts for a duel he fought over the honour of Lady Caroline Lamb, the latter saw Nathan prosecuted, although he was acquitted. Nathan felt an attachment for Lady Caroline, she was godmother to one of his children and he wrote her an appreciative poem in Hebrew. Gambling on prize-fights was one cause of his financial problems and he may have spent at least some months in debtors prisons. He wrote frequently for the press in London on boxing. He wrote comic operas for the London stage, and four of these were produced between 1823 and 1833 and he attempted a publishing business in partnership with his brother Barnett Nathan, who later became proprietor of Rosherville Gardens. Nathan published a history of music, dedicated by permission to King George IV, Nathan also attracted some renown as a singing teacher. Nathan claimed to have some mysterious services for the Royal Family
Isaac Nathan
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Isaac Nathan c. 1820. Artist unknown, probably one of
Lord Byron 's portraitists.
52.
Filippo Marchetti
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Filippo Marchetti was an Italian opera composer. After studying in Naples, his first opera was premiered in Turin in 1856. With only limited success, he became a teacher of singing and it has been noted that it was one of the first Italian operas to show the influence of French grand opera, partly, no doubt in response to its French source. The opera was performed into the 20th Century, with Daolio, Portoghese, Coletta, Cassi, and Dolari. Audio CD, Dynamic, Cat, CDS 501/1-2, ruy Blas with Theodossiou, Marini, Malagnini, Gazale, Moncini. Audio CD, Bongiovanni, Cat, GB 2237/38-2, notes Sources Holden, Amanda, The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York, Penguin Putnam,2001
Filippo Marchetti
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Filippo Marchetti
53.
G. K. Chesterton
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Gilbert Keith Chesterton, KC*SG, better known as G. K. Chesterton, was an English writer, poet, philosopher, dramatist, journalist, orator, lay theologian, biographer, and literary and art critic. Chesterton is often referred to as the prince of paradox, Time magazine has observed of his writing style, Whenever possible Chesterton made his points with popular sayings, proverbs, allegories—first carefully turning them inside out. Chesterton is well known for his fictional priest-detective Father Brown, even some of those who disagree with him have recognised the wide appeal of such works as Orthodoxy and The Everlasting Man. Chesterton, as a thinker, cast aspersions on both Progressivism and Conservatism, saying, The whole modern world has divided itself into Conservatives and Progressives. The business of Progressives is to go on making mistakes, the business of the Conservatives is to prevent the mistakes from being corrected. George Bernard Shaw, Chestertons friendly enemy according to Time, said of him, biographers have identified him as a successor to such Victorian authors as Matthew Arnold, Thomas Carlyle, Cardinal John Henry Newman, and John Ruskin. Chesterton was born in Campden Hill in Kensington, London, the son of Marie Louise, née Grosjean and he was baptised at the age of one month into the Church of England, though his family themselves were irregularly practising Unitarians. According to his autobiography, as a young man Chesterton became fascinated with the occult and, along with his brother Cecil, Chesterton was educated at St Pauls School, then attended the Slade School of Art to become an illustrator. The Slade is a department of University College London, where Chesterton also took classes in literature, Chesterton married Frances Blogg in 1901, the marriage lasted the rest of his life. Chesterton credited Frances with leading him back to Anglicanism, though he later considered Anglicanism to be a pale imitation and he entered full communion with the Catholic Church in 1922. In 1896 Chesterton began working for the London publisher Redway, and T. Fisher Unwin, during this period he also undertook his first journalistic work, as a freelance art and literary critic. In 1902 the Daily News gave him a weekly column, followed in 1905 by a weekly column in The Illustrated London News. Early on Chesterton showed a great interest in and talent for art and he had planned to become an artist, and his writing shows a vision that clothed abstract ideas in concrete and memorable images. Even his fiction contained carefully concealed parables, Men may keep a sort of level of good, but no man has ever been able to keep on one level of evil. That road goes down and down, the kind man drinks and turns cruel, the frank man kills and lies about it. Many a man Ive known started like you to be an honest outlaw, a robber of the rich. Chesterton loved to debate, often engaging in public disputes with such men as George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, Bertrand Russell. According to his autobiography, he and Shaw played cowboys in a silent film that was never released, Chesterton was a large man, standing 6 feet 4 inches and weighing around 20 stone 6 pounds
G. K. Chesterton
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G. K. Chesterton, by E. H. Mills, 1909.
G. K. Chesterton
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G. K. Chesterton at the age of 17.
G. K. Chesterton
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Caricature of Chesterton, by
Max Beerbohm.
G. K. Chesterton
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Telegram sent by Cardinal
Eugenio Pacelli (future Pius XII) on behalf of
Pope Pius XI to the people of England following the death of Chesterton.
54.
John, Prince of Asturias
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John, Prince of Asturias, was the only son of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon who survived to adulthood. John was born in Seville in 1478 to the sovereigns of Castile, Isabella I, at the time, his parents were involved in the War of Castilian Succession against Isabellas niece Joanna la Beltraneja, wife of King Afonso V of Portugal. Johns birth helped consolidate Isabellas position as sovereign as she had given birth to a male heir. At the time of his birth, he had one elder sister Isabella, he was joined by Joanna, Maria and his parents won the war against the King and Queen of Portugal. To negotiate a settlement with Isabella, King Afonso sent Infanta Beatrice. The two women met in March 1479, Beatrice was Afonsos sister-in-law and Isabella’s maternal aunt. Isabella I was quite an attentive mother for such a busy queen and it was commonly believed in the fifteenth century that a wetnurse could influence the character of the baby who she fed breast milk to. Therefore, a woman, with a placid disposition was ideal. He also suggested that Prince John be educated in Aragon as opposed to Castile, in 1492, Columbus named the newly discovered island of Cuba Isla Juana in deference to Prince John, at that time the heir apparent. Isabella and Ferdinand came to plan a double alliance with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, for the marriage of his children, Archduke Philip the Handsome and Archduchess Margaret of Austria. Around the same time, King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, Ferdinand II therefore was also against the French. With both powers angered at France, marriage was the way to seal the alliance between the two, on 20 January 1495 in Antwerp, a preliminary alliance, which included a wedding of Prince John with Maximilian’s daughter was agreed. Similarly, Maximilians son Philip and Johns sister Joanna were to be married, as heir to the throne Isabella and Ferdinand paid special attention to Johns education. His original tutor was the Dominican Fray Diego Deza who taught Theology at the University of Salamanca, Deza was also later remembered as the Grand Inquisitor of Spain, he taught the young Prince mainly in Theology as he was not a renaissance humanist. Eventually in the late 1480s, Isabella would ask the Italian humanist Peter Martyr dAnghiera to come, Isabella also worried that John would grow up pampered and wilful if he lacked peers and companions of his own age. Therefore, she invited the sons of aristocrats to live at court and she also invited a slightly older group of young aristocrats so that her son would see older young men and that he would aspire to be more like them. Johns education also insisted that he and his companions learned to ride and joust, to hawk and hunt, to chess and cards. John was also gifted in music and was able to play the flute, violin
John, Prince of Asturias
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John
John, Prince of Asturias
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Francisco Pradilla Ortiz 's painting Retinue of the Baptism of Don Juan, son of the Catholic Monarchs, Along the Streets of Seville, 1910
John, Prince of Asturias
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Tomb of Prince John at Real Monasterio de Santo Tomás in Ávila
55.
Archduke of Austria
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Austria was ruled by the House of Babenberg until 1246 and by the House of Habsburg from 1282 to 1918. The March of Austria, also known as Marcha Orientalis, was first formed in 976 out of the lands that had once been the March of Pannonia in Carolingian times. The oldest attestation dates back to 996, where the written name ostarrichi occurs in a document transferring land in present-day Austria to a Bavarian monastery, in 1156, the Privilegium Minus elevated the march to a duchy, independent of the Duchy of Bavaria. In 1282 he invested his sons with the Duchies of Austria and Styria, the Privilegium Maius, fabricated by Rudolf in 1359, attempted to invest the Dukes of Austria with the special position of an Archduke. This title was used by Ernest the Iron and other Dukes but not recognized by other princes of the Holy Roman Empire until Frederick V became Emperor. Claiming the title Duke of Austria, he resided in Vienna from 1485 to his death in 1490, the Austrian territories were reunited in 1493. In 1564 the Austrian territories were divided among Emperor Ferdinands sons, Lower and Upper Austria passed to Ferdinands 1st son Maximilian, Rudolf, Matthias. The territories therefore passed to the descendants of Emperor Ferdinands 3rd son Charles after Alberts abdication on 9 October 1619, however, in practice, the new successor house styled itself as Habsburg-Lorraine. All Habsburgs living today are in the descendants of Maria Theresa. In 1804 Francis I adopted the new title Emperor of Austria, in 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. In 1918, following the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the Republic of Austria was established, following World War II, the current Republic of Austria was established in 1945, even though Austria remained under the control and protection of Allied and Soviet Forces between 1945–1955. The current head of state is the President of Austria, however, in practice, every law still needs to be signed by the President however. Otto von Habsburg, son of Charles I, was the head of the Habsburg house from 1922 and he is the current head of the imperial family. History of Austria Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 List of Austrian consorts List of heirs to the Austrian throne List of Federal Presidents of Austria List of Chancellors of Austria
Archduke of Austria
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Leopold I the Illustrious (Luitpold der Erlauchte) 976–994
Archduke of Austria
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These are articles of the
List of Austrians series
Archduke of Austria
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Henry I the Strong (Heinrich der Starke) 994–1018
Archduke of Austria
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Adalbert the Victorious (Adalbert der Siegreiche) 1018–1055
56.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
57.
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
The Governor or Governor-General ruled the Habsburg Netherlands as a representative of the Dukes of Burgundy, the Kings of Castile, and the Archdukes of Austria. Thereafter, the French revolutionaries occupied the Low Countries until 1815, the Emperor formally recognized the loss of these territories by the Treaty of Lunéville of 1801. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the Low Countries were re-united in a union under the House of Orange-Nassau. In 1830, Belgium declared its independence, List of plenipotentiaries of Austrian Netherlands List of rulers of the Netherlands
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
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William de Croÿ (1458-1521)
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Margaret of Austria (1480-1530)
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
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Mary of Austria (1505-1558)
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands
–
Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy (1528-1580)
58.
Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza
–
Alexander Farnese was Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Castro from 1586 to 1592, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. He is best known for his successful campaign 1578-1592 against the Dutch Revolt, in which he captured the cities in the south. His talents as a commander, strategist and organizer earned him the regard of his contemporaries. Alessandro was the son of Duke Ottavio Farnese of Parma and Margaret and he had a twin brother, Charles, who only lived one month. His mother was the half-sister of Philip II of Spain and John of Austria and he led a significant military and diplomatic career in the service of Spain under the service of his uncle the King. He fought in the Battle of Lepanto and then in the Netherlands against the rebels and he accompanied his mother to Brussels when she was appointed Governor of the Netherlands. In 1565 his marriage with Maria of Portugal was celebrated in Brussels with great splendour and it was seven years before he again had the opportunity to display his great military talents. During that time the provinces of the Netherlands had revolted against Spanish rule. In the autumn of 1577, Farnese was sent to join Don John at the head of reinforcements, shortly afterwards Don John, whose health had broken down, died. Phillip appointed Farnese to take his place, both as Captain-General of the Army of Flanders, and as Governor-General, Farnese was confronted with a difficult situation. Perceiving that his opponents were divided between Catholic and Protestant, Fleming and Walloon, he worked to exploit these divisions. By this means, he regained the allegiance of the Walloon provinces for the king, by the treaty of Arras, January 1579, he secured the support of the Malcontents for the royal cause. The rebels in the seven northern provinces then formed the Union of Utrecht, formally abjuring Phillips rule, as soon as he had secured a base of operations in Hainaut and Artois, Farnese set himself in earnest to the task of reconquering Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. Town after town fell under his control, tournai, Maastricht, Breda, Bruges, and Ghent opened their gates. In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, he proved his mettle and he finally laid siege to the great seaport of Antwerp. The town was open to the sea, strongly fortified, and defended with resolute determination and they were led by the famous Marnix van St. Aldegonde and assisted by an ingenious Italian engineer named Federigo Giambelli. The siege began in 1584 and called all of Farneses military genius. He cut off all access to Antwerp from the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt from Calloo to Oordam, the terms offered included the clause that all Protestants had to leave the city within four years
Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza
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Portrait of Farnese by Jean Baptiste de Saive
Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza
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Engraving of Alexander Farnese. The Netherlands, 1614
Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza
–
Arrival of the funeral procession of the Duke of Parma in Brussels 1592. Print from 'The Wars of Nassau' by
Willem Baudartius.
59.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
Spanish Empire
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Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus to Spain).
Spanish Empire
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Flag
Spanish Empire
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The death of French general
Gaston de Foix at the
Battle of Ravenna (1512).
Spanish Empire
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Upon the death of
Ferdinand the Catholic, the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies.
60.
Spanish Golden Age
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The Spanish Golden Age is a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain, coinciding with the political rise of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty. El Siglo de Oro does not imply precise dates and is considered to have lasted longer than an actual century. Politically, it no later than 1659, with the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The last great writer of the period, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, died in 1681, the Habsburgs, both in Spain and Austria, were great patrons of art in their countries. El Escorial, the royal monastery built by King Philip II, invited the attention of some of Europes greatest architects. El Greco, another respected artist from the period, infused Spanish art with the styles of the Italian renaissance, some of Spains greatest music is regarded as having been written in the period. Spanish literature blossomed as well, most famously demonstrated in the work of Miguel de Cervantes, Spains most prolific playwright, Lope de Vega, wrote possibly as many as one thousand plays during his lifetime, of which over four hundred survive to the present day. Spain, in the time of the Italian Renaissance, had seen few great artists come to its shores, Luis de Morales, one of the leading exponents of Spanish mannerist painting, retained a distinctly Spanish style in his work, reminiscent of medieval art. Spanish rule of Naples was important for making connections between Italian and Spanish art, with many Spanish administrators bringing Italian works back to Spain. Known for his impact in bringing the Italian Renaissance to Spain, El Greco was not Spanish. He studied the great Italian masters of his time - Titian, Tintoretto, according to legend, he asserted that he would paint a mural that would be as good as one of Michelangelos, if one of the Italian artists murals was demolished first. El Greco quickly fell out of favor in Italy, but soon found a new home in the city of Toledo and he was influential in creating a style based on impressions and emotion, featuring elongated fingers and vibrant color and brushwork. Uniquely, his works featured faces that captured expressions of sombre attitudes and his paintings of the city of Toledo became models for a new European tradition in landscapes, and influenced the work of later Dutch masters. Spain at this time was an environment for the Venetian-trained painter. Art was flourishing in the empire and Toledo was a place to get commissions. He was born on June 6,1599, in Seville, both parents were from the minor nobility. He was the oldest of six children, diego Velázquez is widely regarded as one of Spains most important and influential artists. He was a painter for King Philip IV and found increasingly high demand for his portraits from statesmen, aristocrats
Spanish Golden Age
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Las Meninas (1656, English: The Maids of Honour) by
Diego Velázquez
Spanish Golden Age
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In ictu oculi ("In the blink of an eye") a
vanitas by
Juan de Valdés Leal
Spanish Golden Age
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Toledo by
El Greco
Spanish Golden Age
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The Birth of the Virgin by
Francisco de Zurbarán
61.
New Laws
–
The text of the New Laws has been translated to English. The New Laws were the results of a reform movement spurred by what was seen as the effective, decades-old Leyes de Burgos. These had been effective to an extent due to the opposition of some colonists. Some regarded the laws as legalizing the system of forced Indian labor, during the reign of King Charles I, the reformers gained strength, with a number of Spanish missionaries making the case for stricter rules, including the controversial Bartolomé de las Casas. His alleged goal was the abolition of the system, which forced the Indians to abandon their previous lifestyle. His role in the movement earned him the nickname Defender of the Indians. However, his motivations were also political. Eventually, the reformists were able to influence the King to pass a new set of reforms came to be known as the New Laws. The New Laws stated that the natives would be considered free persons, the natives were only required to pay the encomenderos tribute, and, if they worked, they would be paid wages in exchange for their labor. The laws also prohibited the sending of indigenous people to work in the mines unless it was absolutely necessary, as a result, the promulgation of the New Laws caused great unrest among the privileged Spaniards. In Peru it led to a revolt, led by Gonzalo Pizarro, Pizarro headed protesting encomenderos who took to arms in order to maintain their rights by force. Gonzalo Pizarro was invited by the Supreme Court to assume control over its government after marching from Bolivia to Lima with his troops, Pizarro forced himself upon Lima and Quito. The revolt led to the overthrow of Viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela, Pizarro and his army defeated and killed Núñez Vela in 1546. Pizarros power stretched all the way to Panama, Charles I and the court became alarmed and were convinced that the immediate abolition of the encomienda system would bring economic ruin to the colonies. To deal with the revolt, Charles I sent Pedro de la Gasca, however, Pizarro declared Peru independent from the King. La Gasca saw fit to provisionally suspend the New Laws, Pizarro was later captured and executed, having been accused of being a traitor to the King. Although in New Spain, the reaction of encomenderos was noncompliance. New Spains first viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza prudently refrained from enforcing the parts of the New Laws most objectionable to the encomenderos, over time, there was compliance with most aspects of them
New Laws
–
Cover of "Leyes Nuevas" of 1542.
62.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
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The Expulsion of the Moriscos was decreed by King Philip III of Spain on April 9,1609. The Moriscos were descendants of Spains Muslim population that converted to Christianity by coercion or by Royal Decree in the early 16th century, between 1609 through 1614, the Crown systematically expelled Moriscos through a number of decrees affecting Spains various kingdoms, meeting varying levels of success. Dadson estimates that, out of a total Morisco population of 500,000, of those permanently expelled, the majority finally settled in the Maghreb or the Barbary coast, with between 30,000 and 90,000 ultimately returning to Spain. Those who avoided expulsion or who managed to return to Spain merged into the dominant culture, the last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices took place in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. By the end of the 18th century, indigenous Islam and Morisco identity were considered to have been extinguished in Spain. While some Moriscos did hold influence and power, and even had positions in the clergy, others, particularly in Valencia, where sectarian conflict existed, old Christian communities suspected the Moriscos of not being sincere in their Christianity. The Moors who remained Muslims were known as Mudéjar, as such the conflict between Old Christians and New Christians was an ethnically inspired one. After the suppression of the revolt, Philip ordered the dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada to other areas, Philip expected that this would break down the Morisco community and facilitate their assimilation into the rest of the Christian population. This may have happened to a degree to Granadas Moriscos, but not in Valencia or Aragon, at around the same time, Spain recognized the loss of more than half of its holdings in the Low Countries to the Protestant Dutch Republic. The ruling class already thought of Spain as the defender of Catholic Christendom, and this helped lead to a radicalization of thinking. Some critiques of Spain from Protestant countries included insults of the Spanish as corrupted by the Muslims and crypto-Muslims amongst them, the situation further deteriorated in the early 17th century. A recession struck in 1604 as the amount of gold and treasure from Spains American holdings fell, the reduction in the standard of living led to increased tension between the Moriscos and Old Christians for precious jobs. The number of Moriscos in Spain at the time of expulsion is unknown, figures of between 300,000 and 400,000 are often cited. However, modern studies estimate between 500,000 and one million moriscos present in Spain at the beginning of the 17th century out of a population of 8.5 million. The rich and those who lived in the cities were mostly Christians, while the Moriscos occupied the outlying countryside, in the Crown of Castile, which included the Guadalquivir valley in present Andalusia the situation was considerably different. Local sympathies for Moriscos meant that Castile and Andalusia experienced only half-hearted efforts at identifying and expelling them, in the region of Valencia, which held the bulk of Aragons Morisco population, the situation was radically different to Castile. Valencian moriscos were the majority of the landless peasantry and lived segregated to Christian populations. Economic and social rivalry was a driver of resentment towards the them
Expulsion of the Moriscos
–
Expulsion of the Moriscos at the port of
Dénia, by Vincente Mostre.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
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Embarking of the Moriscos at Valencia, by Pere Oromig.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
–
Disembarking of the Moriscos at
Oran port (1613, Vicente Mestre), Fundación Bancaja de Valencia
63.
Enlightenment in Spain
–
The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment came to Spain in the eighteenth century with the new Bourbon dynasty, following the death of the last Habsburg monarch, Charles II, in 1700. Like the Spanish Enlightenment, the Spanish Bourbon monarchs were imbued with Spains Catholic identity, the Bourbon monarchs sought the expansion of scientific knowledge, which had been urged by Benedictine friar Benito Feijóo. From 1777 to 1816, the Spanish crown funded scientific expeditions to gather information about the potential wealth of the empire. Spanish scholars sought to understand the decline of the Spanish empire from its glory days. In Spanish America, the Enlightenment also had an impact in the intellectual and scientific sphere, the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula was enormously destabilizing for Spain and the Spanish overseas empire. The ideas of the Hispanic Enlightenment have been seen as a contributor to the Spanish American wars of independence. The French Bourbons had a claim on the Spanish throne following the 1700 death of the last Hapsburg monarch, Charles II. France won War of the Spanish Succession and the Bourbon monarchy was established in Spain, once it consolidated rule in Spain, the Bourbon monarchs embarked upon a series of reforms to revitalize the Spanish empire, which had significantly declined in power in the late Hapsburg era. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment had an impact in Spain. A cortes was convened in Cádiz, which ratified a constitution in 1812. Ferdinand VII claimed he supported the liberal constitutions, but once restored to power in 1814, he renounced it, New Spain and Peru were the exceptions, becoming independent in 1821 and 1824. Mexico briefly had a monarchy under royalist military officer turned insurgent Agustín de Iturbide, Spain was at the center of this political crisis, but it was the object not the arbiter. The vastness of the Spanish Empire in the New World, along with her naval resources, had made Spain a vital part of European power politics. If the throne of Spain was to go to a relative of the king of France, if it remained in the hands of another member of the anti-French, Austrian Habsburg dynasty, the status quo would remain. European politics during the century became dominated by establishing an orderly succession in Spain that would not alter the balance between Europes great powers. Castilian legitimists, who valued the succession of the closest heir of the king over the continuation of Habsburg rule, Spanish officials were also concerned with Spain remaining an independent country, rather than another part of the French or Austrian empires. Even so, on hearing the news that his grandson had become King of Spain, Louis XIV proclaimed, at age 17, Philip V arrived in Madrid in early 1701 without visible opposition. Philip confirmed the fueros of Catalunya and Aragon, and to all appearances the Bourbon succession was successful, the Austrian Hapsburg claimant to the Spanish throne, Archduke Charles of Austria, argued that he had been cheated out of the throne of Spain unfairly
Enlightenment in Spain
–
Prince
Philip of Anjou, grandson of King
Louis XIV of France, future King Philip V of Spain
Enlightenment in Spain
–
Bourbon flag (1701–60)
Enlightenment in Spain
–
Cavalry in front of a burning mill, by
Philip Wouwerman..
Enlightenment in Spain
–
Allegory on the
Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ending the
War of the Spanish Succession
64.
Peninsular War
–
The Peninsular War was a military conflict between Napoleons empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain and Portugal, for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, the Peninsular War overlaps with what the Spanish-speaking world calls the Guerra de la Independencia Española, which began with the Dos de Mayo Uprising on 2 May 1808 and ended on 17 April 1814. The French occupation destroyed the Spanish administration, which fragmented into quarrelling provincial juntas, the British Army, under the then Lt. Gen. Arthur Wellesley, guarded Portugal and campaigned against the French in Spain alongside the reformed Portuguese army. The demoralised Portuguese army was reorganised and refitted under the command of Gen, in the following year Wellington scored a decisive victory over King Josephs army at Vitoria. The years of fighting in Spain were a burden on Frances Grande Armée. The Spanish armies were beaten and driven to the peripheries. This drain on French resources led Napoleon, who had provoked a total war. War and revolution against Napoleons occupation led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812, the burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain, and ushered in an era of social turbulence, political instability and economic stagnation. Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, led by officers trained in the Peninsular War, persisted in Iberia until 1850. The cumulative crises and disruptions of invasion, revolution and restoration led to the independence of most of Spains American colonies, the Treaties of Tilsit, negotiated during a meeting in July 1807 between Emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon, concluded the War of the Fourth Coalition. With Prussia shattered, and Russia allied with France, Napoleon expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with the United Kingdom, furthermore, Prince John of Braganza, regent for his insane mother Queen Maria I, had declined to join the emperors Continental System against British trade. After a few days, a large force started concentrating at Bayonne, meanwhile the Portuguese governments resolve was stiffening, and shortly afterward Napoleon was once again told that Portugal would not go beyond its original agreements. After he received the Portuguese answer, he ordered Junots corps to cross the frontier into Spain, while all this was going on, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau had been signed between France and Spain. The document was drawn up by Napoleons marshal of the palace Géraud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo, the treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. Porto and the part was to become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania. The southern portion, as the Principality of the Algarves, would fall to Godoy, the rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junots invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 men in three Spanish columns, Gen. Taranco and 6,500 troops were ordered to march from Vigo to seize Porto in the north. Capt. Gen. Solano would advance from Badajoz with 9,500 soldiers to capture Elvas, Gen. Caraffa and 9,500 men were instructed to assemble at Salamanca and Ciudad Rodrigo, and cooperate with Junots main force
Peninsular War
–
The Second of May 1808: The Charge of the Mamelukes by
Francisco de Goya, 1814
Peninsular War
–
The Portuguese royal family
escapes to Brazil
Peninsular War
–
Second of May 1808:
the defenders of Monteleón make their
last stand
Peninsular War
–
Joseph-Bernard Flaugier's 1808 painting Escena de la Guerra de la Independencia depicts Imperial troops battling the Catalan militia
65.
Spanish American wars of independence
–
These conflicts started in 1809 with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French invasion, in 1810, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish–American War in 1898. The new republics from the abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition. Slavery was not abolished immediately, but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century, criollos and mestizos replaced Spanish-born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions, both armies originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas. The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in former French colony of St-Domingue, Haiti, a more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period. Political independence was not necessarily the outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. There was little interest in outright independence, humphreys and John Lynch note, it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. Since by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, because Spanish American independence did occur, there are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from kingdoms with independent standing with the crown to colonies and this meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crowns upending long-standing practices of creole access to office holding. The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church, the crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. In the economic sphere, the sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo, in some areas—such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain—the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions, the Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire, the political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors
Spanish American wars of independence
–
The
Battle of San Lorenzo in 1813
Spanish American wars of independence
–
Decisive events of the war:
Cortes de Cádiz (1812) (top left);
Congress of Cúcuta (1821) (bottom left);
Crossing of the Andes (1817) (bottom right);
Battle of Tampico (1829) (top right).
Spanish American wars of independence
–
The
Battle of Rancagua in 1814
Spanish American wars of independence
–
The
Battle of Ayacucho, in Peru, ensured the independence of South America in 1824
66.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
–
The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was established on 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, Spains first national sovereign assembly, the Cortes Generales, in refuge in Cádiz during the Peninsular War. It established the principles of universal suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy and freedom of the press. This constitution, one of the most liberal of its time, was effectively Spains first, on 24 March 1814, six weeks after returning to Spain, Ferdinand VII abolished the constitution and had all monuments to it torn down. The Constitution Obelisk in Saint Augustine, Florida survived, the constitution was reinstated during the Trienio Liberal, and again briefly 1836—1837 while the Progressives prepared the Constitution of 1837. The Spaniards nicknamed the Constitution La Pepa, possibly because it was adopted on Saint Josephs Day, from a Spanish point of view, the Peninsular War was a war of independence against the French Empire and the king installed by Napoleon, his brother Joseph Bonaparte. While many in elite circles in Madrid were willing to accept Josephs rule, the war began on the night of 2 May 1808, and was immortalized by Francisco Goyas painting The Second of May 1808, also known as The Charge of the Mamelukes. The Junta first met on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez and later in Seville, in any event, Floridablancas strength failed him and he died on 30 December 1808. When the Cortes convened in Cádiz in 1810, there appeared to be two possibilities for Spains political future if the French could be driven out. The first, represented especially by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, was the restoration of the absolutist Antiguo Régimen, the origins of the Cortes did not harbor any revolutionary intentions, since the Junta saw itself simply as a continuation of the legitimate government of Spain. The opening session of the new Cortes was held on 24 September 1810 in the now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes. Few of the most conservative voices were at Cádiz, and there was no communication with King Ferdinand. Three basic principles were soon ratified by the Cortes, that sovereignty resides in the nation, the legitimacy of Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, and the inviolability of the deputies. Although the Cortes was not unanimous in its liberalism, the new Constitution reduced the power of the crown, the Catholic Church, the Cortes of Cádiz worked feverishly and the first written Spanish constitution was promulgated in Cádiz on 19 March 1812. The Constitution of 1812 is regarded as the document of liberalism in Spain. Suffrage, which was not determined by property qualifications, favored the position of the class in the new parliament. Repeal of traditional property restrictions gave liberals the freer economy they wanted, the first provincial government created under the Constitution was in the province of Guadalajara con Molina. Its deputation first met in the village of Anguita in April 1813, among the most debated questions during the drafting of the constitution was the status of the native and mixed-race populations in Spains possessions around the world. Most of the provinces were represented, especially the most populous regions
Spanish Constitution of 1812
–
Plaza de España in Cadiz, commemorating the Spanish Constitution of 1812.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
–
Cortes of Cadiz Oath in 1810. Oil painting by
José Casado del Alisal, 1863.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
–
Allegory of the Constitution of 1812,
Francisco de Goya,
Swedish National Museum.
Spanish Constitution of 1812
–
The promulgation of the Constitution of 1812, oil painting by
Salvador Viniegra (Museo de las Cortes de Cádiz).
67.
Western Sahara conflict
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The Western Sahara conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Polisario Front and the Kingdom of Morocco. The conflict is the continuation of the past insurgency by Polisario against the Spanish colonial forces in 1973–75, today the conflict is dominated by unarmed civil campaigns of the Polisario Front and their self-proclaimed SADR state to gain fully recognized independence for Western Sahara. The conflict escalated after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords, beginning in 1975, the Polisario Front, backed and supported by Algeria, waged a 16-year-long war for independence against Mauritania and Morocco. In 1977, France intervened, as the conflict reached its peak intensity, in 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict and territories, leading to a stalemate through most of the 1980s. After several more engagements between 1989 and 1991, a agreement was reached between the Polisario Front and the Moroccan government. At present, these borders are largely unchanged, in late 2010, the protests re-erupted in the Gdeim Izik refugee camp in Western Sahara. While the protests were peaceful, they were later marked by clashes between civilians and security forces, resulting in dozens of casualties on both sides. Though sporadic demonstrations continue, the movement had subsided by May 2011. In 1884 Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc, later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958 Spain merged the separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra. Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Sahrawi population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the Spanish-claimed territory for a long time, ma al-Aynayn died in October 1910, and his son El Hiba succeeded him. El Hibas forces were defeated during a campaign to conquer Marrakesh. The city was rebuilt, and Sahrawi resistance continued for the following twenty years. The rebellious territory was subdued in 1934, after joint Spanish. In 1956 the Ifni War, initiated by the Moroccan Army of Liberation, marked renewed conflict in the region, however, unrest lingered among the regions population, and in 1967 the Harakat Tahrir arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. In 1971 a group of young Sahrawi students in the universities of Morocco began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra, as a result of this ambivalence, the movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Western Sahara to start an armed rebellion. Women in Western Sahara are prominent members of the Polisario Front as soldiers, the Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 in the Mauritanian city of Zouirate, with the express intention of militarily forcing an end to Spanish colonization. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed, on 20 May he led the Khanga raid, the Polisarios first armed action, in which a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas was overrun and a cache of rifles seized
Western Sahara conflict
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Gathering of Saharawi troops, near Tifariti (Western Sahara), celebrating the 32nd anniversary to the Polisario Front (2005).
68.
Louisiana (New Spain)
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Louisiana was the name of an administrative district of the Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1762 to 1802 that consisted of territory west of the Mississippi River basin, plus New Orleans. Spain acquired the territory from France, who had named it La Louisiane in honor of King Louis XIV in 1682 and it is sometimes known as Spanish Louisiana. The district was retroceded to France, under the terms of the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, in 1802, King Charles IV of Spain published a royal bill on 15 October, effecting the transfer and outlining the conditions. However, Spain agreed to continue administering the colony until French officials arrived and formalized the transfer. The ceremony was conducted at the Cabildo in New Orleans on 30 November 1803, Spain was largely a benign absentee landlord administering it from Havana, Cuba, and contracting out governing to people from many nationalities as long as they swore allegiance to Spain. During the American War of Independence, the Spanish funneled their supplies to the American revolutionists through New Orleans, in keeping with being absentee landlords, Spanish efforts to turn Louisiana into a Spanish colony were usually fruitless. For instance, while Spanish officially was the language of government. Even official business conducted at the Cabildo often lapsed into French, when Alejandro OReilly re-established Spanish rule in 1769, he issued a decree on December 7,1769, which banned the trade of Native American slaves. Although there was no movement toward abolition of the African slave trade, Spanish rule introduced a new law called coartación, which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others. A group of maroons led by Jean Saint Malo resisted re-enslavement from their base in the swamps east of New Orleans between 1780 and 1784, on May 4,1795,57 slaves and three local white men were put on trial in Point Coupee. Spanish colonial officials divided Luisiana into Upper Louisiana and Lower Louisiana at 36°35 North, in 1764, French fur trading interests founded St. Louis in what was then known as the Illinois Country. The Spanish referred to St. Louis as the city of Illinois, in 1778, several ships embarked for Louisiana with hundreds of settlers. The ships made stops in Havana and Venezuela, where half the settlers disembarked, in the end, between 2,100 and 2,736 Canarians arrived in Louisiana and settled near New Orleans. They settled in Barataria and in what is today St. Bernard Parish, however, many settlers were relocated for various reasons. Barataria suffered hurricanes in 1779 and in 1780, it was abandoned, in 1782, a splinter group of the Canarian settlers in Saint Bernard emigrated to Valenzuela. In 1779, another ship with 500 people from Málaga, arrived in Spanish Louisiana and these colonists, led by Lt. Col. Francisco Bouligny, settled in New Iberia, where they intermarried with Cajun settlers. In 1782, during the American Revolutionary War and the Anglo-Spanish War, Bernardo de Gálvez recruited men from the Canarian settlements of Louisiana and Galveston to join his forces. They participated in three military campaigns, the Baton Rouge, the Mobile, and the Pensacola, which expelled the British from the Gulf Coast
Louisiana (New Spain)
Louisiana (New Spain)
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Cross of Burgundy
Louisiana (New Spain)
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DeSoto claiming the Mississippi, as depicted in the
United States Capitol rotunda
Louisiana (New Spain)
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The Cabildo, next to the San Luis cathedral (See photo below.)
69.
Viceroyalty of New Granada
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The Viceroyalty of New Granada was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in northern South America, corresponding to modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela. The territory corresponding to Panama was incorporated later in 1739, in addition to these core areas, the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada included Guyana, southwestern Suriname, parts of northwestern Brazil, and northern Peru. Sporadic attempts at reform were directed at increasing efficiency and centralizing authority, the rough and diverse geography of northern South America and the limited range of proper roads made travel and communications within the viceroyalty difficult. The Wayuu had never subjugated by the Spanish. The two groups were in a more or less permanent state of war, there had been rebellions in 1701,1727,1741,1757,1761 and 1768. In 1718, Governor Soto de Herrera called them barbarians, horse thieves, worthy of death, without God, without law, of all the Indians in the territory of Colombia, the Wayuu were unique in having learned the use of firearms and horses. In 1769 the Spanish took 22 Wayuus captive, in order to put them to work building the fortifications of Cartagena, the reaction of the Wayuus was unexpected. On 2 May 1769, at El Rincón, near Riohacha, they set their village afire, burning the church, the Spanish immediately dispatched an expedition from El Rincón to capture the Wayuus. At the head of this force was José Antonio de Sierra, the Guajiros recognized him and forced his party to take refuge in the house of the curate, which they then set afire. Sierra and eight of his men were killed and this success was soon known in other Guajiro areas, and more men joined the revolt. According to Messía, at the peak there were 20,000 Wayuus under arms, many had firearms acquired from English and Dutch smugglers, sometimes even from the Spanish. This enabled the rebels to take all the settlements of the region. According to the authorities, more than 100 Spaniards were killed, many cattle were also taken by the rebels. The Spaniards took refuge in Riohacha and sent urgent messages to Maracaibo, Valledupar, Santa Marta and Cartagena, the rebels themselves were not unified. Sierras relatives among the Indians took up arms against the rebels to avenge his death, a battle between the two groups of Wayuus was fought at La Soledad. That and the arrival of the Spanish reinforcements caused the rebellion to fade away, New Granada was estimated to have 4,345,000 inhabitants in 1819. With the dissolution of Gran Colombia, the states of Ecuador, Venezuela, the Republic of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá, lasted from 1831 to 1856. The name Colombia reappeared in the United States of Colombia, the new name for the country having been introduced by a government after a civil war
Viceroyalty of New Granada
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Pedro Messía de la Cerda, Viceroy of New Granada
Viceroyalty of New Granada
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Naval flag of Spain since 1785 and of maritime places and coastal forts from 1793
70.
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too
Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
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Cross of Burgundy (Flag of the Viceroyalty of Peru)
Viceroyalty of Peru
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Francisco Álvarez de Toledo, Viceroy of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Plaza Mayor and the
Cathedral of Lima
71.
Captaincy General of Chile
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The General Captaincy of Chile or Gobernación de Chile, was a colony of the Spanish Empire from 1541 to 1818, the year in which it declared itself independent, becoming the Republic of Chile. It had a number of governors over its history and technically one king, Felipe II. The General Captaincy of Chile was incorporated to the Crown of Castile as were all the other Spanish possessions in the New World, the General Captaincy of Chile was first known as New Extremadura and then as Indian Flanders. The Captaincy was a part of the Viceroyalty of Perú, the administrative apparatus of the General Captaincy of Chile was subordinate to the Council of the Indies and the Laws of the Indies, like the other Spanish colonial possessions. The day-to-day work was handled mostly by viceroys and governors, who represented the kings will, in 1536 Diego de Almagro formed the first expedition to explore the territories to the south of the Inca Empire, which had been granted to him as the Governorship of New Toledo. After Almargos death, Pedro de Valdivia solicited and was granted in 1539 the right to explore, Valdivia founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo and a few months later its cabildo appointed him governor and Captain General of New Extremadura on June 11,1541. In 1553 Valdivia also founded a series of forts for protection of the areas, San Felipe de Araucan, San Juan Bautista de Purén. After Valdivias death that year, these last forts, Villarica. They were recovered following the war with Lautaro and Caupolicán, martín García Óñez de Loyola founded a last city south of the Bio Bio River, Santa Cruz de Coya, in 1595. In the 17th century, the Spanish colony of Chile saw a rearrangement of its population center, the colony went from being a gold exporter with potential for expanding to the Strait of Magellan to being one of the Spanish Empires most problematic and poor in natural resources. The Spanish Empire had to divert silver from Potosí to finance a standing army in Chile to fight in the Arauco War, since the raids of Francis Drake in Chilean waters more seaborne assaults followed in the 17th century, mostly from Dutch corsairs. Thus, the governor was given command of the local military and this arrangement was seen in many places of the Spanish Empire. Chile also has the distinction of being the one region of the Spanish Empire that technically had a king, Philip II. In 1554, the Infante Philip married Queen Mary I of England, in order to bring him up to an equal rank with the Queen, he was named the King of Chile by his father, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Additionally he received the Kingdom of Naples, a possession of the Crown of Aragon, for all practical purposes, the title had no effect on Chiles administration, continuing its practical identity as a gobernación and reino in the Spanish Empire. After Philip became King of Spain in 1556, the title simply merged back to the held by the Spanish king. The greatest set back the Spanish settlements suffered was the Disaster of Curalaba in 1598, all cities south of the Biobío River with the exception of Castro were destroyed. The river became La Frontera the de facto border between Spanish and Native areas for the next century, Chile gained two intendancies, Santiago and Concepción in 1786 and became a Bourbon-style Captaincy General in 1789
Captaincy General of Chile
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Illustration of the
Arauco War in
Jerónimo de Vivar 's book Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reynos de Chile (1558).
Captaincy General of Chile
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Flag of the Spanish Empire
Captaincy General of Chile
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" Baile del Santiago antiguo " by
Pedro Subercaseaux. Chile's colonial high society were made up by landowners and government officials.
Captaincy General of Chile
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World Map by Abraham Ortelius (1570), where appears the Terra Australis Incognita.
72.
Spanish Guinea
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Spanish Guinea was a set of insular and continental territories controlled by Spain since 1778 in the Gulf of Guinea and on the Bight of Bonny, in Central Africa. It gained independence in 1968 and is known as Equatorial Guinea, the Spanish colony in the Guinea region was established in 1778, by the Treaty of El Pardo between the Spanish Empire and the Kingdom of Portugal. Between 1778 and 1810, Spain administered the territory of Equatorial Guinea via its colonial Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, from 1827 to 1843, the United Kingdom had a base on Bioko to combat the continuing Atlantic slave trade conducted by Spain and illegal traders. Based on an agreement with Spain in 1843, Britain moved its base to its own colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa, in 1844, on restoration of Spanish sovereignty, it became known as the Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea. Spain had never undertaken colonial settlement of the area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had treaty rights. The French expanded their occupation at the expense of the area claimed by Spain. By the treaty of Paris in 1900, Spain was left with the enclave of Rio Muni,26,000 km2 of the 300,000 stretching east to the Ubangi river. Toward the end of the 19th century Spanish, Portuguese, German, with the indigenous Bubi population decimated by disease and forced labour, the island’s economy came to depend on imported agricultural contract workers. A labour treaty was signed with the Republic of Liberia in 1914, the transport of up to 15,000 workers by sea was orchestrated by the German Woermann-Linie, the government prohibited recruiting of Liberian workers for Spanish Guinea. The persisting labour shortage in the cacao, coffee and logging led to a booming trade in illegal canoe-based smuggling of Igbo. The number of contract workers on the island of Fernando Po grew to 20,000 in 1942. A labour treaty was signed with the British Crown in the same year and this led to a continuous stream of Nigerian workers going to Spanish Guinea. By 1968 at the time of independence, almost 100,000 ethnic Nigerians were living and working in Spanish Guinea, between 1926 and 1959, the Crown united Bioko and Rio Muni as the colony of Spanish Guinea. The economy was based on exploitation of the commodity crops of cacao and coffee, produced at large plantations, owners of these companies hired mostly immigrant contract labour from Liberia, Nigeria, and Cameroon. Spain mounted military campaigns in the 1920s to subdue the indigenous Fang people, the Crown established garrisons of the colonial guard throughout the enclave by 1926, and the whole colony was considered pacified by 1929. Rio Muni had a population, officially put at a little over 100,000 in the 1930s. Its people could easily escape over the borders into Cameroon or Gabon, moreover, the timber companies needed growing amounts of labour, and the spread of coffee cultivation offered an alternative means of paying taxes. The island of Fernando Po continued to suffer labour shortages
Spanish Guinea
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Flag (after 1945)
73.
Ifni
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Ifni was a Spanish province on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, south of Agadir and across from the Canary Islands. It had an area of 1,502 km². Spains presence in the area can be traced to a settlement called Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña, after attacks by the Berbers the Spanish decided to focus on colonizing other areas of North Africa and abandoned the region. This served as a pretext for a war with Morocco in 1859. During Francisco Francos dictatorship, the colony was made into a Spanish province in order to forestall United Nations criticism of continued colonization, after the Forgotten War most of the territory became occupied by Morocco. Spain formally returned the territory to Morocco on 30 June 1969, the territory was integrated into the Moroccan region of Souss-Massa-Drâa. Spain began issuing stamps for Ifni in 1941, initially overprinting Spanish stamps with TERRITORIO DE IFNI. Issues followed at the rate of ten per year with the last on 23 November 1968. Most are commonly available and are often seen unused than used. List of colonial governors of Ifni Ifni War Ifni Friends Association Ifni stamp gallery The Corner of Sidi Ifni Ifni today Jomabase photo album on Picasa Maps of Ifni
Ifni
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Map sheet showing boundary of the former Ifni Province.
Ifni
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Flag
74.
Cape Juby
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Cape Juby is a cape on the coast of southern Morocco, near the border with Western Sahara, directly east of the Canary Islands. According to the Moroccan Embassy it is of Berber origin with no specific meaning, on May 28,1767, Mohammed ben Abdallah, the Sultan of Morocco, signed a peace and commerce treaty with King Charles III of Spain. In the treaty, Morocco did not guarantee the security of Spanish fishermen in the south of the Nun river. On March 1,1799, Sultan Slimane of Morocco signed an accord with King Charles IV of Spain, in which he recognized that the Saguia el Hamra, in 1879, the British North West Africa Company established a trading post near Cape Juby called Port Victoria. On March 26,1888, Moroccan soldiers attacked the post, killing the director of the post, in 1895, the company sold its post to the Sultan of Morocco. In 1912, Spain negotiated with France for concessions on the edge of Morocco. Francisco Bens officially occupied the Cape Juby region for Spain on July 29,1916 and it was administered by Spain as a single entity with Spanish Sahara and Ifni, as Spanish West Africa. The Spanish area 12,700 sq mi, and had a population of 9,836 and its main town was founded by the Spanish as Villa Bens. Villa Bens was used as a staging post for airmail flights, when Morocco became independent in 1956, it asked for the cession of Moroccan areas controlled by Spain. After some resistance and some fighting during 1957, the Cape Juby strip was ceded by the Spanish government to Morocco in 1958, in 1877, English engineer Donald Mackenzie was the first to propose a Sahara Sea be created. Mackenzie proposed cutting a channel from Cape Juby in southern Morocco to a basin and plain known as El Djouf. This basin was approximately 61 metres below sea level at its deepest, Mackenzie acknowledged that other desert basins in present-day Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt shared below-sea-level profiles similar to those observed at El Juf. These basins contained seasonally dry salt lakes, known as chotts, the Qattara Depression is perhaps the largest area in North Africa below sea level. Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña Tekna Ifni War Sahrawi Reguibat Western Sahara Morocco Sahara Sea Qattara Depression
Cape Juby
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Cape Juby
75.
Spanish protectorate in Morocco
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The Spanish protectorate in Morocco was established on 27 November 1912 by a treaty between France and Spain that converted the Spanish sphere of influence in Morocco into a formal protectorate. The Spanish protectorate consisted of a strip on the Mediterranean and the Strait of Gibraltar. The northern zone was retroceded to an independent Morocco on 7 April 1956, Spain finally ceded her southern zone through the Treaty of Angra de Cintra around Cintra Bay on 1 April 1958, only after the short Ifni War. The city of Tangiers was excluded of the Spanish protectorate and received an special internationally controled status, since France already held a protectorate over the entire country and controlled Moroccos foreign affairs, it also held the power to delegate a zone to Spanish protection. The surface area of the zone was about 20,948 km2, in a convention dated 27 June 1900, France and Spain agreed to recognize separate zones of influence in Morocco, but did not specify their boundaries. In 1902, France offered Spain all of Morocco north of the Sebu River and south of the Sous River, in regard to these interests the French Government will come to an understanding with the Spanish Government. The agreement which may be come to on the subject between France and Spain shall be communicated to His Britannic Majestys Government. The British goal in negotiations with France was to ensure that a weaker power held the strategic coast opposite Gibraltar in return for Britain ceding all interest in Morocco. France began negotiating with Spain at once, but the offer of 1902 was no longer on the table, since France had given up her ambitions in Ottoman Libya in a convention with Italy in 1903, she felt entitled to a greater share of Morocco. On 3 October 1904, France and Spain concluded a treaty that defined their precise zones, Spain received a zone of influence consisting of a northern strip of territory and a southern strip. The northern strip did not reach to the border of French Algeria, nor did it include Tangier, the treaty also recognized the Spanish enclave of Ifni and delimited its borders. In March 1905, the German kaiser, Wilhelm II, visited Tangier, there he loudly touted Germanys economic interests in Morocco and assured the sultan of financial assistance in the event of a threat to Moroccan independence. At Wilhelms urging, Sultan Abd el Aziz called for an international conference, the final Spanish zone of influence consisted of a northern strip and a southern strip centred on Cape Juby. The consideration of the strip as part of the protectorate back in 1912 eventually gave Morocco a solid legal claim to the territory in the 1950s. The Protectorate system was established in 1912, the Islamic legal system of qadis was formally maintained. The Spanish lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August 1921, controversy in Spain over the early conduct in the war was a driving factor behind the military coup by General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923 which foreshadowed the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39. After the successful 1925 Alhucemas landing, the French–Spanish alliance ended up achieving victory, before 1934, the southern part of the protectorate was governed from Cape Juby since 1912, Cape Juby was also head of the Spanish West Africa. The Spanish Civil War started in 1936 with the partially successful coup against the Republican Government
Spanish protectorate in Morocco
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Civil ensign of Spanish Morocco (1937–56)
76.
Spanish Sahara
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Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was occupied and ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975. It had been one of the most recent acquisitions of the Spanish Empire, as well as one of its last remaining holdings, Spain gave up its Saharan possession following Moroccan demands and international pressure, mainly from United Nations resolutions regarding decolonisation. There was internal pressure from the native Sahrawi population and the claims of Morocco, Mauritania also claimed the territory for a number of years based on its history, and then dropped all claims. In 1991 the UN negotiated a ceasefire, and has tried to arrange negotiations, Morocco controls the entire Atlantic coast and most of the landmass, population, and natural resources of Western Sahara. Before and during the Spanish occupation, the territory was inhabited by Saharan Arabs who lived in many oases and they worked mainly in fishing and camel herding. They speak Hassaniya language, a Bedouin Arabic dialect, there is some dispute and ambiguity about whether the territory was under Moroccan royal sovereignty at the time when the Spanish claimed it in 1884. It officially informed the other powers in writing on 14 January 1885 and it began establishing trading posts and a military presence. In July 1885, the king appointed Emilio Bonelli commissioner of the Río de Oro with civil, on 6 April 1887, it was incorporated into the Captaincy General of the Canary Islands for military purposes. At the time, geographers had not mapped the territory and its features were not widely known and their trek is considered the first scientific expedition in that part of the Sahara. In 1886, Spain signed the Treaty of Idjil by which the emirate of Adrar ceded the land of the colony to Spain, the borders of the territory were not clearly defined until treaties between Spain and France in the early 20th century. Spanish Sahara was created from the Spanish territories of Río de Oro and it was not part of the areas known as Spanish Morocco and was administered separately from them. On entering the territory in 1884, Spain was immediately challenged by stiff resistance from the indigenous Sahrawi tribes, a 1904 rebellion led by the powerful Smara-based marabout, Shaykh Ma al-Aynayn, was put down by France in 1910, which ruled neighboring Algeria. This was followed by a wave of uprisings under Ma al-Aynayns sons, grandsons, tribal uprisings meant that Spain found it difficult to control parts of the territorys large hinterland until 1934. After gaining independence in 1956, Morocco laid claim on Spanish Sahara as part of its historic pre-colonial territory, in 1957, the Moroccan Army of Liberation nearly occupied the small territory of Sidi-Ifni, north of Spanish Sahara, during the Ifni War. The Spanish sent a regiment of paratroopers from the nearby Canary Islands and were able to repel the attacks, with the assistance of the French, Spain soon re-established control in the area through Operaciones Teide-Ecoubillon. It tried to suppress resistance politically and it forced some of the previously nomadic inhabitants of Spanish Sahara to settle in certain areas, and the rate of urbanization was increased. In the same year, Spain united the territories of Saguia el Hamra and Río de Oro to form the province of Spanish Sahara, while ceding the provinces of Tarfaya, in the 1960s, Morocco continued to claim Spanish Sahara. It gained agreement by the United Nations to add the territory to the list of territories to be decolonized, in 1969, Spain returned Ifni to Morocco, but continued to retain Spanish Sahara
Spanish Sahara
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Postage stamp issued in 1924.
Spanish Sahara
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Flag
77.
Council of the Indies
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The Council of the Indies, officially, the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies, was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Americas and Asia. It was placed at start as a section under the jurisdiction of the Council of Castile and it had legislative, executive, the Crown of Castile incorporated the American and Asian territories into its domains by a papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI. Queen Isabella withdrew the authority granted to Christopher Columbus and the first conquistadors, rodríguez de Fonseca effectively became minister for the Indies and laid the foundations for the creation of a colonial bureaucracy. He presided over a council, which contained a number of members of the Council of Castile, emperor Charles V was already using the term Council of the Indies in 1519. The Council of the Indies was formally created on August 1,1524, civil suits of sufficient importance could be appealed from an audiencia in the New World to the Council, functioning as a court of last resort. The large volume of Council and Crowns decisions and legislation for the Indies were formally codified in the 1680 publication, with the ascension of a new dynasty at the start of the eighteenth century, a series of administrative changes, known as the Bourbon reforms, were introduced. Fifty years later Charles III set up a separate Secretary of State for the Indies, during the Peninsular War, the Cádiz Cortes abolished the Council, but it was restored upon Ferdinand VIIs restoration. The Council was finally abolished in 1834, a year after Ferdinand VIIs death, the archives of the Council, the Archivo General de Indias one of the major centers of documentation for European history, are housed in Seville. American Provincial Deputation of Spain Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish East Indies Burkholder, biographical Dictionary of Councilors of the Indies, 1717-1808
Council of the Indies
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Colonization
78.
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815
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Puerto Rico was largely undeveloped until 1830, when immigrants from the Spanish provinces of Catalonia, Majorca, and the Canary Islands began to arrive. They gradually developed the sugarcane, coffee, and tobacco plantations, at the beginning of the 19th century, the Spanish colonies in the western hemisphere fought for independence. In South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led colonists to victory against Spanish rule, in Mexico, by 1825, the Spanish Empire had lost control of all of its territories in the Americas with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. These two possessions were also demanding more autonomy, and pro-independence movements had been gathering strength, trying to forestall the loss of these colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. It printed the decree in English and French, as well as Spanish, the Crown offered free land on the condition that new settlers swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. They hoped to supplant the independence movement with new settlers, the decree encouraged the use of slave labor to revive agriculture on the islands. The new agricultural class immigrating from countries of Europe purchased slaves in large numbers. During the latter part of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, great economic, thousands of farm workers migrated to cities seeking industrial jobs and better opportunities. Cholera epidemics broke out and starvation was widespread in Europe, social and economic disruption also followed the European Revolutions of 1848, which erupted in Sicily and the German states. The French Revolution of 1848 contributed to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and these conditions led to a massive European immigration to the Americas. As soon as these settlers swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church, after five years, the settlers were granted a Letter of Naturalization that made them Spanish subjects. In 1870, to attract non-Catholic Europeans, the Spanish Courts passed a law granting the right of freedom in the islands. About 450,000 European immigrants settled in Puerto Rico during this period, the new settlers soon adopted the language and customs of their new homelands, and many intermarried with the local residents. Many became prominent business and political leaders, the Royal Decree ceased to have effect in 1898, when Spain finally lost her last two possessions in the New World to the United States under the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish–American War. The original Spanish Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 is kept in the General Archives of Puerto Rico in the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture in San Juan, Puerto Rico
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815
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Royal Decree of Graces, 1815
79.
Exequatur
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An exequatur is a legal document issued by a sovereign authority allowing a right to be enforced in the authoritys domain of competence. The word is a form of the Latin verb exequi, if a consul is not appointed by commission, the consul receives no exequatur, the government will usually provide some other means to recognize the consul. The exequatur may be withdrawn, but in practice, where a consul is obnoxious, an exequatur is a legal instrument issued by secular authorities in Roman Catholic nations to ensure that Papal teachings have legal force within their jurisdiction. The tradition began during the time of the Western Schism, when the legitimately elected Pope gave secular leaders permission to verify the authenticity of papal decrees before enforcing them. In Puerto Rico, an exequatur is a document that validates court orders issued by a United States civil court as if such order had been issued by a court of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Exequatur
–
Exequatur signed by
Franklin D. Roosevelt for French Consul Charles de Ferry de Fontnouvelle in 1938.
80.
Papal bull
–
A Papal bull is a specific kind of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by a pope of the Roman Catholic Church. It is named after the seal that was traditionally appended to the end in order to authenticate it. Papal bulls have been in use at least since the 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the register of bulls, by the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of the bulls now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries. In an epoch when there was much fabrication of such documents, a Papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where the original deed had been lost or destroyed. Since the 12th century, Papal bulls have carried a seal with the heads of the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side. Papal bulls were issued by the Pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature. Papyrus seems to have used almost uniformly as the material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century. Popularly, the name is used for any Papal document that contains a metal seal, today, the bull is the only written communication in which the Pope will refer to himself as Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei. For example, when Pope Benedict XVI issued a decree in bull form, while Papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A Papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the Pope, the body of the text had no specific conventions for its formatting, it was often very simple in layout. For the most solemn bulls, the Pope signed the document himself, following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the Pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the seal, which was usually made of lead. On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome, the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus. Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti, and the rim of the seal was surrounded by a ring of such beads. On the reverse was the name of the issuing Pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters PP, for Pastor Pastorum
Papal bull
–
Papal bull of
Pope Urban VIII, 1637, sealed with a lead
bulla.
Papal bull
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The Apostolic constitution Magni aestimamus issued as a Papal bull by
Pope Benedict XVI in 2011 which instituted the
Military Ordinariate of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Papal bull
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Printed text of
Pope Leo X 's Bull against the errors of
Martin Luther, also known as
Exsurge Domine, issued in June 1520
Papal bull
–
Lead
bulla (
obverse and reverse) of
Urban V, Pope 1362 to 1370
81.
School of Salamanca
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The School of Salamanca is the Renaissance of thought in diverse intellectual areas by Spanish and Portuguese theologians, rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical work of Francisco de Vitoria. These new problems were addressed by the School of Salamanca, the name refers to the University of Salamanca, where de Vitoria and others of the school were based. The first began with Francisco de Vitoria, and reached its point with Domingo de Soto. The Conimbricenses were Jesuits who, from the end of 16th century took over the leadership of the Catholic world from the Dominicans. Among those Jesuits were Luis de Molina, the aforementioned Francisco Suárez, and Giovanni Botero, the juridical doctrine of the School of Salamanca represented the end of medieval concepts of law, with a revindication of liberty not habitual in Europe of that time. The natural rights of man came to be, in one form or another, the School of Salamanca reformulated the concept of natural law, law originating in nature itself, with all that exists in the natural order sharing in this law. Their conclusion was, given that all share the same nature, they also share the same rights to life. Such views constituted a novelty in European thought and went counter to those then predominant in Spain, one direct consequence of the separation of realms of power is that the king or emperor does not legitimately have jurisdiction over souls, nor does the pope have legitimate temporal power. This included the proposal that there are limits on the powers of government. Counter to this, several adherents of the School sustained that the people are the vehicle of divine sovereignty, men are born free by their nature and not as slaves of another man, and can disobey even to the point of deposing an unjust government. Gabriel Vázquez held that law is not limited to the individual. For Suárez, the power of society is contractual in origin because the community forms by consensus of free wills. Francisco de Vitoria was perhaps the first to develop a theory of ius gentium and he extrapolated his ideas of legitimate sovereign power to society at the international level, concluding that this scope as well ought to be ruled by just forms respectable of the rights of all. The common good of the world is of a superior to the good of each state. This meant that relations between states ought to pass from being justified by force to being justified by law and justice, Francisco Suárez subdivided the concept of ius gentium. Working with already well-formed categories, he carefully distinguished ius inter gentes from ius intra gentes, ius inter gentes was something common to the majority of countries, although being positive law, not natural law, was not necessarily universal. On the other hand, ius intra gentes, or civil law, is specific to each nation. Given that war is one of the worst evils suffered by mankind, a diplomatic agreement is preferable, even for the more powerful party, before a war is started
School of Salamanca
–
The
University of Salamanca
School of Salamanca
–
17th century classroom at the University of Salamanca
School of Salamanca
–
Francisco de Vitoria
82.
Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
Viceroy
–
Francisco de Almeida, first viceroy of
Portuguese India
Viceroy
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
Viceroy
–
Louis Mountbatten, last viceroy of India
83.
Viceroyalty of New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
Viceroyalty of New Spain
–
"Vázquez de Coronado Sets Out to the North" (1540) by
Frederic Remington, oil on canvas, 1905
Viceroyalty of New Spain
–
Flag
Viceroyalty of New Spain
–
Indian Wedding and Flying Pole, circa 1690
Viceroyalty of New Spain
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Route from Philippines to Acapulco, México
84.
Real Audiencia
–
The Real Audiencia, or simply Audiencia, was an appellate court in Spain and its empire. The name of the institution literally translates as Royal Audience, the additional designation chancillería was applied to the appellate courts in early modern Spain. The first audiencia was founded in the Kingdom of Castile in 1371 at Valladolid, the Valladolid Audiencia functioned as the highest court in Castile for the next two centuries. Appeals from the Castilian audiencias could only be made to the Council of Castile after its creation in 1480, the second audiencia was moved to Granada in 1505. Under Charles V and Philip II, the system was extended first in Spain proper, with the Royal Audiencia of Aragon. Audiencias in cities and provinces that belong to Spain today included Seville, Las Palmas, Majorca, Asturias, the audiencias and viceroys of the Crown of Aragon were overseen by the Council of Aragon, which had been established in 1494. Audiencias in the Spanish possessions in Europe included the Italian domains of Sardinia, in Italy, the Castilian institution of the audiencia was united with the Aragonese institution of the viceroy. In 1555 a Council of Italy was created to oversee the viceroys, in the Indies, the two institutions were also united, but with a different power relationship. The Crown of Castile early on introduced the audiencia into the Americas as part of its campaign to bring the area and its Spanish settlers and conquerors under royal control. With the vast conquests on the American mainland, which began in the 1520s, viceroys were therefore introduced, but without the judicial powers the office had enjoyed under the Aragonese Crown. In the New World, instead, the audiencias were given a consultative and quasi-legislative role in the administration of the territories, both viceroys and audiencias were ultimately overseen by a Council of the Indies. Most of the dealing with the establishment of the 16th- and 17th-century audiencias can be found in Book II. The first audiencia in the Americas was established at Santo Domingo in 1511 with jurisdiction over the Caribbean islands and it was quickly suppressed due to opposition by the Spanish settlers, but was re-established permanently in 1526. As the Spanish conquest of the continent continued, more audiencias were founded in the new areas of settlement. The first mainland audiencia was set up in Mexico City in 1527, just six years after the fall of Tenochtitlan and this audiencia was followed by the Audiencia of Panama,1538, overseeing Central America and the littoral regions of northern South America until its abolishment in 1543. It later was reestablshed with jurisdiction only over Panama proper in 1564, venezuela, settled earlier, remained under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo until the establishment of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century. The last colonial audiencias were created under the Bourbon kings as part of their administrative reforms, the new dynasty found no need for the second Audiencia of Panama and abolished it in 1751, transferring its jurisdiction to the one in Bogotá. New audiencias were established in, Caracas,1786 Cusco,1787 Buenos Aires,1783 and this meant that at the moment of Spanish American independence in the early 19th century, the overseas possessions of the Spanish Monarchy were overseen by twelve audiencias
Real Audiencia
–
Members of the Real Audiencia of Lima, the presidente, alcaldes de corte, fiscal and alguacil mayor. (
Nueva Crónica y Buen Gobierno, p. 488)
85.
New Kingdom of Granada
–
The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549, ultimately the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom, in 1514, the Spanish first permanently settled in the area. With Santa Marta and Cartagena, Spanish control of the coast was established, starting in 1536, the conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada explored the extensive highlands of the interior of the region, by following the Magdalena River into the Andean cordillera. After Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada left for Spain in May 1539, belalcázars victory placed the region under the Viceroyalty of Peru, which was being organized at the time. Charles V ordered the establishment of an audiencia, a type of court that combined executive and judicial authority. The Royal Audiencia was created by a decree of July 17,1549. It was given authority over the provinces of Santa Marta, Río de San Juan, Popayán, the Audiencia was charged primarily with dispensing justice, but it was also to oversee the running of government and the settlement of the territory. It held its first session on April 7,1550, in a mansion on the Plaza Mayor at the site today houses the Colombian Palace of Justice. Initially all of the justices held executive power, with these two offices the president oversaw the civilian government and held the command over the kingdoms military forces. The president was loosely dependent upon the Viceroy of Peru at Lima in administrative, the jurisdictional boundaries of the Audiencia encompassed the territory of the kingdom. One further change came as part of the Bourbon Reforms of the eighteenth century, because of the slowness in communications between Lima and Bogotá, the Bourbons decided to establish an independent Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. The governor-president of Bogotá became the viceroy of the new entity, with military and executive oversight over the neighboring Presidency of Quito, the Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada Cook, Karoline P. Religious Identity, Race and Status in New Granada, Race and Blood in the Iberian World,3,81. Fisher, John R. Allan J. Keuthe, and Anthony McFarlane, Reform and Insurrection in Bourbon New Granada and Peru. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press,1990, ISBN 978-0-8071-1654-8 Graff, Gary W. Spanish Parishes in Colonial New Granada, Their Role in Town-Building on the Spanish-American Frontier. The Political Economy of Smuggling, regional economies in early Bourbon New Granada Kuethe. Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773–1808, gainesville, University Presses of Florida,1978
New Kingdom of Granada
–
The New Kingdom of Granada
New Kingdom of Granada
–
Burgundian Saltire
New Kingdom of Granada
–
Old map of Tierra Firme, showing the initial divisions of the region
86.
Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires
–
The Real Audiencia de Buenos Aires, were two audiencias, or highest courts, of the Spanish crown, which resided in Buenos Aires. The authority of the first extended to the territory of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata, in 1810, after the May Revolution, it was suspended, and in 1813 the Assembly of the Year XIII permanently disbanded it. The Audiencias resided in the citys cabildo building, created by Philip IV by decree in 1661, it covered the governorates of Río de la Plata, Paraguay and Tucumán. This Audiencia was dissolved in 1671, the Recompilation of Laws of the Indies of 1680, Law XIII Title XV of Book II, compiles the limits and functionaries of this Audiencia. Created during the reign of Charles III of Spain and during the government of viceroy Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo, in 1783, as part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, from 1 August 1776. Its territory included the intendancies mentioned above and the subordinate Governorates of Misiones and Montevideo
Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires
–
Colonization
87.
Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara
–
The Real Audiencia of Guadalajara, was the highest tribunal of the Spanish crown in what is today northern Mexico and the southwestern United States in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It was created by decree on February 13,1548. Its president was the political and executive officer of the district. And we order that this law of ours be kept, as it is in it contained, and in regards to the government of war and the treasury, the orders, the Audiencia of New Galicia in the Sixteenth Century, A Study in Spanish Colonial Government
Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara
–
Colonization
88.
Real Audiencia of Manila
–
The Real Audiencia de Manila was the Real Audiencia of the Spanish East Indies, which included the modern-day Guam and the Philippines. Similar to Real Audiencias throughout the Spanish Empire, it was the highest tribunal within the territories of the Captaincy General of the Philippines, a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. When the Real Audiencia of Manila was established, a system already existed that was similar to the judicial. The Royal Audience of Manila was created by Royal Decree by King Felipe II dated 5 May 1583, Governor-General Francisco Tello de Guzmán reestablished it in 1596. Most of the dealing with the establishment of all 16th and 17th century Audiencias can be found in the Recopilación de Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias issued in 1680. The Audiencia was given supervision over the administration of the estates of deceased persons, the Audiencia was directed to exercise care that the said Indians shall be better treated and instructed in our Holy Catholic Faith, as our free vassals. This was in conformance with the requirement to exercise care in suits involving the local population, respecting their rites, customs. The Audienciawas to devote two days a week to hearing suits to which Indians were parties, although it was commanded not to interfere with governors of provinces, it had the right, when charges had been made by private individuals, to conduct investigations on government officials. The Governor-General himself was forbidden to authorize extraordinary expenditures from the treasury without express royal permission, the president of the Audiencia was empowered to delegate on the to investigate about the correct administration of government and justice in the provinces. They were to note the state of the towns and their needs, on these trips the Oidores were authorized to take such action as they deemed to be necessary. Oidores were forbidden to any fees from or to act as advocates for any private person. Oidores were also forbidden to engage in business, either singly or in partnership, any person could bring suit against an Oidor. The Audiencia was forbidden to act alone in the selection of the Judges, no relative of the President or of an Oidor could be appointed legally to a government post. Criminal charges against the oidores were to be tried by the Governor-General, among the most frequently complaints made against the Governor-General and his military subordinates was their abuse of power. In order to all military personnel accountable for their actions a Juicio de Residencia was held at the end of their terms. If he was guilty of official misconduct, dishonesty or any other crimes, he was apprehended, degraded. Edward Gaylord Bourne described the process as extremely harsh, It was designed to provide a method by which officials could be held to strict accountability for all, acts during their term of office. To allow a contest in the courts involving the governor s powers during his term of office would be subversive of his authority
Real Audiencia of Manila
–
Colonization
89.
Real Audiencia of Panama
–
The Real Audiencia and Chancery of Panama in Tierra Firme was a governing body and superior court in the New World empire of Spain. The Audiencia of Panama was the third American audiencia after the ones of Santo Domingo and it existed three times under various guises since it first creation in 1538 until its ultimate abolition in 1751. The first Audiencia of Panama was created by Charles V by a decree of February 26,1538. A decree of May 23,1539, removed the entire province of Nicaragua from the Audiencia of Santo Domingo and placed under the Panama one. The Audiencia began functioning in Panama City in 1539 with the arrival of the Oidores Francisco Pérez de Robles, Lorenzo Pérez de la Serna, Pedro de Villalobos, Pérez de Robles served as the first audiencia president and replaced Governor Pedro Vásquez de Acuña. Pérez de Robles carried out his duties until 1543, when the Audiencia was decreed abolished and replaced with an Audiencia of the Confines in Guatemala, during this period the Audiencia supervised various voyages of exploration. Ultimately, the administration of Pérez de Robles proved to be corrupt, resulting in charges that led to a trial. The investigation and trial were carried out by Pedro Ramírez de Quiñones, on September 8,1563, Philip II decreed the return of the Audiencia from Guatemala to Panama. The Province of Guatemala was transferred to the Audiencia of Mexico, the work of moving the Audiencia was overseen by Lope García de Castro. The Audiencia began functioning again on May 15,1565, under interim president Manuel Barrios de San Millán, before the arrival of its permanent president, Alonso Arias de Maldonado. The jurisdiction of the new Audiencia of Panama consisted of territories between Buenaventura in the New Kingdom of Granada and the Gulf of Fonseca. In addition a decree of Philip III of July 19,1614 reiterated, the Audiencia was abolished once again in 1718 due to bad conduct of its members. This time the Isthmus was placed under the authority of the viceroy, nevertheless, this arrangement resulted in problems and poor government for the region, so the crown once more established the Panama Audiencia in a decree of July 21,1722. From 1739 on, the area of the Panama Audiencia formed part of the recently created Viceroyalty of New Granada, due to economic problems in Tierrafirme, the crown ordered the final abolition of the Audiencia in a decree of June 20,1751. A government headed by the military commander, the Comandancy General of Tierra Firme, was created in Panama. The Comandancy General was originally to be dependent on the Audiencia of Lima in judicial matters, but in 1752 they were transferred to the Audiencia of Bogotá
Real Audiencia of Panama
–
Colonization
90.
Real Audiencia of Quito
–
It was created by Royal Decree on 29 August 1563 by Philip II of Spain in the city of Guadalajara. It ended in 1822 with the incorporation of the area into the Republic of Gran Colombia, the Audiencia was effectively autonomous because the Viceroyal government was too far away to administer its territories effectively. Initially the Audiencia of Quito formed part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, later the Audiencia was part of a newly created Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada. This Viceroyalty was temporarily suppressed by the King of Spain in 1723, in 1739, the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada was re-established and the Audiencia of Quito was returned to it until it declared itself independent from Spain. A year later the King of Spain passed the Real Cedula of 1740 where the borders of the Audiencia of Quito would be closer to 4° south of the Equator. The Audiencia of Quito briefly became independent for 3 years after it staged the Quito revolution in 1809, was annexed again to the Spanish Empire in 1812. The Audiencia of Quito was liberated again in 1822 and formerly joined the territories of what is today Venezuela, Colombia and Panama to form the Republic of Colombia. As part of Gran Colombia, the territories of Quito were divided up into districts, departments, the Audiencia de Quito was divided into 4 departments, Ecuador Department, Guayaquil Department, Azuay Department, and Cauca Department. The departments of Ecuador, Guayaquil, and Azuay united to form the Distrito del Sur, the Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century, Bureaucratic Politics in the Spanish Empire. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press,1967
Real Audiencia of Quito
–
Coat of arms
Real Audiencia of Quito
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Royal Audiencia of Quito, a map of 1779 by Francisco Requena y Herrera
Real Audiencia of Quito
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The Republic of Gran Colombia Divided into Departments—June 25, 1824
91.
Captaincy General of Cuba
–
The restructuring of the Captaincy General in 1764 was the first example of the Bourbon Reforms in America. The changes included adding the provinces of Florida and Louisiana and granting more autonomy for these provinces and this later change was carried out by the Count of Floridablanca under Charles III to strengthen the Spanish position vis-a-vis the British in the Caribbean. A new governor-captain general based in Havana oversaw the administration of the new district, the local governors of the larger Captaincy General had previously been overseen in political and military matters by the president of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo. This audiencia retained oversight of judicial affairs until the establishment of new audiencias in Puerto Príncipe, since the 16th century the island of Cuba had been under the control of the governor-captain general of Santo Domingo, who was at the same time, president of the audiencia there. He oversaw the governor and the Santo Domingo Audiencia heard appeals from the island. This legal move removed Velázquez and the settlers from under the authority of Colón and it was a precedent that would come back to haunt Velázquez during Hernán Cortéss conquest of Mexico. Other cities were founded under Velázquez, Bayamo in 1513, Santísima Trinidad, Sancti Spíritus and San Cristóbal de La Habana in 1514, Puerto Príncipe. After the conquest of Mexico, Cuba experienced an exodus of settlers, the Church played an important role in the Spanish settlement of the Americas. Furthermore, since governors, as representatives of the King, oversaw church administration due to the right of patronage. The first diocese was established in 1518 in Baracoa and was suffragan to the Diocese of Seville. The seat of the Diocese was transferred to Santiago de Cuba in 1522, in 1520 Pope Leo X established the short-lived Diocese of Santiago de la Florida. In 1546 the Diocese of Santo Domingo was elevated to an Archdiocese, in 1607 Philip III created the Captaincy General of Cuba as part of larger plans to defend the Caribbean against foreign threats. The first captain general was Pedro Valdés, around the same time other captaincies general were established in Puerto Rico and Central America. Cuba was divided into two governorships with capitals in Havana and Santiago de Cuba, the governor of Havana was Captain General of the island. In 1650 Cuba received an influx of refugees when the British conquered Jamaica. In 1756 the construction of ships for the Royal Navy began with the establishment of an Intendancy of the Navy was established in Havana, which functioned as a royal shipyard. The British conquest of the island in 1762 during the Seven Years War proved to be a point in the history of Cuba. The British captured Havana after a siege and controlled the western part of the island for a year
Captaincy General of Cuba
Captaincy General of Cuba
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Flag
Captaincy General of Cuba
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A Spanish frigate towing a British ship to Havana. Oil on canvas, c. 1770.
92.
Captaincy General of the Philippines
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The Captaincy General of the Philippines was an administrative district of the Spanish Empire. The Captaincy General encompassed the Spanish East Indies, which included the Philippine Islands and it was founded in 1565 with the first permanent Spanish settlements. However, in 1821, following the independence of Mexico, all control was transferred to Madrid, antonio Pigafetta, the expeditions chronicler and one of only 18 original crew members to survive Ferdinand Magellans circumnavigation of the globe, recorded all details of the voyage. On 5 June 1569, Guido de Lavezaris, the treasurer in the Archipelago. A letter from another official, Andres de Mirandaola, also described briefly this encounter with the Portuguese, the danger of another attack led the Spaniards to remove their camp from Cebu to Panay, which they considered a safer place. Legazpi himself, in his report to the Viceroy in New Spain and it was in Panay that the conquest of Luzon was planned, and launched on 8 May 1570. Two of Lepazpis Lieutenant-commanders, Martín de Goiti and Juan de Salcedo conquered Luzons northern region, in 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In 1584, the Real Audiencia of Manila is established by King Felipe II, the Captaincy had its capital in Cebu from 1565 to 1595, and in Manila from 1595 until 1898. Ciriaco González Carbajal was appointed as Oidor of the Audiencia of Manila and was instructed to abide by the Royal Ordinance of Mayors of 1782, a month earlier, on October 23, the Intendencia of Manila had been attached to the Captaincy General of the Philippines. Until 1822, all General Captains were civilians, but after that year they were chosen among the military. Mindanao, Caraga, Misamis, Zamboanga, Nueva Guipúzcoa sultanate of Sulu Joló Marianas, Marianas capital Agaña, palau Bonin Islands Spratly Islands Caroline Islands Marshall Islands Special Districts, Benguet, Ticao and Masbate, Comandancia del Corregidor, Lower territories of Agno. Spanish rule in the Philippines ceased in 1898 after the war with the United States, most of the remaining territories in the Pacific Ocean were sold to Germany during the German-Spanish Treaty of 1899. Spanish East Indies Governor-General of the Philippines Royal Audience of Manila Spanish Empire Viceroyalty of New Spain — centered in México History of the Philippines History of the Philippines
Captaincy General of the Philippines
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Magellan landing site in Umatac Bay
Captaincy General of the Philippines
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Captaincy General of Puerto Rico
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Its creation was part of the, ultimately futile, Habsburg attempt in the late 16th century to prevent incursion into the Caribbean by foreign powers. Spain also established Captaincies General in Cuba, Guatemala and Yucatán, the Captaincy General played a crucial role in the history of the Spanish Caribbean. In 1508 Juan Ponce de León was commissioned by the Crown to carry out the initial colonization of Puerto Rico, after successfully founding the city of Caparra, he was appointed as its first governor in 1509 by the regent of Castile, Ferdinand V. As a result, Ponce de León lost his position and left the island, the Columbus family appointed governors in Puerto Rico from then until 1536, when Diegos son, Luis Colón sold the rights to govern the Indies to the Crown. In 1511, when Diego Colón had won the right to appoint governors, from 1536 to 1545, the island was overseen by the president of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo, who was also Captain General of the Caribbean. The island territory was administered locally, not as one unit and these men were elected annually by the cabildos from among the local settler population. Since most of the settlers did not have the training to become governors, the islands Spanish residents complained to the Crown. Starting in 1545 governors with legal training were appointed by either the crown or the Santo Domingo Audiencia, filling the highest judicial office on the island, the governors heard cases in the first instance in their immediate districts, and in appeal from the regional alcaldes. The next court of appeal was the Audiencia in Santo Domingo, in addition to being the highest administrative office on the island, governors also derived power from their right to annually appoint two of the four regidores of the cabildos on the island. As with all other Spanish political officials, governors were subject to the juicio de residencia, since governors were the kings highest representative on the island, they had oversight over the Church because of the right of patronage that the monarchs of Spain had in the Americas. Due to Spains growing military conflicts with other European powers, both in Europe and in the New World, the Crown added the office of general to the governor in 1580. Following this, mostly men, rather than lawyers, were appointed as governors-captains general. They were assisted by an adviser in their judicial and administrative duties. Spain considered Puerto Rico as vital strategically as the gateway to the Caribbean and it was described as the key to the Indies. Given the sea currents and wind patterns of the Atlantic, Puerto Rico was usually the first port of call for ships arriving from Europe, despite this, or perhaps because of its negligible economic importance, the Spanish took a long time to build up the islands defenses. The first fortified building was the Ponce de León family home, in the next decade construction began on the first true fort, La Fortaleza, at the entrance of the bay. By 1539 construction began of a defensive complex around San Juan, which included Forts San Felipe del Morro, San Cristóbal. On the other side of the island, San Germán was left practically defenseless, with the creation of the Captaincy General in 1580, Governor-Captain General Diego Menéndez de Valdés continued to strengthen defenses around San Juan
Captaincy General of Puerto Rico
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Flag
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Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
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The Captaincy General of Santo Domingo was the first colony in the New World and was claimed for Spain. The island was originally named La Española by Christopher Columbus, from 1511, the courts of the colony were placed under the jurisdiction of the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo. In the 17th century, after years of struggles with the French, the Spanish remained in control of the eastern two-thirds of the island, which later became the Dominican Republic. Columbus reached the island on his first voyage, on December 5,1492, believing that the Europeans were in some way supernatural, the Taínos welcomed them with all the honors available. This was a different society from the one the Europeans came from. Guacanagarí, the chief who hosted Christopher Columbus and his men, treated them kindly, yet the Taínos allegedly egalitarian system clashed with the Europeans feudalist system, with more rigid class structures. This led the Europeans to believe the Taínos to be weak or misleading. Columbus tried to temper this when he and his men departed from Ayiti—as the Taínos called the island—and they left on a good note, Columbus had cemented a firm alliance with Guacanagarix, who was a powerful chief on the island. After the shipwrecking of the Santa María, Columbus decided to establish a fort with a garrison of men that could help him lay claim to this possession. The fort was called La Navidad, since the events of the shipwrecking, the garrison, in spite of all the wealth and beauty on the island, was wracked by divisions that evolved into conflict amongst these first Europeans. The more rapacious ones began to terrorize the Taíno, Ciguayo, viewed as weak by the Spaniards and even some of his own people, Guacanagarix tried to come to an accommodation with the Spaniards, who saw his appeasement as the actions of someone who submitted. They treated him with contempt and even some of his wives. The powerful cacique of the Maguana, Caonabo, could brook no further affronts and attacked the Europeans, Guacanagarix was dismayed by this turn of events but did not try too hard to aid these guamikena, probably hoping that the troublesome outsiders would never return. In 1493, Christopher Columbus came back to the island on his voyage and founded the first Spanish colony in the New World. In 1496, his brother Bartholomew Columbus established the settlement of Santo Domingo de Guzmán on the southern coast, an estimated 400,000 Tainos living on the island were soon enslaved to work in gold mines. As a consequence of oppression, forced labor, hunger, disease, by 1535, only a few dozen were still alive. During this period, the Spanish leadership changed several times. When Columbus departed on another exploration, Francisco de Bobadilla became governor, settlers charges against Columbus of mismanagement added to the tumultuous political situation
Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
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Inspection and sale of African slaves.
Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
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Flag
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Castilla de Oro
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Beyond that river, the region was known as Veragua, and was disputed by the Spanish crown along with the Columbus family. The name Castilla de Oro was made official in May 1513 by King Ferdinand II of Aragon, after Vasco Núñez de Balboas discovery of the Pacific Ocean, Castilla de Oros jurisdiction was broadened to include the Pacific coasts of Panama, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. With the creation, in 1527, of the Province of Nicaragua, in 1537, once the conflict between the crown and the Columbus family was settled, Castilla de Oro was split up, divided by the Duchy of Veragua. The western portion, which comprised most of Panamas and Costa Ricas Pacific coasts, was merged in 1540 with Royal Veragua, to create the Province of Nuevo Cartago y Costa Rica. The eastern part, the last remnant of Castilla de Oro, in became known as the Realm of Tierra Firme, or Panamá. In 1560, the new Province of Veragua, created by Philip II out of the now defunct Duchy of Veragua, was merged with Castilla de Oro
Castilla de Oro
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Castilla del Oro in 16th century map.
96.
Governorate of New Toledo
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The Governorate of New Toledo was formed from the previous southern half of the Inca empire, stretching south into present day central Chile, and east into present day central Brazil. Established by King Charles I of Spain in 1528, diego de Almagro was the appointed Spanish colonial governor. It was replaced by the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru in 1542, Governorate of New Toledo, forming the previous southern half of the Inca empire, stretching towards central Chile. New Andalusia Governorate, which was not formally conquered by Spain until decades later, Governorate of New Léon, the southernmost part of the continent. This territorial division set the basis for the administration of South America for several decades. It was formally dissolved in 1544, when King Charles I sent his envoy, Blasco Núñez Vela. Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire History of Chile Viceroyalty of Peru-related topics Spanish Empire
Governorate of New Toledo
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Cross of Burgundy
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Spanish dollar
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Its purpose was to correspond to the German thaler. The Spanish dollar was used by many countries as the first international currency because of its uniformity in standard. Some countries countersigned the Spanish dollar so it could be used as their local currency, the Spanish dollar was the coin upon which the original United States dollar was based, and it remained legal tender in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. Because it was used in Europe, the Americas. Diverse theories link the origin of the $ symbol to the columns, millions of Spanish dollars were minted over the course of several centuries. They were among the most widely circulating coins of the period in the Americas. In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as Joachimsthalers, named for Joachimsthal, the Joachimsthalers weighed 451 Troy grains of silver. So successful were these coins that similar thalers were minted in Burgundy, the Burgundian Cross Thaler depicted the Cross of Burgundy and was prevalent in the Burgundian Netherlands that were revolting against the Spanish king and Duke of Burgundy Philip II. After 1575, the Dutch revolting provinces replaced the currency with a daalder depicting a lion, specifically to facilitate export trade, the leeuwendaalder was authorized to contain 427.16 grains of.750 fine silver, lighter than the large denomination coins then in circulation. Clearly it was advantageous for a Dutch merchant to pay a foreign debt in leeuwendaalders rather than in other heavier. Thus, the leeuwendaalder or lion dollar became the coin of choice for foreign trade and it became popular in the Middle East, and colonies in the east and west. They also circulated throughout the English colonies during the Seventeenth and early Eighteenth centuries, from New Netherland the lion dollar spread to all thirteen colonies in the west. After the introduction of the Guldengroschen in Austria in 1486, the concept of a silver coin with high purity eventually spread throughout the rest of Europe. Monetary reform in Spain brought about the introduction of an 8-real coin in 1497, in 1537 the Spanish escudo gold coin was introduced, which was worth 16 reales. The later Gold Doubloon was worth 32 reales or 2 escudos and it is this divisibility into 8 which caused the silver coins to be named pieces of eight. In the following centuries, the coin was minted with different designs at various mints in Spain. In the 19th century, the denomination was changed to 20 reales. Spains adoption of the peseta in 1869 and its joining the Latin Monetary Union meant the end of the last vestiges of the Spanish dollar in Spain itself
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of
Philip V of Spain, 1739
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of
Ferdinand VI of Spain, 1753
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of
Charles III of Spain, 1776
Spanish dollar
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Silver 8 real coin of King
Charles IV of Spain, 1806
98.
El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro
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El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail was a 1,600 mile long trade route between Mexico City and San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico, from 1598 to 1882. The 404 mile section of the route within the United States was proclaimed as a part of the United States National Historic Trail system on October 13,2000. The trail is overseen by both the National Park Service and the U. S. Bureau of Land Management with aid from El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Trail Assoc. also known as CARTA. Various sites and cities along the Mexican section of the trail were declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2010, a portion of the trail near San Acacia, New Mexico was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014. The trail was used for trade among native tribes since the earliest of times, in 1598, Oñate followed the trail while leading a group of settlers North during the era of Spanish conquest. The duration of the trip from the Rio Grande to the San Juan Pueblo was said to take, by wagon and by foot, according to journals kept by settlers they used common animals found along the trail to add to the food they brought along. The trail greatly improved trade among Spanish villages and helped the Spanish conquistadors spread Christianity throughout the conquered lands, the trail was used from 1598 through 1881 when the railroad replaced the need for wagons. Eventually, railroads replaced rutted trails and over time the trail and evidence of it faded from sight, the changes that the railways brought made trade along El Camino much easier and in some cases made travel quite luxurious and exciting. From the Texas-New Mexico border to San Juan Pueblo north of Española, portions of the trade route corridor also contain pedestrian, bicycle, and equestrian trails. These include the existing Paseo del Bosque Trail in Albuquerque and portions of the proposed Rio Grande Trail and its northern terminus, Santa Fe, is a terminus also of the Old Spanish Trail and the Santa Fe Trail. Along the trail, parajes that have been preserved today include El Rancho de las Golondrinas, Fort Craig and Fort Selden are also located along the trail. M. -Monuments. org – A Road Over Time
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El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail
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Spanish Legion
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The Spanish Legion, informally known as the Tercio or the Tercios, is a unit of the Spanish Army and Spains Rapid Reaction Force. It was raised in the 1920s to serve as part of Spains Army of Africa, although it recruited some foreigners mostly from Spanish-speaking nations, it recruited predominantly from Spaniards. As a result, and since it existed to serve in Spanish Morocco, by the end of the Rif War it had expanded and again changed its name, to the Spanish Legion, with several tercios as sub-units. The Legion played a role in the Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War. In the 1920s the Spanish Legions five battalions were filled primarily by native Spaniards with most of its members coming from the Republic of Cuba. Historically there had been a Spanish Foreign Legion which preceded the modern Legions formation in 1920, the French Foreign Legion, with around 4,000 men, landed at Tarragona on 17 August 1835. This became the first Spanish Legion until it was dissolved on 8 December 1838, the British Legion of the Spanish Legion also fought during the First Carlist War. This Legion fought for the bridge of Arrigorriaga on 11 September 1835 The Spanish Legion was modelled on the French Foreign Legion. Its purpose was to provide a corps of troops to fight in Spains colonial campaigns in North Africa. The first commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel José Millán-Astray Terreros, referred to his unit as ‘La Legión’ from the start, in the original Tercio de Extranjeros there were, amongst others, one Chinese, three Japanese, one Maltese, one Russian, and one black American. However, soon the majority of its members were Spaniards who joined to fight outside of European Spain, Tercio is an old Spanish military term that roughly translates as ‘regiment. In the XVIIIth century tercios were replaced by regiments, there is no equivalent word in English. Dating from the 16th century, the name was chosen to evoke the era of Spains military supremacy as the leading Catholic power in Europe under the Habsburg Emperors, organised into tercios in 1534, the Spanish infantry gained a reputation for invincibility. In 1925, the title was changed to Tercio de Marruecos. This was soon abbreviated to ‘The Tercio’, in 1937 at the height of the Spanish Civil War, the Tercio de Marruecos was renamed La Legion, the name by which it is still known today. The Spanish Legions first major campaign was in Spanish North Africa, in 1920 Spain was facing a major rebellion in the Protectorate of Spanish Morocco, led by the able Rif leader Abdel Krim. On 2 September 1920, King Alfonso XIII conferred command of the new regiment on Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry José Millán-Astray, Millán-Astray was an able soldier but an eccentric and extreme personality. His style and attitude would become part of the mystique of the legion, on 20 September 1920 the first recruit joined the new legion, a date which is now celebrated annually
Spanish Legion
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Ceuta Garrison of the legion
Spanish Legion
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Badge of the Spanish Legion
Spanish Legion
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The legion on parade
Spanish Legion
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105mm
L118 light gun of the Legion Artillery Group
100.
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Emmanuel Philibert was Duke of Savoy from 1553 to 1580, KG. Born in Chambéry, Emmanuel Philibert was the child of Charles III, Duke of Savoy. Instead, he continued to serve the Habsburgs in hopes of recovering his lands, in this capacity he personally led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a brilliant victory at Saint-Quentin on 10 August 1557. He was also a suitor to Lady Elizabeth Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII of England and their only child was Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy. Following the death of his uncle, Henry I of Portugal, on 31 January 1580, however, he soon realised that he had quite a fragile position due to the claims of Philip II, who gained control of the country, thus uniting Spain and Portugal. Emmanuel Philibert spent his rule regaining what had been lost in the wars with France. A skilled political strategist, he took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin. Internally, he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin and he was attempting to acquire the marquisate of Saluzzo when he died in Turin. Later, he was buried in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud of the Turin Cathedral, where he did move the Sindone in 1578
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Emmanuel Philibert
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Engraving of Emmanuel Philibert
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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The Caval ëd Brons, monument to Emmanuel Philibert in
Turin
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Representation of the tomb monument
101.
Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy
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Bucquoy was born in Arras on 9 January 1571. He began serving in Spanish forces in the Low Countries as a teenager and he fought in the Battle of Nieuwpoort, the Siege of Ostend and distinguished himself as General of the Artillery in the Frisian campaigns of Ambrosio Spinola. In 1606 he married Maria Maddalena Biglia, daughter of a Milanese nobleman in the entourage of the Archduke Albert, in 1610 he was ambassador extraordinary to France, to convey the condolences of Archdukes Albert and Isabella on the murder of Henry IV of France. In 1613 he became a knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, as a mark of special favour the commandery in the Order of Calatrava that he had to renounce upon entering the Golden Fleece, was transferred to his son. That year also saw his appointment as Grand Bailiff of the County of Hainaut and he travelled to Bohemia to represent Archduke Albert at the Diet of Budweis in January 1614. Bucquoy returned to Vienna in August and took command of the forces raised to put down the revolt. Short of soldiers, supplies and money, his first campaign came close to more than once. Defeated by Count Jindřich Matyáš Thurn on 9 November in the Battle of Lomnice, while his army encamped in its winter quarters around Budweis, Thurns surprise march on Vienna was only halted by the severity of winter. After receiving reinforcements provided by Archduke Albert, his campaign of 1619 did much to reverse the fortunes of the war, on 10 June he defeated Ernst von Mansfeld in the Battle of Sablat, thereby forcing the Bohemians to abandon their siege of Budweis. He also commanded the forces during the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620. As a result of his successes, Emperor Ferdinand II gave him estates at Nové Hrady, Rožmberk and these estates remained in the family until 1945. Bucquoy was killed during the siege of Érsekújvár on 10 July 1621, one of his commanders, Torquato Conti attempted to retrieve his body from the battlefield but was captured. Conti was later released and replaced Bucquoy as a commander of Imperial forces and his funeral, with full honours, took place in the Franciscan Church, Vienna, on 31 July 1621
Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy
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Portrait by
Peter Paul Rubens.
Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy
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Engraving by Chrispijn van der Passe showing the conquests and the equestrian portrait of Ambrogio Spinola, with the Count of Bucquoy riding by his side
102.
Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and those voyages and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola initiated the European colonization of the New World. Western imperialism and economic competition were emerging among European kingdoms through the establishment of routes and colonies. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New World instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended, landing on an island in the Bahamas archipelago that he named San Salvador. Over the course of three voyages, he visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America. These voyages had, therefore, an impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. He spearheaded the transatlantic trade and has been accused by several historians of initiating the genocide of the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, Columbus never admitted that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans, rather than the East Indies for which he had set course. He called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited indios, the name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo and, in Spanish and he was born before 31 October 1451 in the territory of the Republic of Genoa, though the exact location remains disputed. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona and who also owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked as a helper. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo were his brothers, Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. He also had a sister named Bianchinetta, Columbus never wrote in his native language, which is presumed to have been a Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at the age of 10, in 1470, the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Christopher was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. Some modern historians have argued that he was not from Genoa but, instead and these competing hypotheses have generally been discounted by mainstream scholars. In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro, later, he allegedly made a trip to Chios, an Aegean island then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in a convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe
Christopher Columbus
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Posthumous portrait of Christopher Columbus by
Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519. There are no known authentic portraits of Columbus.
Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus at the gates of the
monastery of Santa María de la Rábida with his son Diego, by
Benet Mercadé
Christopher Columbus
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Columbus' handwritten notes in Latin, on the margins of his copy of
The Travels of Marco Polo
Christopher Columbus
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"Columbus map", drawn c. 1490 in the
Lisbon workshop of Bartolomeo and Christopher Columbus
103.
Ferdinand Magellan
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Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the peaceful sea. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the reached the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan did not complete the voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east, by visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide-Mor of Aveiro and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, in March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India, although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu and he later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to an ending in retreat. Magellan had a role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan, after the conquest their ways parted, Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the Spice Islands in the Moluccas and he married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories, after taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp and he was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a member on a Portuguese ship
Ferdinand Magellan
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Ferdinand Magellan
Ferdinand Magellan
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The Nao Victoria Replica in the
Nao Victoria Museum,
Punta Arenas,
Chile
Ferdinand Magellan
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The
Strait of Magellan cuts through the southern tip of South America connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.
Ferdinand Magellan
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Monument in
Lapu-Lapu City,
Cebu in the
Philippines.
104.
Conquistador
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Conquistadors /kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz/ is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and they colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa, human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa. The spread of diseases, including smallpox, flu and typhus. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports, by the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one-fifth of Spains total budget. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms and their units would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans and they not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards, Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian, many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592, german-born Nikolaus Federmann, Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The origin of people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband, women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada, Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children, European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, Kings army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers
Conquistador
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Conquistadors and their native
Tlaxcalan allies enter Tenochtitlan
Conquistador
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The surrender of
Granada in 1492. The last
Moorish sultan of Granada,
Muhammad XII, before
Ferdinand and Isabella.
Conquistador
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Christopher Columbus 's first landing in the Americas in 1492
Conquistador
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Hernando De Soto and Spanish Conquistadores seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.
105.
Pedro de Valdivia
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Pedro Gutiérrez de Valdivia or Valdiva was a Spanish conquistador and the first royal governor of Chile. After serving with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders, he was sent to South America in 1534, in 1540 he led an expedition of 150 Spaniards into Chile, where he defeated a large force of Indians and founded Santiago in 1541. He extended Spanish rule south to the Bío-Bío River in 1546, fought again in Peru and he began to conquer Chile south of the Bío-Bío and founded Concepción in 1550. He was captured and killed in a campaign against the Araucanian Indians, the city of Valdivia in Chile is named after him. Pedro de Valdivia is believed to have born in Villanueva de la Serena in Extremadura. In 1520 he joined the Spanish army of Charles I and fought in Flanders in 1521 and he reached America in 1535, spent an uneventful year in Venezuela, and then moved on to Peru in 1537. There he took part on the side of Hernando Pizarro in his struggle against Diego de Almagro and fought in the battle of Las Salinas in 1538, afterwards he accompanied Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro to conquer both the province of Collao and las Charcas in High Peru. As compensation for his help in conquering these lands, he was awarded a silver mine, Valdivia had married Marina Ortíz de Gaete in Spain, but in Peru he became attached to the widow Inés de Suárez, who was to accompany him to Chile as his mistress. After the failure of the expedition of Diego de Almagro in 1536, Valdivia asked governor Francisco Pizarro for permission to complete the conquest of that territory. He got his permission but was appointed only Lieutenant Governor, the expedition was fraught with problems from the beginning. Valdivia had to sell the lands and the mine that had been assigned to him in order to finance the expedition, a shortage of soldiers and adventurers was also problematic since they were not interested in conquering what they were sure were extremely poor lands. Furthermore, while he was preparing the expedition, Pedro Sancho de Hoz arrived from Spain with a grant for the same country. To avoid difficulties, Pizarro advised the two competitors to join their interests, and on December 28,1539, a contract of partnership was signed, the small expedition finally left Cuzco, Peru in January,1540, with Pizarros permission and Pedro Sancho de Hoz as partner. They carried with them a plethora of seeds for planting, a drove of swine and brood mares, only one woman was among the travelers, Inés de Suárez, Valdivias mistress. En route more Spaniards joined the expedition, attracted by Valdivias fame as a brilliant leader and these conquistadores had formed part of the failed campaigns to the highlands of Bolivia and all in all around 150 Spaniards joined the expedition. Valdivia resolved to avoid the road over the Andes, which had proved fatal to Almagros army, on the way, Pedro Sancho de Hoz, seeking sole leadership, tried to murder Valdivia but failed. He was pardoned but from then on had to subordinate status. The natives of the region were not pleased by the return of the Spaniards due to the maltreatment they had suffered under Almagro, with many promises, Valdivia was able to regain their trust
Pedro de Valdivia
–
Posthumous portrait by
Federico de Madrazo
Pedro de Valdivia
–
Alonso de Ovalle's 1646 engraving of Pedro de Valdivia.
Pedro de Valdivia
–
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Pedro de Valdivia
–
Pedro Lira 's 1889 painting of the founding of Santiago by Pedro de Valdivia at
Huelén Hill.
106.
Pedro de Alvarado
–
Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras was a Spanish conquistador and governor of Guatemala. He participated in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalvas exploration of the coasts of the Yucatán Peninsula and the Gulf of Mexico and he is considered the conquistador of much of Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador. Historiography portrays that indigenous people, both Nahuatl-speakers and speakers of languages, called him Tonatiuh, meaning sun in the Nahuatl language. Yet he was also called Red Sun in Nahuatl, which allows a variety of interpretations, whether this epithet refers to Alvarados red hair, some esoteric quality attributed to him, or both, is disputed. Pedro de Alvarado was flamboyant and charismatic, and was both a brilliant military commander and a cruel, hardened man and his hair and beard were blond, which earned him the name of Tonatiuh from the Aztecs, the name of one of their sun gods. He was handsome, and presented an appearance, but was volatile. He was ruthless in his dealings with the peoples he set out to conquer. Historians judge that his greed drove him to excessive cruelty, and he was a poor governor of territories he had conquered, and restlessly sought out new adventures. His tactical brutality, such as the massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan and he was also accused of cruelty against fellow Spaniards. Alvarado was little suited to govern, when he held governing positions and his letters show no interest in civil matters, and he only discussed exploration and war. Alvarado stubbornly resisted attempts by the Spanish Crown to establish ordered taxation in Guatemala, american historian William H. Prescott described Alvarados character in the following terms, Alvarado was a cavalier of high family, gallant and chivalrous, and warm personal friend. He had talents for action, was possessed of firmness and intrepidity, while his frank, but, underneath this showy exterior, the future conqueror of Guatemala concealed a heart rash, rapacious, and cruel. He was altogether destitute of that moderation, which, in the position he occupied, was a quality of more worth than all the rest. Spanish chronicler Antonio de Remesal commented that Alvarado desired more to be feared than loved by his subjects, in his easy recourse to violence, Alvarado was a product of his time, and Alvarado was not the only conquistador to have resorted to such actions. Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro carried out deeds of similar cruelty, Pedro de Alvarado was born in 1485 in the town of Badajoz, Extremadura. His father was Gómez de Alvarado, and his mother was Leonor de Contreras, Pedro de Alvarado had a twin sister, Sarra, and four full-blood brothers, Jorge, Gonzalo, Gómez, and Juan. Pedro had a half brother, also named Juan, referred to in contemporary sources as Juan el Bastardo. Very little is known of Pedro de Alvarados early life before his arrival in the Americas, during the conquest of the Americas, tales of his youthful exploits in Spain became popular legends, but their veracity is doubtful
Pedro de Alvarado
–
Pedro de Alvarado in a contemporaneous rendition.
Pedro de Alvarado
–
Juan de Grijalva
Pedro de Alvarado
–
The coast of
Cozumel was Alvarado's first sight of Yucatán.
Pedro de Alvarado
–
Hernán Cortés led the expedition against the Aztecs.
107.
Battle of Bicocca
–
The Battle of Bicocca or La Bicocca was fought on 27 April 1522, during the Italian War of 1521–26. A combined French and Venetian force under Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec, was defeated by an Imperial–Spanish. Lautrec then withdrew from Lombardy, leaving the Duchy of Milan in Imperial hands, having been driven from Milan by an Imperial advance in late 1521, Lautrec had regrouped, attempting to strike at Colonnas lines of communication. The Swiss pikemen advanced over open fields under heavy fire to assault the Imperial positions. Having suffered massive casualties from the fire of Spanish arquebusiers, the Swiss retreated, meanwhile, an attempt by French cavalry to flank Colonnas position proved equally ineffective. The Swiss, unwilling to further, marched off to their cantons a few days later. It was also one of the first engagements in which played a decisive role on the battlefield. At the start of the war in 1521, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Pope Leo X moved jointly against the Duchy of Milan, the principal French possession in Lombardy. A large Papal force under Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, together with Spanish troops from Naples and some smaller Italian contingents, concentrated near Mantua. For the next months, Colonna fought an evasive war of maneuver against Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec. By the autumn of 1521, Lautrec, who was holding a line along the Adda river to Cremona, began to suffer losses from desertion. Colonna took the opportunity this offered and, advancing close to the Alps, crossed the Adda at Vaprio, Lautrec, lacking infantry and assuming the years campaign to be over, Colonna had no intention of stopping his advance, however. On the night of November 23, he launched an attack on the city. Following some abortive street-fighting, Lautrec withdrew to Cremona with about 12,000 men, the French proceeded to attack Novara and Pavia, hoping to draw Colonna into a decisive battle. Colonna, leaving Milan, fortified himself in the monastery of Certosa south of the city, Lautrec was suddenly confronted, however, with the intransigence of the Swiss, who formed the largest contingent of the French army. They complained that they had not received any of the pay promised them since their arrival in Lombardy, the Swiss captains, led by Albert von Stein, demanded that Lautrec attack the Imperial army immediately—else the mercenaries would abandon the French and return to their cantons. Lautrec reluctantly acquiesced and marched south towards Milan, Colonna had meanwhile relocated to a formidable new position, the manor park of Bicocca, about four miles north of Milan. The north side of the park was bordered by a road, Colonna deepened this
Battle of Bicocca
–
Anne de Montmorency, painted by
Jean Clouet (c. 1530). Montmorency commanded the Swiss assault, and was the only survivor among the French nobles who accompanied it.
Battle of Bicocca
–
Lombardy in 1522. The location of the battle is marked.
108.
Battle of Pavia
–
The Battle of Pavia, fought on the morning of 24 February 1525, was the decisive engagement of the Italian War of 1521–26. In the four-hour battle, the French army was split and defeated in detail, the French suffered massive casualties, including many of the chief nobles of France. Francis himself was captured by Habsburg troops and imprisoned by Charles V and forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madrid, the outcome of the battle cemented Habsburg ascendancy in Italy. The French, in possession of Lombardy at the start of the Italian War of 1521–26, had forced to abandon it after their defeat at the Battle of Bicocca in 1522. Charles de Lannoy now launched an invasion of Provence under the command of Fernando dAvalos, Marquess of Pescara, in mid-October 1524, Francis himself crossed the Alps and advanced on Milan at the head of an army numbering more than 40,000. Bourbon and dAvalos, their troops not yet recovered from the campaign in Provence, were in no position to offer serious resistance. The French army moved in columns, brushing aside Imperial attempts to hold its advance. Having entered Milan and installed Louis II de la Trémoille as the governor, Francis advanced on Pavia, the main mass of French troops arrived at Pavia in the last days of October. By 2 November, Anne de Montmorency had crossed the Ticino River and invested the city from the south, inside were about 9,000 men, mainly mercenaries whom Antonio de Leyva was able to pay only by melting the church plate. A period of skirmishing and artillery bombardments followed, and several breaches had been made in the walls by mid-November, in early December, a Spanish force commanded by Ugo de Moncada landed near Genoa, intending to interfere in a conflict between pro-Valois and pro-Habsburg factions in the city. Francis dispatched a force under the Marquis of Saluzzo to intercept them. Confronted by the more numerous French and left without support by the arrival of a pro-Valois fleet commanded by Andrea Doria. Francis then signed a agreement with Pope Clement VII, who pledged not to assist Charles in exchange for Franciss assistance with the conquest of Naples. Against the advice of his commanders, Francis detached a portion of his forces under the Duke of Albany. In January 1525, Lannoy was reinforced by the arrival of Georg Frundsberg with 15,000 fresh landsknechts from Germany, by 2 February, Lannoy was only a few miles from Pavia. Francis had encamped the majority of his forces in the walled park of Mirabello outside the city walls. Skirmishing and sallies by the garrison continued through the month of February, the times given here are taken from Konstams reconstruction of the battle. On the evening of 23 February, Lannoys imperial troops, which had been encamped outside the east wall of the park, at the same time, the Imperial artillery began a bombardment of the French siege lines—which had become routine during the extended siege—in order to conceal Lannoys movement
Battle of Pavia
–
Battle of Pavia by Joachim Patinir
Battle of Pavia
–
Ruprecht Heller, The Battle of Pavia (1529),
Nationalmuseum,
Stockholm
Battle of Pavia
–
The Battle of Pavía by
Juan de la Corte.
Battle of Pavia
–
Leather Box for the Pennant of Francis I at the Battle of Pavia The Walters Art Museum.
109.
Conquest of Tunis (1535)
–
The Conquest of Tunis in 1535 was an attack on Tunis, then under the control of the Ottoman Empire, by the Habsburg Empire of Charles V and its allies. In 1533, Suleiman the Magnificent ordered Hayreddin Barbarossa, whom he had summoned from Algiers, altogether 70 galleys were built during the winter of 1533–1534, manned by slave oarsmen, including 2,000 Jewish ones. Barbarossa thus established a naval base in Tunis, which could be used for raids in the region. The expense involved for Charles V was considerable, and at 1,000,000 ducats was on par with the cost of Charles campaign against Suleiman on the Danube. Despite a request by Charles V, Francis I denied French support to the expedition, Francis I was also under negotiations with Suleiman the Magnificent for a combined attack on Charles V, following the 1534 Ottoman embassy to France. Francis I only agreed to Pope Paul IIIs request that no fight between Christians occur during the time of the expedition. On 1 June 1535, protected by a Genoese fleet, Charles V destroyed Barbarossas fleet and, after a costly yet successful siege at La Goletta, in the ruins, the Spanish found cannonballs with the French Fleur-de-lys mark, evidence of the contacts stemming from the Franco-Ottoman alliance. The resulting massacre of the city left an estimated 30,000 dead, Barbarossa managed to flee to Algiers with a troop of several thousand Turks. Muley Hasan was restored to his throne, the stench of the corpses was such that Charles V soon left Tunis and moved his camp to Radès. Furthermore, he was Holy Roman Emperor and had de jure control over much of Germany as well, Ottoman defeat in Tunis motivated the Ottoman Empire to enter into a formal alliance with France against the Habsburg Empire. Ambassador Jean de La Forêt was sent to Constantinople, and for the first time was able to become permanent ambassador at the Ottoman court, Charles V celebrated a neo-classical triumph over the infidel at Rome on April 5,1536 in commemoration of his victory at Tunis. He Spanish governor of La Goulette, Luys Peres Varga, built fortified the island of Chikly in the lake of Tunis to strengthen the defences between 1546 and 1550. Barbarossa managed to escape to the harbour of Bône, where a fleet was waiting for him, from there, he sailed to accomplish the Sack of Mahon, where he took 6,000 slaves and brought them to Algiers. The Ottomans responded by recapturing the city in 1574, however the Ottoman governors of Tunis were semi-autonomous Beys who acted as privateers against Christian shipping. Grant, R. G.2005 La Marina Cántabra,1968 Cervantes Virtual Roger Crowley, Empires of the sea,2008 Faber & Faber ISBN 978-0-571-23231-4 Garnier, Edith LAlliance Impie Editions du Felin,2008, Paris ISBN 978-2-86645-678-8 Interview
Conquest of Tunis (1535)
–
Attack on
La Goletta, with Tunis in the background. Entry of
Charles I of Spain into
Tunis in 1535.
Conquest of Tunis (1535)
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Bombardment of La Goletta.
Conquest of Tunis (1535)
–
Attack at La Goletta.
Conquest of Tunis (1535)
–
Battle scene at Tunis, 1535.
110.
Battle of Gravelines (1558)
–
The Battle of Gravelines was fought on 13 July 1558 at Gravelines, near Calais, France. It occurred during the war between France and Spain. The battle resulted in a victory by the Spanish forces, led by Lamoral, Count of Egmont, over the French, the Spanish were supported by the English Navy, who opened fire on the French as they reached the sand dunes at Gravelines. Following the dominance of the Spanish forces, led by Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, at the Battle of San Quentin and he recruited a new army in Picardy, which he put in the hands of Louis Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers. He asked the Ottoman Sultan for naval support and encouraged the Scots to invade England from the north. Francis, Duke of Guise, seized the port of Calais from the English and moved to the city of Thionville, marshall de Thermes invaded with another army consisting of 12,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, armed with a considerable amount of artillery. After crossing the Aa River at its mouth, de Thermes commandeered his army to conquer both Dunkirk and Nieuwpoort, consequently threatening Brussels and it is reported that a Spanish army was to later intercept the dukes army at the Aa River. The Duke of Savoy and Philip met an army of 15,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, giving the command to the Count of Egmont. He deployed his army on the bank of the river, creating a double line with the cavalry and artillery in one row. Sighting the French positions, Egmont placed his troops in a crescent, with the cavalry on the flanks. The French used their artillery, and a battle was fought between the cavalry of both sides. The Spanish arquebusiers, who were armed and trained, peppered the French cavalry. They then shot at the infantry sheltered behind the baggage train, Egmont, at the head of his horsemen, decided to attack the French center with his cavalry. Biscay and English ships bombarded the French rear, causing numerous casualties, the outcome of the battle could not have been worse for the French, only 1,500 men had managed to flee, the rest lay dead or were taken prisoner. The lord of Thermes was taken prisoner, the French were forced to retreat to the border. This defeat, coupled with the loss at the Battle of St. Quentin, forced Henry II of France to make peace with Philip II in the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559
Battle of Gravelines (1558)
–
The Siege of Gravelines by
Pieter Snayers. Oil on canvas.
Museo del Prado,
Madrid.
111.
Battle of Lepanto
–
The battle was in essence an infantry battle on floating platforms. It was the largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the Age of Sail. It has long been compared to the Battle of Salamis both for tactical parallels and for its importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion. On 1 August, the Venetians had surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely, however, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, who had lost some 50,000 men in the siege, broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians. The members of the Holy League were the Republic of Venice, the Spanish Empire, the Papal States, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchies of Savoy, Urbino and Tuscany, the Knights Hospitaller and others. The banner for the fleet, blessed by the Pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples on 14 August 1571. There, in the Basilica of Santa Chiara, it was consigned to John of Austria. All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, the combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria with Marcantonio Colonna as his principal deputy. The various Christian contingents met the force, that of Venice, in July and August 1571 at Messina. John of Austria arrived on 23 August, see Battle of Lepanto order of battle for a detailed list of ships and commanders involved in the battle. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors, Ali Pasha, the Ottoman admiral, supported by the corsairs Mehmed Siroco of Alexandria and Uluç Ali, commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys,56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were deficient in their elite corps of Janissaries. The number of oarsmen was about 37,000, virtually all of them slaves, the Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors—generally drawn from the maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire, namely Berbers, Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians—and 34,000 soldiers. An advantage for the Christians was their numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships and it is estimated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition. The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, serious conflict had broken out between the Venetian and Spanish soldiers, and Venier enraged Don Juan by hanging a Spanish soldier for impudence. Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and, on 6 October, they reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia, early on 7 October, they sailed toward the Gulf of Patras, where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, on the morning of 7 October, after the decision to offer battle was made, the Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a north-south line. At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by Agostino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support
Battle of Lepanto
–
The Battle of Lepanto, unknown artist, late 16th century
Battle of Lepanto
–
Depictions of the
Ottoman Navy during the battle of Lepanto
Battle of Lepanto
–
A sinking
Ottoman Navy vessel, painting by Pieter Brünniche, 1762.
Battle of Lepanto
–
The Victors of Lepanto (from left:
John of Austria,
Marcantonio Colonna,
Sebastiano Venier).
112.
Battle of Ponta Delgada
–
The Spanish victory resulted in the rapid Spanish conquest of the Azores, completing the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. The only portion of the Portuguese overseas empire to resist the Habsburg King Philip II of Spain were the Azores Islands, the French crown sent a fleet under the command of the mercenary admiral Filipo Strozzi in order to help defend the islands. However, receiving the same replies the former envoy, Valdés was persuaded to attempt an assault on Terceira, meanwhile, António reached Calais and proceeded to England. In June 1582 Antónios French fleet left Belle-Isle, intending to subdue the two islands of São Miguel and Santa Maria and to capture the fleet which would probably put in at the Azores. However, on learning that Strozzi had sailed, Santa Cruz also made for the Azores with less ships but larger in size and arms than Strozzi and about an equal number of men. He arrived too late to prevent the French from landing on São Miguel, after an indecisive gunfight on 24 July 1582 the fleets met two days later in a fierce close battle south of the island of São Miguel. The Spanish were outnumbered two to one, the brunt of the French attack was borne by the Portuguese-built Spanish galleon San Mateo, although surrounded, battered by artillery and boarded by several French ships, her sailors held their ground and repulsed all attacks. They then took the fight to the enemy, boarding and capturing two French vessels before the battle ended, Santa Cruz began the action by arranging themselves in a line abreast. This was the tactic employed by the Spanish galleys, which carried its few cannon in the bow. Santa Cruz in his Portuguese-built flagship São Martinho sought out Strozzis ship amid the smoke and chaos and, having found her, Santa Cruz defeated the French through a combination of gunfire and boarding. Some thought that Strozzi had been unlucky to lose, the Spanish fleet suffered severe damage, Philip IIs commemorative mural in the Escorials Hall of Battles correctly depicts extensive shot damage on the Spanish side. The galleon San Martín barely managed to tow the captured enemy flagship back to port, on July 26, after a five-hour naval engagement, the French and English fleets weaker in battle-power, were routed, seventeen of their ships deserted. Men over seventeen who were captured were put to death as pirates, though larger, the improvised French fleet had not been sufficient to challenge the Spanish in the Atlantic triangle. The magnitude of French losses is uncertain but they were heavy, however, the battle shows that Strozzi tried, partly, an approximation to this tactic, by an attack by a group of naus engaged in formation. However, in the end, the battle was largely resolved in the old way of naval warfare. Santa Cruz had won a victory and jubilation at his triumphant return seems to have gripped the whole of Spain. Terceira remained in the Pretenders hands, and in the spring of 1583 he managed to reinforce his garrisons there with 800 fresh French troops, Santa Cruz, who now enjoyed command of the sea, reacted swiftly. The Terceirans expected the Spaniards to land at the harbours of Angra and Peggia, however, Santa Cruz decided to deliver his main thrust at Mole, a beach 10 miles from Angra defended only by light earthworks occupied by infantry with some artillery support
Battle of Ponta Delgada
–
Fresco by
Niccolò Granello showing the Battle of Ponta Delgada in the Hall of Battles at
El Escorial.
Battle of Ponta Delgada
–
Map of
Terceira. By
Jan Huygen van Linschoten.
Battle of Ponta Delgada
–
The Spanish
Tercios landing on Terceira.
El Escorial Hall of Battles.
113.
Battle of Gembloux (1578)
–
The result was a crushing victory for the Spanish forces. The battle hastened the disintegration of the unity of the rebel provinces, after the Sack of Antwerp by Spanish mutineers on November 4,1576, Catholics and Protestants of the Low Countries concluded the Pacification of Ghent, to remove all Spanish troops. However, in the summer of 1577, Don John of Austria began planning for a new campaign against the Dutch rebels and this action further destabilized the uneasy alliance between Catholics and Protestants. By January 1578, he had between 17,000 and 20,000 men at his disposal, in the last days of January 1578, the Netherlandish army was camped between Gembloux and Namur. The army was in bad shape, with many sick, the command of the army was in the hands of Antoine de Goignies, Seigneur de Vendege. When De Goignies learned that the Spanish army was approaching Namur, the rear of the army was left in the hands of the Count of Mansfeld. The Spanish cavalry had crossed the Meuse River and made contact with the rear of the rebel army. With the bulk of his army south of the Meuse, John sent messages to his cavalry, now commanded by Alexander. But Alexander, seeing the state of the enemy forces and advised by Mondragón and Gonzaga of the opportunity to surprise the enemy. After several clashes with the Spanish cavalry, the Netherlandish cavalry, the result was a crushing victory by Parmas cavalry. The entire armys order disintegrated, and the almost unopposed Spanish cavalry massacred fleeing troops, the Netherlandish army tried to regroup, but a cannon and its ammunition blew up, causing many deaths and renewed panic. The Spanish casualties, however, were minimal, about 12 dead, around 3,000 men reached Gembloux and closed the gates, but after negotiations, the rebels surrendered to the Spaniards on February 5, and the city was spared from being sacked. The victory of John also meant the end of the Union of Brussels, in contrast, the provinces loyal to the Protestant cause signed the defensive Union of Utrecht. Pacification of Ghent Perpetual Edict Union of Brussels Union of Arras Union of Utrecht List of Dukes of Parma List of Governors of the Spanish Netherlands Parker, the Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659. Published by The Echo Library 2007, europe and England in the Sixteenth Century. Guerra y Sociedad en la Monarquía Hispánica, ISBN 978-84-8483-224-9 Cadenas y Vicent, Vicente. Carlos V, Miscelánea de artículos publicados en la revista Hidalguía, the Dutch Republic, Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806. The Founding of the Dutch Republic, War, Finance, dictionary of Battles and Sieges, A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity Through the Twenty-first Century
Battle of Gembloux (1578)
–
Engraving of the Battle of Gembloux by
Frans Hogenberg.
Battle of Gembloux (1578)
–
The Battle of Gembloux by
Johann Wilhelm Baur.
Battle of Gembloux (1578)
–
Portrait of Don
John of Austria,
Governor-General of the
Spanish Netherlands.
114.
Siege of Ostend
–
The Siege of Ostend was a three-year siege of the city of Ostend during the Eighty Years War and the Anglo–Spanish War. A Spanish force under Archduke Albrecht besieged the fortress being held initially by a Dutch force which was reinforced by English troops under Francis Vere who became the towns governor and it was said the Spanish assailed the unassailable, the Dutch defended the indefensible. The commitment of both sides in the dispute over the only Dutch ruled area in the province of Flanders and this resulted in one of the longest and bloodiest sieges in world history, more than 100,000 people were killed, wounded or succumbed to disease during the siege. Ostend was resupplied via the sea and as a result held out for three years, a garrison did a tour of duty before being replaced by fresh troops, normally 3,000 at a time keeping casualties and disease to a minimum. The siege consisted of a number of assaults by the Spanish, after suffering heavy losses the Spanish had replaced the Archduke with Ambrosio Spinola and the siege settled down to one of attrition with the strong points gradually being taken one at a time. Ostend was eventually captured by the Spanish on 20 September 1604, but the city was completely destroyed, in 1568, during the reign of Philip II of Spain, the Netherlands, until then under the rule of the Spanish Empire, took up arms against the Spanish crown. The first phase of the war began with two unsuccessful invasions of the provinces by mercenary armies under Prince William I of Orange and foreign-based raids by the Geuzen or Sea Beggars. By the end of 1573 the Beggars had captured the bulk of the provinces of Holland and Zeeland as well as converted the populace to Calvinism, the other provinces joined in the revolt in 1576, and a general union was formed. In 1579 the union was weakened by the defection of the Roman Catholic Walloon provinces. In 1599 the Archduke Albert of Austria and Isabel Clara Eugenia, by 1600 Maurice of Nassau was stadtholder and Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was Grand pensionary of the States General of the Netherlands. In 1601 Spain now under King Philip III with his favourite the Duke of Lerma despite maintaining its hegemony in the world, was weakened with war. Spain had also only just finished a costly and unsuccessful war with France, the wars were a great burden for the Spanish Empire and meant that financially Spain depended entirely on the treasure fleet brought from the colonies. Nevertheless, Philip pursued a highly aggressive set of policies, aiming to deliver a victory against both Holland and England. The situation of the United Provinces was similar, more than thirty years of war, the Dutch tried to relieve their precarious finances by commercially expanding into the East Indies with the birth of the Dutch East India Company. England were in the position and were fighting now in Ireland. Like the Dutch they too had just set up their own East India Company and this never happened however as disputes in the Dutch command meant that taking Spanish occupied cities in the rest of the Netherlands took over priority as the opportunity arose. Maurice concurred and had his forces evacuated by sea leaving Ostend to be preoccupied by the Spanish, founded five hundred years ago, the city of Ostend in the mid-16th century was a fishing village of about 3,000 inhabitants. In the view of the State of Flanders, Ostend in the hands of the Protestant Dutch, Ostend unlike other places in the Netherlands had never been taken by the Spanish and the garrison had even repelled an attack by Parma in 1583
Siege of Ostend
–
Siege of Ostend by
Pieter Snayers, oil on canvas.
Siege of Ostend
–
Map of Flanders in the 17th century
Siege of Ostend
–
A very detailed map from 1641 on the positions of Ostend during the siege by
Joan Blaeu
Siege of Ostend
–
Archduke of Austria
115.
English Armada
–
It was led by Sir Francis Drake as admiral and Sir John Norreys as general, and failed to drive home the advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada in the previous year. The campaign resulted in the deadlocking of the English expeditionary force, the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip IIs naval power through the next decade. Queen Elizabeths intentions were to capitalise upon Spains temporary weakness at sea after the successful repulsion of the Spanish Armada, a further aim was to seize the Spanish treasure fleet as it returned from America to Cádiz, although this depended largely on the success of the Azores campaign. By securing an allegiance with the Portuguese crown, Elizabeth hoped to curb Spanish Habsburg power in Europe and this was a difficult proposition, because the domestic aristocracy and clergy of Portugal had accepted Philip as their King in 1581 at the Cortes of Tomar. The complex politics were not the only drawback for the enterprise, like its Spanish predecessor, the English expedition suffered from overly optimistic planning, based on hopes of repeating Drakes successful raid on Cadiz in 1587. Concerns over logistics and adverse weather delayed the departure of the fleet, when the fleet sailed it was made up of six royal galleons,60 English armed merchantmen,60 Dutch flyboats and about 20 pinnaces. In addition to the troops, there were 4,000 sailors and 1,500 officers, also sailing with them — against the Queens express orders — was the Earl of Essex. Unforeseen delays and a fear of becoming embayed in the Bay of Biscay led Drake to bypass Santander, where most of this refitting was underway, and attack Corunna in Galicia instead. Norreys took the town, killed around 500 Spaniards and plundered the wine cellars located there whilst Drake destroyed 13 merchant ships in the harbour. For the next two weeks the wind blew westerly, and while waiting for a change the English occupied themselves in a siege of Corunnas fortified upper town. Those who remained then turned their attention, first to Puente del Burgo, Lisbon was rumoured to be guarded by a disaffected garrison, but whilst the English were fruitlessly besieging Corunna, the Spanish had spent a fortnight shoring up Portugals military defences. When Norreys invested Lisbon, the uprising was not forthcoming. It was therefore decided to concentrate on the aim of the expedition - the establishment of a permanent military base in the Azores. However, by point the campaign had taken its toll. Two armed merchantmen were caught off Lisbon by nine Spanish galleys, the other vessel was engulfed in flames after a fight, and sunk, her commander Captain Minshaw being lost with the ship. Further damage was sustained one of three boats carrying Williams complement was lost with all hands after being attacked by the Spanish warships. With the aim of assailing the Azores becoming increasingly out of the question, at this point, most its men were out of action, with only 2000 still fit to be mustered. Stormy weather had also damaged a number of its ships, whilst Norreys sailed for home with the sick and wounded, Drake took his pick of what was left and set out with 20 ships to hunt for the Spanish treasure fleet
English Armada
–
Monument of the heroine
María Pita in the Square of the Town Hall of
A Coruña
English Armada
–
Philip II of Spain
English Armada
–
Elizabeth I of England
English Armada
–
Admiral
Sir Francis Drake, commander of the English Armada
116.
Siege of Breda (1624)
–
The Siege of Breda of 1624–25 occurred during the Eighty Years War. The siege resulted in Breda, a Dutch fortified city, falling into the control of the Army of Flanders, following the orders of Ambrogio Spinola, Philip IVs army laid siege to Breda in August 1624. The siege was contrary to the wishes of Philip IVs government because of the already excessive burdens of the concurrent Eighty and Thirty Years wars. In February 1625, a relief force, consisting of 7,000 English troops under the leadership of Horace Vere. After a costly siege, Justin of Nassau surrendered Breda in June 1625. Only 3,500 Dutchmen and fewer than 600 Englishmen had survived the siege, the Siege of Breda is considered Spinolas greatest success and one of Spains last major victories in the Eighty Years War. The siege was part of a plan to isolate the Republic from its hinterland, although political infighting hindered Spinolas freedom of movement, Spains efforts in the Netherlands continued thereafter. In the latter stages of the combined Eighty and Thirty Years wars that had greatly strained Spanish resources, in the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia that ended the Thirty and Eighty Years wars, it was ceded to the Dutch Republic. There were several motives for Spinolas siege of Breda, because the Dutch regularly used the town as a base for raiding Spanish Brabant, the parts of Brabant under royal rule would be better protected if the city were conquered. In addition, neighbouring towns occupied by the States, such as Bergen op Zoom, in 1590, Breda was captured from the Spanish using the stratagem with the peat boat. The conquest of a city like Breda would erase this disgrace. More importantly, Spinola personally felt that the failure of the Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom was a blot on his reputation, furthermore, Spain wanted to have a strong position in potential peace negotiations. The conquest of Breda would enable Spain to put forward stronger demands concerning religious freedom for Catholics in the Republic, Breda was one of the strongest cities in the defence of the Republic between the States of Holland and royal Brabant. The city was located on a navigable river, Mark. Henry III of Nassau, Lord of Breda from 1509 to 1538, had been commissioned by Charles V to travel through Europe, in Italy, he came into contact with modern defences. Thus, in 1531 he inspired the construction of the medieval style walls of Breda. These were later replaced by modern fortifications, in 1587 and 1622, the defences were further expanded and updated. The Breda fortress consisted of a high earthen thoroughfare with 15 bastions
Siege of Breda (1624)
–
The Surrender of Breda by
Diego Velázquez. Oil on canvas, 1635.
Siege of Breda (1624)
–
Map of the siege of Breda by
Spinola.
J.Blaeu.
Siege of Breda (1624)
–
Painting of the Siege of Breda
117.
Battle of Valenciennes (1656)
–
It was the worst of only a few defeats that the French Marshal Vicomte de Turenne suffered in his long career campaigning and is regarded as Spains last great victory of the 17th century. The well organised siege began to exhaust the defenders, towards the end of June, Don Juan José de Austria, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands, took the decision to come to the aid of Valenciennes as its situation was becoming unsustainable. On the night of 15 July just as the fortress was about to surrender, Don Juans army dug in about a league from the enemy, preparing to launch an offensive. Four attacks were organised, The Spanish and Irish infantry commanded by Don Juan José de Austria, the nations under the command of the Prince of Ligne, the General leading the cavalry. Condés troops including himself and the Duke of Württemberg, the new army which would be led by the Count of Marsin. Condé came down on Marshals section with such vigour it surprised and destroyed the French resistance, Don Juan José de Austria stood out due to his brave action, unleashing his might on the French quarters. As for La Fertés division only 2,000 managed to escape after tossing their arms, however, Turenne had the presence of mind not to allow the French forces to be intimidated by the defeat. His rapid regrouping and redeployment of his forces prevented the Spanish from gaining an advantage on the front. Philip IV of Spain ordered a gold medal to be printed to commemorate the victory and he had it sent to Condé together with a saber, for the Spanish, the great victory at Valenciennes proved counterproductive. Emboldened by the success, the Habsburg court at Madrid refused to compromise with French demands, Philip IV of Spain Louis XIV of France Cardinal Mazarin Spanish Netherlands Martín Sanz, Francisco La política Internacional de Felipe IV. ISBN 978-987-561-039-2 Stanhope Philip Henry The life of Louis, Prince of Condé, hume, Martin Andrew Sharp Spain Its Greatness and Decay. ISBN 978-1-85285-089-0 Clodfelter, Micheal Warfare and armed Conflicts, A statistical reference to casualty, ISBN 978-0-7864-1204-4 Rodríguez, Ignacio Ruiz Don Juan José de Austria en la Monarquía Hispánica, Entre la política, el poder y la intriga. ISBN 978-84-9849-029-9 Israel, Jonathan Irvine Conflicts of Empires, Spain, the Low Countries and the struggle for World Supremacy 1585-1713
Battle of Valenciennes (1656)
–
Don Juan José de Austria, commander of the Spanish army.
118.
Alhucemas landing
–
It is considered the first amphibious landing in history supported by seaborne air power. The operations consisted on disembarking a force of 13,000 Spanish soldiers transported from Ceuta, among the participating officers, there was the then colonel Francisco Franco who, for his leadership of the Spanish Legion troops, was promoted to brigadier general. After the disaster of Annual, the Spanish army was unable to regain lost territory, therefore, a containment policy was taken, aimed at preventing the expansion of the rebel zone, executed by limited military actions of local nature. In April 1925 a crucial event occurred, Abd el-Krim, confident of his success against the Spanish and this opened the doors for a Spanish-French agreement to make a common front against the Riffians. To this end, in June 1925 the Madrid Conference took place, among the agreements reached there were the plan for a Spanish landing on the Alhucemas bay, with the cooperation and support of a combined air and naval Spanish-French force. Alhucemas, home of the kabyle of Beni Ouriaghel, to which Abd el Krim belonged, was the focus of the ongoing Rif rebellion, all Spanish land operations, included the Disaster of Annual in 1921, aimed at the occupation of Alhucemas, but all of them failed. As if it was not enough, the terrain presented difficulties in performing the landing and this led to Primo de Rivera to investigate the reasons for the disaster at Gallipoli and carefully plan the landing. The probable knowledge of the planned landing prompted Abd el Krim to fortify the area, placing artillery and these circumstances forced the Spanish command to change the landing site, choosing Cebadilla Beach and Cala del Quemado, west of the Bay of Al Hoceima. Bachoud, André, Los españoles ante las campañas de Marruecos, Madrid, Espasa Calpe,1988 Goded, Manuel, Marruecos. 1932 Hernández Mir, Francisco, Del desastre a la victoria, Madrid, Imprenta Hispánica,1927 Larios de Medrano, Justo, España en Marruecos. Madrid, Stampa,1925 Martín Tornero, Antonio, El desembarco de Alhucemas, en, Revista de Historia militar, año XXV, nº70. ISSn 0482-5748 Matthieu, Roger, Mémoires d Abd-el-Krim, parís, Librairie des Champs-Elysées,1927 Ros Andreu, Juan Bautista, La conquista de Alhucemas. Las Palmas, Tipografía La provincia,1932 Woolman, David S. Abd-el-Krim y la guerra del Rif, barcelona, Oikos-Tau,1988 Domínguez Llosá, Santiago, El desembarco de Alhucemas
Alhucemas landing
–
Spanish troops landing at
Al Hoceima Bay on 8 September 1925
119.
Conquest of Tunis (1574)
–
The Conquest of Tunis in 1574 marked the final conquest of Tunis by the Ottoman Empire over the Spanish Empire. The capture of Tunis in 1574 sealed the Ottoman domination of the eastern, Tunis had initially been conquered by the Ottomans under Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1534. In the next year, however, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V had launched a major expedition and he established a garrison and a vassal ruler in the person of the Hafsid ruler Lhacène. Selim II sent his support through a messenger, who endeavoured to put the Dutch in contact with the rebellious Moriscos of Spain, Selim also sent a great fleet to attack Tunis in the Autumn of 1574, thus succeeding in reducing Spanish pressure on the Dutch. In the Battle of La Goleta, Selim II mustered a fleet of between 250 and 300 warships, with about 75,000 men, the Ottoman fleet was commanded by Sinan Pacha and Alūj Ali. The Ottoman fleet combined with troops sent by the governors of Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis, the army attacked Tunis and La Goleta, the presidio of La Goleta, defended by 7,000 men, fell on 24 August 1574. The last Christian troops in a small fort opposite Tunis surrendered on 3 September 1574, john of Austria attempted to relieve the siege with a fleet of galleys from Naples and Sicily but failed due to storms. The Spanish crown, being involved in the Netherlands and short of funds was unable to help significantly. Cervantes participated in events as a soldier, and was among the troops of Don Juan of Austria which tried to rescue the city. He claims that the Ottomans led 22 assaults against the fort of Tunis, losing 25,000 men, while only 300 Christians survived. He wrote about the battle, If Goleta and the fort, put together, held barely 7,000 soldiers, how could such a force, however resolute, come out. And how can you help losing a stronghold that is not relieved, and especially when it is surrounded by a stubborn and very numerous army, abd al-Malik, the future Moroccan King, participated in the 1574 conquest of Tunis on the side of the Ottomans. Gabrio Serbelloni was the commander of the fort of Tunis, the general of La Goleta, Don Pedro Portocarerro was taken as a captive to Constantinople, but died on his way. The captured soldiers were employed as slaves on galleys, the battle marked the final establishment of Ottoman rule in Tunis, putting an end to the Hafsid dynasty and the Spanish presence in Tunis. The success of the Turks under Occhiali in the battle of Goleta managed in reducing Spanish pressure on the Dutch, and leading to negotiations at the Conference of Breda. After the death of Charles IX in May 1574 however, contacts weakened, although the Ottomans are said to have supported the 1575–1576 revolt, and establish, in 1582, a Consulate in Antwerp. The Ottomans made a truce with Spain, and shifted their attention to their conflict with Persia in the Ottoman–Safavid War, the Spanish crown fell into bankruptcy on 1 September 1575
Conquest of Tunis (1574)
–
The Ottoman fleet attacking
Tunis at La Goulette in 1574.
Conquest of Tunis (1574)
–
Ottoman troops (about 5,000
janissaries) and
Kabyle troops, led by
Uluç Ali, Pasha of
Algiers, marching on Tunis in 1569.
Conquest of Tunis (1574)
–
John of Austria attempted several times to rescue the siege, but in vain.
Conquest of Tunis (1574)
–
Sinan Pasha, an Italian Muslim, led the Ottoman capture of Tunis.
120.
Battle of Rocroi
–
The battle is considered by many to be the turning point of the perceived invincibility of the Spanish tercio. The Habsburg Spanish army of about 27,000 men advanced from Flanders, through the Ardennes, the Spanish troops set siege to Rocroi, which lay athwart the route to the valley of the Oise. The French, under the command of 21-year-old Louis, duc dEnghien, reacted quickly, the Spanish failed to block the route to Rocroi, which passed through a defile bordered by woods and marsh. Enghien advanced through the defile and assembled his force along a ridge looking down on the town of Rocroi. The Spanish quickly formed up between the town and the ridge, the French army, some 23,000 strong, was arranged with two lines of infantry in the center, squadrons of cavalry on each wing and with a thin line of artillery at the front. The Spanish army was arranged, but with its infantry in their traditional tercios. The two armies bivouacked in their positions for the night, the French army attacked, but the French infantry in the centre were bested by the Spanish. The cavalry on the French left, advancing against Enghiens orders, was thrown back. But the cavalry on the French right, under the command of Jean de Gassion, Enghien was able to follow this up by attacking the exposed left flank of the Spanish infantry. Spanish cavalry made a successful counter-attack to drive off the French cavalry, the Spanish horse was put to flight, leaving the Spanish infantry to carry on the fight. The French were twice repulsed by the stubborn Spanish squares, so Enghien arranged for his artillery, Enghien then offered surrender conditions just like those obtained by a besieged garrison in a fortress. Having agreed to terms, the remains of the two tercios left the field with deployed flags and weapons. The total Spanish losses were about 7,000 dead, wounded, despite this, the battle was of great symbolic importance because of the high reputation of the Army of Flanders. They were given the treatment usually given to a garrison and retired from the field with their arms, flags. With the end of the Fronde, Cardinal Mazarin slowly turned the tide against the Spanish in France and in the Low Countries. Mazarins alliance with England resulted in the defeat of the Spanish at the Battle of the Dunes and consequently the taking of Dunkirk in 1658, although Spain looked to be all-powerful in 1652, the peace settlement reflected the demise of Spains mastery of Europe in the late 1650s. A2006 Spanish movie, Alatriste, directed by Agustín Díaz Yanes, the sedan chair belonging to the elderly Spanish infantry general Fontaines was taken as a trophy by the French and may be seen in the museum of Les Invalides in Paris. Fontaines was killed in the battle, Enghien is reported to have said, Had I not won the day I wish I had died like him
Battle of Rocroi
–
The
duc d'Enghien ordering his troops to stop fighting the Spanish, who have come to him to surrender (
Galerie des Batailles)
Battle of Rocroi
–
Duc d'Enghien at the Battle of Rocroi
Battle of Rocroi
–
Rocroi, the last tercio, by
Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau
121.
Battle of the Downs
–
The entry of France into the Thirty Years War had blocked off the overland Spanish Road to Flanders. To support the Spanish army of Flanders of Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand, the Spanish navy had to ferry supplies by sea via Dunkirk, the last Spanish-controlled port on the North Sea coast. A Spanish fleet, under admiral Lope de Hoces y Córdova, had managed to make the trip to Dunkirk in 1636 and again in 1637, in 1638, the French invaded Spain, and laid siege to Fuentarrabia. Lope de Hoces was hurriedly dispatched to rescue the city, as the remainder of the Spanish navy was engaged on missions in the Mediterranean and Brazil, there were not enough ships left to attempt the Dunkirk passage that year. In the spring of 1639, the Count-Duke of Olivares ordered the construction,29 warships were assembled in four squadrons, soon joined by an additional 22 warships from the Spanish Mediterranean fleet. Twelve English transport ships arrived, contracted to carry the Spanish army under the flag of English neutrality. Lope de Hoces was offered command, but he turned it down. As a result, the passed to Antonio de Oquendo. Oquendo was under instructions to assume a formation, to induce the Dutch into a boarding battle. The flagship was placed on the wing, as that is where it was expected the Dutch firepower would come from. In a curious decision, ships of different squadrons were mixed through the formation, the vanguard was to be composed of the seven-ship Dunkirk squadron commanded by Miguel de Horna, in light of their experience with the channel. The Dutch States-General made their own preparations, from intelligence networks, the Dutch learned that the Spanish fleet might attempt to make for the anchorage known as The Downs, off the English coast, between Dover and Deal. There they could anchor under protection of English neutrality and ferry the army and supplies on smaller, setting out, Tromp divided his fleet into three squadrons. The Spanish fleet of 75 ships and 24,000 soldiers and sailors set out on 27 August from A Coruña, the fleet reached the mouth of the English Channel on 11 September. On 15 September they learned from a passing English ship that a Dutch squadron was anchored near Calais, on the morning of 16 September the Spanish fleet spotted the 12-ship squadron of Maarten Tromp near the French coast. Tromp immediately dispatched one of his ships to warn Banckert, leaving him with only 11, De Withs squadron were visible at a distance, but too late to reach Tromp. With odds of 57 against 11, Oquedo could probably have made for Dunkirk directly, but Oquedo could not resist the chance to make battle with such favorable odds. Perhaps not realizing the size of the Spanish fleet, Tromp did not decline battle, believing Tromps squad was attempting to slip past his right wing, Oquendo impetuously ordered his flagship to turn hard to starboard, hoping to board Tromps flagship
Battle of the Downs
–
The Battle of the Downs by
Willem van de Velde, 1659.
RijksMuseum.
Battle of the Downs
–
Before the Battle of the Downs by
Reinier Nooms, circa 1639, depicting the Dutch blockade off the English coast, the vessel shown is the
Aemilia, Tromp's flagship.
122.
Battle of Trafalgar
–
The Franco-Spanish fleet lost twenty-two ships, without a single British vessel being lost. It was the most decisive battle of the war, conclusively ending French plans to invade England. Nelson instead divided his force into two columns directed perpendicularly against the enemy fleet, with decisive results. Nelson was shot by a French musketeer during the battle and died shortly after, Villeneuve was captured along with his ship Bucentaure. Admiral Federico Gravina, the senior Spanish flag officer, escaped with the remnant of the fleet, Villeneuve attended Nelsons funeral while a captive on parole in Britain. In 1805, the First French Empire, under Napoleon Bonaparte, was the dominant military power on the European continent. During the course of the war, the British imposed a blockade on France. When the Third Coalition declared war on France, after the short-lived Peace of Amiens, to do so, he needed to ensure that the Royal Navy would be unable to disrupt the invasion flotilla, which would require control of the English Channel. The main French fleets were at Brest in Brittany and at Toulon on the Mediterranean coast, other ports on the French Atlantic coast harboured smaller squadrons. France and Spain were allied, so the Spanish fleet based in Cádiz, the British possessed an experienced and well-trained corps of naval officers. By contrast, some of the best officers in the French navy had either been executed or had left the service during the part of the French Revolution. Vice-Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve had taken command of the French Mediterranean fleet following the death of Latouche Treville, there had been more competent officers but they had either been employed elsewhere or had fallen from Napoleons favour. Villeneuve had shown a lack of enthusiasm for facing Nelson. Napoleons naval plan in 1805 was for the French and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean and Cádiz to break through the blockade and join forces in the Caribbean. They would then return, assist the fleet in Brest to emerge from the blockade, early in 1805, Vice Admiral Lord Nelson commanded the British fleet blockading Toulon. Unlike William Cornwallis, who maintained a blockade off Brest with the Channel Fleet. However, Villeneuves fleet successfully evaded Nelsons when the British were blown off station by storms, Nelson commenced a search of the Mediterranean, erroneously supposing that the French intended to make for Egypt. However, Villeneuve took his fleet through the Strait of Gibraltar, rendezvoused with the Spanish fleet, once Nelson realised that the French had crossed the Atlantic Ocean, he set off in pursuit
Battle of Trafalgar
–
The Battle of Trafalgar, as seen from the starboard mizzen shrouds of the Victory by
J. M. W. Turner (oil on canvas, 1806 to 1808)
Battle of Trafalgar
–
Vice Admiral
Horatio Lord Nelson, by
Lemuel Francis Abbott
Battle of Trafalgar
–
Federico Gravina y Napoli, the Spanish Admiral
Battle of Trafalgar
–
Battle of Trafalgar By
William Lionel Wyllie, Juno Tower,
CFB Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
123.
Battle of Somosierra
–
The Battle of Somosierra occurred November 30,1808, in the Peninsular War, when a French army under Napoleon I forced a passage through the Sierra de Guadarrama shielding Madrid. Napoleon overwhelmed the Spanish positions in a combined attack, sending the Polish Chevau-légers of the Imperial Guard at the Spanish guns while French infantry advanced up the slopes. The victory removed the last obstacle barring the road to Madrid, by late November 1808 the French Grande Armée had overwhelmed and destroyed both wings of the Spanish popular army. To complete his reconquest of Spain, Napoleon advanced on Madrid with 40,000 men, Gen. San Juan mustered an ad hoc army of militia, reservists and various regular regiments still reeling from earlier defeats--in all about 12,000 men--to defend Madrid. In order to screen the many approaches to the city, San Juan dispersed his already greatly outnumbered forces. Under his orders,9,000 men were sent west to guard the Guadarrama pass while 3,000 occupied an advanced post at Sepulveda, the nature of the terrain and the tenacity of the Spaniards initially worked in their favor. On the evening of November 29 the brigade at Sepulveda repulsed a French attack, inflicted heavy casualties, the following morning Napoleon advanced his infantry directly toward the pass while small detachments crept up the flanks. Exchanging musket volleys with the defenders, the French made slow, to that number must be added members of other squadrons, totaling some 450 men, but these entered the battle later. The charge of 125 against the batteries was joined by Niegolewskis platoon returning from reconnaissance and it is not clear, however, whether the number included only front-line troops or all the soldiers in the units. The decision, arguably callous and imprudent, has been the subject of historical controversy. Jan Kozietulski, who commanded the 3rd squadron that day, mentioned that he called, and, passing the little bridge, added, En avant, Vive lEmpereur. Some western authors have assumed that Napoleon had gone out of his mind in ordering the Poles to charge batteries of 16 cannon over several kilometers of extremely difficult terrain. Others, however, think Napoleon ordered only the closest battery to be taken, in order to open the way for his infantry, and they took the second and third batteries but only a few chevaux-légers reached the last battery, and the Spanish attempted to recapture it. It was then that Napoleon saw his chance and immediately committed the other squadrons, benito de San Juan had 16 cannon at his disposal, arranged in four batteries. Some accounts, based mostly on recollections of French officers, assume that the Spaniards placed all their guns at the peak of Somosierra pass. The first battery defended the entrance to the Somosierra pass, the two covered the pass at its angles and the fourth, only, stood by the heights. It was assumed that all batteries had four cannons, and later theories that the pass was too narrow for that to be possible should be treated as legends, 13th Bulletin of the Army of Spain mentioned that chevau-légers were commanded by Gen. Louis Pierre, Count Montbrun. However, both Polish charge participants mentioned above and Lt. Col. Pierre Dautancourt, one of the French tutors of the unit, datancourt mentioned that Montbrun in conversations with him had laughed at that idea
Battle of Somosierra
–
La bataille de Somo-Sierra, by
Baron Lejeune, 1810, oil on canvas.
Battle of Somosierra
–
Somosierra, by
January Suchodolski, 1875
Battle of Somosierra
–
Surrender of Madrid, by
Antoine-Jean Gros, 1810, oil on canvas. Madrid fell in the aftermath of Somosierra.
124.
Battle of Annual
–
The Battle of Annual was fought on July 22,1921, at Annual in Spanish Morocco, between the Spanish Army of Africa and Berber combatants of the Rif region during the Rif War. In early 1921 the Spanish Army commenced an offensive into northeastern Morocco from the regions they already held. The advance took place without extended lines of communication being adequately established or the complete subjugation of the areas occupied, the overextended Spanish military structure in the Western Spanish Protectorate in Morocco crumbled. After the battle, the Riffian Berbers began to advance eastward, the Spanish garrisons were destroyed without mounting a coordinated response to the attacks. At the end of August 1921, Spain had lost all the territories it had gained in the area since 1909, General Silvestre disappeared and his remains were never found. A Moorish courier from Kaddur Namar claimed that, eight days after the battle, at Afrau, on the coast, Spanish warships were able to evacuate the garrison. At Zoco el Telata de Metalsa in the south, Spanish troops, Spanish survivors of the battle retreated some 80 km to the encampment of Monte Arruit, where a stand was attempted under the command of General Felipe Navarro y Ceballos-Escalera. As this position was surrounded and cut off supplies, General Dámaso Berenguer Fusté, Spanish High Commissioner in the protectorate. The Rifeños reportedly did not respect the conditions of surrender and killed 3,000 Spanish soldiers, General Navarro was taken prisoner, along with 534 military personnel and 53 civilians who were ransomed some years later. Melilla was only some 40 km away, but was in no position to help, the Spanish quickly reinforced Melilla with 14,000 men from the Spanish Legion and other units. He later stated that this was his biggest mistake, Spain quickly assembled elite units of the Army of Africa which had been operating south of Tetuan in the Western Zone. These mainly comprised Spanish Legion and Moroccan Regulares newly recruited in 1920, transferred to Melilla by sea, these reinforcements enabled the city to be held and Monte Arruit to be retaken by the end of November. The Spaniards may have lost more than 20,000 soldiers at Annual, german historian Werner Brockdorff states that only 1,200 of the 20,000 Spanish troops escaped alive, though the estimated losses may be exaggerated. Abd el Krim remarked later, In just one night, Spain supplied us with all the equipment which we needed to carry on a big war. Other sources give the amount of booty seized by Rif warriors as 20,000 rifles,400 machine guns, the political crisis brought about by this disaster led Indalecio Prieto to say in the Congress of Deputies, We are at the most acute period of Spanish decadence. The campaign in Africa is a total, absolute failure of the Spanish Army, the Minister of War ordered the creation of an investigative commission, led by General Juan Picasso González, which developed the report known as Expediente Picasso. The report detailed numerous military mistakes, but owing to the action of various ministers and judges. In all, the defeat is thought of in Spain as the worst of the Spanish army in modern times
Battle of Annual
–
Spanish officers inspecting the remains of a garrison on Monte Arruit, January 1922.
125.
Battle of Cajamarca
–
The Battle of Cajamarca was the unexpected ambush and seizure of the Inca ruler Atahualpa by a small Spanish force led by Francisco Pizarro, on November 16,1532. The Spanish killed thousands of Atahualpas counsellors, commanders and unarmed attendants in the plaza of Cajamarca. The capture of Atahualpa marked the stage of the conquest of the pre-Columbian Inca civilization of Peru. The confrontation at Cajamarca was the culmination of a struggle involving espionage, subterfuge. Atahualpa had received the invaders from a position of immense strength, in a calculated show of goodwill, Atahualpa had lured the adventurers deep into the heart of his mountain empire where any potential threat could be isolated and responded to with massive force. Pizarro and his men arrived on Friday November 15,1532, the town itself had been largely emptied of its two thousand inhabitants, upon the approach of the Spanish force of 180 men, guided by an Inca noble sent by Atahualpa as an envoy. Atahualpa himself was encamped outside Cajamarca, preparing for his march on Cuzco, the book History Of The Conquest Of Peru, written by 19th century author William H. Prescott, recounts the dilemma in which the Spanish force found itself. Any assault on the Inca armies overlooking the valley would have been suicidal, retreat was equally out of the question, because any show of weakness might have undermined their air of invincibility, and would invite pursuit and closure of the mountain passes. Once the great stone fortresses dotting their route of escape were garrisoned, argued Pizarro, but to do nothing, he added, was no better since prolonged contact with the natives would erode the fears of Spanish supernaturality that kept them at bay. Since this could not realistically be accomplished in an open field and he requested that accommodations be provided only for himself and his retinue, which would forsake its weapons in a sign of amity and absolute confidence. Shortly before sunset Atahualpa left the armed warriors who had accompanied him and his immediate party still numbered over seven thousand but were unarmed except for small battle axes intended for show. Atahualpas attendants were richly dressed in what were apparently ceremonial garments, many wore gold or silver discs on their heads and the main party was preceded by a group wearing livery of chequered colors, who sang while sweeping the roadway in front of Atahualpa. The Inca himself was carried in a litter lined with feathers and partly covered in silver. Atahualpas intention appears to have been to impress the small Spanish force with this display of splendor, the Spaniards had concealed themselves within the buildings surrounding the empty plaza at the centre of the town. Infantry and horsemen were concealed in the alleyways which opened onto this open square, Spanish infantry were deployed to guard the entrances to a stone building in the centre of the square while men armed with arquebuses and four small cannon took place within it. Pizarro ordered his men to remain silent and hidden until the guns were fired, during the hours of waiting tension rose amongst the greatly outnumbered Spanish and Pedro Pizarro recalls that many of his fellows urinated out of pure terror. Upon entering the square the leading Incans in attendance on Atahualpa divided their ranks to enable his litter to be carried to the centre, where all stopped. An Incan courtier carrying a banner approached the building where the artillery was concealed, while Atahualpa, after a brief pause Friar Vincente de Valverde, accompanied by an interpreter, emerged from the building where Pizarro was lodged
Battle of Cajamarca
–
Contemporary engraving of the Battle of Cajamarca, showing Emperor Atahualpa surrounded on his palanquin.
126.
Siege of Cuzco
–
The siege lasted ten months and was ultimately unsuccessful. A Spanish expedition led by Francisco Pizarro had captured the Inca capital of Cusco on November 15,1533 after defeating an Inca army headed by general Quisquis, the following month, the conquistadors supported the coronation of Manco Inca as Inca emperor to facilitate their control over the empire. Real power rested with the Spaniards who frequently humiliated Manco Inca, the conquistadors fended off Inca attacks from these constructions and mounted frequent raids against their besiegers. To relieve their position, the Spaniards decided to assault the complex of Saksaywaman which served as the main base of operations for the Inca army. Fifty horsemen, led by Juan Pizarro, and accompanied by Indian auxiliaries broke through the Inca army files, turned around, during the frontal assault against the buildings large walls, a stone struck Juan Pizarro in the head, he died days later from the injury sustained. The following day, the Spaniards resisted several Inca counterattacks and mounted an assault at night using scaling ladders. In this way, they captured the walls of Sacsayhuamán while the Inca army held on to the two tall towers of the complex. The attempt was successful and the towers were left under the command of Titu Cusi Gualpa, despite Titus fierce resistance, the Spaniards and their auxiliaries stormed the towers so that when the Inca commanders returned, Saksaywaman was firmly under their control. During this period, the Spaniards successfully implemented terror tactics to demoralize the Inca army, encouraged by their successes, Hernando Pizarro led an attack against Manco Incas headquarters which were now at Ollantaytambo, further away from Cusco. Manco Inca defeated the Spanish expedition at the Battle of Ollantaytambo by taking advantage of the fortifications, the Spanish garrison had more success with several raids to gather food from regions near Cusco, these incursions allowed them to replenish their almost exhausted provisions. That same night the Spaniards mounted an attack which achieved complete surprise. Upon facing victory and the availability of expanding his own reign into Peru, Almagro seized the city once having achieved victory for Spain and had Hernando, Gonzalo escaped, to later face Almagro in a personal triumph at the Battle of Las Salinas
Siege of Cuzco
–
The siege of Cuzco according to
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala
Siege of Cuzco
–
Almagro's forces took possession of Cuzco
127.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
–
The Battle of Cartagena de Indias was an amphibious military engagement between the forces of Britain under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral Blas de Lezo. It took place at the city of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741, the battle was a significant episode of the War of Jenkins Ear and a large-scale naval campaign. The war later was subsumed into the conflict of the War of the Austrian Succession. The battle resulted in a defeat for the British Navy. The defeat caused heavy losses for the British, Disease, rather than deaths in combat, the War of Jenkins Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748. The Asiento allowed Britain a monopoly to supply 5,000 slaves a year to the Spanish colonies, the Navio de Permiso permitted a single yearly trading ship, the Annual Ship, which could carry 1000 tons of imports to the yearly trade fair in Porto Bello. Upon receiving these concessions from Spain, the British government granted a monopoly for both to the South Sea Company. The merchants and bankers in Britain, who were the force behind Britains international commerce and trading. In turn, the Spanish colonists desired British-made goods, so a black market of smuggled goods developed. By the terms of the treaty, the Spanish were permitted to board British vessels in Spanish waters, after one such boarding in 1731, Robert Jenkins, captain of the ship Rebecca, claimed that a Spanish coast guard officer had severed his ear. The legend that Jenkins exhibited his pickled ear to the House of Commons appears to have no basis in fact and this served to heighten the war fever developing against Spain, which was also driven by the British desire for commercial and military domination of the Atlantic basin. On November 22,1739 the British captured Portobelo in the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the British attack was part of an attempt to damage Spains finances. The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon, the relative ease of this capture, although the city was abandoned immediately after its capture, caused jubilation in Britain. Vernon was given command of the large naval force, which was one quarter of the British Royal Navy, of a major land. Lord Cathcart died en route and it remained unclear who was in command overall, cathcarts untimely demise resulted in dissension in the British command, preventing the coordination needed for this complex operation. The Duke of Newcastle advocated the publics demands before Parliament, Vice-Admiral Vernon was an active and ardent supporter of war against Spain and advocated offensive action both in Parliament and before the Admiralty. The decision to mount a large West Indies expedition was reached in December 1739, Walpole, who opposed the war categorically, and Vernon, who favored small squadron actions, were dissatisfied with the situation. He feared, particularly, that a siege would lead to heavy attrition from disease
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
–
British attack on Cartagena de Indias by Luis Fernández Gordillo. Oil on canvas, Naval Museum of
Madrid.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
–
Map of
Cartagena de Indias from Gentleman's Magazine 1740.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
–
Sir
Robert Walpole, Prime Minister of Great Britain, from the studio of Jean-Baptiste van Loo, 1740.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
–
British soldier of the 15th Regiment of Foot 1740s from the Cloathing Book of 1740
128.
Cuerno Verde
–
Cuerno Verde was a leader of the Comanche in the late 18th century. Cuerno Verde, which translates to Green Horn in English, is the Spanish name given to Tabivo Naritgant because of the green tinted horns that he wore on his head-dress in battle, the English translation of the original Comanche name is Dangerous Man. He inherited both his name and his distinctive head dress from his father, who was killed in combat against the Spanish at Ojo Caliente, in what is now New Mexico, in October 1768. The success of a series of raids led by the younger Tabivo Naritgant into Nuevo Mexico during the mid to late 1770s called him to the attention of the Spanish Viceroy in Mexico. The Viceroy offered Juan Bautista de Anza the governorship of Nuevo Mexico in exchange for him dealing with Tabivo Naritgant, de Anza moved to Nuevo Mexico and assumed the Governorship and for a year, studied past expeditions against and encounters with Cuerno Verde. A year later, in August 1779, de Anza led a force of 500 to 800 Spanish troops and Ute, Apache. Hostilities in the area decreased following his death, the green horn headress of Cuerno Verde was taken from the battlefield and presented to the Viceroy by de Anza. The Viceroy in turn presented the headress to the King of Spain, the King, in turn presented the headress to the Pope. The headress remains on display at the Vatican museum in Rome, Tabivo Naritgant gave the English translation of his Spanish name to Greenhorn Mountain and the Greenhorn valley in south-central Colorado. Martinez, Wilfred O. Anza and Cuerno Verde, Decisive Battle and they All Came To Pueblo, A Social History. Juan Bautista de Anza and the Battle of Greenhorn, archived from the original on February 8,2007. Juan Bautista de Anza & Cuerno Verde
Cuerno Verde
–
Cuerno Verde marker at Cuerno Verde Rest Area
129.
La Noche Triste
–
Cortés expedition arrived at Tenochtitlan, the Mexica capital, on November 8,1519, taking up residence in a specially designated compound in the city. Soon thereafter, suspecting treachery on the part of their hosts, the Spaniards took Moctezuma II, during the following 98 days, Cortés and his native allies, the Tlaxcaltecas, were increasingly unwelcome guests in the capital. In June 1520, news from the Gulf coast reached Cortés that a larger party of Spaniards had been sent by Governor Velázquez of Cuba to arrest Cortés for insubordination. Leaving Tenochtitlan in the care of his lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado, Cortés marched to the coast. When Cortés told the soldiers about the riches of Tenochtitlan. Reinforced by Narvaezs men, Cortés headed back to Tenochtitlan, during Cortés absence, Pedro de Alvarado in Tenochtitlan obtained information that the Aztecs were about to attack him. In response, de Alvarado ordered a preemptive slaughter of Aztec nobles, in retaliation, the Aztecs laid siege to the Spanish compound, in which Moctezuma was still being held captive. By the time Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan in late June, the Aztecs had elected a new Hueyi Tlatoani named Cuitláhuac, Cortés ordered Moctezuma to address his people from a terrace in order to persuade them to stop fighting and to allow the Spaniards to leave the city in peace. The Aztecs, however, jeered at Moctezuma, and pelted him with stones, by Spanish accounts, he was killed in this assault by the Mexica people, though they claim he had been killed instead by the Spanish. With Moctezuma dead, Cortés and Alvarado knew they were in a precarious position, under constant attack, with gunpowder and food and water in short supply, Cortés decided to break out of the city by night. Since the Aztecs had damaged bridges on four of the eight causeways into the island city and this invitation would lead to the demise of many soldiers who, overburdened with treasure, found it impossible to navigate the causeways and other obstacles encountered on the way out of the city. On the night of 01 July 1520, his army left their compound and headed west. The causeway was apparently unguarded, and the Spaniards made their way out of their complex unnoticed, before reaching the causeway, they were noticed by Aztec warriors known as the Eagle Warriors, who sounded the alarm. First by a woman drawing water, and then by the priest of Huitzilopochtli from atop Templo Mayor, as the Spaniards and their native allies reached the causeway, hundreds of canoes appeared in the waters alongside to harry them. The Spaniards fought their way across the causeway in the rain, weighed down by gold and equipment, some of the soldiers lost their footing, fell into the lake, and drowned. Amid a vanguard of horsemen, Cortés pressed ahead and reached dry land at Tacuba, according to Bernal Díaz del Castillo, it was at this point that tears came to Cortés eyes, as he realized the extent of the debacle. Cortés, Alvarado and the strongest and most skilled of the men had managed to fight their way out of Tenochtitlan, Cortés himself had been injured in the fighting. All of the artillery had been lost, as had most of the horses, the sources are not in agreement as to the total number of casualties suffered by the expedition
La Noche Triste
–
The battle of La Noche Triste.
La Noche Triste
–
A map of
Tenochtitlan and its causeways leading out of the capital.
130.
Battle of Tucapel
–
This battle happened in the context of the first stage of the Arauco War, named the offensive war within a larger uprising by Araucanians against the Spanish conquest of Chile. It was a defeat for the Spaniards, resulting in the capture, the Arauco War was a large scale war that took place in what is now Chilean territory between Spanish conquerors and Mapuches. Pedro de Valdivia was the Spanish conqueror, who founded the first cities in Chilean territory, around 1550, he took a Mapuche man who had offered his services as his servant. The conqueror baptized him as Felipe Lautaro, under Pedro de Valdivias wing, Lautaro quickly learned horse-riding and Spanish military techniques that he would use later in the war that was taking place at the moment. Once he had learned this knowledge, he went back to his village. At the same time, Pedro de Valdivia was using a policy of founding cities. His forces also built forts, like Tucapel and Purén. Valdivia went on an tour of a group of forts constructed to secure the Chilean interior for the Spanish. He left Concepción in December 1553 and worked his way south to Quilacoya, Mapuche spies observed his column from the hills, but merely followed and did not present themselves for battle. Meanwhile, the Mapuche leader Lautaro kept the forces of Gómez de Almagro bottled up in the fort of Purén through various trickery. He learned through his spies of the movements of Valdivia. Valdivia became perturbed by the lack of news from Tucapel and by the lack of hostility on the road, on December 24, he decided that he would make for the fort, hoping to find Almagro and his troops there. Tucapel fort was located on a hill in the mountain range. In December 1553, Mapuche forces, under the command of the vice toqui Lautaro attacked and destroyed the fort using the battle tactics learned from the Spanish, Pedro de Valdivia had left Concepción with only 50 soldiers and sent a message to Purén fort to send reinforcements. The message, however, was intercepted by Lautaros men, Valdivia received no reports from his leading element, and spent the night a half days journey from Tucapel. On Christmas Day, December 25,1553, he early in the morning for the fort. Neither Gómez de Almagro nor Bobadilla was anywhere to be found and he decided to make camp amidst the damp ruins of the fort, but the contingent had hardly begun to make preparations when there were shouts from the surrounding forest. Without advance warning, a mass of Mapuche warriors charged out towards the Spanish enclave, a veteran soldier, Valdivia had time to form and arm his defensive line and repulsed the first attack
Battle of Tucapel
–
Pedro de Valdivia
Battle of Tucapel
–
Bust of Lautaro in the square of
Cañete.
131.
Battle of Chacabuco
–
The Battle of Chacabuco, fought during the Chilean War of Independence, occurred on February 12,1817. The Army of the Andes of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata led by General Captain José de San Martín defeated the Spanish force led by Rafael Maroto. It was a defeat for the Captaincy General of Chile, the royalist government established after the division of the Viceroyalty of Peru. He realized that the first step would be to them from Chile. In just under two years, he had an army of some 6,000 men,1,200 horses and 22 cannons, on January 17,1817, he set out with this force and began the crossing of the Andes. Careful planning on his part had meant that the royalist forces in Chile were deployed to meet threats that did not exist, and his crossing went unopposed. Nonetheless, the Army of the Andes suffered heavy losses during the crossing, losing as much as one-third of its men, San Martin found himself allying with Chilean patriot Bernardo OHiggins, who commanded his own army. The royalists rushed north in response to their approach, and a force of about 1,500 under Brigadier Rafael Maroto blocked San Martins advance at a valley called Chacabuco, near Santiago. In the face of the disintegration of the royalist forces, Maroto proposed abandoning the capital and retreating southward, all Maroto and his troops had to do was delay San Martin, as he knew that further royalist reinforcements were on the way from Santiago. San Martin was well aware of this as well and opted to attack while he still had the numerical advantage, San Martín received numerous reports of the Spanish plans from a spy dressed as a roto, a poverty-stricken peasant of Chile. The roto told him that the Spanish general, Marcó, knew of fighting in the mountains and told his army to run to the field, which refers to Chacabuco. He also told San Martín the plan of General Rafael Maroto, the leader of the Talavera Regiment and his plan was to take the mountainside and launch an attack against San Martín. On February 11, three days before his date of attack, San Martín called a war council to decide on a plan. Their main goal was to take the Chacabuco Ranch, the royalist headquarters and he decided to split his 2,000 troops into two parts, sending them down two roads on either side of the mountain. The right contingent was led by Miguel Estanislao Soler, and the left by O’Higgins, the plan was for Soler to attack their flanks, while at the same time surrounding their rear guard in order to prevent their retreat. San Martín expected that both leaders would attack at the time, so the royalists would have to fight a battle on two fronts. San Martín sent his troops down the mountain starting at midnight of the 11th to prepare for an attack at dawn, at dawn, his troops were much closer to the royalists than anticipated, but fought hard and heroically. Meanwhile, Solers troops had to go down a path that proved long and arduous
Battle of Chacabuco
–
Patriot troops marching towards the Battle of Chacabuco, 1817, during the Chilean War of Independence
Battle of Chacabuco
–
Political career
132.
Conquest of the Canary Islands
–
The conquest of the Canary Islands by the Crown of Castille took place between 1402 and 1496. The ties between the Canaries and the Mediterranean world which had existed since antiquity were interrupted by the decline, although these linkages were weakened, they were not totally severed, and the Canaries isolation was not total. During the Middle Ages, the first reports on the Canaries come from Arabic sources, what does seem clear is that this knowledge of the islands did not signify the end of the cultural isolation of the native inhabitants. Ideological and political motives, the monarchies of Southern Europe entered an expansive phase, in the case of the Iberian royalty, their territorial expansion was spurred by the Reconquista against the Moors in Spain. For this reason, territorial expansion represented a reinforcement of royal power, the first visit by a European to the Canary Islands since antiquity was by Genoese captain Lanceloto Malocello traditionally dated 1312. Malocellos motives were unclear - it is believed he might have been searching for traces of the Vivaldi brothers who had disappeared off Morocco, Malocello made landfall on Lanzarote island, and remained there for nearly twenty years. Malocello may have attempted to erect himself as a ruler among the aboriginal peoples, according to some sources, shortly after his return to Europe, in 1336, Malocello led a return expedition to the Canaries, sponsored by King Dinis of Portugal. However, the existence of this expedition has been dismissed by most modern historians, although earlier maps had shown fantastical depictions of the Fortunate Islands, this is the first European map where the actual Canary islands make a solid appearance. Cruising the archipelago for five months, the expedition mapped thirteen islands and surveyed the primeval aboriginal inhabitants, European interest in the Canaries picked up quickly after the 1341 mapping expedition. The descriptions of the primeval Guanches, in particular, drew the attention of European merchants, the results of these expeditions are uncertain. The Catholic Church was also drawn by the news, the Portuguese king Afonso IV immediately lodged a protest, claiming priority of discovery, but conceded to the authority of the pope. Despite their formal concessions, preparations were stalled by the opposition of the Iberian monarchs and these expeditions were almost wholly commercial, with the primary purpose of capturing native islanders to sell as slaves in European markets. But there was also some trade with the locals, particularly for orchil and dragons blood. The pope did not give up on his hope of converting the natives, whether this expedition ever set out is uncertain. More confidently is the bull issued in July 1369 by the Avignon Pope Urban V erecting the diocese of Fortuna, but whether this actually set out or just remained a paper project is also uncertain. We have a reliable record of a Majorcan expedition in 1386 carried out by Pauperes Heremite, sponsored by Peter IV Aragon. Although their exact fate is unknown, there is a report that thirteen Christian friars who had been preaching in the Canaries for seven years were massacred in an uprising during 1391. At least five missionary expeditions would be sent between 1352 and 1386, geographic knowledge of the Canary islands coalesced with these expeditions
Conquest of the Canary Islands
–
Portolan of
Angelino Dulcert (1339) showing
Lanzarote island
Conquest of the Canary Islands
–
Catalan Atlas (1375)
Conquest of the Canary Islands
–
Jean de Béthencourt.
Conquest of the Canary Islands
–
Le Canarien.
133.
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
–
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most significant events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Many of those on the Cortés expedition of 1519 had never seen combat before, in fact, Cortés had never commanded men in battle before. However, there was a generation of Spaniards who participated in expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra Firme, learning strategy. The Spanish conquest of Mexico had antecedents with established practices, in their advance, the allies were tricked and ambushed several times by the people they encountered. When Cortés left Tenochtitlan to return to the coast and deal with the expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez, Alvarado allowed a significant Aztec feast to be celebrated in Tenochtitlan and on the pattern of the earlier massacre in Cholula, closed off the square and massacred the celebrating Aztec noblemen. The biography of Cortés by Francisco López de Gómara contains a description of the massacre, the Alvarado massacre at the Main Temple of Tenochtitlan precipitated rebellion by the population of the city. When the captured emperor Motecuhzoma II, now seen as a puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace. Cortés had returned to Tenochtitlan and his men fled the city during the Noche Triste in June,1520. The Spanish, Tlaxcalans and reinforcements returned a year later on August 13,1521 to a civilization that had wiped out by famine. This made it easier to conquer the remaining Aztecs, the fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the formation of the Spanish overseas empire, with New Spain, which later became Mexico, a major component. The Spanish conquerors could and did write accounts that narrated the conquest from the first landfalls in Mexico to the victory over the Mexica in Tenochtitlan on August 13,1521. Indigenous accounts are from particular native viewpoints and as the events had a impact on their polity. All accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases, in general, Spanish accounts do not credit their indigenous allies support. Individual conquerors accounts exaggerate that individuals contribution to the conquest, downplaying other conquerors, indigenous allies accounts stress their loyalty to the Spanish and their particular aid as being key to the Spanish victory. Their accounts are similar to Spanish conquerors accounts contained in petitions for rewards and these were almost immediately published in Spain and later in other parts of Europe. Interestingly, Cortéss right-hand man, Pedro de Alvarado did not write at any length about his actions in the New World, two letters to Cortés about Alvarados campaigns in Guatemala are published in The Conquistadors. Rather than it being a petition for rewards for services, as many Spanish accounts were, the account was used by eighteenth-century Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in his descriptions of the history of Mexico. On the indigenous side, the allies of Cortés, particularly the Tlaxcalans, wrote extensively about their services to the Spanish Crown in the conquest, the most important of these are the pictorial Lienzo de Tlaxcala and the Historia de Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
–
Conquest of Mexico by
Cortés, oil on canvas.
Spanish: Conquista de México por Cortés
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
–
Coat of arms of Villa Rica, Veracruz. First town council founded by Spaniards. Tile mosaic located in
Mexico City.
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
–
Cortés scuttling fleet off Veracruz coast
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
–
Palacio de Gobierno,
Tlaxcala city: Murals - Discussions between Tlaxcalans and Hernán Cortés.
134.
Cuzco School
–
The Cuzco School was a Roman Catholic artistic tradition based in Cusco, Peru during the Colonial period, in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. It was not limited to Cuzco only, but spread to cities in the Andes, as well as to present day Ecuador. The tradition originated after the 1534 Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Cusqueña paintings were a form of religious art whose main purpose was didactic. The Spanish, who aimed to convert the Incas to Catholicism and these artists formed a school for Quechua people and mestizos, teaching them drawing and oil painting. The designation Cusqueña, however, is not limited to the city of Cusco or to indigenous artists, a major patron of the Cuzco artists was Bishop Manuel de Mollinedo y Angulo, who collected European art and made his collection available to Peruvian artists. He promoted and financially assisted such Cusqueña artists such as Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, Antonio Sinchi Roca Inka, in 1688 Spanish-born and mestizo members of the Cuzco painting guild chose to break ranks with the Indian painters. This split led to the far more numerous Quechua Indian painters developing their own styles and they also created a tradition of painting I – a departure from Christian religious themes and an expression of cultural pride. The defining characteristics of the Cusqueña style are believed to have originated in the art of Quechua painter Diego Quispe Tito, Cusqueña paintings are characterized by their use of exclusively religious subjects, their lack of perspective, and the predominance of red, yellow and earth colors. They are also remarkable for their use of gold leaf. They often adapted the topics to depict their native flora and fauna as a backdrop in their works, warrior angels became a popular motif in Cusqueña paintings. Most Cusqueña paintings were created anonymously because of Pre-Columbian traditions that define art as communal, an exception is one of the last members of the Cuzco School, Marcos Zapata. Other known artists of the Cuzco School include Diego Cusihuamán, Gregorio Gamarra, Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, related to the school is the Master of Calamarca, in 18th century, Bolivia. The largest collection of paintings from the Cuzco school is in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo, the Lima Art Museum and the Inca Museum also house important collections. A large number of works were destroyed in the 18th century so there is a supply of Cuzco school paintings. In recent years there has been a significant increase in demand from both Latin American art collectors and certain museums for paintings from the Cuzco school period. In 2010, the American government repatriated two Cusco and Lima style paintings to Peru that had been brought into the United States in 2005. Master of Calamarca, 18th century, Bolivia Basilio de Santa Cruz Pumacallao, 1635–1710, Peru Antonio Sinchi Roca Inka, 17th century, Peru Diego Quispe Tito, 1611—1681, Peru Marcos Zapata, c
Cuzco School
–
Virgin of Carmel Saving Souls in Purgatory, Circle of Diego Quispe Tito, 17th century, collection of the
Brooklyn Museum
Cuzco School
–
Rare painting showing Jesus Christ figure for three times, representing the sacred trinity, 16th century, private collection - Brazil
Cuzco School
–
The Marriage of Captain Martin de Loyola to Beatriz Ñusta, detail, c. 1675-1690, Church of la Compañía de Jesús, Cuzco
Cuzco School
–
Our Lady of Bethelem, anonymous, 18th century
135.
List of the oldest schools in the Philippines
–
This is a list of educational institutions in the Philippines arranged according to the dates of their foundation. It comprises the list of the oldest schools in the Philippines sorted in various categories, to be included in this list, an institution must satisfy a traditional definition of a formal educational institution at the time of its founding. Chronologically, an institution can only be included in the top ten in a certain category only if no other school has been proven, with reliable sources. Moreover, an addendum shall be attached in a category where an entry is disputed or defunct, the oldest universities, colleges, vocational schools and the first modern public education system in Asia were created during the Spanish colonial period. The earliest schools were founded by Spanish Catholic missionaries, by the time Spain was replaced by the United States as the colonial power, Filipinos were among the most educated subjects in all of Asia. USC celebrated its quadricentennial in 1995, notable scholars including Dr. Jose Victor Torres, professor of history at the De La Salle University, Fr. Aloysius Cartagenas STD, professor at the Seminario Mayor de San Carlos of Cebu, fidel Villarroel, OP, eminent historian and former archivist of Santo Tomas have also questioned San Carlos claim of tracing its roots to the 16th Century Colegio de San Ildefonso. A claim in the first ten is disputed, accordingly, an addendum with the next undisputed claim is listed here. Note, Centro Escolar University was established as Centro Escolar de Señoritas by Doña Librada Avelino, the university is still continuously operating, but now as a co-educational institution
List of the oldest schools in the Philippines
–
The
Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, established by the
Dominican missionaries in 1611 and raised to the rank of a University in 1645 by
Pope Innocent X through the petition of
Philip IV of Spain, is currently the educational institution with the oldest extant University charter in Asia.
136.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
–
GND screenshot
137.
Biografisch Portaal
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The Biografisch Portaal is an initiative based at the Huygens Institute for Dutch History in The Hague, with the aim of making biographical texts of the Netherlands more accessible. As of 2011, only information about deceased people is included. The system used is based on the standards of the Text Encoding Initiative, access to the Biografisch Portaal is available free through a web-based interface. The project is an undertaking by ten scientific and cultural bodies in the Netherlands with the Huygens Institute as main contact. In February 2012, a new project was started called BiographyNed to build a tool for use with the Biografisch Portaal that will link biographies to events in time. The main goal of the project is to formulate ‘the boundaries of the Netherlands’. List of Dutch people Official website
Biografisch Portaal
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The Huygens Institute is housed in the same building as the
RKD, the National Archives, the Nederlands Letterkundig Museum (LM), the
Netherlands Music Institute (NMI) and the
Koninklijke Bibliotheek.
138.
National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
National Library of Australia
National Library of Australia
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National Library of Australia as viewed from
Lake Burley Griffin,
Canberra
National Library of Australia
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The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building.
National Library of Australia
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The library seen from Lake Burley Griffin in autumn.
139.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
National Diet Library
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Tokyo Main Library of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Kansai-kan of the National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library
National Diet Library
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Main building in Tokyo
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Media related to Don Juan de Austria at Wikimedia Commons
Ward, A. W. (1881). "John, Don". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (9th ed.).
