1.
Shabaka (window)
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Shabaka are stained glass windows made by national Azerbaijani masters, without glue or nails. Shabaka fill walls and window openings of halls and rooms in the Palace of Shaki Khans, geometric patterns of shabaka-windows harmonize with the general composition of the palace’s façade. Stained-glass windows of central halls and side rooms open on the façade and these stained glass windows are the special feature in the palace’s architecture
Shabaka (window)
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Shabaka-windows in interior of the Palace of Shaki Khans
Shabaka (window)
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Shabaka-windows in facade of the Palace of Shaki Khans.
2.
Pharaoh
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The word pharaoh ultimately derive from the Egyptian compound pr-ˤ3 great house, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr house and ˤ3 column, here meaning great or high. It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ˤ3 Courtier of the High House, with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the twelfth dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health, but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. During the reign of Thutmose III in the New Kingdom, after the rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. During the eighteenth dynasty the title pharaoh was employed as a designation of the ruler. From the nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ˤ3 on its own was used as regularly as hm. f, the term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the twenty-second dynasty and twenty-third dynasty. For instance, the first dated appearance of the pharaoh being attached to a rulers name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun and this new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the twenty-second dynasty kings. Shoshenq I was the successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives, by this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *par-ʕoʔ whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Φερων. In the Bible, the title also occurs as פרעה, from that, Septuagint φαραώ pharaō and then Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Quran likewise spells it فرعون firawn with n, interestingly, the Arabic combines the original pharyngeal ayin sound from Egyptian, along with the -n ending from Greek. English at first spelt it Pharao, but the King James Bible revived Pharaoh with h from the Hebrew, meanwhile in Egypt itself, *par-ʕoʔ evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ prro and then rro. Scepters and staves were a sign of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos, kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-scepter, the earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to pre-dynastic times. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to the late Naqada period, another scepter associated with the king is the was-scepter. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head, the earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the first dynasty
Pharaoh
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Den
Pharaoh
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Narmer Palette
Pharaoh
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Nomen and prenomen of Ramesses III
Pharaoh
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Royal titulary
3.
Egyptian chronology
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The majority of Egyptologists agree on the outline and many details of the chronology of Ancient Egypt. Scholarly consensus on the outline of the conventional chronology current in Egyptology has not fluctuated much over the last 100 years. For the Old Kingdom, consensus fluctuates by as much as a few centuries and this is illustrated by comparing the chronology as given by two Egyptologists, the first writing in 1906, the second in 2000. The disparities between the two sets of result from additional discoveries and refined understanding of the still very incomplete source evidence. For example, Breasted adds a ruler in the Twentieth dynasty that further research showed did not exist, following Manetho, Breasted also believed all the dynasties were sequential, whereas it is now known that several existed at the same time. These revisions have resulted in a lowering of the chronology by up to 400 years at the beginning of Dynasty I. The backbone of Egyptian chronology are the years as recorded in Ancient Egyptian king lists. In addition, some Egyptian dynasties may have overlapped, with different pharaohs ruling in different regions at the same time, not knowing whether monarchies were simultaneous or sequential results in widely differing chronological interpretations. However, further research has shown that these censuses were taken in consecutive years. The sed festival was celebrated on the thirtieth anniversary of the Pharaohs ascension. However, once again, this may not be the practice in all cases. In the early days of Egyptology, the compilation of regnal periods may also have been hampered due to bias on the part of the Egyptologists. This was most pervasive before the mid 19th century, when Manethos figures were recognized as conflicting with biblical chronology based on Old Testament references to Egypt, in the 20th century, such biblical bias has mostly been confined to alternative chronologies outside of scholarly mainstream. A useful way to work around these gaps in knowledge is to find chronological synchronisms, over the past decades, a number of these have been found, although they are of varying degrees of usefulness and reliability. While this does not fix a person or event to a specific year, another example are blocks from the Old Kingdom bearing the names of several kings, which were reused in the construction of Middle Kingdom pyramid-temples at Lisht in the structures of Amenemhat I. The poor documentation of these finds in the Serapeum also compounds the difficulties in using these records. The best known of these is the Sothic cycle, and careful study of this led Richard A. Parker to argue that the dates of the Twelfth dynasty could be fixed with absolute precision. More recent research has eroded this confidence, questioning many of the assumptions used with the Sothic Cycle and this is useful especially for the Early Dynastic period, where Egyptological consensus has only been possible within a range of about three or four centuries
Egyptian chronology
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Astronomical ceiling from the tomb of Seti I showing stars and constellations used in calendar calculations
Egyptian chronology
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'Diagonal star table' from the 11th Dynasty coffin lid; found at Asyut, Egypt. Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim
4.
Shebitku
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Shebitku was the third king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt who ruled from 707/706 BC-690 BC, according to Danel Kahns most recent academic research of the Tang-i Var inscription. Shebitku was the nephew and successor of Shabaka and he was a son of Piye, the founder of this dynasty. Shebitkus prenomen or throne name, Djedkare, means Enduring is the Soul of Re, in 1999, an Egypt-Assyrian synchronism from the Great Inscription of Tang-i Var in Iran was re-discovered and re-analysed. The pertinent section of the inscription by Sargon II reads, The Tang-i Var inscription dates to Sargons 15th year between Nisan 707 BC to Adar 706 BC. As Jansen-Winkeln writes, there has never been the slightest hint at any form of coregency of the Nubian kings of Dynasty 25, Sargon can also be expected to have named the regent of Egypt and senior king, rather than the distant viceroy Shebitku. If, on the hand, Shebitku was already Shabakas successor in 707/706. It had hitherto been assumed that the Nubian king handed over Yamani more or less immediately after his flight to Egypt, now it appears. certain that Yamani was only turned over to the Assyrians a couple of years later. Consequently, Shebitkus reign should be dated to c.707 or 706 BC to 690 BC, murnanes 1977 book on Ancient Egyptian Coregencies. However, the Turin Museum has subsequently acknowledged the statue to be a forgery, if correct, this would demonstrate that Shebitku had truly served as a coregent to Shabaka for 2 years. William Murnane also endorsed this interpretation by noting that Shebitkus Year 3 Nile Text need not refer to an accession or coronation at all. Rather, it simply to record an appearance of Shebitku in the temple of Amun during his third year. In other words, Shebitku was already king of Egypt and the purpose of his visit to Karnak was to receive, therefore, the evidence for a possible coregency between Shabaka and Shebitku is illusory at present. Recently the arguments for reversing the order of Shabaka and Shebitku have been taken up by Bányai, shebitku’s reign would then cover the years 712-704 BC. During Shebitkus reign, there was initially a policy of conciliation with Assyria which was marked by the extradition of Iamanni back into Sargon IIs hands. After Sargon IIs death, however, Shebitku appears to have adopted a different policy by actively resisting any new Assyrian expansion into Canaan under Sargons son, a stela from Kawa relates that Shebitku asked his brothers, including Taharqa, to travel north to Thebes from Nubia. The Nubian army travelled along with Taharqa presumably to fight the Assyrians at the Battle of Eltekeh in 701 BC, another stela records that when Jerusalem was under attack by the Assyrians, the king of Kush marched against Sennacherib. Shebitku joined in the resistance against Sennacherib and an Egyptian army was sent to Palestine, led by Shebitkus brother, Shebitku also completed the decoration of the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet in Thebes during his reign. The Temple had been constructed under Osorkon III, in 690 BC, Shebitku died and was succeeded by Taharqa, his younger brother
Shebitku
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Shebitku's statue in the Nubian Museum
5.
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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The royal titulary or royal protocol of an Egyptian pharaoh is the standard naming convention taken by the kings of Ancient Egypt. It symbolises worldly power and holy might and also acts as a sort of mission statement for the reign of a monarch. The full titulary, consisting of five names, did not come into standard usage until the Middle Kingdom, the Horus name is the oldest form of the pharaohs name, originating in the Predynastic Period. Many of the oldest-known Egyptian pharaohs were known only by this title, the Horus name was usually written in a serekh, a representation of a palace façade. The name of the pharaoh was written in hieroglyphs inside this representation of a palace, typically an image of the falcon God Horus was perched on top of or beside it. At least one Egyptian ruler, the 2nd dynasty Seth-Peribsen, used an image of the god Seth instead of Horus and he was succeeded by Khasekhemwy, who placed the symbols of both Seth and Horus above his name. Thereafter, the image of Horus always appeared alongside the name of the pharaoh, by the time of the New Kingdom the Horus name was often written without the enclosing serekh. The name is first definitively used by the First Dynasty pharaoh Semerkhet and this particular name was not typically framed by a cartouche or serekh, but always begins with the hieroglyphs of a vulture and cobra resting upon two baskets, the dual noun nebty. Also known as the Golden Horus Name, this form of the name typically featured the image of a Horus falcon perched above or beside the hieroglyph for gold. The meaning of this title has been disputed. One belief is that it represents the triumph of Horus over his uncle Seth, Gold also was strongly associated in the ancient Egyptian mind with eternity, so this may have been intended to convey the pharaohs eternal Horus name. Similar to the Nebty name, this particular name typically was not framed by a cartouche or serekh, the pharaohs throne name, the first of the two names written inside a cartouche, and usually accompanied the title nsw-bity. The term nsw-bity It has been suggested that the Berber term for strong man, the epithet neb tawy, Lord of the Two Lands, referring to valley and delta regions of Egypt, often occurs as well. This was the name given at birth and it was first introduced to the set of royal titles in the Fourth Dynasty and emphasizes the kings role as a representative of the solar god Ra. For women who became pharaoh, the title was interpreted as daughter also. Modern historians typically refer to the ancient kings of Egypt by this name, Middle Egyptian, An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Cairo, London, and New York, The American University in Cairo Press and Thames and Hudson. The Great Name, Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary, Egyptian Grammar, Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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Serekh containing the name of Djet and an association with Wadjet, on display at the Louvre
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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Praenomen of the Cartouche of Thutmose II preceded by Sedge and Bee symbols, Temple of Hatshepsut, Luxor
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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In the Middle Kingdom, the full titulary was sometimes written in a single cartouche, as in this example from Senusret I, from Beni Hasan.
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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Royal titulary
6.
Qalhata
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Qalhata was a Nubian queen dated to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. Qalhata was a daughter of King Piye and a consort to her brother Shabaka. She is known from the Dream Stela of King Tantamani and from her pyramid in El-Kurru, assyrian records state that King Tantamani was the son of Taharqas sister. The tomb of Qalhata at El-Kurru contains texts that say she is a Kings Mother, giving some evidence of the family relationships
Qalhata
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A Queen from the 25th Dynasty of Egypt
7.
Tabekenamun
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Tabekenamun was a Nubian queen dated to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. Tabekenamun was a daughter of King Piye and may have been a queen consort to her brother Taharqa and she is known from Cairo Statue 49157 from Karnak. Others have suggested Tabekenamun was the wife of Shabaka and she was a Kings Daughter, Kings Sister and Kings Wife. In addition, she was a priestess of Hathor, Mistress of Tepihu, the priestly offices could suggest she was a daughter of one of the Libyan Pharaohs
Tabekenamun
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A Queen from the 25th Dynasty of Egypt
8.
Tantamani
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Tantamani, Tanutamun or Tanwetamani or Tementhes was a Pharaoh of Egypt and the Kingdom of Kush located in Northern Sudan and a member of the Nubian or Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt. His prenomen or royal name was Bakare which means Glorious is the Soul of Re and he was the son of King Shabaka and the nephew of his predecessor Taharqa. In some sources he is said to be the son of Shebitku, assyrian records call Tantamani a son of Shabaka and refer to Qalhata as a sister of Taharqa. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tantamani marched down the Nile from Nubia, Necho I, the Assyrians representative, was killed in Tantamanis campaign. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tantamanis army in the Delta and advanced as far south as Thebes, Tantamani died in 653 BC and was succeeded by Atlanersa, a son of Taharqa. He was buried in the cemetery at El-Kurru. The archaeologist Charles Bonnet discovered the statue of Tantamani at Kerma in 2003, robert Morkot, The Black Pharaohs, Egypts Nubian Rulers, The Rubicon Press,2000
Tantamani
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Head of a statue, perhaps showing Amun, bearing the name of Tantamani on its back pillar (Ashmolean Museum)
9.
Pebatjma
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Pebatjma was a Nubian queen dated to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the wife of King Kashta and she is mentioned on a statue of her daughter Amenirdis I, now in Cairo. She is also mentioned on a doorjamb from Abydos, Pebatjma was the wife of King Kashta. Queen Khensa - Wife of Piye, thought to be a daughter of Kashta, queen Peksater - She was married to Piye and was buried in Abydos. She may have died while accompanying Piye on a campaign to Egypt, laming and Macadam suggest she was an adopted daughter of Pebatjma. Gods Wife of Amun Amenirdis I, a statue of Amenirdis mentions she is the daughter of Kashta and Pebatjma. Neferukakashta - Thought to be a daughter of Kashta and possibly Pebatjma and it is possible but by no means certain that Pebatjma is identical to a royal woman named Pabtamer. A stela from Abydos belonging to a general named Paqattereru records how this general was called upon by Osiris for the burial of his mother Pabtamer who had the beautiful name Meres-Nip. She holds the titles Chantress of Amun, Kings Sister, Kings daughter and it has been suggested that Pa-abt-ta-mer is an Egyptianization of the name Pebatjma. The problem with the identification is that Pa-abt-ta-mer holds slightly different titles than those recorded for Pebatjma on other monuments, furthermore, the title of Kings daughter is slightly problematic as there is no known king who could be her father. Paqattereru is not a Kings son, and these facts may point to Pa-abt-ta-mer being an unknown wife of either Piye or Taharqa
Pebatjma
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Statue CG42198 of Amenardis I, bearing the cartouche of her mother Pebatjma between her feet
10.
El-Kurru
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El-Kurru was one of the royal cemeteries used by the Nubian royal family. Most of the date to the early part of the Kushite period. The area is divided into three parts by two wadis, the central section seems to be the oldest and contains several tumulus type tombs that predate the Kingdom of Napata. Reisner thought that the earliest tomb, Tum.1, dated back to the time of Pharaoh Sheshonq I of Ancient Egypt, the highest part of the cemetery contains 4 tumulus tomb. To the north, across the northern wadi Tum.6 is located, to the east of the tumul tombs we find row of at least eight pyramids. One of them partially intrudes on a tumuls tomb, the southernmost of this row of pyramids belonging to Kashta his wife Pebatjma. Before this row is another row of pyramids which includes those of Piye, Shabaka, to the south of the pyramid of Pebatjma, one has to cross the southern wadi to reach the southern pyramids. These are the pyramids of the Queens, Naparaye, Khensa, Qalhata,1, the oldest tomb at El-Kurru. 2, the tomb contained a female skull,6, tomb located to the north of Tum.1, across the northern wadi. 19, located to the east of the cluster of tumulus tombs, pyramid K.13 partly obliterated a section of this tomb. Pyramids dating to the time of the Kingdom of Napata and later K.1 Unknown King, located just south and adjacent to the pyramid of Piye Dated to ca 362-342 BC. Located next to the pyramid of Kashta K.8 - King Kashta, father of Piye K.9 – Possibly King Alara of Nubia K.10 K.11, the pyramid contained a female skull. K.13 K.14 K.15 – King Shabaka, son of Kashta, brother of Piye K.16 – King Tantamani, son of Shebitku and Queen Qalhata K.17 – King Piye, son of Kashta K.18 – King Shebitku, son of Piye. Located west of the pyramid of Kashta and south of the tumulus tombs, the pyramid still contained a human skull which may have belonged to Shebitku himself. The rows contained four, eight, eight and four graves respectively, the tombs had all been robbed, but enough remained to determine that the horses were all buried in an upright position. The horses were buried with all their trappings, in recent years, archaeological work has begun once again at El Kurru. Much of this work is discussed here, https, //internationalelkurruproject. sites. ku
El-Kurru
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Pyramid at El-Kurru
El-Kurru
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Exterior of one of the ancient Nubian tombs
El-Kurru
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Burial Chamber of the tomb of Tanutamani
El-Kurru
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Painting
11.
Shabaka Stone
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The Shabaka Stone, sometimes Shabaqo, is a relic incised with an ancient Egyptian religious text, which dates from the 25th dynasty. It is a composition of breccia measuring 91 cm on the left in height and 95 cm on the right as well as 137 cm in width. The text claims to contain the content of a worm-ridden. In later years, the stone is believed to have used as a millstone damaging the hieroglyphics. This damage is accompanied by other intentional defacements, leaving the hieroglyphics in poor condition, the stone was once placed within the Temple of Ptah in Memphis in the 8th century BCE. It was removed at an unknown date, in 1805, the stone was a donation by George John, 2nd earl of Spencer, to the British Museum where it has been located since. It is known prior to coming to England it was in Alexandria. Since this stone was meant to be a preservation of an older text, attempts to attribute a definite date for the original text have been inconclusive. Some scholars claimed it originated in the Old Kingdom while others said it went further back, today, scholars feel it is clear that it cannot predate the Nineteenth Dynasty. The text includes two divisions with a short introduction and an ending summary. The first division relates the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, Ptah works through Horus to accomplish this unification. The other is a story that establishes Ptah as the creator of all things. Ptah also centers in all such as the heart and tongue of his creations. The manner of creation came by Ptahs thoughts in his heart that were then uttered by his tongue and this creation story is sometimes referred to as a Memphite Theology. The Shabaka Stone, translation from An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt
Shabaka Stone
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Shabaka Stone on display in The British Museum. (0.66 m tall by 1.37 m wide, not high resolution)
12.
Kushite
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The Kingdom of Kush or Kush was an ancient Nubian kingdom situated on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile and River Atbara in what is now Sudan and South Sudan. The Kushite era of rule in Nubia was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, during Classical antiquity, the Kushite imperial capital was at Meroe. In early Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Aethiopia, by the 1st century AD, the Kushite capital had been captured by the Beja Dynasty, who tried to revive the empire. The Kushite kingdom with its capital at Meroe persisted until the 4th century AD, the Kushite capital was eventually captured and burnt to the ground by the Kingdom of Axum. It is also a term for the native population who initiated the kingdom of Kush. The term is also displayed in the names of Kushite persons, geographically, Kush referred to the region south of the first cataract in general. Kush also was the home of the rulers of the 25th dynasty, the name Kush, since at least the time of Josephus, has been connected with the biblical character Cush, in the Hebrew Bible, son of Ham. Ham had four sons named, Cush, Put, Canaan, according to the Bible, Nimrod, a son of Cush, was the founder and king of Babylon, Erech, Akkad and Calneh, in Shinar. The Bible also makes reference to someone named Cush who is a Benjamite, some modern scholars, such as Friedrich Delitzsch, have suggested that the biblical Cush might be linked to the Kassites of the Zagros Mountains. Mentuhotep II is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and this is the earliest Egyptian reference to Kush, the Nubian region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom. During the New Kingdom of Egypt, Nubia was an Egyptian colony, with the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BC, Kush became an independent kingdom centered at Napata in modern northern Sudan. The Kushites buried their monarchs along with all their courtiers in mass graves, archaeologists refer to these practices as the Pan-grave culture. This was given its due to the way in which the remains are buried. They would dig a pit and put stones around them in a circle, Kushites also built burial mounds and pyramids, and shared some of the same gods worshiped in Egypt, especially Ammon and Isis. With the worshiping of these gods the Kushites began to some of the names of the gods as their throne names. The Kush rulers were regarded as guardians of the religion and were responsible for maintaining the houses of the gods. Some scholars believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system, the state would collect taxes in the form of surplus produce and would redistribute to the people. Others believe that most of the society worked on the land and required nothing from the state, northern Kush seemed to be more productive and wealthier than the Southern area
Kushite
Kushite
Kushite
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Maximum extent of Kush in 700 BC
Kushite
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Sudan Meroe Pyramids – UNESCO World Heritage.
13.
God's Wife of Amun
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Gods Wife of Amun was the highest-ranking priestess of the Amun cult, an important religious institution in ancient Egypt. The cult was centered in Thebes in Upper Egypt during the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth dynasties, the office had political importance as well as religious, since the two were closely related in ancient Egypt. Although the title is first attested in the Middle Kingdom, its political potential was not realized until the advent of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The shorter version of the title Gods Wife is in use by the time of the Twelfth Dynasty, as early as the First Intermediate Period, there is mention of A Wife of the God in reference to the god Min. The full title of Gods Wife of Amun is only used during, at the beginning of the New Kingdom, the Gods Wife of Amun royal title started to be held by royal women, when its extreme power and prestige was first evident. The New Kingdom began in 1550 BC with the Eighteenth Dynasty and these were the rulers who drove the Hyksos out of Egypt and their native city was Thebes, which then became the leading city in Egypt. They believed that their local deity, Amun, had guided them in their victory, adjustments to the rituals and myths followed. The title, Gods Wife of Amun, referred to the myth of the birth of the king, according to which his mother was impregnated by the god Amun. This title was used in preference to the title, Great Royal Wife, which was the title of the queen who was the consort to the pharaoh, the new title conveyed that the pharaoh would be a demigod upon birth. Previously the pharaoh was considered to become divine only at death and she then passed it on to her daughter Ahmose-Meritamun, who in turn handed it to Hatshepsut, who used it before she ascended the throne as pharaoh. Both Ahmose-Nefertari and Hatshepsut sometimes used the title as an alternative to that of Kings Principal Wife, Hatshepsut passed the title on to her daughter Neferure. A series of scenes in Hatshepsuts Chapelle Rouge show the Gods Wife of Amun, other scenes elsewhere show the Gods Wife of Amun worshiping the deities, being purified in the sacred lake, and following the king into the sanctuary. These again show the importance of the role, but give little indication of the tasks. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and, upon his death, she became the wife of the youthful Thutmose II who was her young half-brother and she seems to have been a de facto co-regent with him, having a great deal of influence upon the affairs of state. They had only one child who survived childhood, a daughter, Neferure and he was her stepson and cousin. Shortly thereafter, Hatshepsut was named pharaoh and he became the head of the armies. Hatshepsut died after a 22-year reign and, Thutmose III became pharaoh, at the end of a thirty-year reign of his own, he entered into a co-regency with a son by a lesser wife who would become, Amenhotep II. The records of holders of the title, Gods Wife of Amun, after Thutmose III became pharaoh deviate from the established pattern, perhaps because of the line of royalty issue
God's Wife of Amun
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Statue of the God's Wife of Amun and Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Ankhnesneferibre
God's Wife of Amun
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Royal titulary
14.
Amenirdis I
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Amenirdis I was a Gods Wife of Amun during the 25th Dynasty of ancient Egypt. Originating from the Kingdom of Kush, she was the daughter of Pharaoh Kashta and Queen Pebatjma and she went on to rule as high priestess, and is has been shown in several artefacts from the period. She was a Kushite princess, the daughter of Pharaoh Kashta and she is likely to have been the sister of pharaohs Shabaka and Piye. Kashta arranged to have Amenirdis I adopted by the Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Shepenupet I and this shows that Kashta already controlled Upper Egypt prior to the reign of Piye, his successor. She ruled as high priestess approximately between 714 and 700 BCE, under the reigns of Shabaka and Shabataka, and she adopted Piyes daughter Shepenupet II as her successor and she also held the priestly titles of Divine Adoratrice of Amun and Gods Hand. Upon her death, she was buried in a tomb in the grounds of Medinet Habu and she is depicted in the Osiris-Hekadjet temple in the Karnak temple complex, and in Wadi Gasus, along with Shepenupet I. She is mentioned on two offering tables, five statues, a stela and several small objects including scarabs, a statue of Amenirdis I carved from granitoid and decorated in gold leaf is held by the Nubian Museum in Aswan, Upper Egypt. The statue itself shows her decorated as if Egyptian, with similarities to depictions of Isis, however, the physical attributes of Amenirdis on the statue demonstrate a distinct African influence in the Kushite style of the 25th dynasty
Amenirdis I
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Amenirdis in Medinet Habu
15.
Piye
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Piye was an ancient Kushite king and founder of the Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt who ruled Egypt from 747 BCE to c. 722 BCE. He ruled from the city of Napata, located deep in Nubia, Piye adopted two throne names, Usimare and Sneferre. He was passionate about the worship of the god Amun, like many kings of Nubia and he revitalized the moribund Great Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, which was first built under Thutmose III of the New Kingdom, employing numerous sculptors and stonemasons from Egypt. He was once thought to have used the throne name Menkheperre. Piye was the son of Kashta and Pebatjma and he is known to have had three or four wives. Abar was the mother of his successor Taharqa, further wives are Tabiry, Peksater and probably Khensa. Piye is known to have had several children and he was the father of, King Shebitku. Said to be a son of Piye, or alternatively a brother of Piye and he would take the throne after his uncle Shabaka and another male relative Shebitku. Gods Wife of Amun Shepenwepet II, installed in Thebes during the reign of her brother Taharqa. Qalhata, wife of King Shabaka, she was the mother of king Tanutamun, known from an offering table of his daughter Wadjrenes from Thebes. Khaliut, Governor of Kanad according to a stela found at Barkal, princess Mutirdis, Chief Prophet of Hathor and Mut in Thebes and daughter of Piye according to Morkot. Thought to be a daughter of a ruler named Menkheperre Khmuny from Hermopolis by Kitchen. As ruler of Nubia and Upper Egypt, Piye took advantage of the squabbling of Egypts rulers by expanding Nubias power beyond Thebes into Lower Egypt. In reaction to this, Tefnakht of Sais formed a coalition between the kings of the Delta Region and enticed Piyes nominal ally—king Nimlot of Hermopolis—to defect to his side. Tefnakht then sent his army south and besieged Herakleopolis where its king Peftjauawybast. His military feats are chronicled in the Victory stela at Gebel Barkal, Piye viewed his campaign as a Holy War, commanding his soldiers to cleanse themselves ritually before beginning battle. He himself offered sacrifices to the great god Amun, Hermopolis fell to the Nubian king after a siege lasting five months. Tefnakht took refuge in an island in the Delta and formally conceded defeat in a letter to the Nubian king, satisfied with his triumph, Piye proceeded to sail south to Thebes and returned to his homeland in Nubia never to return to Egypt
Piye
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Detail of a drawing of the Victory stele: Piye (left, partially erased) is tributed by four Nile Delta rulers.
Piye
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Piye's pyramid at El-Kurru
16.
High Priest of Amun
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The High Priest of Amun or First Prophet of Amun was the highest-ranking priest in the priesthood of the Ancient Egyptian god Amun. The first high priests of Amun appear in the New Kingdom, the priesthood of Amun rose in power during the early Eighteenth dynasty through significant tributes to the god Amun by ruler such as Hatshepsut and more importantly Thutmose III. The Amun priesthood in Thebes had four high-ranking priests, The high priest of Amun at Karnak, the second priest of Amun at Karnak, also referred to as the second prophet of Amun. The third priest of Amun at Karnak, also referred to as the prophet of Amun. The fourth priest of Amun at Karnak, also referred to as the prophet of Amun. The power of the Amun priesthood was temporarily curtailed during the Amarna period, a high priest named Maya is recorded in year 4 of Akhenaten. Akhenaten has the name of Amun removed from monuments during his reign, after Akhenatens death Amun is restored to his place of prominence among the cults in Egypt. The young pharaoh Tutankhaten changes his name to Tutankhamen to signal the restoration of the old god to his place of prominence. The High Priest of Amun in Thebes was appointed by the King and it was not uncommon for the position to be held by dignitaries who held additional posts in the pharaohs administration. Several of the priests from the time of Ramesses II also served as Vizier. At the end of the New Kingdom, the 20th dynasty priesthood of Amun is for a large part dominated by Ramessesnakht and his son Amenhotep eventually succeeded his father and found himself in conflict with the Vicreoy of Kush, Panehesy. Panehesy took his troops North and besieged Thebes, after this period generals by the name of Herihor and Pianchi served as High Priest. By the time Herihor was proclaimed as the first ruling High Priest of Amun in 1080 BC—in the 19th Year of Ramesses XI—the Amun priesthood exercised an effective stranglehold on Egypts economy. The Amun priests owned two-thirds of all the lands in Egypt and 90 percent of her ships plus many other resources. Consequently, the Amun priests were as powerful as Pharaoh, if not more so, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes from the 21st dynasty were of such power and influence that they were effectively the rulers of Upper Egypt from 1080 to c.943 BC. They are however not regarded as a dynasty with pharaonic prerogatives. Theban High Priests of Amun Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt Family Tree Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt Haremakhet, Son of Shabaka 704. –660 BC Harkhebi, Son of Haremakhet, served as HPA until at least year 14 of Psamtik I. 660–644 BC Ankhnesneferibre, The Gods Wife of Amun also served as High Priest of Amun, 595–c.560 BC Nitocris II, Daughter of Pharaoh Ahmose
High Priest of Amun
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The god Amun in Karnak.
High Priest of Amun
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Herihor
High Priest of Amun
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Pinudjem II as High Priest
High Priest of Amun
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Royal titulary
17.
Abydos, Egypt
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Abydos /əˈbaɪdɒs/ is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt, of which it was the capital city. It is located about 11 kilometres west of the Nile at latitude 26°10 N, in the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called Abdju. The English name Abydos comes from the Greek Ἄβυδος, a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the city of Abydos on the Hellespont. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in times it became desirable to be buried in the area. Today, Abydos is notable for the temple of Seti I. It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti Is father, the Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost. Abydos was occupied by the rulers of the Predynastic period, whose town, temple, the temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the thirtieth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously. The pharaohs of the first dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as founder of the first dynasty and it was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well, funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great forts, were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the second dynasty, the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy. From the fifth dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, foremost of the Westerners, Pepi I constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult, during the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentius name became an epithet of Osiris, King Mentuhotep II was the first one building a royal chapel. In the twelfth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III, associated with this tomb was a cenotaph, a cult temple and a small town known as Wah-Sut, that was used by the workers for these structures. Next to that cenotaph were buried kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, the building during the eighteenth dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area, thutmose III built a far larger temple, about 130 ft ×200 ft. He also made a way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond
Abydos, Egypt
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Façade of the Temple of Seti I in Abydos
Abydos, Egypt
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Part of the Abydos King List
Abydos, Egypt
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Tomb relief depicting the vizier Nespeqashuty and his wife, KetjKetj, making the journey of the dead to the holy city of Abydos – from Deir el-Bahri, Late Period, twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, reign of Psammetichus I
Abydos, Egypt
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Panel from the Osiris temple: Horus presents royal regalia to a worshipping pharaoh.
18.
6th-dynasty
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The Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt along with Dynasties III, IV and V constitute the Old Kingdom of Dynastic Egypt. Known pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty are as follows The pharaohs of this dynasty ruled for approximately 164 years, the Horus names and names of the Queens are taken from Dodson and Hilton. Dynasty VI is considered by authorities as the last dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Manetho writes that these kings ruled from Memphis, since their pyramids were built at Saqqara, Dynasty VI was founded by Teti, who had married Iput, commonly believed to be the daughter of the Dynasty V pharaoh Unas. Manetho claimed that Teti was eventually murdered by his own bodyguard, during this dynasty, expeditions were sent to Wadi Maghara in the Sinai Peninsula to mine for turquoise and copper, as well as to the mines at Hatnub and Wadi Hammamat. The pharaoh Djedkara sent trade expeditions south to Punt and north to Byblos, and Pepi I sent expeditions not only to these locations, but also as far as Ebla in modern-day Syria. The most notable member of dynasty was Pepi II, who is credited with a reign of 94 years. With the growing number of inscriptions in non-royal tombs, our knowledge of the contemporary history broadens. For example, we hear of a plot against Pepi I. We also read a written by the young king Pepi II, excited that one of his expeditions will return with a dancing pygmy from the land of Yam. These non-royal tomb inscriptions are but one example of the power of the nobility
6th-dynasty
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Tomb Relief of Iny
19.
Sargon II
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Sargon II was an Assyrian king. A son of Tiglath-Pileser III, he came to power relatively late in life, the Neo-Assyrian pronunciation of the name was presumably /sargi, n/ or /sarga, n/, the spelling Sargon is based on the Biblical form of the name, mentioned in Isaiah 20,1. The regnal number is modern, applied for disambiguation from the Old Assyrian king Sargon I, Sargon II was a son of Tiglath-Pileser III and appears to have seized the throne from his brother, Shalmaneser V in a violent coup. Sargon was already middle-aged when he came to the throne, and was assisted by his son, Sargons brother, Sinahusur, served as his grand vizier. Sargon was beset with rebellions by the beginning of his rule. Marduk-apla-iddina II, a chieftain of the Chaldean tribes in the marshes of the south, in 720 BC, Sargon and Marduk-apla-iddina met in battle on the plains east of Babylon. The Elamite troops were able to back the Assyrian army, and he retained control of the south. In 717 BC, the Syro-Hittite city of Carchemish on the Upper Euphrates rebelled, Carchemish was a small kingdom situated at an important Euphrates crossing. Sargon violated existing treaties in attacking the city, but with the wealth seized was able to continue to fund his army. In 716 BC he moved against the Mannaeans, where the ruler Aza, Sargon took the capital Izirtu, and stationed troops in Parsuash and Kar-Nergal. He built new bases in Media as well, the one being Harhar which he renamed Kar-Sharrukin. In 715 BC, others were to follow, Kar-Nabu, Kar-Sin and Kar-Ishtar — all named after Babylonian gods, the eighth campaign of Sargon against Urartu in 714 BC is well known from a letter from Sargon to the god Ashur and the bas-reliefs in the palace of Dur-Sharrukin. The reliefs show the difficulties of the terrain, the war-chariots had to be dismantled and carried by soldiers, the campaign was probably motivated by the fact that the Urartians had been weakened by incursions of the Cimmerians, a nomadic steppe tribe. One Urartian army had completely annihilated, and the general Qaqqadanu taken prisoner. After reaching Lake Urmia, he turned east and entered Zikirtu, the battle is described as the usual carnage, but King Rusas managed to escape. The horses of his chariot had been killed by Assyrian spears, forcing him to ride a mare in order to get away, Sargon plundered the fertile lands at the southern and western shore of Lake Urmia, felling orchards and burning the harvest. In the royal resort of Ulhu, the wine-cellar of the Urartian kings was plundered, Sargon claims to have destroyed 430 empty villages. After reaching Lake Van, Sargon left Urartu via Uaiaish, in Hubushkia he received the tribute of the Nairi lands
Sargon II
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Sargon II and dignitary
Sargon II
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The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-i Var pass near the village of Tang-i Var, Hawraman, Zagros
Sargon II
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Human-headed winged bull, found during Botta's excavation.
Sargon II
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A lamassu from the palace of Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin.
20.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
Egypt
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The Giza Necropolis is the oldest of the ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.
Egypt
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Flag
Egypt
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The Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII and her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera.
Egypt
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The 1803 Cedid Atlas, showing Ottoman Egypt.
21.
Regnal year
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A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin regnum meaning kingdom, rule. The oldest dating systems were in years, and considered the date as an ordinal. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a year of rule, a third, and so on, but not a zero year of rule. Applying this ancient epoch system to modern calculations of time, which include zero, is led to the debate over when the third millennium began. Regnal years are finite era names, contrary to infinite era names such as Christian era, Jimmu era, Juche era, in ancient times, calendars were counted in terms of the number of years of the reign of the current monarch. Reckoning long periods of times required a king list, the oldest such reckoning is preserved in the Sumerian king list. In Canada, acts of Parliament are dated by the session, the Parliament, the year. While not strictly a regnal year, time in the United States of America can be derived from the Declaration of Independence, for example, the U. S.2017 is the 242nd year of the Independence of the United States of America. Time is also sometimes reckoned in terms of Congress, e. g. House of Representatives Bill 2 of the 112th Congress is dated 112th CONGRESS, 1st Session. An era name was assigned as the name of each year by the leader of the East Asian countries during some portion of their history, the people of the country referred to that year by that name. Era names were used for two millennia by Chinese emperors and are still used in North Korea, Japan and Taiwan. It could last from one year to the length of the leaders reign, if it lasted more than one year, numbers were appended to the era name. If it lasted the length of the leaders reign, then that leader is often referred to by that name posthumously. However, the leader was given a more complex formal posthumous name as well. It should not be confused with a name, by which many leaders are known. The Lanfang Republic era, Republic of Formosa era and Republic of China era are era names without an emperor, the Confucius era and Juche era are based on the year of birth of the thinker or eternal president. The Huangdi era, Dangun era and kōki were counted in terms of the number of years of the reign of the first monarch, some are transliterations of their Chinese era names. Chinese era names were employed in other East Asian countries
Regnal year
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Key concepts
22.
Pyramid
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A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, as such, a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces. The square pyramid, with base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version. A pyramids design, with the majority of the closer to the ground. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures and it has been demonstrated that the common shape of the pyramids of antiquity, from Egypt to Central America, represents the dry-stone construction that requires minimum human work. Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world, the largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Khufus Pyramid is built mainly of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains over 2,000,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes to 15 tonnes and is built on a base with sides measuring about 230 m. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees and it is still the tallest pyramid. The Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats, in ancient times, these were brightly painted in gold/bronze. Since they were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, little remains of them, ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC, the earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC, built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside, the facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks, the number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no evidence for this. Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a ramp from base to summit
Pyramid
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The Egyptian pyramids of the Giza Necropolis, as seen from the air
Pyramid
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Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacan
Pyramid
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Prasat Thom temple at Koh Ker
Pyramid
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Pyramids of Güímar, Tenerife (Spain)
23.
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
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The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal covering research and reviews of recent books of importance to Egyptology. It was established in 1914 by the Egypt Exploration Society, articles are published in English, German, or French. Official website Searchable index of article titles
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
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Cover of the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
24.
Double Falcon
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Double Falcon was a ruler of Lower Egypt from Naqada III. He may have reigned during the 32nd century BCE, the length of his reign is unknown. It was in 1910 that Egyptologist M. J. Clédat discovered the first evidence for Double Falcon, investigating the site, Clédat soon discovered four serekhs of Double Falcon. The next attestation of Double Falcon was discovered in 1912 during excavations by Hermann Junker on the site of Tura, the concentration of Double Falcons serekhs in Lower Egypt and the north-western Sinai indicates that his rule may have been limited to these regions. The serekh of Double Falcon is unique in its layout and composition, firstly, it is the only serekh topped by two Horus falcons, facing each other. Secondly, the serekh does not have a compartment, being filled by the vertical lines which usually represent the niched facade of a palace. The serekh also lacks the line that delimits the palace facade from the name of the ruler above. Finally, each falcon stands on its own peak, egyptologists M. J. Cledat, Günter Dreyer and Edwin van den Brink suspect that a deeper symbolism explains these peculiarities. The two falcons could represent Lower Egypt and the Sinai, as it seems that Double Falcon reigned over both regions. In contrast, van den Brink reads the name as Nebwy, the two lords, and sees a similarity with a much earlier palette on display in the Barbier-Mueller Museum of Geneva
Double Falcon
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Serekh of Double Falcon. Redrawing of an inscription on a vessel found in El-Beda.
25.
Scorpion II
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Scorpion II, also known as King Scorpion, refers to the second of two kings or chieftains of that name during the Protodynastic Period of Upper Egypt. King Scorpions name and title are of great dispute in modern Egyptology and his name is often introduced by a six- or seven-leafed, golden rosette or flower-sign. Its precise meaning has been discussed, the most common interpretation is that of an emblem meaning nomarch or high lord. Thus, the golden rosette became an emblem of Seshat. The reading of the sign is also disputed. Most linguists and Egyptologists read it Neb or Nesw, and they are convinced that the rosette was some kind of forerunner to the later serekh. The scorpion fetish, which underlies the name of Scorpion II, is linked to the later-introduced goddess Selket. But Egyptologists and linguists such as L. D, morenz, H. Beinlich, Toby Wilkinson and Jan Assmann have pointed out that the goddess was introduced no earlier than the late Old Kingdom period. In this view, the fetish of the protodynastic period should not be associated with Selket. Morenz points out that, in cases where an animal is included in a rulers name. The scorpion animal commonly stood for dangerous things, such as poison and illness, since it is unclear what actual meaning was reserved for the serekh animal of Scorpion II, scholars usually refer to him as King Scorpion II. There are several theories regarding his identity and chronological position and they also argue that the artistic style seen on the macehead of Scorpion II shows conspicuous similarities to that on the famous Narmer macehead. Wilkinson, Renée Friedman and Bruce Trigger, have identified king Scorpion II as the Gegenkönig of Narmer, at the time of Scorpion II, Egypt was divided into several minor kingdoms that were fighting each other. It is likewise conjectured that Narmer simply conquered the realms of Ka and Scorpion II and it is currently on display at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. The stratigraphy of this macehead was lost due to the methods of its excavators, the Scorpion Macehead depicts a single, large figure wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt. He holds a hoe, which has interpreted as a ritual either involving the pharaoh ceremonially cutting the first furrow in the fields. The use and placement of the iconography is similar to the depiction of the pharaoh Narmer on the side of the Narmer Palette. The king is preceded by servants, the first in row seems to throw seeds from a basket into the freshly hacked ground
Scorpion II
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Head of king Scorpion on his mace head
Scorpion II
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The Scorpion Macehead, Ashmolean Museum.
26.
Narmer
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Narmer was an ancient Egyptian king of the Early Dynastic Period. Probably the successor to the Protodynastic kings Scorpion and/or Ka, some consider him the unifier of Egypt and founder of the First Dynasty, and in turn the first king of a unified Egypt. This conclusion is based on the Narmer Palette and the two seals from the necropolis of Abydos that show him as the first king of the First Dynasty. The date commonly given for the beginning of his reign is c.3100 BC, other mainstream estimates using both the historical method and Radiocarbon dating are in the range 3273–2987 BC. Although highly inter-related, the question of “who was Menes. ”, while Menes is traditionally considered the first king of Ancient Egypt, Narmer has been identified by the majority of Egyptologists as the same person as Menes. Although vigorously debated, the predominant opinion is that Narmer was Menes, the issue is confusing because “Narmer” is a Horus Name, while “Menes” is a personal name. The difficulty is aligning the contemporary archaeological evidence which lists Horus Names with the King Lists that list personal names, two documents have been put forward as proof either that Narmer was Menes or alternatively Hor-Aha was Menes. The first is the “Naqada Label” which shows a serekh of Hor-Aha next to an enclosure inside of which are symbols that have been interpreted by scholars as the name “Menes”. The second is the impression from Abydos that alternates between a serekh of Narmer and the chessboard symbol, “mn”, which is interpreted as an abbreviation of Menes. Arguments have been made with regard to each of these documents in favour of Narmer or Hor-Aha being Menes, but in neither case, are the arguments conclusive. Two necropolis sealings, found in 1985 and 1991 in Abydos, in or near the tombs of Den and Qa’a, show Narmer as the founder of the First Dynasty, followed by Hor-Aha. The Qa’a sealing lists all eight of the kings of the First Dynasty in the correct order starting with Narmer and these necropolis sealings are strong evidence that Narmer was the first king of the First Dynasty – hence is the same person as Menes. The famous Narmer Palette, discovered by James E, since its discovery, however, it has been debated whether the Narmer Palette represents an actual historic event or is purely symbolic. Of course, the Narmer Palette could represent an historical event while at the same time having a symbolic significance. In 1993, Günter Dreyer discovered in Abydos, a “year label” of Narmer depicting the event that is depicted on the Narmer Palette. This year label shows that the Narmer Palette depicts an historical event. Archaeological evidence suggests that Egypt was at least partially unified during the reigns of Ka and Iry-Hor, but there is a substantial difference in the quantity and distribution of inscriptions with the names of those earlier kings in Lower Egypt and Canaan, compared to the inscriptions of Narmer. The archaeological evidence suggest that the unification began before Narmer, but was completed by him through the conquest of a polity in the North-West Delta as depicted on the Narmer Palette
Narmer
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Close-up view of Narmer on the Narmer Palette
Narmer
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Chambers B17 and B18 in the Umm el-Qa'ab constitute the tomb of Narmer.
Narmer
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Narmer wearing the Deshret crown of Lower Egypt on the Narmer Palette.
Narmer
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Incised inscription on a vessel found at Tarkhan (tomb 414), naming king Narmer; Petrie Museum UC 16083.
27.
Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
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The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt is the era immediately following the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt c.3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the end of the Naqada III archaeological period until about 2686 BC, with the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained the holy land in the south. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, before the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypts history thereafter, the pharaohs established a national administration and appointed royal governors. The buildings of the government were typically open-air temples constructed of wood or sandstone. The earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs appear just before this period, though little is known of the language they represent. By about 3600 BC, neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops, shortly after 3600 BC Egyptian society began to grow and advance rapidly toward refined civilization. A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the pottery in the Southern Levant, extensive use of copper became common during this time. The Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, and architectural building principles—including the use of the arch, concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt also underwent a unification process, warfare between Upper and Lower Egypt occurred often. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta, in mythology, the unification of Egypt is portrayed as the falcon-god, called Horus and identified with Lower Egypt, as conquering and subduing the god Set, who was identified with Upper Egypt. Divine kingship, which would persist in Egypt for the next three millennia, was established as the basis of Egypts government. The unification of societies along the Nile has also linked to the drying of the Sahara. Funeral practices for the peasants would have been the same as in predynastic times, thus, the Egyptians began construction of the mastabas which became models for the later Old Kingdom constructions such as the Step pyramid. Cereal agriculture and centralization contributed to the success of the state for the next 800 years and this would last for many centuries. It was also during this period that the Egyptian writing system was further developed, initially Egyptian writing had been composed primarily of a few symbols denoting amounts of various substances. By the end of the 3rd dynasty it had expanded to include more than 200 symbols
Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
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A plate created during the Early Dynastic period of Ancient Egypt. It depicts a man on a boat alongside a Hippopotamus and a Crocodile
Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
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28.
Hor-Aha
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Hor-Aha is considered the second pharaoh of the First Dynasty of Egypt by some egyptologists, others consider him the first one and corresponding to Menes. He lived around the 31st century BC and is thought to have had a long reign, the Greek historian Manethos record Aegyptiaca lists his Greek name as Athothis, or Athotís. The different titular elements of a name were often used in isolation, for brevitys sake, although the choice varied according to circumstance. Mainstream Egyptological consensus follows the findings of Petrie in reconciling the two records and connects Hor-Aha with the nebty-name Ity, the same process has led to the identification of the historical Menes with Narmer evidenced in the archaeological record as the predecessor of Hor-Aha. There has been controversy about Hor-Aha. Some believe him to be the individual as the legendary Menes. Others claim he was the son of Narmer, the pharaoh who unified Egypt, Narmer and Menes may have been one pharaoh, referred to with more than one name. Regardless, considerable evidence from the period points to Narmer as the pharaoh who first unified Egypt and to Hor-Aha as his son. Seal impressions discovered by G. Dreyer in the Umm el-Qaab from Merneith and his predecessor Narmer had united Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom. Hor-Aha probably ascended the throne in the late 32nd or early 31st century, Hor-Aha seems to have conducted many religious activities. A visit to a shrine of the goddess Neith is recorded on tablets from his reign. The sanctuary of Neith he visited was located in the north-east of the Nile Delta at Sais, furthermore, the first known representation of the sacred Henu-bark of the god Seker was found engraved on a year tablet dating from his reign. Vessel inscriptions, labels and sealings from the graves of Hor-Aha and he arranged for her burial in a magnificent mastaba excavated by Jacques de Morgan. Queen Neithhotep is plausibly Ahas mother The selection of the cemetery of Naqada as the place of Neithhotep is a strong indication that she came from this province. This, in turn, supports the view that Narmer married a member of the ancient royal line of Naqada to strengthen the domination of the Thinite kings over the region. However, in January 2016, an inscription has demonstrated that Neithhotep was actually a queen regent early during the reign of Djer. Therefore, the evidence above only proves that Neithhotep did live during the reign of Hor-Aha. Most importantly, the oldest mastaba at the North Saqqara necropolis of Memphis dates to his reign, the mastaba belongs to an elite member of the administration who may have been a relative of Hor-Aha, as was customary at the time
Hor-Aha
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Faience vessel fragment inscribed with the Horus-name Aha, on display at the British Museum.
Hor-Aha
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Mastaba attributed to Neithhotep which is believed to have been built by Hor-Aha.
Hor-Aha
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Hor-Aha's tomb comprises three chambers B10, B15 and B19, shown in inset. B14 could be the tomb of Hor-Aha's wife Benerib.
Hor-Aha
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Cylinder vessel of Hor-Aha from Saqqara, 1st dynasty; Kestner-Museum.
29.
Djer
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Djer is considered the third pharaoh of the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt in current Egyptology. He lived around the mid-thirty-first century BC and reigned for c.40 years, a mummified forearm of Djer or his wife was discovered by Flinders Petrie, but was discarded by Emile Brugsch. The Abydos King List lists the third pharaoh as Iti, the Turin Canon lists a damaged name, beginning with It. Wilkinson notes that years 1-10 of Djers reign are preserved in register II of the Palermo Stone, Djers reign was preceded by a regency controlled by Neithhotep, possibly his mother or grandmother. An ivory tablet from Abydos mentions that Djer visited Buto and Sais in the Nile Delta, one of his regnal years on the Cairo Stone was named Year of smiting the land of Setjet, which often is speculated to be Sinai or beyond. Manetho claimed that Athothes, who is identified as Djer, had written a treatise on anatomy that still existed in his own day. Djer was a son of the pharaoh Hor-Aha and his wife Khenthap, Djer fathered Merneith, wife of Djet and mother of Den. These women are thought to be the wives of Djer and include, Nakhtneith, buried in Abydos, Herneith, possibly a wife of Djer. Seshemetka, buried in Abydos next to the king and she was said to be a wife of Den in Dodson and Hilton. Penebui, her name and title were found on a label from Saqqara. Bsu, known from a label in Saqqara and several stone vessels, similarly to his father Hor-Aha, Djer was buried in Umm el-Qaab at Abydos. Djers tomb is tomb O of Petrie and his tomb contains the remains of 318 retainers who were buried with him. Several objects were found in and around the tomb of Djer, A stela of Djer, labels mentioning the name of a palace and the name of Meritneith. Fragments of two inscribed with the name of Queen Neithhotep. Bracelets of a Queen were found in the wall of the tomb, in the subsidiary tombs excavators found, Stelae of several individuals Ivory objects with the name of Neithhotep. Manetho indicates that the First Dynasty ruled from Memphis – and indeed Herneith, one of Djers wives, was buried nearby at Saqqara
Djer
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Djer
Djer
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Iti, cartouche name of Djer in the Abydos king list.
Djer
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Stone vase bearing the serekh of Djer, National Archaeological Museum (France).
Djer
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Small ivory label of Djer mentioning the name of a fortress or domain of the king "Hor-Djer-ib".
30.
Nynetjer
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Nynetjer is the Horus name of the third early Egyptian king during the 2nd dynasty. The exact length of his reign is unknown, the Turin Canon suggests an improbable reign of 96 years and Egyptian historian Manetho suggested that Nynetjers reign lasted 47 years. Egyptologists question both statements as misinterpretations or exaggerations and they generally credit Nynetjer with a reign of either 43 years or 45 years. Their estimation is based on the reconstructions of the well known Palermo Stone inscription reporting the years 7–21, according to different authors, Nynetjer ruled Egypt from c.2850 BC to 2760 BC or later from c.2760 BC to 2715 BC. Nynetjer is one of the best archaeologically attested kings of 2nd dynasty and his name appears in inscriptions on stone vessels and clay sealings in large numbers from his tomb at Sakkara. A large number of bearing his name were also found in the tomb of king Peribsen at Abydos. However, the datings of some inscriptions, especially those made of black ink, writing experts and archaeologists such as Ilona Regulski point out that the ink inscriptions are of a somewhat later date than the stone and seal inscriptions. She dates the ink markings to the reigns of kings such as Khasekhemwy and Djoser, in fact, alabaster vessels and earthen jars with black ink inscriptions with very similar font design showing Nynetjers name were found in Peribsens tomb. Nynetjers name also appears on an inscription near Abu Handal in Lower Nubia. This might represent a clue that Nynetjer sent an expedition into this region. Nynetjer is commonly identified with the Ramesside cartouche names Banetjer from the Abydos King List, Banetjeru from the Sakkara table, the Palermo Stone inscription presents an unusual goldname of Nynetjer, Ren-nebu, meaning golden offspring or golden calf. Most of the information known about Nynetjers reign are found on the fragments of the Annal Stone of the 5th dynasty. The Palermo Stone lists the events, 7th year, Escort of Horus. 8th year, Appearance of the king, stretching the cords for Hor-Ren, Flood level,1.09 metres 10th year, Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt, Race of the Apis bull. 12th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, second celebration of the Sokar feast, 14th year, First celebration of Hor-seba-pet, Destruction/Foundation of the cities of Schem-Re and Ha Flood level,2.15 metres. 16th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, second Race of the Apis bull, 18th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, third celebration of the Sokar feast. 20th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, offering for the kings mother, the Cairo Stone gives the years 36–44. The surface of the slab is damaged
Nynetjer
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Fragment of a vase of Nynetjer discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen which may have been part of the equipment of a boat of the king, depicted below his name.
Nynetjer
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Cartouche of Nynetjer in the Abydos King List (no. 11).
31.
Ba (pharaoh)
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Ba, also known as Horus Ba, is the serekh-name of an early Egyptian or ancient Egyptian king who may have ruled at the end of the 1st dynasty, the latter part of 2nd dynasty or during the 3rd dynasty. Neither the exact length of his reign nor his position is known. Very little is known about king Ba, the few archaeological evidences only assure the existence of such a ruler, but they give no further information. In 1899 scientist Alessandro Ricci published a drawing of a serekh with a leg as hieroglyph inside. The picture was seen in Volume No.35 of the Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde series, according to Ricci the serekh was found in a rock inscription at Wadi Maghareh, Sinai. The egyptologists Jaroslav Černý and Michel Baude found out, that Ricci were referring to the inscription of king Sanakht. Ricci simply had misinterpreted the signs used for Sanakhts name -an upright sign of a loop, the zig-zag shaped sign for water. Egyptologists such as Černý and Peter Kaplony think that king Ba might be identical to the likewise sparsely attested king Horus Bird, Černý and Kaplony think that both kings names have the same transcription, Ba. In this case Horus Ba and Horus Bird would be the historical figure. Černý and Kaplonys theory is not commonly accepted, in contrast, Egyptologists such as Nabil Swelim think that Horus Ba was an immediate successor of 2nd dynasty king Nynetjer. He points to the form of Nynetjer in the Abydos kinglist. Swelim therefore believes that the Horus name of Ba was erroneously intermingled with the name of Nynetjer. Francesco Raffaele, Horus SNEFERKA - Horus Bird - Horus SEKHET - Horus BA
Ba (pharaoh)
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Serekh of Horus Ba.
32.
Nubnefer
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Nubnefer is the birth name of a king who may have ruled during the 2nd dynasty of Ancient Egypt. The exact length of his reign is unknown and his position is unclear. Therefore, Egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony, Jochem Kahl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that Nubnefers reign should be chronologically set close to that of Nynetjer, Nubnefers name does not appear in any further contemporary or posthumous document. Egyptologists such as Battiscombe Gunn and Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards believe that the name Nubnefer could be the name of king Raneb. In contrast egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Toby Wilkinson think that Nubnefer was the successor of Nynetjer. Peter Kaplony identifies Nubnefer as a king who have ruled between the kings Wadjenes and Senedj, Francesco Raffaele, Nwbnefer, Neferkara and Neferkaseker
Nubnefer
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Fragment of black schist presenting Nubnefer´s name beside the building ″Menti Ankh″ (left).
33.
Horus Sa
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Horus Sa was a possible early Egyptian pharaoh who may have reigned during the 2nd or 3rd dynasty of Egypt. His existence is disputed, as is the meaning of the artifacts that have been interpreted as confirming his existence, Horus Sa is known from vessel fragments with black ink inscriptions showing his name. These vessels were found in the east galleries beneath Djosers pyramid at Saqqara, the inscriptions are short and written in cursive handwritings. In all cases the name Horus Sa does not appear within a serekh, the name Horus Sa always appears within the inscription Ḥwt-k3 Ḥrw-z3, regularly found together with the names of Inykhnum and Maa-aper-Min, two high-ranking officials who served in the Ka-house. During the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt, the House of the Ka was a forerunner of the mortuary temple, a further inscription Ḥwt-k3 Ḥrw-z3 was found in the 1980s at Saqqara in the area of the tomb of Maya and very close to that of Meryra-Meryneith. Maya and Meryra-Meryneith were both late 18th dynasty court officials who reused 2nd dynasty tombs for themselves, some 1500 years after the death of their original owners, jürgen von Beckerath, Dietrich Wildung and Peter Kaplony proposed that Sa is a short form of the Horus-name Sanakht. Thus, Helck proposed that Horus Sa is the Horus-name of another ruler of the 2nd dynasty, Weneg. The Egyptologist Jochem Kahl recently challenged this hypothesis, identifying Weneg with Raneb, alternatively, Kaplony reconstructed the Horus-name of Weneg from the Cairo fragment of the Palermo stone as Wenegsekhemwy. In both cases, Horus Sa cannot be the Horus-name of Weneg and the two would not designate the same king, however, Kaplonys hypothesis has been undermined by the discovery of clay seals of Djoser in Khasekhemwys tomb, indicating that the former immediately succeeded and buried the latter. Horus Sa could instead be the Horus-name of Senedj or another 2nd dynasty king, ruling in Memphis during the period following the reign of Nynetjer. However, Egyptologists such as Jean-Philippe Lauer, Pierre Lacau and Ilona Regulski call for caution of the reading of the inscriptions. Especially the bird-sign at the top of the Ka-house might also depict a swallow, Ilona Regulski prefers the reading as a Horus-bird, though she doesnt explicitly see it as the name of a king. She dates the inscriptions to the end of Khasekhemwys reign, the burial place of Horus Sa is unknown. Nabil Swelim associated Horus Sa with the enclosure of Gisr el-Mudir in west Saqqara. This hypothesis has not gained acceptance and the Gisr el-Mudir has been attributed to various second dynasty kings. Friedman, Barbara Adams & K. M. Cialowicz, Egypt at its origins, studies in memory of Barbara Adams. Proceedings of the international Conference „Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt“, Kraków, peeters Publishers, Leuven 2004, ISBN 90-429-1469-6
Horus Sa
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Vessel fragment bearing the inscription Ḥwt-k3 Ḥrw-z3.
34.
Wadjenes
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Wadjenes, also known as Wadjlas, Ougotlas and Tlas, is the name of an early Egyptian king who may have ruled during the 2nd dynasty. The kings name Wadjenes is attested only in the Ramesside kinglists, the same goes for the Royal Canon of Turin, where the entry for his name is damaged so only the years of rulership are preserved. Whilst all kinglists match each other regarding the position of Wadjenes. It is possible that ramesside scribes interchanged the Weneg flower with the papyrus haulm, besides the artefacts with the name Weneg-Nebti, further objects made of alabaster show the personal name Wadj-sen in connection with the Sed festival. However, egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony and Jürgen von Beckerath believe that Weneg-Nebti and Wadjenes are identical, the ancient Greek historian Manetho called Wadjenes Tlas. This name distortion may be based on the Coptic rewriting of the name Wadjenes as Ougotlas, very little is known about Wadjeness reign. The Turin Canon lists Wadjenes as ruling for 54 years, whilst Manetho assigns 17 years to him, Egyptologists evaluate both lists as misinterpretations by Ramesside scribes or as an exaggeration. If Wadjenes was an independent ruler he was evidently the last to rule over a unified realm and it is largely accepted by Egyptologists that the immediate successor of king Ninetjer left a divided Egypt, which was headed by two kings who ruled at the same time. The theory is based on the unusual name of a king called Peribsen, who succeeded Ninetjer. Since the deity Seth was of Ombite origin, king Peribsen was probably of Ombite origin, too and his name is missing from the Ramesside Memphite kinglists, because they were all written by Memphite priests and they did not accept any non-Memphite ruler as a rightful ancestor
Wadjenes
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Cartouche name of Wadjenes in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 12)
35.
Sekhemib-Perenmaat
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Sekhemib-Perenma´at, is the horus name of an early Egyptian king who ruled during the 2nd dynasty. Similar to his predecessor, successor or co-ruler Seth-Peribsen, Sekhemib is contemporarily well attested in archaeological records, the exact length of his reign is unknown and his burial site has yet to be found. Sekhemib´s name is known from seal impressions and from inscriptions on vessels made of alabaster and they were found in the entrance of Peribsen´s tomb at Abydos, in the underground galleries beneath the step pyramid of king Djoser at Sakkara and on one excavation site at Elephantine. Sekhemib´s serekh name is unusual, because it is the first in Egyptian history that was extended by an epithet, beside the first name, Sekhem-ib, several seal impressions and stone vessel inscriptions show the epithet Perenma´at inside the serekh. Sekhemib used both forms, the single horus name and the double name, at the same time. Egyptologists such as Herman te Velde and Wolfgang Helck think that the name of Sekhemib came in use when the Egyptian state was split into two independent realms. It seems that Sekhemib tried to stress the peaceful political situation prevailing in Egypt at the time, an increased form of such a double name was created and used by a successor of Sekhemib, king Khasekhemwy. This king also used a name and even placed Horus. Khasekhemwy had tried to express peace and reconciliation between Upper- and Lower Egypt with his unusual serekh, too, the historical figure of Sekhemib is the subject of investigation and discussions by Egyptologists and historians to this day. The contradictory findings allow room for plenty of interpretations and theories, emery, Bard and Petrie point to several clay seals that were found in the tomb entrance of Peribsens necropolis. Sekhemibs tomb has not yet been found, in contrast, Egyptologists such as Hermann Alexander Schlögl, Wolfgang Helck, Peter Kaplony and Jochem Kahl believe that Sekhemib was a different ruler to Peribsen. They point out that the seals were only found at the entrance area of Peribsens tomb. They compare the findings with the tablets of king Hotepsekhemwy found at the entrance of king Qaas tomb. Therefore, Schlögl, Helck, Kaplony and Kahl are convinced that Sekhemibs seals are merely proof that Sekhemib buried Peribsen, Egyptologists such as Toby Wilkinson and Helck believe that Sekhemib and Peribsen could have been related. Their theory is based on the stone inscriptions and seal impressions that show strong similarities in their typographical and grammatical writing styles. The vessels of Peribsen for example show the notation ini-setjet, whilst Sekhemibs inscriptions note ini-chasut, a further indication for a relationship between Peribsen and Sekhemib is the serekh-name of both, as they both use the syllables per and ib in their names. Egyptologists such as Helck identify Sekhemib with the cartouche name “Wadjenes”. Egyptologist Dietrich Wildung thinks alike and identifies Sekhemib with the nebty name Weneg-Nebty, there seems to be archaeological evidence that Sekhemib ruled only in Upper Egypt
Sekhemib-Perenmaat
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Alabaster vessel showing the (damaged) double name of Sekhemib
Sekhemib-Perenmaat
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Vase of Sekhemib bearing the inscription reproduced on the right. At its right, it reads The king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Sekhemib-Perenmaat, at its left it reads administrator of the house of copper, god servant of Kherty, National Archaeological Museum (France).
Sekhemib-Perenmaat
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Clay seal of Sekhemib
Sekhemib-Perenmaat
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Fragment of a diorite vase inscribed with part of the name of pharaoh Sekhemib Perenmaat from the Pyramid of Djoser and now in the Egyptian Museum. The inscription reads (from right to left): "King of Lower- and Upper Egypt, Sekhemib-Per(enma'at), tribute of the foreigners, provisions to...".
36.
Khasekhemwy
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Khasekhemwy was the final king of the Second dynasty of Egypt. Little is known of Khasekhemwy, other than that he led several significant military campaigns and built monuments, still extant. His name means The Two Powerful Ones Appear, according to Toby Wilkinsons study of the Palermo Stone in Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, this near contemporary 5th dynasty document assigns Khasekhemwy a reign of 17.5 or nearly 18 full years. Since the cattle count is shown to be regularly biennial during the dynasty from the Palermo Stone. Khasekhemwy is normally placed as the successor of Seth-Peribsen, though some Egyptologists believe that another Pharaoh, Khasekhem, most scholars, however, believe Khasekhem and Khasekhemwy are, in fact, the same person. Khasekhem may have changed his name to Khasekhemwy after he reunited Upper and Lower Egypt after a war between the followers of the gods Horus and Set. Others believe he defeated the king, Seth-Peribsen, after returning to Egypt from putting down a revolt in Nubia. Either way he ended the infighting of the Second dynasty and reunited Egypt, Khasekhemwy is unique in Egyptian history as having both the symbols of Horus and Set on his serekh. Some Egyptologists believe that this was an attempt to unify the two factions, but after his death, Set was dropped from the serekh permanently and he was the earliest Egyptian king known to have built statues of himself. Khasekhemwy apparently undertook considerable building projects upon the reunification of Egypt and he built in stone at el-Kab, Hierakonpolis, and Abydos. He apparently built a unique, as well as huge, tomb at Abydos, the trapezoidal tomb measures some 70 meters in length and is 17 meters wide at its northern end, and 10 meters wide at its southern end. This area was divided into 58 rooms, prior to some recent discoveries from the 1st dynasty, its central burial chamber was considered the oldest masonry structure in the world, being built of quarried limestone. Here, the excavators discovered the kings scepter of gold and sard, as well as beautifully made small stone pots with gold leaf lid coverings. In fact, Petrie detailed a number of items removed during the excavations of Amélineau, other items included flint tools, as well as a variety of copper tools and vessels, stone vessels and pottery vessels filled with grain and fruit. There were also small, glazed objects, carnelian beads, model tools, basketwork, Khasekhemwy built a fort at Nekhen, and at Abydos and was buried there in the necropolis at Umm el-Qaab. He may also have built the Gisr el-Mudir at Saqqara, Khasekhemwys wife was Queen Nimaethap, mother of the Kings Children. They were the parents of Djoser and Djosers wife Hetephernebti and its also possible that Khasekhemwys son was Sanakhte. Toby Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, The Palermo Stone, Egypt, Khasekhem/Khasekhemwy of Egypts 2nd dynasty
Khasekhemwy
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Statue of Khasekhemwy, Ashmolean Museum
Khasekhemwy
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Limestone vessel with gold cover from Khasekhemwy's tomb
Khasekhemwy
Khasekhemwy
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The surviving remains of Khasekhemwy's tomb at Umm el-Qa'ab
37.
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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The term itself was coined by eighteenth-century historians and the distinction between the Old Kingdom and the Early Dynastic Period is not one which would have been recognized by Ancient Egyptians. The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty, many Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration centralized at Memphis. During the Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt became a god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services. Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign, King Djosers architect, Imhotep is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form—the Step Pyramid. Indeed, the Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypts kings. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyramids, the first king of the Old Kingdom was Djoser of the third dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid in Memphis necropolis, Saqqara. An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier and it was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes, under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection, Egyptians in this era worshipped their king as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the worked in cycles. They also perceived themselves as a specially selected people, the Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty, which began with Sneferu. Using more stones than any king, he built three pyramids, a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur. However, the development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara. Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu who built the Great Pyramid of Giza, after Khufus death, his sons Djedefra and Khafra may have quarrelled. The latter built the pyramid and the Sphinx in Giza. Recent reexamination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx had been built by Djedefra as a monument to his father Khufu, alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafra and Khufu himself. There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia, with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today the Sudan, the later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were king Menkaure, who built the smallest pyramid in Giza, Shepseskaf and, perhaps, Djedefptah. The Fifth Dynasty began with Userkaf and was marked by the importance of the cult of sun god Ra
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara.
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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Temple of Djoser at Saqqara
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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Head of a King, ca. 2650-2600 B.C.E, Brooklyn Museum; The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. Not until Dynasty III were statues made which show the ruler life-size; this forceful head wearing the tall crown of Upper Egypt even surpasses human scale, both in measurements and in its aim to depict the godlike power and strength of the Pharaoh.
38.
Third Dynasty of Egypt
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For the Sumerian Renaissance, see Third Dynasty of Ur The Third Dynasty of ancient Egypt is the first dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Other dynasties of the Old Kingdom include the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth, the capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was at Memphis. After the turbulent last years of the Second Dynasty which might have included civil war, Egypt came under the rule of Djoser, both the Turin King List and the Abydos King List record five kings, while the Saqqara Tablet only records four. Djoser’s successor was Sekhemkhet who had the nebty name Djeserty, the last king of the dynasty is Huni. There are three remaining Horus names of known 3rd dynasty kings, Sanakht, Khaba and perhaps Qahedjet, one of these three went by the nebty name Nebka. Dating the Third Dynasty is similarly challenging, shaw gives the dates as being approximately from 2686 to 2613 BC. The Turin King List suggests a total of 75 years for the third dynasty, baines and Malek have placed the third dynasty as spanning the years 2650 –2575 BC, while Dodson and Hilton date the dynasty to 2584 –2520 BC. It is not uncommon for these estimates to differ by more than a century, a radiocarbon study done of the period in 2010 gives a reign for Djoser between roughly 2691 to 2625 BC. The pharaohs of the Third Dynasty ruled for approximately seventy-five years, the order of the kings is based on Wilkinson. The number of years as king, the years, is based on Dodson and Hilton. They have the dynasty lasting only 64 years, more importantly, seals naming Djoser were found at the entrance to Khasekhemwys tomb at Abydos, which demonstrates that it was Djoser, rather than Sanakht, who buried and succeeded this king. The Turin King List scribe wrote Djosers name in red ink, in any case, Djoser is the best known king of this dynasty, for commissioning his vizier Imhotep to build the earliest surviving pyramids, the Step Pyramid. Some authorities believe that Imhotep lived into the reign of the Pharaoh Huni, little is known for certain of Sekhemkhet. However, it is believed that Khaba possibly built the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet elAryan
Third Dynasty of Egypt
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Funerary temple of Djoser at Saqqara
39.
Nebka
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Nebka is the birth name of an Ancient Egyptian king who ruled during the 3rd dynasty of the Old Kingdom. He is thought to be identical with the Hellenized name form Necherophes, Nebka is one of the most disputed kings of the Old Kingdom, since his name is handed down as cartouche name only, but is preserved always in the same typographical way. And because the sources for the name “Nebka” are that numerous, the earliest source for Nebka´s name is the mastaba tomb of a high official named Aakhty, who lived and worked at the end of 3rd dynasty. The chronologically next source is the famous Westcar Papyrus of 13th dynasty, in which a king “Nebka” appears within a known as “Nebka. The next sources are all from 19th dynasty, the Royal Table of Saqqara though lists no “Nebka”, but instead a king “Nebkarâ” and places that name close to the end of 3rd dynasty, as the direct predecessor of Huni. Even today, egyptologists are disputing the identity and chronological position of Nebka, some scholars, such as Toby Wilkinson, Kenneth Anderson Kitchen, Stephan Seidlmayer and Rainer Stadelmann are convinced, that Nebka was identical with a king Hor-Sanakht. Their assumption is based on a clay seal fragment, which shows traces of a sign which the egyptologists believe to be the rest of a cartouche with the sign Ka from “Nebka”. Egyptologists such as John D. Degreef, Nabil Swelim and Wolfgang Helck contradict the identification of Nebka with Sanakht and they point out that the remains of the inscriptions on the clay seal in question is that damaged, that the alleged cartouche can be hardly identified as such. Instead, it could also be the rest of an oval shaped crest of a fortress with one or several boats in it. The clay seal as a proof was not convincing enough. They also point out, that the mother of king Djoser, queen Nimaethap, was entitled as a “Mother of a king”, therefore, she should have had only one son, who ascended the throne - no place for a “Sanakht” or “Nebka”. Additionally, in the tomb of her husband, king Khasekhemwy, only clay seals of Djoser were found, Kitchen points out, that the Turin Canon inexplicably gives the same length of reign for Nebka as it does for Djoser - a circumstance that shouldn´t be. For this reason many believe that the name “Nebka” was simply misplaced by mistake
Nebka
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Cartouche name of Nebka as shown in the Abydos King List.
40.
Sekhemkhet
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Sekhemkhet was an ancient Egyptian king of 3rd dynasty during the Old Kingdom. His reign is thought to have been from about 2648 BC until 2640 BC and he is also known under his later traditioned birth name Djoser-tety and under his Hellenized name Tyreis. He was probably the brother or eldest son of king Djoser, little is known about this king, since he ruled for only a few years. However, he erected a pyramid at Saqqara and left behind a well known rock inscription at Wadi Maghareh. The duration of Sekhemkhets reign is believed to have been 6 to 7 years, the royal Turin Canon attributes 6 years of reign to Sekhemkhet, a figure also proposed by Myriam Wissa based on the unfinished state of Sekhemkhets pyramid. Using his reconstruction of the Palermo Stone, Toby Wilkinson assigns 7 years to this king, similarly, the Greek historian Manetho lists Sekhemkhet under the name of Tyreis and indicates that he reigned for 7 years. Nabil Swelim, by contrast, proposed a reign of 19 years, however, such a long reign is at odds with the unfinished state of the buried pyramid and this view is generally rejected by Egyptologists. Little is known about activities conducted during Sekhemkhets reign, the only preserved documents showing Sekhemkhet are two rock inscriptions at Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai peninsula. The first one shows Sekhemkhet twice, once wearing the Hedjet crown, the second inscription depicts a scene known as smiting the enemy, Sekhemkhet has grabbed a foe by its hair and raises his arm in an attempt to club the enemy to death with a ceremonial sceptre. The presence of these reliefs at Wadi Maghareh suggests that local mines of copper and these mines were apparently active throughout the early 3rd Dynasty since reliefs of Djoser and Sanakht were also discovered in the Wadi Maghareh. Several clay seals presenting an unusual nebty name together with Sekhemkhet´s Horus name were found at the excavation site on the island of Elephantine. The Egyptologist Jean Pierre Pätznik reads the nebty name as Ren nebty meaning The two ladies are pleased with his name and it is not entirely clear whether this is indeed Sekhemkhet´s nebty name or that of a yet unknown queen. Sekhemkhets wife may have been Djeseretnebti, but this name appears without any queens title, the name has alternatively been read as Djeser-Ti and identified with the cartouche-name Djeser-Teti presented in the Saqqara King List as the direct successor of Djoser. Sekhemkhet surely had sons and daughters, but up to date no personal name was found. King Sekhemkhet was buried beneath his step pyramid at Saqqara, diagonally across from his predecessor´s pyramid and this tomb is known today as Sekhemkhet´s pyramid, Djeserteti´s pyramid and as Buried pyramid. Sekhemkhet´s tomb was excavated in 1952 by Egyptian archaeologist Zakaria Goneim, Sekhemkhet´s pyramid was planned as a step pyramid from the first. Its base was a square footprint measuring 377 ft x 377 ft, if the pyramid had been completed, it would have had six or seven steps and a final height of 230 ft -236 ft. Like Djoser´s pyramid, Sekhemkhets was built of stone blocks
Sekhemkhet
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Cartouche name Teti from the Abydos king list.
Sekhemkhet
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Relief of Sekhemkhet from Wadi Maghareh
Sekhemkhet
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An ivory plaque bearing the form of Sekhemkhet's Saqqara Kinglist name of "Djoserti" found in the remains of his step pyramid tomb.
41.
Khaba
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Khaba was a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, active during the 3rd dynasty of the Old Kingdom period. The exact time during which Khaba ruled is unknown but may have been around 2670 BC, King Khaba is considered to be difficult to assess as a figure of ancient Egypt. His name is archaeologically well-attested by stone bowls and mud seal impressions, Khabas reign is securely dated to the Third Dynasty. Because of the contradictions within Ramesside king lists and the lack of contemporary, festive inscriptions and these problems originate in part from contradictory king lists, which were all compiled long after Khabas death, especially during the Ramesside era. It is also a matter of debate as to where Khaba might have been buried, many Egyptologists and archaeologists propose that an unfinished step pyramid at Zawyet elAryan, known as the Layer Pyramid, belongs to him. Others believe instead that his tomb is a large mastaba close to the Layer Pyramid, Khabas name appears on nine polished stone bowls, variously made of magnesite, travertine, and diorite, which were found at the archaeological locales of Zawyet elAryan, Abusir, and Naga-ed-Deir. The bowls were found intact, they show only the kings serekh name on their polished surfaces. As was conventional at the time they were made, they contain no additional inscriptions for context and his name also appears on several mud seal impressions found at Quesna, Zawyet elAryan, Hierakonpolis, and Elephantine. Most of the mud seals were excavated at modern-day Elephantine, it is possible that more of them lie under the garden of the current museum of Elephantine. These seal impressions bear more inscriptions than the stone bowls, however most of the seals are only preserved as small fragments and their surfaces have been roughened over the years. Only one seal bears a well-preserved complete row of names or titles, the inscription alternates between Horus and Golden Horus names. Khaba is known by his serekh and Golden Horus name only and his Nisut-Bity title and his Nebty name are unknown. Aside from Khaba, the kings with Gold names who lived before king Sneferu, founder of the 4th dynasty, were Djer, Den, Nynetjer, Khasekhemwy. From Snefru onward, the Golden Horus name became a royal title to any ruling king. Khabas Golden Horus name can be found on seal impressions, although its correct reading. Peter Kaplony interprets it as Nub-iret or Nub iret-djedef, though he is unsure whether the syllable djedef was an inherent part of the name or an honorary title. Thomas Schneider and Jürgen von Beckerath, in contrast, see Khabas Golden Horus as Netjer-nub, Khabas Gold name is the first to show the infinitive form of the royal Gold name. Scholars face several problems in attempting to connect Khaba to royal names known from the Ramesside era, unfortunately, these lists offer no clear consensus about the number or names of the kings of the 3rd dynasty
Khaba
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Serekh of Khaba on a stone bowl of unknown provenance, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UC 15800.
Khaba
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Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan.
42.
Huni
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Huni was an ancient Egyptian king and the last pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. Following the Turin king list, he is credited with a reign of 24 years. Hunis chronological position as the last king of the dynasty is seen as fairly certain. It is also unclear under which Hellenized name the ancient historian Manetho could have listed him in his historical writing Aegyptiacae, most possibly he is to be identified with the Hellenized name Aches, as Winfried Barta proposes. Many Egyptologists believe that Huni was the father and direct predecessor of king Sneferu, Huni is seen by scholars as a confusing figure in Egyptian history, because he was long remembered in Egyptian traditions, but only very few documents, objects or monuments have endured. Huni is not a well attested pharaoh, most of the only point indirectly to him. There are only two objects with his name. The first one is a stele made of red granite. The object is 62.99 inches long,27.16 inches thick and 19.69 inches broad and its shape resembles a typical Benben stele, as known from mastaba tombs of early dynastic kings. At the front, the cone presents a niche with an incarved inscription inside. The inscription mentions a palace named Palace of the headband of Huni. The decorated niche is interpreted by scholars as a so-called apparition window, the lower part of the window frame is flattened and elongated and shows traces of a second inscription, apparently the same as inside the window. It is not fully clarified, where exactly the object was once on display, because it was found very close to a stepped pyramid, Egyptologists such as Rainer Stadelmann propose a position on the very front of the monument, or even visibly embedded in one of the steps. Today Hunis dedication cone is on display in the Cairo Museum as object JE41556, the stone vessel inscription mentions Hunis name without a cartouche, but with the Njswt-Bity title. The orthography of the hieroglyphs that form Hunis name makes a reading as Njswt-Hw or Hw-en-Niswt plausible, Huni is also attested in mastaba L6 at Saqqara, attributed to the official Metjen and dating to the end of the 3rd dynasty. There, an inscription was found with the name of a royal domain Hw. t-njswt. -hw of Huni, the temple, however, has not yet been located. Finally, Huni is attested in the papyrus Prisse, in the Instructions of Kagemni, Hunis identity is difficult to establish, since his name is passed down mostly as cartouche name and in different variations. The earliest mention of his name may possibly appearing on the granite cone from Elephantine
Huni
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The Meidum pyramid, initially believed to have been started by Huni, is now thought to be exclusively the work of Snefru.
Huni
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Pink granite head attributed to Huni, Brooklyn Museum
Huni
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The Layer Pyramid, attributed to Khaba, who may be the same person as Huni.
43.
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Fourth Dynasty of ancient Egypt is characterized as a golden age of the Old Kingdom. Dynasty IV lasted from c. 2613 to 2494 BC and it was a time of peace and prosperity as well as one during which trade with other countries is documented. Dynasties III, IV, V and VI are often combined under the title the Old Kingdom. The capital at time was Memphis. The Fourth Dynasty heralded the height of the pyramid-building age, the relative peace of the Third Dynasty allowed the Dynasty IV rulers the leisure to explore more artistic and cultural pursuits. Sneferu’s building experiments led to the evolution from the mastaba styled step pyramids to the smooth sided “true” pyramids, no other period in Egypt’s history equaled Dynasty IV’s architectural accomplishments. Each of the rulers of this dynasty commissioned at least one pyramid to serve as a tomb or cenotaph, the pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty ruled for approximately 120 years, from c. 2613 to 2494 BC. The names in the table are taken from Dodson and Hilton and he also constructed a number of smaller step pyramids, making him the most prolific pyramid builder of the era. It is said that Sneferu had more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh, sneferus chief wife was Hetepheres I, his half-sister and the mother of his son Khufu. His other two wives bore him more children, a well-liked ruler, Sneferu bolstered the power of the ruling family line by giving official titles and positions to relatives. He maintained control over the nobility by keeping a tight rein on lands and he conducted military excursions into Sinai, Nubia, Libya, and began trade arrangements with Lebanon for the acquisition of cedar. Surviving from this era are the records of Egyptian contact with her neighbors. They are recorded on the Palermo stone, information carved on the stone pre-dates and antedates this dynasty. Objects dating to the reign of Khafre have been found farther away, at Ebla. Khufu is the ruler who is known in Greek as Χέοψ = Cheops and his son is Khafre and his grandson is Menkaure. All of these rulers achieved lasting fame in the construction of their pyramids at Giza. In fact, recent excavations outside the Wall of the Crow by Dr. Mark Lehner have uncovered a city which seems to have housed, fed. Some records indicate that each household was responsible for providing a worker for civic projects, civic duties were not necessarily building projects, there were duties for the temples, libraries, and festivals as well, and both men and women filled some of the positions
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
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Statue of Menkaura, flanked by Hathor and Bat to lend authority to the rule of the pharaoh
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
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Fragment of the Palermo Stone which documents the arrival of ships during the reign of Sneferu - Petrie Museum, London
44.
Khafra
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Khafra was an ancient Egyptian king of 4th dynasty during the Old Kingdom. He was the son of Khufu and the successor of Djedefre. According to the ancient historian Manetho, Khafra was followed by king Bikheris, Khafra was the builder of the second largest pyramid of Giza. The view held by modern Egyptology at large remains that the Great Sphinx was built in approximately 2500 BC for Khafra. There is not much known about Khafra, except the reports of Herodotus, who describes him as a cruel and heretic ruler. Khafra was a son of king Khufu and the brother and successor of Djedefre, Khafra is thought by some to be the son of Queen Meritites I due to an inscription where he is said to honor her memory. Others argue that the inscription just suggests that this queen died during the reign of Khafre, Khafre may be a son of Queen Henutsen instead. Khafra had several wives and he had at least 12 sons and 3 or 4 daughters, Queen Meresankh III was the daughter of Kawab and Hetepheres II and thus a niece of Khafra. She was the mother of Khafras sons Nebemakhet, Duaenre, Niuserre and Khentetka, Queen Khamerernebty I was the mother of Menkaure and his principal queen Khamerernebty II. Hekenuhedjet was a wife of Khafra and she is mentioned in the tomb of her son Sekhemkare. Persenet may have been a wife of Khafra based on the location of her tomb and she was the mother of Nikaure. Other children of Khafra are known, but no mothers have been identified, further sons include Ankhmare, Akhre, Iunmin, and Iunre. Two more daughters named Rekhetre and Hemetre are known as well, there is no agreement on the date of his reign. Some authors say it was between 2558 BC and 2532 BC, this dynasty is dated ca.2650 BC–2480 BC. The will is dated anonymously to the Year of the 12th Count and is assumed to belong to Khufu since Nekure was his son. Khafras highest year date is the Year of the 13th occurrence which is a date on the back of a casing stone belonging to mastaba G7650. This would imply a reign of 24–25 years for this if the cattle count was biannual during the Fourth Dynasty. Khafra built the second largest pyramid at Giza, the Egyptian name of the pyramid was Wer-Khafre which means Khafre is Great
Khafra
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Diorite statue of Khafra, now in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo
Khafra
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Cartouche name Kha'afre in the Abydos King List
Khafra
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King Khafre. In Ägyptisches Museum Georg Steindorff, Leipzig
Khafra
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Lantern Slide Collection: Views, Objects: Egypt. Gizeh [selected images]. View 07: Egyptian - Old Kingdom. Plan of Temple of Khephren. Gizeh, 4th Dyn., n.d. Brooklyn Museum Archives
45.
Bikheris
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Bikheris is the hellenized name of an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, who may have ruled during the 4th Dynasty around 2570 BC. Next to nothing is known about this ruler and some Egyptologists even believe him to be fictitious, in attempts to reconstruct Ancient Egyptian king lists, Egyptologists and historians face several problems. As already mentioned, Bikheris is a name variation. The name appears in the book Aegyptiaca written by Manetho around 300 BC, in a latin copy of Manetho, written by Eratosthenes, a king named Biuris is placed at the date when Bikheris allegedly ruled. Scholars wonder if both names derive from one and the same Egyptian source. However, Ancient Egyptian sources are scarce, the oldest possible royal name source may come from an unfinished pyramid shaft at Zawyet elAryan. The shaft was excavated in 1904 by Italian Egyptologist Alessandro Barsanti and he discovered several black ink inscriptions inside the shaft, some of which actually show a royal cartouche name. Unfortunately, Barsanti made no facsimile, but sloppy drawings and all, at least the second hieroglyph can be identified as a Ka-symbol, thus making the kings name a. ka. The temporally next possible source appears in the famous Westcar Papyrus of the 13th Dynasty, the text mentions a kings son, Bau-ef-Ra. Scholars wonder if this Bauefre may be identical with Bikheris, a very similar name from the New Kingdom period can be found in a rock inscription at Wadi Hammamat. The inscription consists of an honorary prayer surmounted by a king list. The list contains the names Khufu, Djedefra, Khafra, Djedefhor, lloyd is convinced that the names Baka, Bakare, Baefra, Bauefra and Biuris are all identical to Manethos Bikheris. This, in turn, is doubted by Kim Ryholt, who points out that the names Baefra and Bauefra contain no syllable that would fit to Bikheris. Thus, Baefra and Bikheris might be two different kings and this view is strengthened by the fact that Bauefra is entitled in contemporary documents only as kings son, which is the title of a prince, not that of a ruler. The only Old Kingdom name that could indeed fit is the now incomplete name X-ka, according to Peter Jánosi, the mysterious name could be a Baka, written with a ram symbol. A son of Djedefra was actually named Baka, his name was indeed written with a ram- and it might be possible that prince Baka was meant to become king on the royal throne, but then he died unexpectedly during his coronation year, leaving an unfinished tomb shaft. Maybe Baka changed his name from Baka into Baka-Re after his coronation, if the theory is correct, Bikheris was the hellenized variant of Baka. Some scholars suspect that the line of throne successions during the 4th Dynasty of Egypt may have much less smooth than mainstream Egyptologists believe
Bikheris
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Limestone fragment with the illegible cartouche name interpreted as Baka.
46.
Menkaure
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Menkaure, was an ancient Egyptian king of the 4th dynasty during the Old Kingdom, who is well known under his Hellenized names Mykerinos and Menkheres. According to Manetho, he was the successor of king Bikheris. Menkaure became famous for his tomb, the Pyramid of Menkaure, at Giza and his beautiful statue triads, showing the king together with his wives Rekhetre, Menkaure was the son of Khafra and the grandson of Khufu. A flint knife found in the temple of Menkaure mentioned a kings mother Khamerernebty I, suggesting that Khafra. Menkaure is thought to have had at least two wives, Queen Khamerernebty II is the daughter of Khamerernebti I and the mother of a kings son Khuenre. The location of Khuenres tomb suggests that he was a son of Menkaure, Queen Rekhetre is known to have been a daughter of Khafra and as such the most likely identity of her husband is Menkaure. Not many children are attested for Menkaure, Khuenre was the son of queen Khamerernebti II, Menkaure was not succeeded by Prince Khuenre, his eldest son, who predeceased Menkaure, but rather by Shepseskaf, a younger son of this king. Shepseskaf was the successor to Menkaure and likely his son, sekhemre is known from a statue and possibly a son of Menkaure. A daughter that died in early adulthood is mentioned by Herodotus, khentkaus I - possible Menkaures daughter The royal court included several of Menkaures half brothers. His brothers Nebemakhet, Duaenre, Nikaure and Iunmin served as vizier during the reign of their brother and his brother Sekhemkare may have been younger and became vizier after the death of Menkaure. The length of Menkaures reign is uncertain, the ancient historian Manetho credits him with a rulership of 63 years, but this is surely an exaggeration. The Turin Canon is damaged at the spot where it should present the full sum of years, egyptologists think that an 18-year rulership was meant to be written, which is generally accepted. A contemporary workmen´s graffito reports about the “year after the 11th cattle count”, if the cattle count was held every second year, Menkaure might have ruled for 22 years. In 2013, a fragment of the sphinx of Menkaure was discovered at Tel Hazor at the entrance to the city palace, Menkaures pyramid at Giza was called Netjer-er-Menkaure which means Menkaure is Divine. This pyramid is the smallest of the three pyramids at Giza and this pyramid measures 103.4 meters at the base and 65.5 meters in height. There are three subsidiary pyramids associated with Menkaures pyramid and these pyramids are sometimes labeled G-IIIa, G-IIIb and G-IIIc. In the chapel associated with G-IIIa a statue of a Queen was found and it is possible that these pyramids were meant for the Queens of Khafra. It may be that Khamerernebti II was buried in one of the pyramids, the Valley temple was a mainly brick built structure which was enlarged in the 5th or 6th dynasty
Menkaure
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Greywacke statue of Menkaure, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
Menkaure
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Burial chamber of Menkaure, today, and as discovered with now lost sarcophagus
Menkaure
Menkaure
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Menkaure's Pyramid in Giza.
47.
Shepseskaf
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Shepseskaf was the sixth and last pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt during the Old Kingdom. He reigned 6 to 8 years starting circa 2510 BC, egyptologist George Andrew Reisner proposed that Shepseskaf was Menkaures son based on a decree mentioning that Shepseskaf completed Menkaures mortuary temple. This however cannot be considered a proof of filiation since the decree does not describe the relationship between these two kings. Furthermore, the completion of the tomb of a deceased pharaoh by his successor does not necessarily depend on a direct relation between the two. The mother, wives and children of Shepseskaf are unknown, if Menkaure was indeed his father, his mother could have been one of Menkaures royal wives Khamerernebty II or Rekhetre. Its possible that Shepseskafs wife was Khentkaus I, but this is far from certain, queen Bunefer has been suggested as a possible wife of Shepseskaf based on the titles as a priestess of Shepseskhaf. She may however have been a daughter who served as a priestess in the cult for her father, finally, Khamaat, the wife of a nobleman named Ptahshepses and daughter of a king, may be a daughter of Shepseskaf or Userkaf. No ruler named Djedefptah is recorded in documents such as royal monuments or private tombs in the Old Kingdom cemeteries of Giza. Finally, Shepseskafs reign is attested through the inscriptions made by the officials who served him. These are mostly found in Gizah and Saqqara, the fact that many of these inscriptions only mention Shepseskaf without further details hints at the short duration of his reign. The court officials who mentioned Shepseskaf are, Sekhemkare, a son of Khafra and his mastaba, located in Gizah yielded a list of the kings under whom he served, from Khafra down to Sahure through Shepseskaf. This list also gives Userkaf as the successor to Shepseskaf. Bunefer, royal princess and priestess of Shepseskaf funerary cult, buried in Gizah and she is believed to be either one of Shepseskafs wife, daughter or one of his sisters and to have participated in his burial ceremonies ·. Nisutpunetjer, who was a priest of the funerary cults. His mastaba in Gizah yielded a list of pharaohs under whom he served, from Djedefra down to Sahure, Ptahshepses I, great priest of Ptah. An inscription on his false door stele details his biography and he relates that he was educated at court with Shepseskaf who later promoted him to the office of first priest of Ptah and gave him his daughter Khamaat for wedding. Kaunisut, an official, cites Shepseskaf in his mastaba at Gizah. Other than these scanty references to Shepseskafs reign, the only known today that is firmly datable to that period was uncovered in Menkaures pyramid complex
Shepseskaf
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Shepseskaf's cartouche on the Abydos king list.
Shepseskaf
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Mastaba of Shepseskaf, Saqqara.
Shepseskaf
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Isometric image of the mastaba of Shepseskaf taken from a 3d image
48.
Userkaf
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Userkaf was the founder of the Fifth dynasty of Egypt and the first pharaoh to start the tradition of building sun temples at Abusir. He ruled from 2494 to 2487 BC and constructed the pyramid of Userkaf complex at Saqqara, Userkaf may have been a grandson of Djedefre by his daughter, Neferhetepes. His father is unknown, while some believe his mother to have been Khentkaus I, another of Userkafs wives was the similarly named Queen Neferhetepes, known to be the mother of Sahure. Userkaf may also have been the father of Neferirkare Kakai, a son by Khentkaus I, another less common view, in concordance with a story of the Westcar Papyrus, is that the first three rulers of the fifth dynasty were brothers—the sons of a woman named Raddjedet. Thus, Sahure, Userkafs successor was most likely his son, Userkaf is given a reign of seven years by the Turin Royal Canon while Africanus states that Manethos Epitome attributes him 28 years of reign. Analyses of the space available on the Palermo stone between this date and Sahures register indicates that Userkaf did not reign longer than 12 to 14 years, in his comparative study of the fragments of the Palermo stone, Georges Daressy concluded that Userkaf reigned about 10 years. This figure is considered more plausible than Manethos 28 years given the monumental remains dating to his reign, four mentions of the year of the fifth cattle count were also found in Userkafs sun temple, which could indicate that Userkaf reigned for at least 10 years. However, these inscriptions are incomplete, in particular the kings name is lost, nikaankh, an official during Userkafs reign, had a royal decree of Userkaf reproduced in his mastaba. By this decree, Userkaf donates and reforms several royal domains in middle Egypt for the maintenance of the cult of Hathor, apparently, Userkaf also started the temple of Monthu at Tod, where he is the oldest attested pharaoh. Userkafs reign might have witnessed a recrudescence of trade between Egypt and its Mediterranean neighbors thanks to a series of expeditions, which are represented in his mortuary temple. Userkafs most innovative monument is undoubtedly his sun temple at Abu Gorab, first recognized by Richard Lepsius in the mid-19th century, it was studied by Ludwig Borchardt in the early 20th century and thoroughly excavated by Herbert Ricke in 1954. According to the annals, the construction of the temple started in Userkafs 5th year on the throne and, on that occasion. The site of Abusir may have been due to its proximity to Sakhebu. Userkafs sun temple covered an area of 44 ×83 m and was called Nḫn Rˁ. w, The fortress of Ra. It is believed that the construction of the sun temple marks a shift from the cult, so preponderant during the early 4th dynasty. The king was not revered directly as a god anymore but rather as the son of Re and this, in turn, changed the royal mortuary cult. In this context, the sun temple, oriented to the west, was a place of worship for the sun and was thought of as a part of the royal mortuary complex. However, the temple is not oriented to any cardinal point
Userkaf
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Head of Userkaf, recovered from his sun temple at Abu Gurob.
Userkaf
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Cartouche of Userkaf on the Abydos king list.
Userkaf
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Userkaf sun Temple. Rendered image of a 3d model
Userkaf
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Fragment of an alabaster statue of Userkaf from his Sun Temple at Abu Gurob, now at the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin (ÄM 19774).
49.
Neferirkare Kakai
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Neferirkare Kakai was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the third king of the Fifth Dynasty. He succeeded his father Sahure on the throne and was in turn succeeded by his son Neferefre and his praenomen, Neferirkare, means Beautiful is the Soul of Ra. His Horus name was Userkhau, his Golden Horus name Sekhemunebu and it was not known who Neferirkares parents were in the past. Some Egyptologists viewed him as a son of Userkaf and Khentkaus I and this is now known to be incorrect, reliefs from Sahures causeway show that his father was Sahure and his mother was probably Queen Meretnebty. Scenes discovered in Sahures funerary temple, the region, indicate, however. K. Sethe thought from broken records that the name was Neferhanebty. This information is now known to be incorrect, one theory holds that Neferirkare may have been known as Prince Ranefer when he was young, and had a brother named Netjerirenre, who may have taken the throne under the name of Shepseskare. Neferirkare married Queen Khentkaus II and had 2 sons who became pharaoh, Ranefer—under the name Neferefre—and Niuserre. Little is known about his reign, manethos Epitome assigns Neferirkare a reign of 20 years but verso 5 of the damaged Palermo Stone preserves the year of his 5th cattle count. His following years were lost in the portion of the document. The Czech Egyptologist Miroslav Verner maintains, however, that it cannot have been as long as 20 years due to the state of Neferirkares Abusir pyramid complex. Since the annals in the Palermo stone terminate around Neferirkare’s rule, however, evidence from the other side of the stela implies that the document covered the reigns of later Old Kingdom kings. A decree, exempting personnel belonging to a temple from undertaking compulsory labour, an important cache of Old Kingdom administrative papyri, the Abusir Papyri, was discovered in Neferirkares mortuary temple between 1893 and 1907. This cache dates primarily from the reigns of Djedkare Isesi and Unas, one of the documents is a letter from Djedkare to the temple priests provisioning Neferirkares funerary temple. From the large size of his complex at Abusir, he was an important king. The Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai was initially designed as a 6-step pyramid 52 m high, the mortuary complex is unfinished, and only part of the lower mortuary temple was completed before, it is supposed, the abandonment of the project. Neferirkares reign was unusual for the significant number of surviving records which describe him as a kind. As Rawer gratefully states in an inscription from his Giza tomb, Similarly, finally, when the Vizier Washptah suffered a stroke while attending court, the king quickly summoned the palaces chief doctors to treat his dying Vizier
Neferirkare Kakai
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Pyramid of Neferirkare at Abusir
Neferirkare Kakai
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Inlays of a ritual vase bearing Neferikare Kakai's cartouche (5th dynasty). Egyptian Museum of Berlin.
50.
Neferefre
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Neferefre Isi was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, likely the fourth but also possibly the fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. He was very likely the eldest son of pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai and queen Khentkaus II, there are very few archaeological sources contemporaneous with Neferefres reign, which is now seen by Egyptologists, including Miroslav Verner, to witness a very short reign. In particular, as of 2017, only one inscription dated to his rule is known and it was left by the builders of his pyramid on a corner block at the end of the corridor leading down to the pyramid substructures. Therefore, the inscription is likely to refer to Neferefres first or second year on the throne, Neferefre is present on several Ancient Egyptian king lists, all dating to the New Kingdom period. During the subsequent reign of Ramses II, Neferefre appears on the Saqqara Tablet, this time after Shepseskare, owing to a scribal error, Neferefres name on this list is given as Khanefere or Neferkhare. Neferefres prenomen was most likely also given on the Turin canon, which dates to the period as the Saqqara tablet. Neferefre was also mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II by the Egyptian priest Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius, Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession Nefercherês → Sisirês → Cherês for the mid Fifth Dynasty. Nefercherês, Sisirês and Cherês are believed to be the forms for Neferirkare, Shepseskare and Neferkhare. Thus, Manethos reconstruction of the Fifth Dynasty is in agreement with the Saqqara tablet. In Africanus epitome of the Aegyptiaca, Cherês is reported to have reigned for 20 years, Neferefre was, in all likeliness, the eldest son of his predecessor pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai with queen Khentkaus II. This is shown by a relief on a limestone slab depicting Neferirkare and his wife Khentkaus with the kings eldest son Ranefer and this indicates that Ranefer was Neferefres name when he was still only a crown prince, that is before his accession to the throne. Neferirkare and Khentkaus had at least another son, the future king Nyuserre Ini, until 2014, no consort of Neferefre was known. Late in this however, the mastaba of Khentkaus III was discovered by archaeologists from the Czech Institute of Egyptology working in Abusir. The location and date of the tomb as well as found in it strongly suggest that Khentkaus III was Neferefres queen. In addition, Khentkaus III was also called Kings mother by inscriptions in her tomb, krejčí notes the lack of kings son title in relation to Kakaibaef however, thereby emphasizing the conjectural nature of Verners assertion. In this scenario, Neferefre would be the father of Nyuserre and this view was challenged at the turn of the millennium, most notably by Verner, who is responsible for the archaeological excavations of the Fifth Dynasty royal necropolis of Abusir since 1976. Firstly, there is the relief, mentioned earlier, showing that Neferefre was in all likeliness Neferirkares eldest son, secondly, excavations of Neferefres pyramid have yielded his mummy, which showed that he was 18 to 20 years old at the death of Neferirkare
Neferefre
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Painted limestone statue of Neferefre
51.
Menkauhor Kaiu
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Menkauhor Kaiu was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Old Kingdom period. He was the ruler of the Fifth Dynasty at the end of the 25th century BC or early in the 24th century BC. Menkauhor ruled for eight or nine years, following king Nyuserre Ini. Although Menkauhor is well attested by sources, few artifacts from his reign have survived. Consequently, his relation to his predecessor and successor is unclear. Khentkaus III may have been Menkauhors mother, as indicated by evidence discovered in her tomb in 2015, beyond the construction of monuments, the only known activity dated to Menkauhors reign is an expedition to the copper and turquoise mines in Sinai. Menkauhor ordered the construction of a sun temple, called the Akhet-Ra, the last ever to be built, this sun temple, known from inscriptions found in the tombs of its priests, is yet to be located. Menkauhor was buried in a pyramid in Saqqara, which the Ancient Egyptians named Netjer-Isut Menkauhor. Known today as the Headless Pyramid, the ruin had been lost under shifting sands until its rediscovery in 2008, Menkauhor is attested by three hieroglyphic sources, all from the much later New Kingdom period. His name is given on the 31st entry of the Abydos King List and he is also mentioned on the Saqqara Tablet and on the Turin canon, both of which were written during the reign of Ramesses II. The Turin canon credits Menkauhor with a reign of eight years and these sources indicate that Menkauhor succeeded Nyuserre Ini and preceded Djedkare Isesi on the throne, making him the seventh pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty. Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh Mencherês reigning for nine years as the king of the Fifth Dynasty. Relatively few attestations dating to Menkauhors reign have survived compared to the kings of the Fifth Dynasty. Cylinder seal impressions showing Menkauhors Horus name or the name of his pyramid have also unearthed in the mortuary complex of Nyuserre Ini. A gold cylinder seal bearing Menkauhors cartouche as part of the name of his pyramid together with the serekh of Djedkare Isesi is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The seal, purportedly discovered near the Pactolus river valley in western Anatolia, could attest to wide ranging trade-contacts during the Fifth Dynasty, but its provenance remains unverifiable. The statue was discovered in a built during the late New Kingdom beneath the floor of a room to the west of the sacred lake at the temple of Ptah in Memphis. The Egyptologist Jocelyn Berlandini proposed that another statuette, usually attributed to Teti, monumental attestations of Menkauhor are limited to a rock inscription at the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai, showing his titulary and a rough stele inscribed with his cartouche from Mastaba 904 at Saqqara
Menkauhor Kaiu
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Statue of Menkauhor wearing the dress of the Sed festival from Memphis
Menkauhor Kaiu
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The pyramid of Menkauhor (Lepsius XXIX) was constructed on a south-west north-east axis linking the pyramids of Djoser and Userkaf and, after Menkauhor's death, those of Unas and Teti as well.
Menkauhor Kaiu
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Menkauhor represented on a stele from the tomb of Ameneminet, Musée du Louvre
52.
Unas
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Unas /ˈjuːnəs/ or Wenis, also spelled Unis, was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the ninth and last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid-24th century BC succeeding Djedkare Isesi, little is known of Unas activities during his reign, which was a time of economic decline. Egypt maintained trade relations with the Levantine coast and Nubia, Unas built a pyramid in Saqqara, the smallest of the royal pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom. These texts identify the king with Ra and with Osiris, whose cult was on the rise in Unas time, Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him. Manetho, an Egyptian priest of the Ptolemaic period and author of the first history of Egypt, Unas was succeeded by Teti, the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty, possibly after a short crisis. The funerary cult of Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom, the cult was still in existence or revived during the later Middle Kingdom. This did not prevent Amenemhat I and Senusret I from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials. In parallel to the cult, Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis until as late as the Late Period. Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to the New Kingdom period mentioning him, Unas occupies the 33rd entry of the Abydos King List, which was written during the reign of Seti I. Unas name is present on the Saqqara Tablet and on the Turin canon. The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign and these sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, succeeding Djedkare Isesi and preceding Teti on the throne. This relative chronology is corroborated by evidence, for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings. In addition to sources, Unas was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius, Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh Onnos reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. Onnos is believed to be the form for Unas. The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas activities are the reliefs from his pyramid complex. Excluding these, surprisingly few documents dating to Unas reign have survived to this day, excavations at Abusir, the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty, have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas. They explicitly mention his third, fourth, sixth and eighth years on the throne, Unas also left a rock inscription on the island of Elephantine, next to the First Cataract of the Nile in Nubia
Unas
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Black basalt sarcophagus in the funerary chamber of Unas' pyramid
Unas
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Alabaster globular vase of Unas, Louvre Museum
Unas
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Relief showing starving nomads from Unas' causeway at Saqqara
Unas
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The pyramid of Unas at Saqqara
53.
Teti
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Teti, less commonly known as Othoes, was the first Pharaoh of the Sixth dynasty of Egypt and is buried at Saqqara. The exact length of his reign has been destroyed on the Turin King List, Teti had several wives, Iput, the daughter of Unas, the last king of the Fifth dynasty. Iput was the mother of Pepi I, Khuit, who may have been the mother of Userkare Khentkaus IV Weret-Imtes. This queen is mentioned in the autobiography of Wenis and it may be a reference to the title of the queen instead of her personal name. She was involved in a plot to overthrow Pepi. In the tomb of the official Wenis there is mention of “a secret charge in the royal harem against the Great of Sceptre”, Teti is known to have had several children. He was the father of at least three sons and probably ten daughters, Kanawati, Teti had at least 9 daughters, by a number of wives, and the fact that they were named after his mother, Sesheshet, allows to trace his family. At least three princesses bearing the name Seshseshet are designated as king’s eldest daughter, meaning there were at least three different queens. It seems that there was a one, born of a fourth queen as she is also designated as king’s eldest daughter. Seshseshet, whose name was Waatetkhéthor, married to Vizier Mereruka. She is designated as king’s eldest daughter of his body and she may have been the eldest daughter of Iput. Seshseshet with the name of Idut, king’s daughter of his body. Seshseshet Nubkhetnebty, king’s daughter of his body, wife of Vizier Kagemni and she was maybe also born of Iput. Seshseshet, also called Sathor, married to Isi, resident governor at Edfu and she also would have been born of Iput I. Seshseshet, with the name of Sheshit, king’s eldest daughter of his body and wife of the overseer of the great court Neferseshemptah. As she is an eldest daughter of the king, she cannot be born of the mother as Waatkhetethor. Seshseshet also called Sheshti, king’s daughter of his body, married to the keeper of the head ornaments Shepsipuptah, and depicted in her husband’s mastaba. Seshseshet with the name of Merout, entitled king’s eldest daughter but without the addition of his body and therefore born of a third, maybe a minor queen
Teti
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Piriform mace head inscribed with the cartouche of Teti, Imhotep Museum.
Teti
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Lantern Slide Collection: Views, Objects: Egypt. Chapel, Tomb of Nefer-Seshem-Ptah. Sakkara. 6th Dynasty., n.d. Brooklyn Museum Archives
Teti
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The ruins of Teti's pyramid (Saqqara)
Teti
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Pyramid texts from Teti I's pyramid at Saqqara
54.
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
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Merenre Nemtyemsaf I was the fourth king of the Sixth dynasty of Egypt. His nomen, theophorically referring to Nemty, was read as Antyemsaf. Merenre was a son of Pepi I and Ankhesenpepi I, and grandson of the female vizier Nebet and he also began a process of royal consolidation, appointing Weni as the first governor of all of Upper Egypt and expanding the power of several other governors. While he was assumed to have died at an early age. Two contemporary objects suggests that Merenres reign lasted more than a decade. The British Egyptologists Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson in a 1995 book raised Merenre Is reign from the traditional 6 year figure to 9 years. One must note that cattle counts were not always biennial, for example,18 had been performed by the 30th year of Pepi Is reign and it is therefore entirely possible that Merenre ruled for fewer than 11 years. Sixth dynasty royal seals and stone found at Saqqara demonstrate that Merenres aunt. Merenres daughter was Ankhesenpepi III, the wife of Pepi II. The South Saqqara Stone, Sixth Dynasty Annals
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
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A small wooden box inscribed with the names and titles of Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, Musée du Louvre
55.
Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
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Merenre Nemtyemsaf II was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the sixth and penultimate ruler of the 6th Dynasty. He reigned for 1 year and 1 month in the first half of the 22nd century BC, Nemtyemsaf II likely ascended the throne as an old man, succeeding his long-lived father Pepi II Neferkare at a time when the power of the pharaoh was crumbling. Merenre Nemtyemsaf II is attested on the 4th line, column 6 of the Turin canon, although his name is lost in the canon, the duration of its reign is still readable as 1 year and 1 month, following the reign of Pepi II Neferkare. The Abydos king list is the document where Nemtyemsaf II bears the throne name Merenre. A later historical source also records the existence of Nemtyemsaf II, indeed he is mentioned in Manethos Aegyptiaca, manetho gives Nemtyemsaf IIs name as Menthesouphis and credits him with one year of reign. There is only one contemporary artefact known for sure to belong to Nemtyemsaf II, a second artefact may possibly belong to Nemtyemsaf II, a decree to protect the funerary cults of queens Ankhesenpepi I and Neith discovered in the mortuary temple of queen Neith. If this decree was indeed issued by Nemtyemsaf II, his Horus name would be Stawy meaning He who causes the two lands to, Nemtyemsaf II succeeded his father Pepi II after his extremely long reign, believed to have been up to 94 years. Nothing is known for certain of Nemtyemsafs activities but he likely had to face the collapse of the royal power, less than 3 years after his death, the Old Kingdom period ended and the chaos of the First Intermediate Period started. Nemtyemsaf II may possibly have started a pyramid for himself and, if so, it would likely have been in Saqqara, close to that of his father. It is now recognized that the name Nitocris is a result of conflation and distortion from the name of a male pharaoh, Neitiqerty Siptah
Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
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The cartouche of Merenre Nemtyemsaf II on the Abydos king list.
56.
Netjerkare Siptah
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Netjerkare Siptah was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the seventh and last ruler of the 6th Dynasty. Alternatively some scholars classify him as the first king of the combined 7th and 8th Dynasties, as the last king of the 6th Dynasty, Netjerkare Siptah is considered by some Egyptologists to be the last king of the Old Kingdom period. Netjerkare Siptah enjoyed a reign in the early 22nd century BC, at a time when the power of the pharaoh was crumbling. Although he was male, Netjerkare Siptah is most likely the person as the female ruler Nitocris mentioned by Herodotus. The prenomen Netjerkare is inscribed on the 40th entry of the Abydos King List, Netjerkare immediately follows Merenre Nemtyemsaf II on the list. The prenomen Netjerkare is also attested on a single copper tool of unknown provenance, the nomen Neitiqerty Siptah is inscribed on the Turin canon, on the 5th column, 7th row. In his Histories, the Greek historian Herodotus records a legend according to which an Egyptian queen Nitocris took revenge on the murder of her brother and she diverted the Nile to drown all of the murderers during a banquet where she had gathered them. This story is reported by the Egyptian priest Manetho, who wrote an history of Egypt called Aegyptiaca in the 3rd century BC. Manetho writes of Nitocris that she was, braver than all the men of her time, the most beautiful of all women, fair-skinned with red cheeks. Manetho goes further and credits her with the construction of the Pyramid of Menkaure By her, it is said, although the murdered king is not named by Herodotus, Nitocris follows immediately Merenre Nemtyemsaf II in Manethos Aegyptiaca and so he is often identified as this king. Since the king following Merenre Nemtyemsaf II in the Abydos king list is Netjerkare, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt confirmed Sterns hypothesis in a recent study of the matter. Ryholt argues that the name Nitocris is a result of conflation and distortion from the name Netjerkare, confirming this analysis, the Turin canon, another king list redacted during the early Ramesside period lists a Neitiqerti Siptah at an uncertain position. Ryholts microscopic analyses of the fibers of the papyrus suggest that the fragment where this name belongs to the end of the 6th Dynasty. Since on the Abydos king list, Netjerkare is placed in the equivalent spot that Neitiqerti Siptah holds on the Turin canon, additionally, the nomen Siptah is masculine indicating that Nitocris was in fact a male pharaoh
Netjerkare Siptah
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The cartouche of Netjerkare on the Abydos King List.
57.
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Egypt
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The Dynasties VII and VIII ruled Egypt for approximately 20–45 years and various dates have been proposed, 2181–2160 BC, 2191–2145 BC, 2150–2118 BC. The power of the pharaohs of the 7th/8th Dynasties was waning while that of the provincial governors, eventually the nomarchs of Heracleopolis Magna overthrew the 8th Dynasty and founded the 9th Dynasty. The Egyptian priest Manetho wrote an history of Egypt during the 3rd century BC known as the Aegyptiaca, Manethos work has not survived to this day and is only known to us via three later writers who quoted from it. Unfortunately, these three sources are difficult to work with. Africanus claims that Dynasty VII consisted of 70 kings that ruled during a period of seventy days in Memphis, however, Eusebius records that during Dynasty VII five kings ruled over seventy five days, and Dynasty VIII includes five kings who ruled for 100 years. Seventy kings in seventy days is considered the correct version of Manetho. This epithet is interpreted to mean that the pharaohs of this period were extremely ephemeral, because Manetho does not provide actual historical data on this period, many argue that the seventh dynasty is fictitious. The Turin and Abydos king lists were written during the reigns of Seti I and his son Ramses II and both record the pharaohs of Egypt from the 1st Dynasty onwards. The kings mentioned on the entries 42 to 56 of the Abydos king list come between the end of Dynasty VI and the beginning of Dynasty XI, and do not appear to be from the 9th nor from the 10th and these are thus assigned to the 8th Dynasty. The Turin Canon is heavily damaged, and cannot be read without much difficulty, there seems to be room for two more kings before the end of the dynasty. This would indicate that the parts of the Turin Papyrus probably contained the kings in the fifty-first to fifty-fifth registers of the Abydos King List. Because the Turin papyrus omits the first nine kings on the Abydos list, hayes thinks it reasonable that the Egyptians may have divided Dynasties VII and VIII at this point. Some of the acts of the final four Dynasty VIII kings are recorded in their decrees to Shemay and his pyramid has been found at Saqqara near that of Pepi II and, like its predecessors, had the Pyramid Texts written on the walls. However many kings there actually were, it is clear that during this period a breakdown of the central authority of Egypt was underway. The rulers of these dynasties were based in Memphis, with the exception of the final Dynasty VIII kings and this group of kings was eventually overthrown by a rival group, Dynasty IX, based in Herakleopolis Magna. The classification of the Egyptian pharaohs into dynasties is due to the Egyptian priest Manetho who wrote an history of Egypt called Aegyptiaca in the 3rd century BC. Manetho assigns 70 kings ruling 70 days to the 7th Dynasty thereby reflecting the chaos prevailing at the end of the Old Kingdom and in the early First Intermediate Period
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Egypt
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Kings of the 8th Dynasty on the Abydos king list, from Netjerkare Siptah to Neferkamin.
58.
Menkare
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Menkare was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the first or second ruler of the combined 7th/8th Dynasty, depending on the scholar. Menkare probably enjoyed only a short reign at the transition between the Old Kingdom period and the First Intermediate Period, in the early 22nd century BC. The rapid succession of brief reigns at the time suggests times of hardship, as a pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty, Menkares seat of power was Memphis. The praenomen Menkare appears on the 41st entry of the list, contemporaneous source The tomb of queen Neit in South Saqqara houses a relief showing the queen in front of a damaged royal cartouche. The Egyptologist Percy Newberry proposed that the cartouche reads Menkare, which would thus be the sole contemporaneous attestation for this king having survived to this day and this opinion is shared by Gae Callender, who reexamined Jéquiers plates of the inscription. The seal dates to the 26th Dynasty, some 1700 years after Menkares lifetime, Petrie based his hypothesis on the fact that Nitocris is credited with the construction of the third pyramid of Giza by Manetho. Since this pyramid was in fact built by Menkaure, Petrie surmised that Manetho fell victim to a tradition which had confused Menkare and Menkaure, similarly, the seal would seem to be another manifestation of this confusion. Petries hypothesis has been disproven by modern analyses of the Turin canon however. The attribution of the seal remains uncertain
Menkare
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The cartouche of Menkare on the Abydos King List.
59.
Neferkare II
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Neferkare II was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darell Baker he was the king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasty. As a pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty, Neferkare IIs capital would have been Memphis, Neferkare II is only attested through his name, which given on the 42nd entry of the Abydos King List. The Abydos king list was redacted some 900 years after the First intermediate period during the reign of Seti I, Jürgen von Beckerath tentatively identified Neferkare II with the prenomen Wadjkare, which is attested on a graffito from the Wadi Hammamat contemporary with First Intermediate Period
Neferkare II
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The cartouche of Neferkare II on the Abydos King List.
60.
Neferkahor
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Neferkahor was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty during the First Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath and Darell Baker, he was the king of this dynasty. His name is attested on the Abydos King List and on a steatite cylinder seal of unknown provenance. His name is absent from the Turin canon, a lacuna affecting the 7th/8th dynasty where his name would have been listed, First Intermediate Period on Digital Egypt for Universities, Accessed April 19,2014
Neferkahor
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The cartouche of Neferkahor on the Abydos King List.
61.
Neferkamin Anu
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Neferkamin Anu was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. According to the Abydos King List and the latest reconstruction of the Turin canon by Kim Ryholt and this opinion is shared by the egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath, Thomas Schneider and Darell Baker. As a pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty, Neferkamin Anu would have reigned over the Memphite region, Neferkamin Anu is mentioned on the entry 52 of the Abydos King list, which was compiled in the early Ramesside period. The list names his predecessor as Neferkare Pepiseneb and his successor as Qakare Ibi, the Turin canon identifies Nerferkamin Anu with a Nefer mentioned on column 4, line 10 of the document, which is in agreement with the Abydos king list. Any detail about Neferkamin Anus reign is lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon, the name of Neferkamin Anu is translisterated as Neferkamin Anu even though it is reported as Sneferka Anu on the Abydos King list. The reason for this transliteration is that the hieroglyph sign O34, reading s, could replace the sign R22 for the god Min and reading Mn
Neferkamin Anu
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The cartouche of Neferkamin Anu on the Abydos King List reading Sneferka Anu.
62.
Neferirkare
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Neferirkare was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darell Baker he was the 17th, for many scholars, this makes Neferirkare the last pharaoh of the Old Kingdom, which comes to an end with the 8th Dynasty. Neferirkare IIs name is attested on the 56th entry of the Abydos King List. The latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list compiled in the Ramesside era, indicates that Neferirkare II is also attested there on column 5, line 13. Farouk Gomaà, William C. Hayes and Baker identify Neferirkare II with the horus name Demedjibtawy appearing on a single decree, the decree concerns the temple of Min at Coptos, exempting it from dues and duties. This identification is rejected by Jürgen von Beckerath, another proposed identification concerns the prenomen Wadjkare, which also appears on the Coptos Decree R. At the opposite, Gomaà and Hayes equate Wadjkare with a ruler named Hor-Khabaw. Alternatively, Hans Goedicke proposed that Wadjkare is the predecessor of Demedjibtawy, thomas Schneider leaves the problem open and relates Wadjkare equally to either Neferkare II or Neferirkare II without further reference to Demedjibtawy. In 2014 Maha Farid Mostafa published an inscription, found in the tomb of Shemay, the inscription belongs most likely to Idy, a son of Shemay, albeit Idys name is not preserved. The text is dated under a king with the name Pepy, Maha Farid Mostafa reconstructed that throne name to Neferirkare. The inscription dates for sure to the 8th Dynasty, if this reconstruction is correct, Neferirkare is most likely identical with Demedjibtawy. Idy is mentioned on one of the Coptos decrees together with Demedjibtawy, the Turin canon credits Neferirkare II with a year and half of reign. Both the Turin canon and the Abydos king list record Neferirkare II as the last ruler of the combined 7th/8th, Neferirkare was possibly overthrown by the first king of the succeeding Herakleopolitan 9th Dynasty, Meryibre Khety. Alternatively the Egyptian state may have collapsed with the onset of low Nile floods, mass famine
Neferirkare
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The cartouche of Neferirkare on the Abydos King List.
63.
Khuiqer
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His datation is extremely uncertain since he was tentatively placed in both the First and the Second Intermediate Period. After the finding of the lintel, Petrie believed the name to be Uaqerre but was doubtful about his datation. Shortly after, Gaston Maspero attributed the mysterious king to the 6th – 11th Dynasty range, max Pieper more correctly read the name Khuiqer, claiming that this king should have reigned between the 13th and the 18th Dynasties. Ludwig Borchardt came to the conclusion, while in 1907 Henri Gauthier, following instead Maspero. When, more recently, the German Egyptologist Detlef Franke proposed the existence of the Abydos Dynasty, ryholt then suggested an earlier placement for Khuiqer, at an imprecise time during the First Intermediate Period
Khuiqer
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Lintel with the cartouche of Khuiqer, from Abydos.
64.
Nebkaure Khety
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Nebkaure Khety was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 9th or 10th Dynasty, during the First Intermediate Period. Practically nothing is known about the events of Nebkaures reign, due to the opinions of scholars. Many egyptologists assign Nebkaure to the 9th Dynasty, possibly the fourth king, on the other hand, other scholars such as Jürgen von Beckerath believe instead that Nebkaure reigned during the subsequent 10th Dynasty, possibly before Meryibre Khety. Revisionist historian David Rohl in his New Chronology, assumes that Nebkaure Khety was the pharaoh met by Abraham during the stay in Egypt. Like many of the kings who preceded or succeeded him, attestations of Nebkaure Khety are scant, on the Turin King List he was tentatively placed in the register 4.21. Royal Titulary of Nebkaure Khety on Eglyphica. net
Nebkaure Khety
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Jasper weight with the cartouche of Nebkaure Khety.
65.
Merikare
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Merikare was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 10th Dynasty who lived towards the end of the First Intermediate Period. His name cannot be recognized in the Turin King List, also his dates are uncertain, according to many scholars, he ruled at the end of the 10th Dynasty following his fathers long reign in his middle-age. The identity of his predecessor is still a question of debate among Egyptologists, some scholars tend to identify Merikares predecessor with Wahkare Khety. These sebayt – possibly composed under the reign of Merikare himself, the text also mentions the eastern borders, recently secured but still in need of the kings attention. In the text, Merikares unnamed father mentions having sacked Thinis, once crowned, around 2075 BCE, Merikare wisely resigned himself to the existence of two separate kingdoms and tried to maintain the policy of peaceful coexistence achieved by his father. It seems that the period of peace brought a certain amount of prosperity to Merikares realm, some time later, the pharaoh himself was forced to sail up the Nile with his court on a great fleet. Once he reached Asyut, the king installed the loyalist nomarch Khety II, after that, Merikare advanced farther upstream to the town of Shashotep, likely to quell a revolt, and at the same time as a show of force to the turbulent southern border areas. Merikare died in c.2040 BCE, a few months before the fall of Herakleopolis, thus, the final defeat by the Thebans, led by Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty, was likely inflicted upon an ephemeral, unnamed successor. Many sources suggest that Merikare was buried in a pyramid in Saqqara, called Flourishing are the Abodes of Merikare. They include Gemniemhat who also held important positions. Merikare is the most attested among the Herakleopolite rulers, in 2003 the Egyptologist Arkadi F. Demidchik suggested that Merikares placement within the dynasty should be reconsidered. Wolfgang Kosack, Berliner Hefte zur ägyptischen Literatur 1 -12, paralleltexte in Hieroglyphen mit Einführungen und Übersetzung. Heft 8, Die Lehre für König Merikarê
Merikare
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Scribe palette of the chancellor Orkaukhety, with the cartouche of Merikare.
66.
Mentuhotep I
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Mentuhotep I may have been a Theban nomarch and independent ruler of Upper Egypt during the early First Intermediate Period. He was later considered to be the founding father of the Eleventh dynasty. Mentuhotep may have been a local Egyptian nomarch at Thebes during the early first intermediate period, the Karnak king list found in the Festival Hall of Thutmose III preserves, in position No. 12, the partial name Men- in a cartouche, distinct from those of Mentuhotep II or Mentuhotep III. The available fragments of the Karnak list do not seem to represent past pharaohs in any chronological order, on the base of a statue from the sanctuary of Heqaib on Elephantine, a Mentuhotep is referred to as Father of the gods. This title probably refers to Mentuhoteps immediate successors, Intef I, the throne name of Mentuhotep is unknown, since he may not have been a king, and no subsequent 11th Dynasty king bore any throne name until Mentuhotep II, it is probable that he never had one. His Horus name Tepi-a, The ancestor was given to him posthumously. Mentuhoteps wife may have been Neferu I and the statue from Heqaib may be interpreted to show that he was the father of Intef I, the Karnak king list has apparently one non-royal personage, named Intef, in position no.13. This could possibly refer to Intef the elder, son of Iku, however, the kings on the remaining fragments are not listed in chronological order, so this is not at all certain. As Theban nomarch, Mentuhoteps dominion perhaps extended south to the first cataract
Mentuhotep I
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Sitting statue of Mentuhotep I from Elephantine, now in Cairo
Mentuhotep I
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Karnak king list showing the partial name "Men..." in a cartouche (No. 12).
67.
Intef II
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Wahankh Intef II was the third ruler of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. He reigned for almost fifty years from 2112 BC to 2063 BC and his capital was located at Thebes. In his time, Egypt was split between several local dynasties and he was buried in a saff tomb at El-Tarif. Intefs parents were Mentuhotep I and Neferu I and his predecessor Intef I may have been his brother. Intef was succeeded by his son Intef III, after the death of the nomarch Ankhtifi, Intef was able to unite all the southern nomes down to the First Cataract. After this he clashed with his rivals, the kings of Herakleopolis Magna for the possession of Abydos. The city changed several times, but Intef II was eventually victorious. After these wars, more friendly relations were established and the rest of Intefs reign was peaceful and this impression would appear to be confirmed by an expedition led by Djemi from Gebelein to the land of Wawat during his reign. Consequently, when Intef II died, he left behind a government in Thebes which controlled the whole of Upper Egypt. The earliest attested dating of the god Amun at Karnak occurs during his reign, the surviving sections of the Turin Canon for the Middle Kingdom assign this king a reign of 49 years. Intef II apparently never held the full royal titulary of the Old Kingdom pharaohs. He did, however, claim the dual kingship nswt bity and the title son of Ra. Finally, upon accession to the Theban throne, Intef II added the Horus name Wahankh, enduring of life, to his birth name. We know the name and activities of some of the officials who served under Intef II, Tjetjy was the treasurer and king’s chamberlain of Intef II. Tjetjy then describes his career in the typical manner of the Egyptian elite. I am one who loved good and hated evil, one who was loved in the palace of his lord, indeed, as for every task which he commanded me to undertake, I performed it rightly and justly. Never did I disobey the orders he gave me, never did I substitute one thing for another, djary was a military officer who fought the Herakleopolitan forces in the Abydene nome during Intef IIs armies northward push. His stele recounts the struggle for the control over Middle Egypt, Hetepy was an official from Elkab who administered the three southernmost nomes of Intef IIs realm
Intef II
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Funerary stele of Intef II, on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Intef II
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The dogs of Intef II on his funerary stele, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
68.
Mentuhotep II
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Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II was a Pharaoh of the 11th Dynasty who reigned for 51 years. Around his 39th year on the throne he reunited Egypt, thus ending the First Intermediate Period, consequently, he is considered the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom. Mentuhotep II was the son of Intef III and Intef IIIs wife Iah who may also have been his sister. This lineage is demonstrated by the stele of Henenu, an official who served under Intef II, Intef III and his son, as for Iah, she bore the title of mwt-nswt, Kings mother. The parentage of Mentuhotep II is also confirmed by a relief at Shatt er-Rigal. f Kings wife, his beloved. She gave Mentuhotep II two children, one of which was certainly Mentuhotep III since Tem was also called mwt-nswt, Kings mother and mwt-nswt-bitj, apparently she died after her husband and was buried by her son in Mentuhotep temple. Her tomb was discovered in 1859 by Lord Duffering and fully excavated in 1968 by D. Arnold, Neferu II was called Kings wife and hmt-nswt-mryt. f, Kings wife, his beloved. She was buried in the tomb TT319 of Deir el-Bahri, kawit was one of Mentuhotep IIs secondary wives. She bore the titles of hmt-nswt mryt. f Kings wife, his beloved and khkrt-nswt and she was a Priestess of the goddess Hathor. It has been suggested that she was Nubian and she was buried under the terrasse of Mentuhotep IIs mortuary temple where E. Naville uncovered her sarcophagus in 1907. Sadeh, Ashayet, Henhenet and Kemsit were all Mentuhotep IIs secondary wives and they bore the title of hmt-nswt mryt. f Kings wife, his beloved and khkrt-nswt-w3tit Unique embellishment of the King. They were priestesses of Hathor and each of them was buried in a pit dug under the terrasse of Mentuhotep IIs temple. Note that an alternative theory holds that Henhenet was one of Intef IIIs secondary wives, Henhenet might have died in childbirth. Mwyt, a girl buried with Mentuhotep IIs secondary wives. It is not clear if she was one of Mentuhoteps wives herself or one of his daughters, Mentuhotep II is considered to be the first ruler of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. The Turin Canon credits him with a reign of 51 years, when he ascended the Theban throne, Mentuhotep II inherited the vast land conquered by his predecessors from the first cataract in the south to Abydos and Tjebu in the north. Mentuhotep IIs first fourteen years of reign seem to have been peaceful in the Theban region as there are no surviving traces of conflict firmly datable to that period, in the 14th year of his reign, an uprising occurred in the north. This uprising is most probably connected with the conflict between Mentuhotep II based in Thebes and the rival 10th Dynasty based at Herakleopolis who threatened to invade Upper Egypt
Mentuhotep II
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Mentuhotep II on a relief from his mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahari
Mentuhotep II
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Silsileh rock carving depicting a giant king Mentuhotep II, on the right Intef III and the treasurer Kheti and, on the left, queen Iah.
Mentuhotep II
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Sarcophagus of Kawit, 1907 photography by E. Naville.
Mentuhotep II
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Painted sandstone seated statue of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
69.
Mentuhotep III
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Sankhkare Mentuhotep III of the Eleventh dynasty was Pharaoh of Egypt during the Middle Kingdom. He was assigned a reign of 12 years in the Turin Canon, Mentuhotep III succeeded his father Mentuhotep II to the throne. It is believed that, following his fathers long 51 years of reign, Mentuhotep III was relatively old when he acceded to the throne, despite its short duration, Mentuhoteps reign is known for his expedition to Punt and architectural innovations. Mentuhotep IIIs titulary is very similar to the third and final one of his father, an inscription in the Wadi Hammamat describes the expedition as being 3000 men strong and under the command of the steward Henenu. As they left Coptos in direction of the Red Sea, they dug 12 wells for future expeditions and they returned from Punt with incense, gum and perfumes, and quarried the Wadi Hammamat for stones. Sankhkare Mentuhotep was responsible for building projects in the 12 years of his reign. His own mortuary temple was begun in Deir el-Bahari, but never completed, the temple was located a short distance from his fathers mortuary temple. A causeway would have led up to a temple platform, inscriptions show that the king was buried in a chamber cut into the rock-face. Sankhkare Mentuhotep also had a temple erected at Thoth Hill in Western Thebes. The temple was built on the site of an archaic temple. It was dedicated to the god Montu-Ra and this temple may have been destroyed by an earthquake towards the end of the 11th dynasty. Mentuhotep III was the son and successor of Mentuhotep II, one of the wives of Mentuhotep II, Tem, was given the title Mother of the Dual King and based on that title she is almost certainly the mother of Mentuhotep III. Mentuhotep IIIs family is mostly a mystery and it is currently believed that he fathered his successor Mentuhotep IV with one of his harem wives, Imi. This is however still debated Mentuhotep IVs mother is known to have been Queen Imi, if he was the son of Mentuhotep III, Imi must have been the wife of Mentuhotep III. The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, History, Archaeology and Society
Mentuhotep III
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Mentuhotep III on a relief carving from the temple of Monthu in Medamud.
Mentuhotep III
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Osiride statue of the 11th dynasty pharaoh Mentuhotep III, on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
70.
Mentuhotep IV
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Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV was the last king of the 11th Dynasty. He seems to fit into a 7-year period in the Turin Canon for which there is no recorded king and he is known from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. It seems that he was a son of his predecessor, also, he is attested by the inscriptions at Wadi el-Hudi. Another relevant inscription is found in Ain Sukhna and these locations were the usual staging harbours for the expeditions to the Sinai. Despite Mentuhoteps obscurity, the show the organization and makeup of a large expedition during his reign. A fragment of a slate bowl had found at Lisht North that is inscribed on the outside with the official titulary of Mentuhotep IV. It is assumed by some Egyptologists that Amenemhat either usurped the throne or assumed power after Mentuhotep IV died childless, there is currently no archaeological or textual evidence to prove that Mentuhotep was deposed by his vizier or that he chose Amenemhat to be his designated successor. Neither his mummy nor his burial place have been found, W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 25-26
Mentuhotep IV
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Mentuhotep IV (right) gives offerings to Min. From Wadi Hammamat
71.
Senusret I
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Senusret I, also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I, was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 BC to 1926 BC, and was one of the most powerful kings of this Dynasty and he was the son of Amenemhat I and his wife Nefertitanen. His wife and sister was Neferu and she was also the mother of the successor Amenemhat II. Senusret I was known by his prenomen, Kheperkare, which means the Ka of Re is created and he also organized an expedition to a Western Desert oasis. Senusret I established diplomatic relations with rulers of towns in Syria. He also tried to centralize the countrys political structure by supporting nomarchs who were loyal to him and his pyramid was constructed at el-Lisht. Senusret I dispatched several quarrying expeditions to the Sinai and Wadi Hammamat and built numerous shrines and temples throughout Egypt and he rebuilt the important temple of Re-Atum in Heliopolis which was the centre of the sun cult. He erected 2 red granite obelisks there to celebrate his Year 30 Heb Sed Jubilee, one of the obelisks still remains and is the oldest standing obelisk in Egypt. It is now in the Al-Masalla area of Al-Matariyyah district near the Ain Shams district and it is 67 feet tall and weighs 120 tons or 240,000 pounds. A shrine with fine, high quality reliefs of Senusret I, was built at Karnak to commemorate his Year 30 jubilee and it has subsequently been successfully reconstructed from various stone blocks discovered by Henri Chevrier in 1926. Finally, Senusret remodelled the Temple of Khenti-Amentiu Osiris at Abydos, some of the key members of the court of Senusret I are known. The vizier at the beginning of his reign was Intefiqer, who is known from many inscriptions and he seems to have held this office for a long period of time and was followed by a vizier named Senusret. Two treasurers are known from the reign of the king, Sobekhotep and Mentuhotep, the latter had a huge tomb next to the pyramid of the king and he seems to have been the main architect of the Amun temple at Karnak. Hor is known from several stelae and from an inscription in the Wadi el-Hudi where he was evidently the leader of an expedition for amethyst, one of the stelae is dated to year nine of the king. A certain Nakhr followed in office attested around year 12 of the king, a certain Antef, son of a woman called Zatamun is known again from several stelae, one dates to year 24 another one to year 25 of Senusret I. Another Antef was the son a woman called Zatuser and was most likely also high steward in the kings reign, Senusret was crowned coregent with his father, Amenemhat I, in his fathers 20th regnal year. Towards the end of his own life, he appointed his son Amenemhat II as his coregent, the stele of Wepwawetō is dated to the 44th year of Senusret and to the 2nd year of Amenemhet, thus he would have appointed him some time in his 43rd year. Senusret is thought to have died during his 46th year on the throne since the Turin Canon ascribes him a reign of 45 Years, loyalist Teaching Senusret Kheperkare Sesostris I
Senusret I
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Heliopolis obelisk (Senusret I)
Senusret I
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Bust of Senusret I in the Neues Museum, Berlin
Senusret I
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Osiride statue (Senusret I)
Senusret I
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Stone weight with Senusret I's cartouche
72.
Amenemhat II
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See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Nubkaure Amenemhat II was the pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. Although he ruled for at least 35 years, his reign is rather obscure, archaeological findings have provided the name of Amenemhats mother, the kings mother Neferu III, but not the name of his father. Nevertheless, it is assumed that he was a son of his predecessor Senusret I. The identity of Amenemhats queen consort is unknown and his successor Senusret II was likely his son, although this is never explicitly stated anywhere. The most important record for Amenemhats early reign is on fragments of the so-called Annals of Amenemhat II unearthed at Memphis and it provides records of donations to temples and, sometimes, of political events. Under Amenemhat II several mining expeditions are known, at least 3 in the Sinai, one in the Wadi Gasus and he is known to have ordered building works at Heliopolis, Herakleopolis, Memphis, in the Eastern Delta, and rebuilt a ruined temple at Hermopolis. There are some mentions of the building of a First temple, a well-known finding associated with Amenemhat II is the sphinx Louvre A23 from Tanis, later usurped by many other pharaohs. Many private stelae bears Amenemhats cartouches – and sometimes even his regnal years – but are of little help in providing information about the events of his reign. Some members of Amenemhats court are known, beside Siese, other known treasurers were Rehuerdjersen and Merykau. The overseer of the gateway, Khentykhetywer, was buried near the kings pyramid, other known officials were the overseers of the chamber, Snofru and Senitef, and the royal scribe and iry-pat Samont. Amenemhat II and his successor Senusret II shared a brief coregency, Amenemhats year 35 on the stela of Hapu is also the highest date known for him. At the present time, Amenemhats pyramid – originally called Amenu-sekhem, the mortuary temple adjacent the pyramid was called Djefa-Amenemhat. One likely statue of Amenemhat in 3D model on Sketchfab
Amenemhat II
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Sphinx of Amenemhat II
Amenemhat II
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Head from a sphinx, ca. 1876-1842 B.C.E.,56.85, Brooklyn Museum; This head depicts an ancient Egyptian princess, daughter of King Amenemhat II, and originally had a lion’s body.
73.
Senusret II
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Khakheperre Senusret II was the fourth pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1897 BC to 1878 BC and his pyramid was constructed at El-Lahun. The purpose of his project was to increase the amount of land in that area. The importance of project is emphasized by Senusret IIs decision to move the royal necropolis from Dahshur to El-Lahun where he built his pyramid. This location would remain the capital for the 12th and 13th Dynasties of Egypt. The king also established the first known workers quarter in the town of Senusrethotep. Unlike his successor, Senusret II maintained good relations with the various nomarchs or provincial governors of Egypt who were almost as wealthy as the pharaoh and his Year 6 is attested in a wall painting from the tomb of a local nomarch named Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan. Of the rulers of this Dynasty, the length of Senusret IIs reign is the most debated amongst scholars, some scholars prefer to ascribe him a reign of only 10 Years and assign the 19 Year reign to Senusret III instead. This would entail amending the 19-year figure which the Turin Canon assigns for a 12th dynasty ruler in his position to 9 years instead, however, Senusret IIs monthly figure on the throne might be ascertained. These documents state that this Festival occurred on IV Peret day 14, Senusret II may not have shared a coregency with his son, Senusret III, unlike most other Middle Kingdom rulers. None of these three items, however, necessitate a coregency, moreover, the evidence from the papyrus document is now obviated by the fact that the document has been securely dated to Year 19 of Senusret III and Year 1 of Amenemhet III. At present, no document from Senusret IIs reign has been discovered from Lahun and it is now located in the Cairo Museum. The tomb of Princess Sithathoriunet, a daughter of Senusret II, was discovered by Egyptologists in a separate burial site. Several pieces of jewellery from her including a pair of pectorals. They are now displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of New York or the Cairo Museum in Egypt, in 2009, Egyptian archaeologists announced the results of new excavations led by egyptologist Abdul Rahman Al-Ayedi. They described unearthing a cache of mummies in brightly painted wooden coffins near the Lahun pyramid. The mummies were reportedly the first to be found in the desert rock surrounding the pyramid. The pyramid was built around a framework of limestone radial arms, instead of using an infill of stones, mud and mortar, Senusret II used an infill of mud bricks before cladding the structure with a layer of limestone veneer
Senusret II
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Head of a statue of Senusret II from Karnak
Senusret II
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Pectoral of Senusret II (tomb of Sithathoriunet)
Senusret II
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Crown of Princess Sithathoriunet.
Senusret II
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The pyramid of Senusret II at El-Lahun
74.
Amenemhat III
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See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat III, also spelled Amenemhet III, was a pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from c.1860 BC to c.1814 BC and his reign is regarded as the golden age of the Middle Kingdom. He may have had a coregency with his father, Senusret III. His daughter, Sobekneferu, later succeeded Amenemhat IV, as the last ruler of the twelfth dynasty, Amenemhat IIIs throne name, Nimaatre, means Belonging to the Justice of Re. He built his first pyramid at Dahshur, but there were construction problems, around Year 15 of his reign the king decided to build a new pyramid at Hawara, near the Faiyum. The pyramid at Dahshur was used as ground for several royal women. The mortuary temple attached to the Hawara pyramid may have known to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus as the Labyrinth. Strabo praised it as a wonder of the world, nevertheless, the kings burial was robbed in antiquity. His daughter or sister, Neferuptah, was buried in a separate pyramid 2 km southwest of the kings, the pyramidion of Amenemhet IIIs pyramid tomb was found toppled from the peak of its structure and preserved relatively intact, it is today located in the Cairo Egyptian Museum. There is very little evidence for military expeditions in the reign of the king, there is only one record for a small mission in year nine of the king. The evidence for that was found in an inscription in Nubia. The short text reports that a mission was guided by the mouth of Nekhen Zamonth who reports that he went north with a small troop. Many expeditions to mining areas are recorded under the king, there are two expeditions known to the Wadi el-Hudi at the southern border of Egypt, where Amethyst was collected. One of the dates to year 11, of the king. Two further to year 20 and to year 28, there were further mining expeditions to the Wadi Hammamat. These are dated to year 2,3,19,20 and 33 of the kings reign, the inscriptions of year 19 and 20 might be related to the building start of the pyramid complex at Hawara. They report the breaking of stone for statues, at the Red Sea coast, at Mersa was discovered a stela mentioning an expedition to Punt under Amenemhat III
Amenemhat III
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Statuette head of Amenemhat III, now in the Louvre
Amenemhat III
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Statue from the Egyptian Collection of the Hermitage Museum
Amenemhat III
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Pectoral of Amenemhat III, tomb of Mereret.
Amenemhat III
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Pyramidion or Capstone of Amenemhat III's pyramid.
75.
Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Thirteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt is often combined with Dynasties XI, XII and XIV under the group title Middle Kingdom. Some writers separate it from these dynasties and join it to Dynasties XIV through XVII as part of the Second Intermediate Period, Dynasty XIII lasted from approximately 1803 BC until approximately 1649 BC, i. e. for 154 years. The 13th dynasty was a continuation of the preceding 12th dynasty. As direct heirs to the kings of the 12th dynasty, pharaohs of the 13th dynasty reigned from Memphis over Middle and Upper Egypt, all the way to the second cataract to the south. The power of the 13th dynasty waned progressively over its 150 years of existence and it came to an end with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty. In later texts, this dynasty is described as an era of chaos. Unfortunately, the chronology of this dynasty is difficult to determine as there are few monuments dating from the period. Many of the names are only known from odd fragmentary inscriptions or from scarabs. The names and order in the table are based on Dodson and Hilton, following these kings, the remaining rulers of the 13th Dynasty are only attested by finds from Upper Egypt. This may indicate the abandonment of the old capital Itjtawy in favor of Thebes, daphna Ben Tor believes that this event was triggered by the invasion of the eastern Delta and the Memphite region by Canaanite rulers. For some authors, this marks the end of the Middle Kingdom and this analysis is rejected by Ryholt and Baker however, who note that the stele of Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning toward the end of the dynasty, strongly suggests that he reigned over Memphis. Unfortunately, the stele is of unknown provenance and this is now the dominant hypothesis in Egyptology and Sobekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy is referred to as Sobekhotep I in this article. Ryholt thus credits Sekhemre Khutawy Sobkhotep I with a reign of 3 to 4 years c.1800 BC, Dodson and Hilton similarly believe that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep predated Khaankhre Sobekhotep. After allowing discipline at the forts to deteriorate, the government eventually withdrew its garrisons and, not long afterward. In the north, Lower Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos, an independent line of kings created Dynasty XIV that arose in the western Delta during later Dynasty XIII. Their regime, called Dynasty XV, was claimed to have replaced Dynasties XIII, however, recent archaeological finds at Edfu could indicate that the Hyksos 15th dynasty was already in existence at least by the mid-13th dynasty reign of king Sobekhotep IV. In a recently published paper in Egypt and the Levant, Nadine Moeller, Gregory Marouard, the preserved contexts of these seals shows that Sobekhotep IV and Khyan were most likely contemporaries of one another. Therefore, Manethos statement that the Hyksos 15th dynasty violently replaced the 13th dynasty could be a piece of later Egyptian propaganda, thus the seals of Sobekhotep IV might not indicate that he was a contemporary of Khyan
Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Statue of the royal sealer and high steward Gebu, 13th dynasty, c. 1700 BC from the temple of Amun in Karnak.
76.
Sonbef
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Mehibtawy Sekhemkare Amenemhat Sonbef was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker, he was the 2nd king of the dynasty, there is a debate between egyptologists as whether or not Sekhemkare Sonbef is the same king as Sekhemkare Amenemhat V, 4th ruler of the 13th dynasty. Thus, they see Sonbef and Amenemhat V as two different rulers, an opinion shared by Jürgen von Beckerath. At the opposite Detlef Franke and Stephen Quirke believe that Amenemhat V and Sonbef are one, Franke and others regard Amenemhat Sonbef as a double name. Indeed, double naming was common in Egypt and especially in the late 12th and 13th Dynasty, Sonbef is attested on column 7, line 6 of the Turin canon, where he appears as Sekhemkare f. Although, as a king of the early 13th dynasty, Sonbef certainly reigned from Itjtawy in the Faiyum, the only contemporary attestations of him are from south of Thebes. Two Nile records are also attributable to him, one from Askut and dated to his year 3, a further, much damaged record from Semna and dated to a year 5 may also belong to him. The ownership of these Nile records is still in doubt however, as they bear the prenomen Sekhemkare. The egyptologist and archaeologist Stuart Tyson Smith who studied the records initially attributed them to Sonbef, but later changed his opinion and attributed them to Amenemhat V
Sonbef
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Cylinder seal bearing the royal titulary of Sonbef, drawing by Flinders Petrie.
77.
Nerikare
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Nerikare was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the king of the dynasty. Alternatively Jürgen von Beckerath sees Nerikare as the king of the 13th Dynasty. Nerikare is known primarily from a stele dated to year 1 of his reign. The stele was published in 1897 but is now lost, the prenomen of a king is attested on a Nile record from Semna, near the second cataract of the Nile in Nubia. The record is dated to the first regnal year of king, whose name was read as Djefakare by egyptologists F. Hintze. Thus, Ryholt and others, such as Darrell Baker, now reads the name as Nerikare, Ryholt points out that known Nile records, which are similar to the one attributed to Nerikare, all date to the time period from the late 12th to early 13th dynasties. A wsf lacuna signals a lacuna in the document from which the Turin canon was copied in Ramesside times. This would establish Nerikare as the king of the dynasty. Instead, Ryholt proposes that Nerikare reigned for only 1 year, in his 1997 study of the second intermediate period, Kim Ryholt proposes that Nerikares nomen may have been Sobek. This nomen appears on three seals, which can be dated to the 13th dynasty, before Sobekhotep III, since the nomina of all but two kings of this period are known, he argues that only Nerikare or Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw might have borne this nomen
Nerikare
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Drawing of the text on the stele of Nerikare discovered in Thebes by Karl Richard Lepsius, now lost.
78.
Hotepibre
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Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the king of the dynasty, reigning for one to five years. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke see him as the king of the dynasty. Ryholt further proposes that he was succeeded by a king named Iufni, after the short reign of Iufni, the throne went to another grandson of Amenemhat V named Ameny Antef Amenemhat VI. A statue dedicated to Ptah and bearing the name of Hotepibre was found in Khatana, a Temple-block from el-Atawla with his name is now in the Cairo Museum. Hotepibre is sometimes credited as the founder of a palace recently rediscovered at Tell El-Daba
Hotepibre
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Drawing of the ceremonial mace handle with Hotepibre's name, from Ebla
79.
Amenemhet VI
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See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat VI certainly enjoyed a reign, estimated to 3 years or shorter. He is attested by a few contemporary artefacts and is listed on two different king lists and he may belong to a larger family of pharaohs including Amenemhat V, Ameny Qemau, Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef and Iufni. Historical Amenemhat VI is listed on the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period, in the latest reading of the canon by the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt, Amenemhat VI appears in the 7th column, 10th row under his prenomen Seankhibre. This corresponds to the 6th column, 10th row in Alan Gardiners, Amenemhat VI is also mentioned on the Karnak king list, entry 37. Archeological Amenemhat VI is attested by a few contemporary artefacts and these include 2 cylinder seals from el-Mahamid el-Qibli in Upper Egypt, one of which is dedicated to Sobek Lord of Semenu. An offering table bearing Amenemhat VIs cartouche has been discovered in Karnak and is now in the Egyptian Museum, relative chronological position The relative chronological position of Amenemhat VI is secured thanks to the Turin canon. His predecessor was a poorly known pharaoh named Iufni and his successor was an obscure king. Absolute position and dating The absolute chronological position of Amenemhat VI is less certain owing to uncertainties affecting the earlier kings of the dynasty. According to Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the 8th king of the dynasty, whereas Thomas Schneider, Detlef Franke and von Beckerath see him as the 7th ruler. The duration of Amenemhats reign is lost due to the state of preservation of the Turin papyrus. Ryholt nonetheless assigns him a reign of 3 years spanning 1788–1785 BC. It is unclear whether or not Amenemhat VI reigned over the whole of Egypt and he likely had control over Lower Nubia, which had been conquered by the 12th Dynasty and would not be abandoned before at least another 60 years. His control over Lower Egypt is debated, Ryholt believes that the Canaanite 14th Dynasty was already in existence at the time, forming an independent realm controlling at least the Eastern Nile Delta. The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that Amenemhat VI was a member of a royal family including pharaohs Sekhemkare Amenemhat V, Ameny Qemau, Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef. He bases this conclusion on the double names borne by these pharaohs, hence the Ameny in Ameny Qemau would indicate that he was the son of Amenemhat V, then succeeded by his own son Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef as shown by the Qemau in his name. Amenemhat VIs predecessor Iufni would also be part of this although his precise relation to the other members cannot be settled due to the lack of material dating to his very short reign. Less than 10 years after Amenemhat VIs reign, a king named Renseneb Amenemhat took the throne, following the same logic, he would be a son of a king Amenemhat who could possibly be Amenemhat VI or one of the intervening kings
Amenemhet VI
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Drawing of the offering table CG 23040, bearing Amenemhat VI's cartouches
80.
Sehetepibre
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Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the early Second Intermediate Period, possibly the fifth or tenth king of the Dynasty. The position of Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy within the 13th Dynasty is not entirely clear, in the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period, two kings are listed with the name Sehetepibre, both in Column 7. The first Sehetepibre appears as the king of the Dynasty. Therefore, the chronological position of Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy cannot be ascertained using only the Turin canon. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy was in fact the king of the Dynasty. They believe that the first Sehetepibre is a resulting from the corruption of the name of Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef. They further propose that the author of the list did not include two kings, Nerikare and Ameny Qemau, thereby artificially making Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy the eighth king when he was the tenth. On the other hand, Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath see Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy as the first Sehetepibre listed in the Turin canon, Franke and von Beckerath both identify the second Sehetepibre with Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef. For a long time, Sehetepibre was known only from the Turin canon, the seal, of unknown provenance, was bought by a private collector in Cairo and finally sold in 1926 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where it is now on display. The seal bears Sehetepibres prenomen and is dedicated to Hathor, Lady of, the seal is further inscribed with the name in cuneiform of a governor of Byblos named Yakin-Ilu. If Albrights hypothesis is correct, then Sehetepibre would be one generation removed from Neferhotep I, the principal contemporary attestion of Sehetepibre is a stela published in 1980 and discovered earlier at Gebel Zeit, by the Red Sea, where galena mines where located. The stela bears the name of a king Sehetepibre together with the Horus name Sewesekhtawy and this stela, contemporary with his reign, further confirms the existence of this king. In addition, two found in debris from the north pyramid cemetery at el-Lisht bear the name Sehetepibre. A virtually identical scarab was found at Tell el-ʿAjjul in a Middle Bronze Age context. Whether or not these refer to the individual, is not certain
Sehetepibre
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Lapis lazuli cylinder seal with Sehetepibre's cartouche
81.
Khaankhre Sobekhotep
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Khaankhre Sobekhotep was an pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Khaankhre Sobekhotep was the 13th pharaoh of the dynasty and had a short reign ca.1735 BC, alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the 16th pharaoh of the dynasty. Sobekhotep appears in the Karnak king list as Khaankhre, a name Sobekpre is also given on column 6, line 15 of the Turin canon, which could be Sobekhotep I. However this identification is not certain and Sobekhotep Is chronological position within the 13th Dynasty is debated, contemporary attestations of Sobekhotep comprise reliefs coming from a chapel which once stood in Abydos and a fragment of inscribed column. Furthermore, the name Khaankhre Sobekhotep appears in an inscription on a granite statue pedestal once in the Amherst collection and, since 1982 and his reign was most likely short, amounting to three to four-and-a-half years. Ryholt mentions that Sobekhotep I may be identical with Sobekhotep II, List of pharaohs Media related to Sebekhotep Khaankhre at Wikimedia Commons
Khaankhre Sobekhotep
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Doorjamb of a temple bearing Khaankhre Sobekhotep's nomen, originally from Abydos, now on display at the Louvre
82.
Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw
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Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw was an Egyptian pharaoh of the early 13th dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, he was the king of the dynasty, reigning for 3 years. Thomas Schneider, on the hand, places his reign from 1752 BC until 1746 BC. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the king of the dynasty. As a ruler of the early 13th Dynasty, Khabaw would have ruled from Memphis to Aswan, Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw is not listed on the Turin canon nor on any other ancient king list. According to Ryholt, Khabaws name was lost in a wsf lacuna of the Turin canon reported in Column 7, line 17 of the document. The redactor of this king list, which was written in the early Ramesside period, Khabaw is however well attested through archaeological finds. The architrave is now in the British Museum, under the catalog number BM EA1100, another architrave discovered in Tanis shows Khabaws name together with that of pharaoh Hor of the 13th Dynasty. Darrell Baker and Ryholt suggest that close association might mean that Khabaw was Hors son. Ryholt and Baker believe that both architraves did not originate from the Delta region but from Memphis, alternatively, the architraves may have stayed in Avaris until the reign of Ramses II, when this king built his capital at Pi-Ramesses using material from Avaris. Pi-Ramesses was subsequently dismantled during the 21st Dynasty and its monuments scattered in the Delta region, finally, Khabaw is attested by a cylinder-seal now in the Petrie Museum,4 seal impressions from Uronarti and one from Mirgissa, both places being Egyptian fortresses in Nubia. The nomen of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw is unknown and his identity is not completely established. Ryholt has proposed Khabaws nomen could have been Sobek, as this nomen is attested from artifacts which must belong to a king of the first half of the 13th Dynasty, only two kings of this time period have their nomina unknown, Khabaw and Nerikare. Sobek may thus possibly be the nomen of Khabaw, on the other hand, Jürgen von Beckerath identified Khabaws nomen as Pantjeny, thereby equating Khabaw with Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny, who is otherwise attested by a single stele. However, this hypothesis has been invalidated in a recent study of stele by Marcel Marée, Marée has shown that the stele was produced by the same workshop who produced the stelae of Wepwawetemsaf and Rahotep. The latter is dated to the early 17th Dynasty c.1580 BC and thus Pantjeny must have ruled c.1600 BC. Alternatively, Pantjeny could be a member of the Abydos Dynasty, wolfgang Helck and Stephen Quirke have equated Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw with Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep, called Sobekhotep I or Sobekhotep II depending on the scholar. Spalinger argues that the Nile records of Nubia associated to Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep cannot be attributed to Khabaw
Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw
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Drawing by Wallis Budge of a fragment of a red granite architrave discovered in Bubastis and bearing the name of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw.
83.
Sebkay
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Sebkay was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. For a long time his position created problems and he was most often placed into the 13th Dynasty. However, the discovery of the tomb of a king with the name Senebkay make it likely that Sebkay is identical with the latter. Very little is known about him, since his name is attested only on a wooden birth Tusk found at Abydos, since the discovery of the wand, several egyptologists have tried to identify this king with other rulers of the Second Intermediate Period. Thomas Schneider supports von Beckeraths hypothesis, specifying that the king Sobekhotep likely was Sobekhotep II, ryholts interpretation is considered daring and controversial by some egyptologists. In 2014 at Abydos, a team of archaeologists discovered the tomb of an unknown king of the Second Intermediate Period. It has been suggested that this ruler and Sebkay might be the same person
Sebkay
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Closeup of the ivory wand showing the king's name.
84.
Wegaf
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Khutawyre Wegaf was a pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt who is known from several sources, including a stele and statues. There is a general known from a scarab with the name who is perhaps identical with this king. A king with the name Khutawyre appears in the Turin King List as first ruler of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt. In particular, Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep is regarded by Ryholt and other Egyptologists, including Darrell Baker, as the first pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty, Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 BC
Wegaf
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Drawing of the Rubensohn plaquette from Elephantine realized in 1907 by Georges Legrain. The plaquette mentions Khutawyre Wegaf and a king Senwosret.
85.
Imyremeshaw
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Smenkhkare Imyremeshaw was an Egyptian pharaoh of the mid 13th dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. Imyremeshaw reigned from Memphis, starting in 1759 BC or 1711 BC, the length of his reign is not known for certain, he may have reigned for 5 years and certainly less than 10 years. Imyremeshaw is attested by two colossal statues now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Imyremeshaw is attested on the Turin canon, on column 7, line 21 as kare Imyremeshaw. Later, the colossi were moved to Pi-Ramesses by Ramses II who also had his name inscribed on them together with a dedication to Seth. Finally, the statues were moved to Tanis during the 21st dynasty where the remained until the 1897 excavations under the direction of Flinders Petrie. The two statues are now in the Egyptian Museum and are numbered JE37466 and JE37467, the only other contemporary attestation of Imyremeshaw is a white steatite bead bearing the inscription The good god, Smenkhkare, beloved of Sobek, Lord of Shedyt. The bead is now in the British Museum, numbered BM EA74185, finally, W. Davies has proposed that the torso of a statuette discovered in the ruins of a 13th dynasty pyramid at Saqqara south and dating to close successor of Khendjer may belong to Imyremeshaw. The fragment however is uninscribed and Davies identification of the owner of the statuette as Imyremeshaw is based solely on grounds of provenance, the statuette is now in the Egyptian Museum, JE54493. The nomen of Imyremeshaw is a well attested name in use during the Second Intermediate Period, for this reason, it has been assumed without further evidence that Imyremeshaw was a general before becoming king. Jürgen von Beckerath proposes that Imyremeshaw was of foreign origin and had a name that could not be understood by the Egyptians. Furthermore, Imyremeshaw did not use any filiative nomina—that is, he was not related to his predecessor Khendjer. Thus, scholars suggested that he may have come to power by orchestrating a coup against his predecessor Khendjer. Baker and Ryholt contest this hypothesis and they point to the lack of evidence for a military coup as one cannot rule out an usurpation by political means. Additionally, they note that Imyremeshaw was a personal name at the time. Similar common names based on titles include Imyrikhwe, Imyreper and Imyrekhenret, for these reasons, Stephen Quirke suggests that the name of Imyremeshaw may simply reflect a family tradition and Ryholt adds that it could indicate a family with a military background. The exact chronological position of Imyremeshaw in the 13th dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty, according to the Turin canon, Imyremeshaw was the immediate successor of Khendjer. Baker makes him the king of the dynasty, Ryholt sees him as the twenty-third king. The exact duration of the reign of Imyremeshaw is mostly lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon and cannot be recovered, Ryholt proposes that the combined reigns of Imyremeshaw and his two successors Sehetepkare Intef and Seth Meribre amount to about 10 years
Imyremeshaw
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Syenite statue of Imyremeshaw photographed by Flinders Petrie during his excavations at Tanis
86.
Sehetepkare Intef
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Sehetepkare Intef was the twenty-third king of the 13th dynasty during the Second intermediate period. Sehetepkare Intef reigned from Memphis for a period, certainly less than 10 years. Sehetepkare Intef is attested in the Turin canon, entry 7.22 or 6.22, the Turin canon places Sehetepkare Intef between Imyremeshaw and Seth Meribre. Intef is also attested on the Karnak king list, beyond these documents, Sehetepkare Intef is attested by the lower half of a seated statue from the temple complex of goddess Renenutet at Medinet Madi in the Faiyum. The statue, JE67834, is now in the Egyptian Museum, the exact chronological position of Sehetepkare Intef in the 13th dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. Darrell Baker places him as the king of the dynasty, Kim Ryholt as the twenty-fourth. Furthermore, Ryholt believes Sehetepkare Intef was the fifth ruler bearing that name, making him Intef V, while Aidan Dodson, von Beckerath and Darrell Baker posit that he was Intef IV. The length of his reign is lost in a lacuna of the papyrus and cannot be recovered, Kim Ryholt gives 10 years for the combined reigns of Imyremeshaw, Sehetepkare Intef and Seth Meribre. Even though the name is lost in a lacuna, Ryholts analysis of the papyrus only leaves Imyremeshaw. This is significant because the reports a year 3 and a year 5 dates for this king. The exact circumstances of the end of Intefs reign are unknown, consequently, Ryholt proposes that Seth Meribre may have usurped the throne
Sehetepkare Intef
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Cylinder seal bearing the cartouche of pharaoh Hetepkare, probably [Se]hetepkare Intef IV.
87.
Sobekhotep III
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Sobekhotep III was an Egyptian king of the 13th dynasty who reigned 3 to 4 years, c.1740 BCE or 1700 BCE. The family of the king is known from several sources, a monument from Sehel Island shows Sobekhotep with his father Mentuhotep, his mother was Iuhetibu, his brothers Seneb and Khakau, and a half-sister called Reniseneb. Reniseneb was a daughter of Iuhetibu and her second husband Dedusobek, Sobekhotep III had two wives, Senebhenas and Neni. A stela from Koptos, now in the Louvre, mentions the daughters of Nenni, Iuhetibu, Iuhetibu Fendy wrote her name in a cartouche. This is the time in Egyptian history that a kings daughter received this honor. Senebhenas is shown with Sobekhotep on an altar in Sehel Island, the stela depicts Sobekhotep III before the god Monthu. He receives an ankh and a was-scepter from the god, Sobekhotep is followed by his father Montuhotep, his mother Iuhetibu, and his wife Senebhenas. Sobekhotep III is known from a number of objects despite the fact that the Turin King List gives him a reign of only four years. He added inscriptions to the temple of Menthu at Madamud and built a chapel at El Kab, on Sehel was found an altar with his name. A number of seals have been found that were from an officier of the rulers table Sobekhotep begotten of the officier of the rulers table Mentuhotep. It is possible that these belonged to Sobekhotep III before he became king. Sobekhotep III was the first of a group of Thirteenth Dynasty kings about whom there exists historical records and this group of Thirteenth Dynasty kings are all known from a large number of objects. These kings produced many seals and there are many monuments that can be dated to these reigns. This would seem to indicate that Egypt was relatively stable during this period, ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c
Sobekhotep III
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Sobekhotep III worshipping Satet. The central hole was made when the relief was used as a grinding stone, long after the original carving. Now on display at the Brooklyn Museum.
88.
Neferhotep I
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One of the best attested rulers of the 13th Dynasty, Neferhotep I reigned for 11 years. The grandson of a non-royal townsman from a Theban family with a background, Neferhotep Is relation to his predecessor Sobekhotep III is unclear. Neferhotep I was likely contemporaneous with kings Zimri-Lim of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon, toward the end of his reign, Neferhotep I shared the throne with his brother Sihathor, a coregency that lasted a few months to a year. Sihathor died shortly before Neferhotep, who may have then appointed another brother, Sobekhotep IV, in any case, Sobekhotep IV succeeded Neferhotep I soon afterwards, and reigned over Egypt for almost a decade. The reigns of the two brothers mark the apex of the 13th Dynasty, Neferhotep I seems to have come from a non-royal family of Thebes with a military background. His grandfather, Nehy, held the title officer of a town regiment, Nehy was married to a woman called Senebtysy. Nothing is known about her other than that she held the common title lady of the house and their only known son was called Haankhef. Haankhef always appears in the sources as Gods father and royal sealer, the parentage of Neferhotep and Haankhef is directly confirmed by a number of scarab seals from El-Lahun where the latter is said to be the father of the former. This is a rare occurrence as the Turin canon normally only names the pharaohs while non-royal people are excluded from the list. Beyond Haankhef, the other exception to this rule is the father of Sobekhotep II. This is at odds with the traditional Egyptian system where the legitimation of the new king rests mainly on his filiation and these proclamations of non-royal origins were possibly made to dissociate these kings from their immediate predecessors, in particular Seth Meribre whose monuments have been usurped and defaced. The reason for this remains unknown, inscriptions from Aswan indicate that Neferhotep I had at least two children named Haankhef and Kemi like his parents, whom he had with a woman called Senebsen. He also possibly had another son named Wahneferhotep, I saw the vigor of his majesty at every single feast when I was a child who could not yet conceive. Similarly, Neferhotep I could well have been born in Thebes, even though the capital of Egypt during the 13th Dynasty was still Itjtawy in the north, a single attestation is known from Lower Egypt, a scarab from Tell el-Yahudiya. Other attestations include over 60 scarab seals,2 cylinder-seals, a statue from Elephantine, the inscriptions record the members of Neferhoteps family as well as two high officials serving him The royal acquaintance Nebankh and the Treasurer Senebi. Two stelae are known from Abydos one of which, usurped from king Wegaf and dated to his 4th regnal year, two naoses housing two statues each of Neferhotep as well as a pedestal bearing Neferhoteps and Sobekhotep IVs cartouches have been found in Karnak. King lists Beyond these contemporary attestations, Neferhotep is listed on the 34th entry of the Karnak king list as well as the 7th column, 25th row of the Turin canon. The Turin king list credits Neferhotep with a reign of 11 years and 1 to 4 months, Neferhotep Is relative chronological position is secured thanks to the Turin canon as well as contemporary attestations
Neferhotep I
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Statue of Neferhotep I from the Faiyum, Archaeological Museum of Bologna.
Neferhotep I
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Inscription on Sehel island showing Anukis giving the life sign to Neferhotep I.
89.
Sihathor
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Menwadjre Sihathor was an ephemeral ruler of the 13th dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. Sihathor may never have enjoyed an independent reign, possibly only ruling for a few months as a coregent with his brother Neferhotep I, according to egyptologist Kim Ryholt, Sihathor died in 1733 BC while Detlef Franke dates his short reign to 1694 BC. According to the latest reading of the Turin canon by Ryholt, Sihathor is recorded there on column 7, Sihathor is attested on two statues from the Hekaib sanctuary in Elephantine as a kings son, which is here an honorary title referring to his brother Neferhotep I being king. Two rock inscriptions from Philae and Sehel Island further mention Sihathor as a brother to Neferhotep I, a few further seals mentioning a kings son Sihathor are known, but Ryholt concludes that they may correspond to another Sihathor. Finally, Vivian Davies points to the existence of a statue of Sihathor made after his death, the family of Sihathor is known thanks to the rock inscriptions of Philae and Sehel made by his brother Neferhotep I. Sihathors father is known to be Haankhef, his mother was Kemi and his brothers were Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV
Sihathor
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Scarab seals of the " Royal seal bearer, divine father Haankhef " and the " Princess, royal daughter Kema ", parents of Sihathor.
90.
Sobekhotep IV
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Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV was one of the more powerful Egyptian kings of the 13th Dynasty, who reigned at least eight years. His brothers, Neferhotep I and Sihathor, were his predecessors on the throne, Sobekhotep states on a stela found in the Amun temple at Karnak that he was born in Thebes. The king is believed to have reigned for around 10 years and he is known by a relatively high number of monuments, including stelae, statues, many seals and other minor objects. There are attestations for building works at Abydos and Karnak, Sobekhotep was the son of the gods father Haankhef and of the kings mother Kemi. His grandfather was the soldier of the towns regiment Nehy and his wife was the kings wife Tjan. These are Amenhotep and Nebetiunet, both with Tjan as mother, there are three further kings sons, Sobekhotep Miu, Sobekhotep Djadja and Haankhef Iykhernofret. Their mother is not recorded in extant sources, the royal court is also well known from sources contemporaneous with Neferhotep I, providing evidence that Sobekhotep IV continued the politics of his brother in the administration. The treasurer was Senebi and the high steward a certain Nebankh, a stela of the king found at Karnak reports donations to the Amun-Ra temple. A pair of door jambs with the name of the king was found at Karnak, there is also a restoration inscription on a statue of king Mentuhotep II, also coming from Karnak. The statue of the vizier was found at Karnak and might indicate that these buildings were erected there, for year 6 is attested an expedition to the amethyst mines at Wadi el-Hudi in southernmost Egypt. The expedition is attested via four stelae set up at Wadi el-Hudi, from the Wadi Hammamat comes a stela dated to the ninth regnal year of the king. Although initially attributed to pharaoh Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep I, the style of the burial suggests a date of the tomb under Sobekhotep IV, according to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty was already in control of the eastern Nile Delta at the time. Alternatively, N. Moeller and G. Marouard argue that the eastern Delta was ruled by the 15th Dynasty Hyksos king Khyan at the time of Sobekhotep IV. This analysis and the conclusions drawn from it are questioned by Robert Porter, however, in Ryholts chronology of the Second Intermediate Period, Khyan and Sobekhotep IV are separated by c.100 years. A similar figure is obtained by Nicolas Grimal, ilin-Tomich concludes that there is no reason to believe that Khyan and Sobekhotep IV reigned at the same time. The level in which the seal impressions were found is later than Sobekhotep IV, regardless of which theory is true, either the 14th dynasty or the 15th dynasty already controlled the Delta by the time of Sobekhotep IV. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 BC
Sobekhotep IV
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Statue of Sobekhotep IV (Louvre)
Sobekhotep IV
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Cartouche of Sobekhotep IV.
91.
Merhotepre Sobekhotep
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Merhotepre Sobekhotep was an Egyptian king of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologist Kim Ryholt he was the pharaoh of the dynasty. In older studies, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke identified Merhotepre Sobekhotep with Merhotepre Ini, thereby making him Sobekhotep VI, the identity of Merhotepre Sobekhotep is debatable because his name is missing from the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period. According to Kim Ryholt, Merhotepre Sobekhotep is missing from the list because he was listed in the line below that of Sobekhotep IV and this line was lost in a lacuna of the papyrus. That this king must have ruled during the 13th dynasty however is uncontested since a seated statue of the king bearing his cartouche has been found and is now located in the Cairo Museum. Furthermore, Ryholt points to the rulers of the period who shared prenomen. Ryholt thus sees him as a ruler from Merhotepre Ini. Merhotepre Sobekhoteps position following the reign of Sobekhotep IV is strongly suggested by the fact that five 13th dynasty pharaohs are attested by seals which mention their parents. Four of these pharaohs are known to have been Sobekhotep III, Neferhotep I, but two genealogical seals bear name of the rulers mother as The kings Mother Nubhotepti and the king as Sobekhotep. However, Sobekhotep IIIs mother was Jewhetibew whereas Neferhotep I, Sihathor and this means that there was a different king named Sobekhotep who used genealogical seals in his lifetime. This seal impression is likely, therefore, to have made by the paternal counterpart to the seal naming Nubhotepti. Thus, Merkawre Sobekhotep would not have used it in his reign since he was the successor of Sobekhotep IV. Merhotepre Sobekhotep employed genealogical seals and his name was lost in a lacuna at the bottom of a column of the Turin canon
Merhotepre Sobekhotep
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A seated Statue of Merhotepre Sobekhotep V from the Cairo Museum, on display at the King Tut exhibit in Seattle. It clearly bears both his royal names.
92.
Merneferre Ay
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Merneferre Ay was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the mid 13th Dynasty. The longest reigning pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, he ruled a fragmented Egypt for over 23 years in the early to mid 17th century BC, a pyramidion bearing his name shows that he possibly completed a pyramid, probably located in the necropolis of Memphis. Merneferre Ay is the last pharaoh of the 13th dynasty to be attested outside Upper Egypt and this may point to problems in Egypt at the time and indeed, by the end of his reign, the administration seems to have completely collapsed. It is possible that the capital of Egypt since the early Middle Kingdom, for this reason, some scholars consider Merneferre Ay to be the last pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. The king list records Ays name on column 8 line 3 and establishes that Merneferre Ay was preceded by Wahibre Ibiau and succeeded by Merhotepre Ini, similarly the absolute datation of Ays reign is debated and varies by 17 years between Ryholts 1701–1677 BC and Schneiders 1684–1661 BC. The dispute was settled in the latest study of the Turin canon by Kim Ryholt who confirms that Merneferre Ays reign length as recorded on the papyrus is 23 years,8 months and 18 days. Ryholt insists that the tick that distinguishes 20 and 30 from 10 is preserved, accordingly,23 years or, less likely,33 years must be read. This makes Merneferre Ay the longest-ruling pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty at a time when numerous short-lived kings ruled Egypt. As a king of the mid 13th Dynasty, Merneferre Ay reigned over Middle and Upper Egypt concurrently with the 14th Dynasty, the egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker contend that Mernferre usurped the throne at the expense of his predecessor Wahibre Ibiau. They base this conclusion on the absence of filiative nomina. They believe that this should have been the case had his father been a pharaoh, little is known of Ays consorts, he was possibly married to Ineni whose scarabs are stylistically similar to those of Ay. The rest of the scarabs of known provenance are from Abydos, Coptos and Lisht, the pyramidion was confiscated from robbers by the Egyptian police in 1911 at Faqus, close to the ancient city of Avaris. It is carved with the name of Ay and shows him offering to Horus Lord of heaven, egyptologists believe that the pyramidion originates in fact from Memphis, in the necropolis of which Ays pyramid must be located. Accordingly, this suggests that the pyramid was looted at the time of the Hyksos invasion c.1650 BC and this is vindicated by the damaged text on the pyramidion originally invoked four gods two of whom were Ptah and Re-Horus. The cults of gods were based in the Memphite necropolis. Other objects which suffered the same fate include two statues of the 13th Dynasty king Imyremeshaw. Even though Merneferre Ay is well attested, the number of objects attributable to him is relatively small given his nearly 24 year-long reign. This may point to problems in Egypt at the time and indeed Ryholt
Merneferre Ay
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A inscribed section for the pyramidion of king Merneferre Ay's tomb.
93.
Sewadjare Mentuhotep
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Sewadjare Mentuhotep is a poorly attested Egyptian pharaoh of the late 13th dynasty who reigned for a short time c.1655 BC during the Second Intermediate Period. Ryholt, Baker and Jacques Kinnaer refer to Sewadjare Mentuhotep as Mentuhotep V because they believe that he lived at the end of the 13th Dynasty. Sewadjare Mentuhotep is a poorly attested pharaoh, according to Nobert Dautzenberg and Ryholt, Mentuhoteps prenomen Sewadjare is nonetheless partially preserved on column 8, line 20 of the papyrus, which reads dj. The only contemporary attestation safely attributable to Sewadjare Mentuhotep V is a fragment of a relief showing his cartouches. The relief was found in the ruins of the temple of Mentuhotep II during the excavation of Édouard Naville at the beginning of the 20th century. Another possible attestation of Sewedjare Mentuhotep V is given by a fragment of a wooden coffin, the coffin bears the following text, The prenomen of the king Mentuhotep is missing and the identification of this Mentuhotep remains problematic. Kim Ryholt notes however that the coffin is also inscribed with a version of passages of the Book of the Dead. Thus, Ryholt argues that this Mentuhotep must have reigned during the second intermediate period. Thus three kings could possibly be the one mentioned on the coffin, Seankhenre Mentuhotepi, Merankhre Mentuhotep VI, although it sounds similar to Mentuhotep, Ryholt has shown that Mentuhotepi is a different name than Mentuhotep and would therefore not have been reported as Mentuhotep. In this case, the text is almost identical to that found on Herunefers coffin, while Sewadjare Mentuhotep reigned c.10 years before Djehuti, Merankhre Mentuhotep is believed to have reigned 60 years after him. Hence, Ryholt concludes that Sewadjare Mentuhotep is the Mentuhotep of the coffin, Sitmut his queen and Herunefer his son
Sewadjare Mentuhotep
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Photography of a relief showing the cartouches of Sewadjare Mentuhotep from the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II at Deir el-Bahri.
94.
Yakbim Sekhaenre
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Sekhaenre Yakbim or Yakbmu was a ruler during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. His name never appears inside a cartouche, which was a pharaonic prerogative, nevertheless, on his seals he is called the good god, Sekhaenre. There is no evidence that Yakbims throne name was Sekhaenre. Assuming that Ward was right, Sekhaenre Yakbim is attested by a remarkable 123 seals, based on that, Ryholt estimated for him a reign length of around 25 years, in the interval 1805–1780 BCE
Yakbim Sekhaenre
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Scarab seal of Sekhaenre, now likely in the Petrie Museum
95.
Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
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Nubwoserre Yaammu was a ruler during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. This ruler seems to have little use of the cartouche — which was a pharaonic prerogative — since it was used only for the throne name, Nubwoserre. His personal name never appears inside a cartouche, and is reported as the son of Ra. The Turin King List can not help with this issue since the ruler does not appear on it, however, about the events of his reign absolutely nothing is known. Israeli Egyptologist Raphael Giveon identifies Yaammu with his proposed predecessor Yakbim
Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
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Drawing of a scarab seal of Nubwoserre. Petrie Museum (UC16597)
96.
Qareh
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Qareh Khawoserre was possibly the third king of the Canaanite 14th Dynasty of Egypt, who reigned over the eastern Nile Delta from Avaris during the Second Intermediate Period. His reign is believed to have lasted about 10 years, from 1770 BC until 1760 BC or later, alternatively, Qareh could have been a later vassal of the Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty and would then be classified as a king of the 16th Dynasty. Qarehs name is West Semitic and means The bald one and his existence is only attested by thirty royal seals inscribed with his name, only one of which has a known provenance, Jericho in Canaan. Qarehs name was misread as Qar, Qur, and Qal. The egyptologist Kim Ryholt equates Qareh with the prenomen Khawoserre, which is only attested through scarab seals. Qarehs chronological position is uncertain, with Ryholt and Darrell Baker placing him as the king of the 14th dynasty based on the style of his seals. On the other hand, Thomas Schneider and Jürgen von Beckerath see him as a ruler of the 16th dynasty, alternatively, James Peter Allen proposes that he was an Hyksos ruler of the early 15th dynasty
Qareh
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Scarab of pharaoh Qareh.
97.
Sheshi
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Maaibre Sheshi was a ruler of areas of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. The dynasty, chronological position, duration and extent of his reign are uncertain, the difficulty of identification is mirrored by problems in determining events from the end of the Middle Kingdom to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt. Hundreds of scaraboid seals bearing his name have been found throughout Canaan, Egypt, Nubia, three competing hypotheses have been put forth for the dynasty to which Sheshi belonged. Salitis is credited with 19 years of reign and would have lived some time between c.1720 BC and 1650 BC. The Egyptologist William Ayres Ward and the archaeologist Daphna Ben-Tor propose that Sheshi was a Hyksos king and belongs to the half of the 15th Dynasty. Alternatively, Manfred Bietak has proposed that Sheshi was a vassal of the Hyksos, the very existence of such vassals is debated. Finally, Sheshi could be a ruler of the early 14th Dynasty, proponents of this theory, such as Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, credit Sheshi with 40 years of reign starting c.1745 BC. Ryholt proposed that Sheshi allied his kingdom with the Kushites in Nubia via a marriage with the Nubian princess Tati. Ryholt further posits that the son of Sheshi and Tati was Nehesy, whose name means The Nubian, the nomen of Sheshi is inscribed on over two hundred scarab seals, which constitute the sole attestations of his reign. The number of scarabs attributed to Sheshi is paralleled in number only by those bearing the prenomen Maaibre, based on the close stylistic similarities between both groups of scarabs as well as their otherwise unmatched numbers, The consensus among Egyptologists is that Maaibre was the prenomen of Sheshi. This figure is three times higher than the 123 seals attributed to the next best attested king of the period, Yakbim Sekhaenre. In addition to seals, Manfred Bietak has suggested that a scarab discovered in Avaris. This conclusion is rejected by Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, who believe that Shenshek was a separate king, important finds include seals from Lachish, Gezer, Jericho, Tel Michal, Amman and Tell el-Ajjul in Canaan. In Lower Egypt, three seals have been unearthed in Tell el-Yahudiya and Tell el-Mashkuta and a further eight are from the wider Delta region. Four seals originate from Saqqara and a five from the Middle Egyptian sites of Abusir el-Melek, Kom Medinet Ghurab, Kom el-Ahmar. Finally, two seal impressions of Sheshi have been found in Carthage, in a context dated archeologically to the 2nd century BC, no historical attestation of Sheshi is known for certain. Sheshi is absent from the Turin canon, a list of written on papyrus during the Ramesside period. This is because the section of the covering the 13th to 17th Dynasties is heavily damaged
Sheshi
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Scarab seal inscribed with "The son of Ra, Sheshi, given life".
Sheshi
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Seal reading "The Son of Ra, Sheshi, living for ever", Walters Art Museum.
Sheshi
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Seal reading "The son of Ra, Sheshi, living forever", Walters Art Museum.
Sheshi
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Scarab of Sheshi reading "The good god Maaibre, given life".
98.
Nehesy
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Nehesy Aasehre was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the fragmented Second Intermediate Period. He is placed by most scholars into the early 14th Dynasty, as such he is considered to have reigned for a short time c.1705 BC and would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta. Recent evidence makes it possible that a person with this name. It is possible that most of the attributed to the king Nehesy mentioned in the Turin canon. In his review of the Second Intermediate Period, egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposed that Nehesy was the son, egyptologist Darrell Baker, who also shares this opinion, posits that Tati must have been Nubian or of Nubian descent, hence Nehesys name meaning The Nubian. The 14th dynasty being of Canaanite origin, Nehesy is also believed to be of Canaanite descent, four scarabs found, including one from Semna in Nubia and three of unknown provenance, point to a temporary coregency with his father. Furthermore, one scarab mentions Nehesy as Kings son and a further 22 as Eldest king son, Ryholt and Baker thus hold the view that Nehesy became the heir to the throne after the death of his elder brother, Prince Ipqu. Manfred Bietak and Jürgen von Beckerath believe that Nehesy was the ruler of the 14th dynasty. In spite of a short reign of around a year. Nehesy is also attested by contemporary artefacts, foremost among which are scarab seals. In addition, an obelisk from the Temple of Seth in Raahu bears his name together with the inscription kings eldest son. A seated statue, later usurped by Merenptah, is believed to have belonged to Nehesy. It is inscribed with Seth, Lord of Avaris and was found in Tell el Muqdam, Nehesy is also attested by two relief fragments inscribed with the names of the king, which were unearthed in Tell el-Daba in the mid 1980s. Finally, two further stelae are known from Tell-Habuwa, one bearing Nehesys birth name, the one the throne of the king Aahsere. Thanks to these stelae it was possible to connect the name Nehesy with the throne name Aahsere ˁ3-sḥ-Rˁ, before this discovery, Aasehre was regarded as a Hyksos king. In 2005 a further stele of Nehesy was discovered in the city of Tjaru, once the starting point of the Way of Horus. The stele shows a kings son Nehesy offering oil to the god Banebdjedet, a woman with this name and title is known from other sources around the time of the Hyksos king Apophis, who ruled at the end of the Second Intermediate Period c.1580 BC. Daphna Ben-Tor, who studied the scarabs of Nehesy, concludes that those referring to the kings son Nehesy are different in style from those referring to Nehesy as a king
Nehesy
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Scarab of pharaoh Nehesy, now in the Petrie Museum.
99.
Khakherewre
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The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt was a series of rulers reigning during the Second Intermediate Period over the Nile Delta region of Egypt. It lasted between 75 and 155 years, depending on the scholar, the capital of the dynasty was probably Avaris. The 14th dynasty existed concurrently with the 13th dynasty based in Memphis, names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king Nehesy and queen Tati. More commonly, the 14th dynasty is grouped with the 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th in the Second Intermediate Period. Such are the gaps in the knowledge of the 14th dynasty, egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that the 14th dynasty emerged during the late 12th dynasty, c.1805 BC, during or shortly after Sobekneferus rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared its independence, according to Ryholt, the 14th dynasty thus lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the Hyksos 15th dynasty, c.1650 BC, i. e. lasting 155 years. 1720 BC, after the reign of Sobekhotep IV. e. after c.1700 BC. The same famine may have affected the 13th dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, the weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c.1650 BC. The Manethonian tradition credits the fourteenth dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from Xois rather than Avaris, however, egyptologist Kim Ryholt notes that the Turin canon mentions only c.56 kings and does not have enough space to have recorded over 70 kings. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris which revealed the existence of a royal palace dating to the second intermediate period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-sized, for these reasons, Ryholt and most egyptologists share the view that Avaris rather than Xois was the seat of power of the 14th dynasty. The precise borders of the 14th dynasty state are not known due to the scarcity of monuments left by this dynasty. Seals attributable to the 14th dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper-Egypt, then 13th dynasty territory, to the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast and as far north as Tell Kabri, in modern-day Israel. This indicates the existence of an important trade with the 13th dynasty, Canaanite city-states, Ryholt further proposes that king Sheshi, whom he sees as a 14th dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom. The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin canon and is accepted, except for the first five rulers. Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a seriation of their seals and his conclusions are debated however in Ben Tors study of the strata levels in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that Sheshis, Ammus and Yakbims reigns date to the half of the Hyksos 15th dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Thus according to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings reigning in the Nile Delta and their identities and chronological position remain unclear, K. S. B
Khakherewre
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In orange, the territory possibly under control of the 14th dynasty according to Ryholt.
100.
'Apepi
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Apepi was a ruler of some part of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1650 BC. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Apepi was the fifty-first ruler of the 14th Dynasty, as such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees Apepi as a member of the late 16th Dynasty, Apepis only secure attestation is the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the Ramesside period. Apepi is listed on a fragment of the document corresponding to column 10, the chronological position of Apepi cannot be ascertained beyond doubt due to the fragile and fragmentary state of the canon. Furthermore, the document preserves only the beginning of Apepis prenomen as Ap. which, Ryholt argues, ryholts reconstruction of the name of Apepi is significant because five scarab seals inscribed with Kings son Apophis are known. On two of these seals the inscription is furthermore enclosed in a cartouche and followed by di-ˁnḫ meaning given life and these two attributes are normally reserved to kings or designated heirs to the throne and Apepi could be the Apophis referred to on the seals. Tentatively confirming this attribution, Ryholt notes that both scarabs can be dated on stylistic grounds to the 14th Dynasty, between the reigns of Sheshi and Yaqub-Har
'Apepi
–
Scarab of "king's son Apepi", who may be 'Apepi
101.
Wazad
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Wazad was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Wazad was a member of the 14th Dynasty of Egypt reigning c.1700 BC. As a king of the 14th dynasty, he would have reigned from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta, the Memphis-based 13th Dynasty reigned over Middle and Upper Egypt at the same time. Alternatively, according to Jürgen von Beckerath and Wolfgang Helck, Wazad was a ruler of the 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty. This view is debated in egyptology, in particular because Ryholt, Wazad is known from five scarabs, all bearing his nomen Wazad and none giving his prenomen. For this reason, Wazad is difficult to relate to the rulers mentioned on the Turin canon, the scarabs of Wazad are now in the Berlin Museum, in the British Museum, in the Egyptian Museum and in a private collection. The last one was stolen in the early 20th century, finally, a scarab, now in the Petrie Museum has been attributed to Wazad in the past, but is now believed to be non-royal. Since only Wazads nomen is attested, attempts at attributing him any given prenomen remain conjectural, Ryholt however proposes that a seriation of 14th dynasty seals shows that Wazad reigned after Nehesy. Both of these kings reigned three to four years, in previous studies, Jürgen von Beckerath believed Wazad was a little Hyksos, member of the 16th dynasty and a vassal of the 15th dynasty. Ryholt has shown however that the 16th dynasty comprised kings ruling over Thebes and its region from c.1650 BC until the brief conquest of the city by the Hyksos c.1580 BC
Wazad
–
Scarab of pharaoh Wazad, drawing by Flinders Petrie.
102.
Yakareb
–
Yakareb may have been a ruler of some part of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, possibly during the 17th century BC, and likely belonging to the 14th Dynasty. As such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and his chronological position and identity are unclear. Yakareb is one of the few attested kings of the 14th Dynasty with 2 scarab seals attributable to him, both of unknown provenance. One of the two scarabs is currently housed in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin, catalog number 293/73, while the other is in the Petrie Museum, since Yakareb is this kings nomen, it is not possible to ascert whether or not Yakareb is listed on the Turin canon. The Turin canon is a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period which serves as the historical source for the 14th Dynasty. Furthermore, the document is fragmentary and Yakarebs prenomen may be lost in a lacuna, although the chronological position of Yakareb is uncertain, the egyptologist Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker proposed that he ruled in the 14th Dynasty some time before Yaqub-Har. This estimation is based on a seriation of the dating to the second intermediate period
Yakareb
–
Scarab of Yakareb photographied by Flinders Petrie and now in the Petrie Museum
103.
Yaqub-Har
–
Meruserre Yaqub-Har was a pharaoh of Egypt during the 17th or 16th century BCE. As he reigned during Egypts fragmented Second Intermediate Period, it is difficult to date his reign precisely and even the dynasty to which he belonged is uncertain. The dynasty to which Yaqub-Har belongs is debated, with Yaqub-Har being seen variously as a 14th dynasty king, Yaqub-Har is attested by no less than 27 scarab seals. Three are from Canaan, four from Egypt, one from Nubia, the wide geographic repartition of these scarabs indicate the existence of trade relations among the Nile Delta, Canaan and Nubia during the second intermediate period. The 14th Dynasty of Egypt was a Canaanite dynasty, which ruled the eastern Delta region just prior to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt. The Danish specialist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Yaqub-Har was a king of the late 14th Dynasty, first, Ryholt points to a scarab seal of Yaqub-Har which was discovered during excavations in Tel Shikmona in modern-day Israel. The archaeological context of the seal was dated the MB IIB period, since the name Yaqub-Har may have a West Semitic origin, meaning Protected by Har, Yaqub-Har would then be a 14th dynasty ruler. This change happened under Khyan who ruled as the Heka-Khawaset early in his reign, later Hyksos kings, such as Apophis, abandoned the Heka-Khawaset title and retained instead the customary Egyptian prenomen, just like the kings of the 14th dynasty. Ryholt then notes that Yaqub-Har himself always used a prenomen, Meruserre, since the end of the 15th dynasty is known not to have included a ruler by the name of Meruserre, Ryholt concludes that Yaqub-Har was a 14th dynasty ruler. As Ben-Tor writes, Supporting evidence for the Fifteenth Dynasty affiliation of King Yaqubhar is provided by the stylistic similarity between his scarabs and the scarabs of King Khayan. Jacobovici ignores the fact that Yaqub-Har is a well-attested pharaoh of the Second Intermediate Period, and Yakov and variants are common Semitic names from the period
Yaqub-Har
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Drawing of a scarab of Yaqub-Har by Flinders Petrie
104.
Semqen
–
Semqen was an Hyksos ruler of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in the mid 17th century BC. According to Jürgen von Beckerath he was the king of the 16th Dynasty. This opinion was shared by William C. Hayes and Wolfgang Helck, in his 1997 study of the second intermediate period, Ryholt argues that the kings of the 16th Dynasty ruled an independent Theban realm c. Consequently, Ryholt sees Semqen as an early Hyksos king of the 15th Dynasty and this analysis has convinced some egyptologists, such as Darrell Baker and Janine Bourriau, but not others including Stephen Quirke. Semqens only contemporary attestation is a brown steatite scarab-seal from Tell el-Yahudiyeh in the Nile Delta, significantly, the scarab gives him the title of Heka-chasut, Ruler of the foreign lands, a title exclusively associated with the early Hyksos rulers. Furthermore, the design of the scarab indicates that it was produced either during the 14th or the 15th Dynasty. Ryholt further adds that the title Heka-chasut, even if securely dated to the 15th Dynasty, may not have been borne only by the rulers of this dynasty
Semqen
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Drawing of the scarab seal of Semqen.
105.
Aperanat
–
Aper-Anati was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in the mid-17th century BC. According to Jürgen von Beckerath he was the king of the 16th Dynasty. This opinion was rejected by Kim Ryholt. In his 1997 study of the intermediate period, Ryholt argues that the kings of the 16th Dynasty ruled an independent Theban realm c. Consequently, Ryholt sees Aper-Anati as an early Hyksos king of the 15th Dynasty and this analysis has convinced some egyptologists, such as Darrell Baker and Janine Bourriau, but not others including Stephen Quirke. Aper-Anati is only known from a single scarab-seal, now in the Petrie Museum, on the scarab he is given the title of Heka-chasut, which translates as Ruler of the Foreign Lands and from which the word Hyksos is derived. Significantly, this title was borne by the early Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty, based on this evidence, Ryholt tentatively proposes that Aper-Anati was the second ruler of the 15th dynasty, but points out that this identification is not certain
Aperanat
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Scarab seal of 'Aper-'Anati made of glazed steatite. London, Petrie Museum.
106.
Khyan
–
Seuserenre Khyan, Khian or Khayan was a king of the Hyksos Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt. His royal name Seuserenre translates as The one whom Re has caused to be strong, Khyan bears the titles of an Egyptian king, but also the title ruler of the foreign land. The later title is the designation of the Hyksos rulers. Khyan is one of the better attested kings from the Hyksos period, known from many seals, remarkable are objects with his name found at Knossos and Hattusha indicating diplomatic contacts with Crete and the Hittites. A sphinx with his name was bought on the art market at Baghdad, the remains of a palace were recently excavated at Avaris. Seal impressions of Khyan were found there, indicating that this was his palace, Khyan is identified with king Iannas in the works of Josephus whose knowledge of the Hyksos Pharaohs was derived from a history of Egypt written by Manetho. Josephus mentions him after Apophis when discussing the lengths of kings who ruled after Salitis. This led 18th century scholars such as Arthur Bedford to place Khyan after Apophis towards the end of the Hyksos dynasty, however, in Africanus version of Manethos Epitome, Khyan is listed after a king Pachnan, perhaps Yaqub-Har. Stylistically Khyans scarabs resemble closely those of Yaqub-Har, who might date rather to the beginning and this indicates that Khyan was one of the earlier rulers of the 15th dynasty. The early position of Khyan within the 15th dynasty may be confirmed by new finds at Edfu. These conclusions are rejected by Robert Porter who argues that Khyan ruled much later than Sobekhotep IV, another option he proposed is that Sobekhotep IV reigned much later as previously thought. A stela of Khyan mentioning a kings son was also discovered at Avaris, manfred Bietak observed that, a stela set up in Avaris contains the nomen and prenomen of Khyan and a now lost dedication below which are inscribed the title and name of the Eldest Kings Son Yanassi. Ryholt notes that the name, Khyan, generally has been interpreted as Amorite Hayanu which the Egyptian form represents perfectly, and it should be stressed that Khyans name was not original and had been in use for centuries prior to the fifteenth Hyksos Dynasty. The name Hayanu is recorded in the Assyrian king lists—see Khorsabad List I,17, kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B. C. Museum Tuscalanum Press,463 pages, ISBN 87-7289-421-0
Khyan
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Lion inscribed with the cartouche of Khyan, British Museum, EA 987.
107.
Apepi (pharaoh)
–
Apepi or Apophis was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the fifteenth dynasty and the end of the Second Intermediate Period that was dominated by this foreign dynasty of rulers called the Hyksos. Neb-khepesh-Re, A-qenen-Re and A-user-Re are three praenomina or throne names used by this same ruler during various parts of his reign, in the final decade or so of his reign, Apepi chose Auserre as his last prenomen. While the prenomen was altered, there is no difference in the translation of both Aqenenre and Auserre and his Horus name Shetep-tawy is attested only twice. It appears on a table and on blocks found at Bubastis. Rather than building his own monuments, Apepi generally usurped the monuments of previous pharaohs by inscribing his own name over two sphinxes of Amenemhat II and two statues of Imyremeshaw and he was succeeded by Khamudi, the last Hyksos ruler. Ahmose I, who drove out the Hyksos kings from Egypt, in the Ramesside era, he is recorded as worshiping Seth in a monolatric way, chose for his Lord the god Seth. He didnt worship any other deity in the land except Seth. There is some discussion in Egyptology concerning whether Apepi also ruled Upper Egypt, there are indeed several objects with the kings name most likely coming from Thebes and Upper Egypt. These include a dagger with the name of the bought on the art market in Luxor. There is an axe of unknown provenance where the king is called beloved of Sobek, Sumenu is nowadays identified with Mahamid Qibli, about 24 kilometers south of Thebes and there is a fragment of a stone vessel found in a Theban tomb. For all these objects it is arguable that they were traded to Upper Egypt, more problematic is a block with the kings name found at Gebelein. The block had been taken as evidence for building activity of the king in Upper Egypt and, hence, seen as proof that the Hyksos also ruled in Upper Egypt. However, the block is not very big and many scholars argue today, two sisters are known, Tani and Ziwat. Tani is mentioned on a door of a shrine in Avaris and she was the sister of the king. Ziwat is mentioned on a found in Spain. A Prince Apepi, named on a seal is likely to have been his son, the vase, however, could have been an item which was looted from Avaris after the eventual victory over the Hyksos by Ahmose I
Apepi (pharaoh)
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Dagger with the names Neb-Khepesh-Re Apepi.
Apepi (pharaoh)
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Scarab bearing the final prenomen of the Hyksos pharaoh Apepi
108.
Khamudi
–
Khamudi was the last Hyksos ruler of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Khamudi came to power in 1534 BC or 1541 BC, ruling the northern portion of Egypt from his capital Avaris and his ultimate defeat at the hands of Ahmose I, after a short reign, marks the end of the Second Intermediate Period. Khamudi is listed on the Turin canon, column 10, line 28 as the last Hyksos king, beyond this, only two scarab seals are firmly attributed to him, both from Jericho. Additionally, a seal of unknown provenance but possibly from Byblos is inscribed with a cartouche which may read Khamudi. This reading is contested by the egyptologist Kim Ryholt who proposed that the cartouche reads Kandy instead and refers to an hitherto unknown king. In any case, even if the cartouche bears Khamudis name, the seal is currently housed in the Petrie Museum, catalog number UC11616. Based on the scarcity of material dating to Khamudis reign, Ryholt has proposed that his reign must have been short, amounting to no more than a year. In this situation, Khamudi would have inherited more than the Hyksos throne, being possibly already besieged in Sharuhen. This is contested by scholars, such as Manfred Bietak. Bietak and many believe that this year 11 belongs to Khamudi since the text of the papyrus refers to Ahmose I. Since he of the South must denote the Theban ruler Ahmose, the Hyksos capital Avaris will have fallen to Ahmose not much later. Another date on the papyrus is dated to Year 33 of Khamudis predecessor Apepi. It is generally believed that Ahmose I defeated the Hyksos king by his 18th or 19th regnal year and this is suggested by a graffito in the quarry at Tura whereby oxen from Canaan were used at the opening of the quarry in Ahmoses regnal year 22
Khamudi
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Cylinder seal with a cartouche possibly reading "Khamudi".
109.
Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt
–
The Sixteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt was a dynasty of pharaohs that ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt for 70 years. Of the two versions of Manethos Aegyptiaca, Dynasty XVI is described by the more reliable Africanus as shepherd kings. For this reason other scholars do not follow Ryholt and see only insufficient evidence for the interpretation of the Sixteenth Dynasty as Theban, the continuing war against Dynasty XV dominated the short-lived 16th dynasty. The armies of the 15th dynasty, winning town after town from their enemies, continually encroached on the 16th dynasty territory, eventually threatening. Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during late 13th Dynasty, various chronological orderings and lists of kings have been proposed by scholars for this dynasty. The traditional list of rulers of the 16th Dynasty regroups kings believed to be vassals of the Hyksos, some of which have names such as Semqen. The list of kings differs from scholar to scholar and it is given as per Jürgen von Beckeraths Dynasty XV/XVI in his Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Wolfgang Helck, who believes that the 16th Dynasty was an Hyksos vassal state. The chronological ordering is largely uncertain, in his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, the Danish egyptologist Kim Ryholt argues that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom. From Ryholts reconstruction of the Turin canon,15 kings can be associated to the dynasty, while most likely rulers based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos, El Kab and Edfu. By the reign of Nebiriau I, the controlled by the 16th dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu. Not listed in the Turin canon is Wepwawetemsaf, who left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the Abydos Dynasty, Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th dynasty as shown in the table below. Others, such as Helck, Vandersleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with the Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt, 3000-330 BC, London, Routledge, ISBN9780415013536 Ryholt, K. S. B. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800 -1550 BC
Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt
–
The political situation in Egypt during the existence of the 16th Dynasty from c. 1650 until c. 1590 BC. Thebes was briefly conquered by the Hyksos c. 1580 BC.
110.
Neferhotep III
–
Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III Iykhernofret was the third or fourth ruler of the Theban 16th Dynasty, reigning after Sobekhotep VIII according to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker. He is assigned a reign of 1 year in the Turin Canon and is primarily by a single stela from Thebes. In an older study, Von Beckerath dated Neferhotep III to the end of the 13th Dynasty, in the heavily damaged stela, Neferhotep III repeatedly calls Thebes my city and praises himself as the guide of victorious Thebes. This emphasis on Thebes is understood by Ryholt as showing that Neferhotep III reigned exclusively over the Theban region, in his Theban stela, Neferhotep III emphasizes his role as provider of food for his people stating that he who nourishes his city, saving it from famine. This, together with his royal name Sekhemre Sanhktawy, The might of Ra, another king of the period, Senusret IV, adopted a similar royal name. Neferhotep III got certainly embroiled in a war against the Hyksos 15th Dynasty. Neferhotep praises himself on his stela as He who raises his city, interestingly, the stela is thought to be the first object mentioning the Khepresh crown. Neferhotep is said to be Adorned with the Khepresh, the image of Re
Neferhotep III
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Neferhotep III (right) on the stela JE 59635
111.
Seankhenre Mentuhotepi
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Seankhenre Mentuhotepi was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the fragmented Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the king of the 16th Dynasty reigning over the Theban region in Upper Egypt. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the king of the 17th Dynasty. Mentuhotepi is attested by a stela from Karnak and a seal of unknown provenance bearing a prenomen variously read Sewahenre, Sewadjenre and Seankhenre. Furthermore, two limestone sphinxes of Mentuhotepi were discovered in 1924 in the ruins of the Temple of Horus in Edfu, one bearing the prenomen Seankhenre, finally, Mentuhotepi is attested in the Turin canon under the prenomen Seankhenre. The identification of Mentuhotepi has evolved over the years, Jürgen von Beckerath lists Mentuhotepi as a king of the 17th Dynasty under the name Mentuhotep VII, the recent reconstruction of the Turin canon by Ryholt established this king as Seankhenre Mentuhotepi. If Ryholts identification of Mentuhotepi in the Turin canon is correct, then he took the throne following Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III, mentuhotepis short reign was probably marked by the constant conflict with the Hyksos kingdom of the 15th Dynasty. At the time, the 16th Dynasty was already in a weakened position, in his stele from Karnak, Mentuhotepi emphatically states, I am the king within Thebes, this is my city and calls Thebes the mistress of the entire land, city of triumph. He reports driving back the lands, probably a euphemism for the Hyksos or possibly for the Nubians. Mentuhotepis military might is emphasized, the king being likened to Sekhmet who kills his enemies with his flaming breath, Mentuhotepi was succeeded by Nebiryraw I, who ruled Upper Egypt for over 25 years
Seankhenre Mentuhotepi
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Drawing of a sphinx of Mentuhotepi, bearing the prenomen Seankhenre between the legs
112.
Nebiryraw I
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Sewadjenre Nebiryraw was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Theban-based 16th Dynasty, during the Second Intermediate Period. On the Turin Canon he is credited with a 26-year-long reign and was succeeded by his namesake Nebiryraw II, also in Cairo there is a copper dagger bearing his throne name, discovered by Flinders Petrie in a cemetery at Hu, in late 1890s. Nebiryraw is also depicted along with the goddess Maat on a stela which is part of the Egyptian collection located in Bonn. The statuette also mentions a good god Neferkare, deceased which is believed to be the throne name of Nebiryraws purported son and successor. The statuette is clearly non-contemporary, however, since the cult of Harpocrates was introduced during the Ptolemaic period i. e. about 1500 years after the people named on the statuette had lived
Nebiryraw I
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Faience scarab of pharaoh Sewadjenra Nebiryraw I, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 11608)
113.
Semenre
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Semenre, also Smenre or Semenenre, is a poorly attested Theban pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt who succeeded the equally obscure Nebiriau II. He reigned from 1601 to 1600 BC or ca.1580 BC, for this ruler only the Throne name is known, carved on a tin-bronze axe head of unknown provenance, now in the Petrie Museum, London. He is possibly also listed on the Turin Canon, semenre was succeeded by Seuserenre Bebiankh who left behind more traces of building projects and mining activity in his reign than most kings of this dynasty with the exception of Djehuti. The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C
Semenre
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Axehead with the name of Semenre, Petrie Museum UC30079
114.
Senusret IV
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Senusret IV Seneferibre was an ancient Egyptian Theban king during the late Second Intermediate Period that is attested only through finds from Upper Egypt. The chronological position of Senusret IV is unclear and even the dynasty to which he belongs is debated. According to Jürgen von Beckerath Senusret IV belonged to the late 13th dynasty, alternatively, Norbert Dautzenberg proposed that Senusret IV is part of the 17th dynasty. Dautzenberg bases this hypothesis on his reading of entry 11.4 of the Turin canon as referring to Senusret IV. He also attributes graffiti on a gate of the Medamud temple mentioning a king Senusret to Senusret IV since the gate was decorated by Sobekemsaf I, both arguments are rejected by Ryholt, first, Ryholt notes that the Turin canon entry 11. In the new arrangement the dynasty of Senusret IV is left partially undetermined, Senusret IV is attested on the Karnak king list under his prenomen Seneferre. The most important contemporary attestation of the king is a 2m 75 cm tall statue of him, sculpted in pink granite. Finally, a lintel from Edfu and an axe-blade bearing the nomen Senusret have also attributed to Senusret IV based on stylistic considerations. In the case of the axe blade however, some have attributed it to Senusret I
Senusret IV
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Colossal statue CG 42026 of Senusret IV, discovered in 1901 by Georges Legrain in Karnak.
115.
Pepi III
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Seneferankhre Pepi III may have been a pharaoh of the Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Wolfgang Helck he was the pharaoh of the dynasty. Alternatively, according to Jürgen von Beckerath, he was the pharaoh of the dynasty. Because his position in the 16th dynasty is uncertain, it is not clear who were his predecessor and successor. Seneferankhre Pepy III is only attested by a seal bearing his name. Egyptologist Kim Ryholt contests the seal as evidence that Pepi was a king of the 16th dynasty, according to Ryholt, the size and design of this seal is unparalleled during the SIP. Also the style of the signs is quite dissimilar to SIP seals, instead, Ryholt proposes that the seal of Seneferankhre Pepy III be dated to the First Intermediate Period, noting however that this is a very early date for a scarab seal
Pepi III
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Photography of a scarab of Sneferankhre Pepi III by Flinders Petrie.
116.
Pantjeny
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Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was a king of the Abydos Dynasty, alternatively, Pantjeny could be a king of the late 16th Dynasty. According to Jürgen von Beckerath, Pantjeny is to be identified with Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw, Pantjeny is known from a single limestone stela of exceptionally crude quality found in Abydos by Flinders Petrie. The stele is dedicated to the kings son Djehuty-aa and to the kings daughter Hotepneferu, the stela is in the British Museum under the catalog number BM EA630. The stela was produced by an operating in Abydos. Other stelae produced by this workshop belong to king Rahotep and king Wepwawetemsaf, all three kings reigned therefore quite close in time. The Abydos Dynasty thus designates a group of local kinglets reigning for a time in central Egypt. Ryholt notes that Pantjeny is attested by a find from Abydos and furthermore that his name means He of Thinis. Thus he concludes that Pantjeny most likely ruled from Abydos and belongs to the Abydos Dynasty, as such, Pantjeny would have ruled over parts of central Egypt and would have been contemporary with the 15th and 16th Dynasties. The egyptologist Marcel Marée rejects Ryholts hypothesis and instead holds that Pantjeny is a king of the late 16th Dynasty. Indeed, Marée notes that the workshop which produced Pantjenys stele is also responsible for the production of the stelae of Wepwawetemsaf and Rahotep, Marée therefore concludes that Rahotep, Pantjeny and Wepwawetemsaf reigned quite close in time. This reasoning also precludes the existence of an Abydos Dynasty c.1650 BC
Pantjeny
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Limestone stele depicting prince Djehuti-Aa and princess Hotepneferu and bearing the cartouches of pharaoh Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny.
117.
Snaaib
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Menkhaure Snaaib was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker he was a king of the Abydos Dynasty, alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees Snaaib as a king reigning near the end of the 13th Dynasty. The only contemporary attestation of Snaaibs reign is a limestone stele of exceptionally crude quality discovered in Abydos. The stele gives the nomen, prenomen and horus names of the king and shows him wearing the khepresh, the Abydos Dynasty thus designates a group of local kinglets reigning for a short time in central Egypt. Ryholt notes that Snaaib is only attested by his stele from Abydos and this conclusion is shared by Darrell Baker but not by von Beckerath, who places Snaaib near the end of the 13th Dynasty
Snaaib
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Stele of Snaaib, on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo
118.
Nebmaatre
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Nebmaatre is the prenomen of a poorly attested ruler of the late Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. Nebmaatre may have been a member of the early 17th dynasty, alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Nebmaatre was a ruler of the late 16th Dynasty. The prenomen Nebmaatre is attested on a bronze axe-head discovered in a tomb at Mostagedda in Middle Egypt, the same prenomen is inscribed on a black steatite amulet representing a lion of unknown provenance and now in the Petrie Museum under the catalog number 11587. A degree of uncertainty affects the ownership of these artifacts since Amenhotep IIIs prenomen was Nebmaatre as well, instead Petrie suggested that the amulet be attributable to Ibi, an obscure ruler of the late 13th dynasty whose prenomen is partially preserved in Turin canon as maatre. However, Kim Ryholts recent study of the Turin canon precludes this identification as a stroke in the lacuna just prior to maatre rules out the hieroglyph for neb. The chronological position of Nebmaatre in the intermediate period is highly uncertain. The egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath proposes that Nebmaatre was a ruler of a compounded 15th-16th dynasty, alternatively, Kim Ryholt put forth the hypothesis that Nebmaatre was a king of the 17th dynasty, although he left his position in the dynasty unspecified. Ryholts datation is based on the observation that the axe-head bearing Nebmaatres name was found in a tomb belonging to the Pan-grave culture, the Pan-grave people were Nubian mercenaries employed by rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt in their fight against the Hyksos foe. Egyptologist Darrell Baker points out that the Theban rulers of the period might indeed have provided weapons to their mercenaries. Nebmaatre was the prenomen of pharaoh Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty whose reign marked the apex of Egypts power, a 20th dynasty prince and High priest of Ra in Heliopolis was also named Nebmaatre
Nebmaatre
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Base of the lion amulet of Nebmaatre, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 11587).
119.
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
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Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef is sometimes referred to as Intef V, and sometimes as Intef VI. His nomen, Intef-aa, translates as His father brought him, the great or Intef and he ruled from Thebes, and was probably buried in a tomb in the necropolis. His rishi coffin, Louvre E3019, was discovered in the 19th century and found to preserve an inscription which reveals that this kings brother Nubkheperre Intef buried – and thus succeeded – him. While his own tomb has not been located, it was located in the area of Dra Abu el-Naga where the pyramid tomb of his brother Nubkheperre Intef was found in 2001. The pyramidion of the pyramid of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intefs pyramid was found in Dra Abu el-Naga and it has a slope of 60 degrees and is inscribed with this kings names. The pyramidion is now in the British Museum
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
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Sarcophagus of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Louvre Museum
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
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Canopic chest of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Musée du Louvre.
120.
Seqenenre Tao
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Seqenenre Tao, called The Brave, ruled over the last of the local kingdoms of the Theban region of Egypt in the Seventeenth Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. He probably was the son and successor to Senakhtenre Ahmose and Queen Tetisheri, the dates of his reign are uncertain, but he may have risen to power in the decade ending in 1560 BC or in 1558 BC. Seqenenre Tao is credited with starting the opening moves in the war of liberation against the Hyksos, new Kingdom literary tradition states that Seqenenre Tao came into contact with his Hyksos contemporary in the north, Apepi or Apophis. Seqenenre Tao participated in active diplomatic posturing, which went beyond simply exchanging insults with the Asiatic ruler in the North. He seems to have led military skirmishes against the Hyksos and, judging from the head wound on his mummy in the Cairo Museum. On an adjacent hillside overlooking the river, the foundations of a building were found that almost certainly was a observation post. Interestingly, a large amount of pottery known as Kerma-ware was found at the site. It is thought that they were there as allies of the pharaoh in his wars against the Hyksos, seqenenres mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with those of later, eighteenth and nineteenth dynasty leaders, Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, the mummy was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero on June 9,1886. There are no wounds on his arms or hands, which suggests he was not able to defend himself, until 2009 the main hypotheses have been that he died either in a battle against the Hyksos or was killed while sleeping. His mummy appears to have been hastily embalmed, x-rays that were taken of the mummy in the late-1960s show that no attempt had been made to remove the brain or to add linen inside the cranium or eyes, both normal embalming practice for the time. In the opinion of James E and he is the earliest royal mummy on display in the recently revamped Royal Mummies Hall at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Egypt, From the Death of Ammenemes III to Sequenenre II, in Volume 2, Chapter 2 of the Cambridge Ancient History, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament
Seqenenre Tao
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Fragment of the death shroud of Ahmose bearing Seqenenre Tao's titulary, Museo Egizio
Seqenenre Tao
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Mummified head of Seqenenre depicting his battlewounds
121.
New Kingdom of Egypt
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Radiocarbon dating places the exact beginning of the New Kingdom between 1570–1544 BC. The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period and it was Egypt’s most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power. The later part of period, under the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties is also known as the Ramesside period. It is named after the pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses I. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria, the Eighteenth Dynasty contained some of Egypts most famous Pharaohs, including Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun. Queen Hatshepsut concentrated on expanding Egypts external trade by sending an expedition to the land of Punt. Thutmose III expanded Egypts army and wielded it with success to consolidate the empire created by his predecessors. This resulted in a peak in Egypts power and wealth during the reign of Amenhotep III, during the reign of Thutmose III, Pharaoh, originally referring to the kings palace, became a form of address for the person who was king. Akhenatens religious fervor is cited as the reason why he was written out of Egyptian history. Under his reign, in the 14th century BC, Egyptian art flourished and attained a level of realism. Towards the end of the 18th Dynasty, the situation had changed radically, Ramesses II sought to recover territories in the Levant that had been held by the 18th Dynasty. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of Kadesh, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Ramesses was caught in historys first recorded military ambush, although he was able to rally his troops, the outcome of the battle was undecided with both sides claiming victory at their home front, ultimately resulting in a peace treaty between the two nations. The last great pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely considered to be Ramesses III, in the eighth year of his reign the Sea Peoples invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles and he incorporated them as subject peoples and settled them in Southern Canaan although there is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states, such as Philistia and he was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his sixth year and eleventh year respectively. The heavy cost of this warfare slowly drained Egypts treasury and contributed to the decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground, one proposed cause is the Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland but the dating of this remains disputed
New Kingdom of Egypt
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New Kingdom at its maximum territorial extent in the 15th century BC.
New Kingdom of Egypt
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Relief of a Nobleman, ca. 1295-1070 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum
New Kingdom of Egypt
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Queen Ahmose-Nefertari
122.
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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The eighteenth dynasty of ancient Egypt is the best known ancient Egyptian dynasty. It boasts several of Egypts most famous pharaohs, including Tutankhamun, the dynasty is also known as the Thutmosid Dynasty for the four pharaohs named Thutmosis. Famous pharaohs of Dynasty XVIII include Hatshepsut, longest-reigning woman-pharaoh of a dynasty, and Akhenaten. Dynasty XVIII is the first of the three dynasties of the Egyptian New Kingdom, the period in which ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, radiocarbon dating suggests that Dynasty XVIII may have started a few years earlier than the conventional date of 1550 BC. The radiocarbon date range for its beginning is 1570–1544 BC, the point of which is 1557 BC. The pharaohs of Dynasty XVIII ruled for two hundred and fifty years. The dates and names in the table are taken from Dodson and Hilton, many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes. More information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website, several diplomatic marriages are known for the New Kingdom. These daughters of kings are often only mentioned in cuneiform texts and are not known from other sources. The marriages were likely a way to confirm good relations between these states, Dynasty XVIII was founded by Ahmose I, the brother or son of Kamose, the last ruler of the Dynasty XVII. Ahmose finished the campaign to expel the Hyksos rulers and his reign is seen as the end of the Second Intermediate Period and the start of the New Kingdom. Ahmose was succeeded by his son, Amenhotep I, whose reign was relatively uneventful, Amenhotep I probably left no male heir and the next pharaoh, Thutmose I, seems to have been related to the royal family through marriage. During his reign the borders of Egypts empire reached their greatest expanse, extending in the north to Carchemish on the Euphrates, Thutmose I was succeeded by Thutmose II and his queen, Hatshepsut. Thutmose III who later became known as the greatest military pharaoh ever and he had a second co-regency in his old age with his son Amenhotep II. Amenhotep II was succeeded by Thutmose IV, who in his turn was followed by his son Amenhotep III, the reign of Amenhotep III is seen as a high point in this dynasty. Amenhotep III undertook large scale building programmes, the extent of which can only be compared with those of the much longer reign of Ramesses II during Dynasty XIX. Amenhotep III may have shared the throne for up to twelve years with his son Amenhotep IV, there is much debate about this proposed co-regency. Some experts believe there was a lengthy co-regency, while others prefer to see a short one, there are also many experts who believe no such co-regency existed at all
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Head of an Early Eighteenth Dynasty King, ca. 1539-1493 B.C.,37.38E, Brooklyn Museum
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Block Statue of Ay, ca. 1336-1327 B.C.E. 66.174.1, Brooklyn Museum
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Ahmose-Nefertari. Ahmose-Nefertari was the daughter of Seqenenre Tao II, a 17th dynasty king who rose up against the Hyksos. Her brother Ahmose, expelled the Hyksos, and she became queen of a united Egypt. She was deified after she died.
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Amenhotep I gained the throne after his two elder brothers had died. He was the son of Ahmose and Ahmose-Nefertari. He was succeeded by Thutmose I who married his daughter, Ahmose.
123.
Ahmose I
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Ahmose I was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the founder of the Eighteenth dynasty. He was a member of the Theban royal house, the son of pharaoh Seqenenre Tao and brother of the last pharaoh of the Seventeenth dynasty, during the reign of his father or grandfather, Thebes rebelled against the Hyksos, the rulers of Lower Egypt. When he was seven years old his father was killed, and he was ten when his brother died of unknown causes. Ahmose I assumed the throne after the death of his brother, the name Ahmose is a combination of the divine name Ah and the combining form -mose. This building program culminated in the construction of the last pyramid built by native Egyptian rulers, Ahmoses reign laid the foundations for the New Kingdom, under which Egyptian power reached its peak. His reign is dated to the mid-16th century BC. Ahmose descended from the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty and his grandfather and grandmother, Senakhtenre Ahmose and Tetisheri, had at least twelve children, including Seqenenre Tao and Ahhotep. The brother and sister, according to the tradition of Egyptian queens, married, their children were Kamose, Ahmose I, Ahmose I followed in the tradition of his father and married several of his sisters, making Ahmose-Nefertari his chief wife. They had several children including daughters Meritamun B, Sitamun A and sons Siamun A, Ahmose-ankh, Amenhotep I and they may also have been the parents of Mutnofret, who would become the wife of later successor Thutmose I. Ahmose-ankh was Ahmoses heir apparent, but he preceded his father in death sometime between Ahmoses 17th and 22nd regnal year, Ahmose was succeeded instead by his eldest surviving son, Amenhotep I, with whom he might have shared a short coregency. There was no break in the line of the royal family between the 17th and 18th dynasties. Manetho supposedly gives Ahmose a reign of 25 years and 4 months and this figure is seemingly supported by a Year 22 inscription from his reign at the stone quarries of Tura. A medical examination of his mummy indicates that he died when he was about thirty-five, the radiocarbon date range for the start of his reign is 1570–1544 BC, the mean point of which is 1557 BC. Alternative dates for his reign were suggested by David Rohl, Kamose evidently had a short reign, as his highest attested regnal year is year 3, and was succeeded by Ahmose I. Apepi may have died near the same time, Ahmose ascended the throne when he was still a child, so his mother, Ahhotep, reigned as regent until he was of age. Ahmose began the conquest of Lower Egypt held by the Hyksos starting around the 11th year of Khamudis reign, analyzing the events of the conquest prior to the siege of the Hyksos capital of Avaris is extremely difficult. First month of akhet, day 23, this southern prince broke into Tjaru, for if the date refers to Ahmose, then the scribe must have been an adherent of that ruler. To me, the very indirect reference to Ahmose—it must be Ahmose—ought to indicate a supporter of the Hyksos dynasty, hence, the Rhind Papyrus illustrates some of Ahmoses military strategy when attacking the Delta
Ahmose I
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Copper axe blade inscribed with the titulary of pharaoh Ahmose I, Ashmolean Museum.
Ahmose I
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A fragmentary statue of Ahmose I, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Ahmose I
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Fragments of an armband of Ahmose I, Musée du Louvre.
124.
Thutmose I
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Thutmose I was the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. He received the throne after the death of the previous king, during his reign, he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt farther than ever before. He also built temples in Egypt, and a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings. He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose IIs sister and it has been speculated Thutmoses father was Amenhotep I. His mother, Senseneb, was of non-royal parentage and may have been a wife or concubine. Assuming she was related to Amenhotep, it could be thought that she was married to Thutmose in order to guarantee succession, however, this is known not to be the case for two reasons. Firstly, Amenhoteps alabaster bark built at Karnak associates Amenhoteps name with Thutmoses name well before Amenhoteps death, secondly, Thutmoses first-born son with Ahmose, Amenmose, was apparently born long before Thutmoses coronation. Thutmose had another son, Wadjmose, and two daughters, Hatshepsut and Nefrubity, by Ahmose, Wadjmose died before his father, and Nefrubity died as an infant. Thutmose had one son by another wife, Mutnofret and this son succeeded him as Thutmose II, whom Thutmose I married to his daughter, Hatshepsut. It was later recorded by Hatshepsut that Thutmose willed the kingship to both Thutmose II and Hatshepsut, however, this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsuts supporters to legitimise her claim to the throne when she later assumed power. A heliacal rising of Sothis was recorded in the reign of Thutmoses predecessor, Amenhotep I, the year of Amenhoteps death and Thutmoses subsequent coronation can be accordingly derived, and is dated to 1506 BC by most modern scholars. However, if the observation were made at either Heliopolis or Memphis, as a minority of scholars promote, manetho records that Thutmose Is reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months as a certain Mephres in his Epitome. This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign bearing his cartouche found inscribed on a block in Karnak. According to the autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Thutmose traveled up the Nile and fought in the battle. Upon victory, he had the Nubian kings body hung from the prow of his ship and this helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire. His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with no, Year 3, first month of the third season. His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush and this indicates that he already fought a campaign in Syria, hence, his Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of his second regnal year. This second campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned, although it has not been found in modern times, he apparently set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River
Thutmose I
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A stone head, most likely depicting Thutmose I, at the British Museum
Thutmose I
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Stela of Thutmose I in the Cairo Museum
Thutmose I
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Court of the 4th pylon: obelisk of Thutmose I at Karnak
Thutmose I
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Hatshepsut donated this quartzite sarcophagus which was made in her reign for the reburial of her father, Thutmose I, in KV20 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
125.
Thutmose II
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Thutmose II was the fourth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. He built some minor monuments and initiated at least two minor campaigns but did little else during his rule and was strongly influenced by his wife. His reign is dated from 1493 to 1479 BC. Thutmose IIs body was found in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I and a minor wife, Mutnofret. He was, therefore, a son of Thutmose I and chose to marry his fully royal half-sister, Hatshepsut. This is often interpreted as evidence that Thutmose II was still a minor at his accession, Thutmose II fathered Neferure with Hatshepsut, but also managed to father a male heir, the famous Thutmose III, by a lesser wife named Iset before his death. She is depicted in several raised relief scenes from a Karnak gateway dating to Thutmose IIs reign both together with her husband and alone, manethos Epitome refers to Thutmose II as Chebron and gives him a reign of 13 years, but this figure is highly disputed among scholars. Some Egyptologists prefer to shorten his reign by a decade to only 3 years because his highest Year Date is only a Year 1 II Akhet day 8 stela. Nonetheless, scholars generally assign him a reign from 1493 or 1492 to 1479, ineni, who was already aged by the start of Thutmose IIs reign, lived through this rulers entire reign into that of Hatshepsut. In addition, Thutmose II is poorly attested in the monumental record, even this monument was not completed in Thutmose IIs reign but in the reign of his son Thutmose III, which hints at the nearly ephemeral nature of Thutmose IIs reign. The gateway was later dismantled and its building blocks incorporated into the foundation of the Third Pylon by Amenhotep III, in 1987, Luc Gabolde published an important study that statistically compared the number of surviving scarabs found under Thutmose I, Thutmose II and Hatshepsut. Hatshepsuts reign is believed to have lasted for 21 years and 9 months, hence, unless there was an abnormally low number of scarabs produced under Thutmose II, this would indicate that the kings reign was rather short-lived. On this basis, Gabolde estimated Thutmose I and IIs reigns to be approximately 11 and 3 full years, consequently, the reign length of Thutmose II has been a much debated subject among Egyptologists with little consensus given the small number of surviving documents for his reign. Thutmoses reign is traditionally given as 13 or 14 years. Since he lived long enough to father two children—Neferure and Thutmose III—this suggests that he may have had a reign of 13 years in order to reach adulthood. The German Egyptologist, J. Von Beckerath, uses this line of argument to support the case of a 13-year reign for Thutmose II. Alan Gardiner noted that at one point, a monument had been identified by Georges Daressy in 1900 that was dated to Thutmoses 18th year and this inscription is now usually attributed to Hatshepsut, who certainly did have an 18th year. This would create a gap of 13 to 14 years where Thutmose IIs reign would fit in between Hatshepsut and Thutmose Is rule
Thutmose II
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Relief of Thutmose II in Karnak Temple complex.
Thutmose II
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Aakheperenre, the praenomen of Thutmose II, temple of Hatshepsut, Luxor.
126.
Hatshepsut
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Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the second historically confirmed female pharaoh, the first being Sobekneferu, Hatshepsut came to the throne of Egypt in 1478 BC. Officially, she ruled jointly with Thutmose III, who had ascended to the throne the year as a child of about two years old. Hatshepsut was the wife of Thutmose II, Thutmose III’s father. She is generally regarded by Egyptologists as one of the most successful pharaohs, according to Egyptologist James Henry Breasted she is also known as the first great woman in history of whom we are informed. Hatshepsut was the daughter and only child of Thutmose I and his primary wife Ahmose and her husband Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I and a secondary wife named Mutnofret, who carried the title Kings daughter and was probably a child of Ahmose I. Hatshepsut and Thutmose II had a daughter named Neferure, Thutmose II fathered Thutmose III with Iset, a secondary wife. Today Egyptologists generally agree that Hatshepsut assumed the position of pharaoh, Hatshepsut was described as having a reign of about 22 years by ancient authors. Josephus and Julius Africanus both quote Manethos king list, mentioning a woman called Amessis or Amensis who has identified as Hatshepsut. In Josephus work, her reign is described as lasting 21 years and nine months, dating the beginning of her reign is more difficult, however. Her fathers reign began in either 1526 or 1506 BC according to the high and low estimates of her reign, the length of the reigns of Tuthmosis I and Tuthmosis II, however, cannot be determined with absolute certainty. With short reigns, Hatshepsut would have ascended the throne 14 years after the coronation of Tuthmosis I, longer reigns would put her ascension 25 years after Tuthmosis Is coronation. Thus, Hatshepsut could have assumed power as early as 1512 BC, or, Hatshepsut established the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos occupation of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, thereby building the wealth of the eighteenth dynasty. She oversaw the preparations and funding for a mission to the Land of Punt and this trading expedition to Punt was roughly during Hatshepsuts ninth year of reign. It set out in her name with five ships, each measuring 70 feet long bearing several sails, many trade goods were bought in Punt, notably frankincense and myrrh. Hatshepsuts delegation returned from Punt bearing 31 live myrrh trees, the roots of which were kept in baskets for the duration of the voyage. This was the first recorded attempt to transplant foreign trees and it is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her mortuary temple complex. Egyptians also returned with a number of gifts from Punt
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Statue of Hatshepsut on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
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A tree in front of Hatshepsut's temple, claimed to have been brought from Punt by Hatshepsut's Expedition which is depicted on the Temple walls
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Djeser-Djeseru is the main building of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri. Designed by Senemut, her vizier, the building is an example of perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon, and it was the first complex built on the site she chose, which would become the Valley of the Kings
Hatshepsut
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Colonnaded design of Hatshepsut temple
127.
Smenkhkare
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Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu was a short-lived pharaoh in the late 18th dynasty. His names translate as Living are the Forms of Re and Vigorous is the Soul of Re – Holy of Forms and his reign was during the Amarna Period, a time when Akhenaten sought to impose new religious views. He is to be distinguished from his predecessor, the female ruler Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Unlike Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare did not use epithets in his name or cartouche. Very little is known of Smenkhkare for certain because later kings, beginning with Horemheb, for the complete historiography regarding the names, see Neferneferuaten Smenkhkare was known as far back as 1845 from the tomb of Meryre II. There he and Meritaten, bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tombs owner, the names of the king have since been cut out but had been recorded by Lepsius circa 1850. Later, a different set of names emerged using the throne name. This led to a deal of confusion since throne names tended to be unique. For the better part of a century, the repetition of names was taken to mean that Smenkhare changed his name to Neferneferuaten at some point. Indeed, Petrie makes exactly that distinction in his notes of 1894. By the 1970s, feminine traces in some versions of the name, among them, that Nefertiti was masquerading as Smenkhkare before changing her name again to Neferneferuaten. When considered with various stela depicting Akhenaten with another king in familiar, if not intimate poses, in 1978, it was proposed that there were 2 individuals using the same name, a male king Smenkhkare and a female Neferneferuaten. Ten years later, James Allen pointed out the name Ankhkheperure nearly always included an epithet referring to Akhenaten such as desired of Wa en Re when coupled with Neferneferuaten. Smenkhkare, as son in law, might be desired of Akhenaten, by the start of the 21st Century, a fair degree of consensus emerged that Neferneferuaten was a female king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly among specialists of the period. Almost as important, when presented with just the name Ankhkheperure, aside from the Meryre tomb depiction already mentioned there are several pieces of evidence which establish Smenkhkare as king. A calcite globular vase from the tomb of Tutankhamun bears the double cartouche of Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of Smenkhkare. This is the object to carry both names side by side. A single wine docket, Year 1, wine of the house of Smenkhkare, line drawings of a block depicting the nearly complete names of King Smenkhkare and Meritaten as Great Royal Wife were recorded before the block was lost
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Line drawing from Meryre II. The lost names had been recorded previously (inset) as Smenkhkare and Meritaten.
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The desecrated royal coffin found in Tomb KV55
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The skull of the KV55 mummy, believed to be Smenkhkare.
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A royal vulture pectoral which was found placed on the head of the KV55 mummy.
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Neferneferuaten
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For other individuals named Neferneferuaten, see Neferneferuaten. Ankhkheperure-mery-Neferkheperure/ -mery-Waenre/ -mery-Aten Neferneferuaten was a used to refer to either Queen Meritaten or more likely Queen Nefertiti. The archaeological evidence relates to a woman who reigned as pharaoh toward the end of the Amarna Period during the Eighteenth Dynasty and her gender is confirmed by feminine traces occasionally found in the name and by the epithet Akhet-en-hyes, incorporated into one version of her second cartouche. She is to be distinguished from the king who used the name Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare-Djeser Kheperu, with little dated evidence to fix their reigns with any certainty, the order depends on how the evidence is interpreted. Many encyclopedic sources and atlases will show Smenkhkare succeeding Akhenaten on the basis of dating back to 1845. The period from the 13th year of Akhenatens reign to the ascension of Tutankhaten is very murky, the reigns of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were very brief and left little monumental or inscriptional evidence to draw a clear picture of political events. Adding to this, Neferneferuaten shares her prenomen, or throne name, with Smenkhkare, the Egyptians themselves tried to hide the evidence of the Amarna kings reigns from us. The result is that 3300 years later, scholars would have to piece together events, with the evidence so murky and equivocal, at one time or another, the name, gender, identity and even the existence of Neferneferuaten has been a matter of debate among Egyptologists. Manetho was a priest in the time of the Ptolemies in the Third Century B. C. E and his Egyptian History divided the rulers into dynasties which forms the basis of the modern system of dating Ancient Egypt. His work has been lost and is only in fragmentary form from later writers quoting his work. As a result of the suppression of the Amarna kings, Manetho is the ancient record available. Manethos Epitome, a summary of his work, describes the late 18th Dynasty succession as Amenophis for 30 years 10 months, who seems likely to be Amenhotep III. Then his son Orus for 36 years 5 months, this is seen as a corruption of the name Horemheb with the entire Amarna period attributed to him. Next comes his daughter Acencheres for 12 years 1 month then her brother Rathotis for 9 years, Acencheres is Ankhkheperure according to Gabolde, with a transcription error assumed which converted 2 years,1 month into the 12 years,1 month reported by the addition of 10 years. Most agree that Rathotis refers to Tutankhamun, therefore, the order also supports Acencheres as Ankhkheperure. Rathotis is followed by his son Acencheres for 12 years 5 months, his son Acencheres II for 12 years 3 months which are inexplicable, there are several items central to the slow unveiling regarding the existence, gender and identity of Neferneferuaten. These continue to be key elements to various theories today, the name of King Ankheprure Smenkhkare-Djeserkheperu was known as far back as 1845 from the tomb of Meryre II. There, he and Meritaten, bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tombs owner, the names of the king have since been cut out but had been recorded by Lepsius ca 1850
Neferneferuaten
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Inscription from Carter 001k, a box from Tutankhamun's tomb.
Neferneferuaten
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Image commonly taken to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but may not be them.
Neferneferuaten
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Ankhkheperure with feminine indicators (93, 94) and without (95). These read: (93) Ankhkheperure desired (f) of Neferkheperure (Akhenaten). (94) Ankh-et-kheprure (f) desired (f) of Wa-en-Re (using indicators in the name and epithet). (95) Ankhkheeprure desired of Wa-en-Re. From Tell el Amarna, Flinders Petrie; 1894
Neferneferuaten
129.
Tutankhamun
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Tutankhamun was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom or sometimes the New Empire Period. He has, since his discovery, been referred to as King Tut. His original name, Tutankhaten, means Living Image of Aten, in hieroglyphs, the name Tutankhamun was typically written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase to show appropriate reverence. The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon of Tutankhamuns nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage and it sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamuns mask, now in the Egyptian Museum, remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world, in February 2010, the results of DNA tests confirmed that he was the son of Akhenaten. His mother was Akhenatens sister and wife, whose name is unknown, the mysterious deaths of a few of those who excavated Tutankhamuns tomb has been popularly attributed to the curse of the pharaohs. Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of Akhenatens sisters, as a prince, he was known as Tutankhaten. He ascended to the throne in 1333 BC, at the age of nine or ten and his wet nurse was a woman called Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara. His teacher was most likely Sennedjem, when he became king, he married his half-sister, Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both stillborn, computed tomography studies released in 2011 revealed that one daughter died at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at 9 months of pregnancy. No evidence was found in either mummy of congenital anomalies or an apparent cause of death, given his age, the king probably had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb and Grand Vizier Ay. Horemheb records that the king appointed him lord of the land as hereditary prince to maintain law and he also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared. In his third year, under the influence of his advisors. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy, the ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten abandoned and this is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, Living image of Amun, reinforcing the restoration of Amun. As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, many monuments were erected, and an inscription on his tomb door declares the king had spent his life in fashioning the images of the gods. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet and his restoration stela says, The temples of the gods and goddesses. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown and their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads
Tutankhamun
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Mask of Tutankhamun's mummy, the popular icon for ancient Egypt at The Egyptian Museum.
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Stripped of all its jewels, the mummy of Tutankhamun remains in the Valley of the Kings in his KV62 chamber
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Bust of Tutankhamun found in his tomb, 1922
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Wooden bust of the boy king, found in his tomb
130.
Horemheb
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Horemheb was the last pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from either 1319 BC to late 1292 BC, or 1306 to late 1292 BC although he was not related to the royal family and is believed to have been of common birth. Before he became pharaoh, Horemheb was the commander in chief of the army under the reigns of Tutankhamun, after his accession to the throne, he reformed the Egyptian state and it was under his reign that official action against the preceding Amarna rulers began. Due to this, he is considered the man who restabilized his country after the troublesome, Horemheb demolished monuments of Akhenaten, reusing their remains in his own building projects, and usurped monuments of Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb presumably remained childless since he appointed his vizier Paramesse as his successor and his parentage is unknown but he is believed to have been a commoner. According to the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal, Horemheb does not appear to be the person as Paatenemheb who was the commander-in-chief of Akhenatens army. Grimal notes that Horemhebs political career first began under Tutankhamun where he is depicted at this side in his own tomb chapel at Memphis. In the earliest known stage of his life, Horemheb served as the spokesman for foreign affairs. This resulted in a visit by the Prince of Miam to Tutankhamuns court. Horemheb quickly rose to prominence under Tutankhamun, becoming commander-in-chief of the army, when used alone, the Egyptologist Alan Gardiner has shown that the iry-pat title contains features of ancient descent and lawful inheritance which is identical to the designation for a Crown Prince. This means that Horemheb was the openly recognised heir to Tutankhamuns throne and not Ay, no objects belonging to Horemheb were found in Tutankhamuns tomb, whereas items donated by other high-ranking officials such as Maya and Nakhtmin were found in tomb KV62 by Egyptologists. Further, Tutankhamuns queen, Ankhesenamun, refused to marry Horemheb, a commoner, having pushed Horemhebs claims aside, Ay proceeded to nominate the aforementioned Nakhtmin, who was possibly Ays son or adopted son, to succeed him rather than Horemheb. However, he spared Tutankhamuns tomb from vandalism presumably because it was Tutankhamun who had promoted his rise to power and chosen him to be his heir. Horemheb also usurped and enlarged Ays mortuary temple at Medinet Habu for his own use, Horemheb appointed judges and regional tribunes. Reintroduced local religious authorities and divided legal power between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt between the Viziers of Thebes and Memphis respectively and these deeds are recorded in a stela which the king erected at the foot of his Tenth Pylon at Karnak. Occasionally called The Great Edict of Horemheb, it is a copy of the text of the kings decree to re-establish order to the Two Lands. The stelas creation and prominent location emphasizes the importance which Horemheb placed upon domestic reform. Horemheb was a builder who erected numerous temples and buildings throughout Egypt during his reign
Horemheb
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Detail of a statue of Horemheb, at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
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A statue of Horemheb as a scribe
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Relief from Horemheb's tomb. Receiving 'gold of honour' collars.
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Horemheb with Amun at the Museo Egizio
131.
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Nineteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt was one of the periods of the Egyptian New Kingdom. Founded by Vizier Ramesses I, whom Pharaoh Horemheb chose as his successor to the throne, the warrior kings of the early 18th Dynasty had encountered only little resistance from neighbouring kingdoms, allowing them to expand their realm of influence easily. The situation had changed radically towards the end of the 18th Dynasty, the Hittites gradually extended their influence into Syria and Canaan to become a major power in international politics, a power that both Seti I and his son Ramesses II would need to deal with. The Pharaohs of the 19th dynasty ruled for one hundred and ten years. Seti Is reign is considered to be 11 years and not 15 years by both J. von Beckerath and Peter Brand, who wrote a biography on this pharaohs reign. Consequently, it will be amended to 11 years or 1290-1279 BC, therefore, Setis father and predecessor would have ruled Egypt between 1292-1290 BC. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes, more information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website. New Kingdom Egypt reached the zenith of its power under Seti I and Ramesses II, who campaigned vigorously against the Libyans and the Hittites. The city of Kadesh was first captured by Seti I, who decided to concede it to Muwatalli of Hatti in a peace treaty between Egypt and Hatti. He ultimately accepted that a campaign against the Hittites was a drain on Egypts treasury and military. In his 21st regnal year, Ramesses signed the first recorded peace treaty with Urhi-Teshubs successor, Hattusili III, Ramesses II even married two Hittite princesses, the first after his second Sed Festival. At least as early as Josephus, it was believed that Moses lived during the reign of Ramesses II and this dynasty declined as internal fighting between the heirs of Merneptah for the throne increased. Amenmesse apparently usurped the throne from Merneptahs son and successor, Seti II, after his death, Seti regained power and destroyed most of Amenmesses monuments. Both Bay and Setis chief wife Twosret had a reputation in Ancient Egyptian folklore. After Siptahs death, Twosret ruled Egypt for two years, but she proved unable to maintain her hold on power amid the conspiracies. She was likely ousted in a revolt led by Setnakhte, founder of the Twentieth Dynasty, Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Seti I
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Egyptian and Hittite Empires, around the time of the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC).
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Ramesses II
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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Seti II
132.
Ramesses I
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Menpehtyre Ramesses I was the founding pharaoh of ancient Egypts 19th dynasty. The dates for his reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292–1290 BC is frequently cited as well as 1295–1294 BC. Originally called Pa-ra-mes-su, Ramesses I was of non-royal birth, being born into a military family from the Nile delta region. He was a son of a commander called Seti. His uncle Khaemwaset, an officer, married Tamwadjesy, the matron of the Harem of Amun, who was a relative of Huy, the viceroy of Kush. This shows the status of Ramesses family. Ramesses I found favor with Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the tumultuous Eighteenth dynasty, upon his accession, Ramesses assumed a prenomen, or royal name, which is written in Egyptian hieroglyphs to the right. When transliterated, the name is mn-pḥty-r‘, which is interpreted as Menpehtyre. However, he is known by his nomen, or personal name. This is transliterated as r‘-ms-sw, and is realised as Ramessu or Ramesses. Already an old man when he was crowned, Ramesses appointed his son, Seti was charged with undertaking several military operations during this time– in particular, an attempt to recoup some of Egypts lost possessions in Syria. Ramesses appears to have charge of domestic matters, most memorably, he completed the second pylon at Karnak Temple. Jürgen von Beckerath observes that Ramesses I died just 5 months later—in June 1290 BC—since his son Seti I succeeded to power on III Shemu day 24. Ramesses Is only known action was to order the provision of endowments for the aforementioned Nubian temple at Buhen and the construction of a chapel, the aged Ramesses was buried in the Valley of the Kings. His tomb, discovered by Giovanni Belzoni in 1817 and designated KV16, is small in size, the red granite sarcophagus too was painted rather than carved with inscriptions which, due to their hasty preparation, included a number of unfortunate errors. Seti I, his son and successor, later built a chapel with fine reliefs in memory of his deceased father Ramesses I at Abydos. In 1911, John Pierpont Morgan donated several exquisite reliefs from this chapel to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, a mummy currently believed to be that of Ramesses I was stolen from Egypt and displayed in a Canadian museum for many years before being repatriated. Moreover, the arms were found crossed high across his chest which was a position reserved solely for Egyptian royalty until 600 BC
Ramesses I
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Pharaoh Ramses I making an offering before Osiris, Allard Pierson Museum.
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Stone head carving of Paramessu (Ramesses I), originally part of a statue depicting him as a scribe. On display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
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Reliefs from the Abydos chapel of Ramesses I. The chapel was specifically built and dedicated by Seti I in memory of his late father.
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Siptah
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Akhenre Setepenre Siptah or Merenptah Siptah was the penultimate ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. His fathers identity is currently unknown, both Seti II and Amenmesse have been suggested although the fact that Siptah later changed his royal name or nomen to Merneptah Siptah after his Year 2 suggests rather that his father was Merneptah. If correct, this would make Siptah and Seti II half-brothers since both of them were sons of Merneptah and he was not the crown prince, but succeeded to the throne as a child after the death of Seti II. His accession date occurred on I Peret day 2 around the month of December, historically, it was believed that Tiaa, a wife of Seti II, was the mother of Siptah. This view persisted until it was realized that a relief in the Louvre Museum pairs Siptahs name together with the name of his mother a certain Sutailja or Shoteraja. Sutailja was a Canaanite rather than a native Egyptian name which means that she was almost certainly a kings concubine from Canaan, however, Dodson/Hilton assert that this is not correct and that the lady was, instead, the mother of Ramesses-Siptah and a wife of Ramesses II. This suggests that Amenmesse and Siptah were inter-related in such a way that they were regarded as illegitimate rulers, a headless statue of Siptah now in Munich shows him seated on the lap of another Pharaoh, presumably his father. The demolition of this figure is likely to have followed the fall of Bay or the death of Siptah himself. If Siptah was a son of Seti II, it is unlikely that he would have considered as an illegitimate king by later 20th Dynasty New Kingdom pharaohs. Due to his youth and perhaps his problematic parentage, he was placed under the guidance of his stepmother—the queen regent Twosret, Siptah ruled Egypt for almost 6 years as a young man. Siptah was only a child of ten or eleven years when he assumed power since a medical examination of his mummy reveals the king was about 16 years old at death. He was tall at 1.6 metres and had reddish brown hair. Bay, however, later out of favor at Court presumably for overreaching himself. He was executed in the year of Siptahs reign, on orders of the king himself. News of his execution was passed to the Workmen of Deir el-Medina in Ostraca IFAO1254 and this ostraca was translated and published in 2000 by Pierre Grandet in a French Egyptological journal. Callendar notes that the reason for the message to the workmen was to notify them to cease all work on decorating Bays tomb since Bay had now been deemed a traitor to the state. Siptah himself is last attested sometime in his 6th regnal Year on a graffito located at the South Temple of Buhen and he likely died in the middle of II Akhet—perhaps around II Akhet 12 of his 6th Year. This assumes a traditional 70-day mummification period if Siptah was buried on IV Akhet 22, evidence for his burial on the latter date is recorded in ostracon O. Cairo CG25792
Siptah
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Siptah
Siptah
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A scarab with king Siptah's name.
134.
Twosret
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Twosret was the last known ruler and the final Pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She is recorded in Manethos Epitome as a certain Thuoris, who in Homer is called Polybus, husband of Alcandra and she was said to have ruled Egypt for seven years, but this figure included the nearly six-year reign of Siptah, her predecessor. Twosret simply assumed Siptahs regnal years as her own and her royal name, Sitre Meryamun, means Daughter of Re, beloved of Amun. Queen Twosret or Tausrets birth date is unknown, Queen Twosret is thought to have been a daughter of Merenptah, possibly a daughter of Takhat, thereby making her sister to Amenmesse. She was thought to be the royal wife of Seti II. There are no children for Twosret and Seti II, unless tomb KV56 represents the burial of their daughter. Theodore Davis identified the Queen and her husband in a cache of jewelry found in tomb KV56 in the Valley of the Kings and this tomb also contained objects bearing the name of Rameses II. There is no consensus about the nature of this tomb, some thought this was the tomb of a daughter of Seti II and Tawosret, but others thought this was a cache of objects originally belonging with the tomb of Tawosret herself. After her husbands death, she became first regent to Setis heir Siptah jointly with Chancellor Bay, Siptah was likely a stepson of Twosret since his mother is now known to be a certain Sutailja or Shoteraja from Louvre Relief E26901. When Siptah died, Twosret officially assumed the throne for herself, as the Daughter of Re, Lady of Ta-merit, Twosret of Mut, the document is a hieratic ostracon or inscribed potshard and contains an announcement to the workmen of Deir El-Medina of the kings actions. No immediate reason was given to show what caused Siptah to turn against the great enemy Bay, the recto of the document reads thus, Year 5 III Shemu the 27th. On this day, the scribe of the tomb Paser came announcing Pharaoh, life, prosperity, has killed the great enemy Bay. This date accords well with Bays last known appearance in Year 4 of Siptah. The ostracons information was essentially an order for the workmen to stop all further work on Bays tomb since the latter had now been deemed a traitor to the state. Twosrets reign ended in a war which is documented in the Elephantine stela of her successor Setnakhte who became the founder of the Twentieth dynasty. However, Setnakhte and his son Ramesses III described the late 19th dynasty as a time of chaos. Setnakhte usurped the joint KV14 tomb of Seti II and Twosret but reburied Seti II in tomb KV15, setnakhtes decisions here may demonstrate his dislike and presumably hatred for Twosret since he chose to reinter Seti II but not Twosret. Setnakhtes son, Ramesses III, later excluded Twosret and even Siptah of the 19th dynasty from his Medinet Habu list of Egyptian kings thereby delegitimizing them in the eyes of the citizenry and it appears more likely that Setnakhte overthrew Twosret from power in a civil war
Twosret
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Twosret playing the sistrum at Amada Temple, Nubia
135.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Eighteenth, Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties of Ancient Egypt collectively mark the New Kingdom. The latter two dynasties constitute an era known as the Ramesside period, the Twentieth Dynasty is considered to be the last one of the New Kingdom of Egypt, and was followed by the Third Intermediate Period. The Pharaohs of the 20th dynasty ruled for approximately 120 years, the dates and names in the table are mostly taken from Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton, Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill,2006. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes, more information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website. Pharaoh Setnakhte was likely already middle aged when he took the throne after Queen Twosret and he ruled for only around 4 years when he was succeeded by his son Ramesses III. Egypt was threatened by the Sea Peoples during this time period, the king is also known for a harem conspiracy in which Queen Tiye attempted to assassinate the king and put her son Pentawere on the throne. The coup was not successful in the end, the king may have died from the attempt on his life, but it was his legitimate heir Ramesses IV who succeeded him to the throne. After this a succession of kings named Ramesses take the throne, the period of these rulers is notable for the beginning of the systematic robbing of the royal tombs. Many surviving administrative documents from this period are records of investigations and punishment for crimes, especially in the reigns of Ramses IX. As happened under the earlier Nineteenth Dynasty, this group struggled under the effects of the bickering between the heirs of Ramesses III, for instance, three different sons of Ramesses III are known to have assumed power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI and Ramesses VIII respectively. Smendes would eventually found the Twenty-First dynasty at Tanis, the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt was the last of the New Kingdom of Egypt. The familial relationships are unclear, especially towards the end of the dynasty, pharaoh is a historical novel by Bolesław Prus, set in Egypt at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, which adds two fictional rulers, Ramesses XII and Ramesses XIII. It has been adapted into a film of the same title
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
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Ramesses III, was the son of Sethnakht. During his reign, he fought off the invasions of the Sea Peoples in Egypt and tolerated their settlement in Canaan. A conspiracy was hatched to kill him, but it failed. He was later murdered. His mummy, long an inspiration for the scary Hollywood films, showed his throat was slit.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
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Ramesses IV was the fifth son of Ramesses III. He assumed the throne after his four older brothers had died.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
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Ramesses VI was an uncle of Ramesses V. He usurped his predecessors throne and later his tomb, KV9.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
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Ramesses VII was the son of Ramesses VI During his reign, prices of grain soared to the highest levels. His mummy has never been found but cups bearing his name were found in the royal cache at Deir el-Bahri. He was buried in KV1. Above is a scene from KV1, open since antiquity.
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Ramesses III
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Usimare Ramesses III was the second Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty and is considered to be the last New Kingdom king to wield any substantial authority over Egypt. His long reign saw the decline of Egyptian political and economic power, linked to a series of invasions, Ramesses III was the son of Setnakhte and Queen Tiy-Merenese. He was probably murdered by an assassin in a conspiracy led by one of his wives, Tiye. Ramesses two main names transliterate as wsr-mꜢʿt-rʿ–mry-ỉmn rʿ-ms-s–ḥḳꜢ-ỉwnw and they are normally realised as Usermaatre-Meryamun Rameses-Heqaiunu, meaning The Maat of Ra is strong, Beloved of Amun, Born of Ra, Ruler of Heliopolis. Ramesses III is believed to have reigned from March 1186 to April 1155 BC and this is based on his known accession date of I Shemu day 26 and his death on Year 32 III Shemu day 15, for a reign of 31 years,1 month and 19 days. Alternate dates for his reign are 1187 to 1156 BC, in Year 8 of his reign, the Sea Peoples, including Peleset, Denyen, Shardana, Meshwesh of the sea, and Tjekker, invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles, although the Egyptians had a reputation as poor seamen, they fought tenaciously. Rameses lined the shores with ranks of archers who kept up a continuous volley of arrows into the ships when they attempted to land on the banks of the Nile. Then, the Egyptian navy attacked using grappling hooks to haul in the enemy ships, in the brutal hand-to-hand fighting which ensued, the Sea People were utterly defeated. The Harris Papyrus states, As for those who reached my frontier, their seed is not, their heart and their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Ramesses III was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his Year 5 and Year 11 respectively. The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypts treasury and contributed to the decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground, the result in Egypt was a substantial increase in grain prices under the later reigns of Ramesses VI–VII, whereas the prices for fowl and slaves remained constant. Thus the cooldown affected Ramesses IIIs final years and impaired his ability to provide a constant supply of rations to the workmen of the Deir el-Medina community. No temple in the heart of Egypt prior to Ramesses reign had ever needed to be protected in such a manner. Thanks to the discovery of papyrus trial transcripts, it is now known there was a plot against his life as a result of a royal harem conspiracy during a celebration at Medinet Habu. The conspiracy was instigated by Tiye, one of his three wives, over whose son would inherit the throne. Tytis son, Ramesses Amonhirkhopshef, was the eldest and the chosen by Ramesses III in preference to Tiyes son Pentaweret
Ramesses III
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Relief from the sanctuary of the Temple of Khonsu at Karnak depicting Ramesses III
Ramesses III
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Ramses III offering incense, wall painting in KV11.
Ramesses III
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Osirid statues of Ramses III at his temple in Karnak (in the first courtyard of the Great Temple of Amun).
Ramesses III
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Red granite sarcophagus of Ramesses III (Louvre)
137.
Ramesses IV
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Heqamaatre Ramesses IV was the third pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. His name prior to assuming the crown was Amonhirkhopshef and he was the fifth son of Ramesses III and was appointed to the position of crown prince by the twenty-second year of his fathers reign when all four of his elder brothers predeceased him. His promotion to crown prince, is suggested by his appearance in a scene of the festival of Min at the Ramesses III temple at Karnak, amenemopes Theban tomb also accords prince Ramesses all three of his aforementioned sets of royal titles. Due to the three decade long rule of Ramesses III, Ramesses IV is believed to have been a man in his forties when he took the throne and his rule has been dated to either 1151 to 1145 BC or 1155 to 1149 BC. It is now believed that Ramesses IVs mother was most likely Queen Tyti from recently discovered notes published in the 2010 issue of the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. They reveal that Tyti—who was both a daughter, a kings wife and a kings mother in her own right—was identified in Papyrus BM EA10052 to be a queen of Ramesses III. This leaves Ramesses IV as the only credible primary subject of the title in the tomb. Thus, the identity of Ramesses IVs mother has been resolved in favour of Queen Tyti who was erroneously thought to be the mother of another king in the mid-1980s. Ramesses IV was succeeded to the throne by his son Ramesses V. Ramesses came to the throne in difficult circumstances. A plot by one of his fathers wives, Tiye, to establish her own son, Pentawer. The king was wounded, and died soon after. Ramesses IV, however, was able to secure himself on the throne, the scribes who composed the text also noted that this figure included 900 men who are dead and omitted from this list. 7%. Some of the stones which were dragged 60 miles to the Nile from Wadi Hammamat weighed 40 tons or more, other Egyptian quarries including Aswan were located much closer to the Nile which enabled them to use barges to transport stones long distances. Part of the program included the extensive enlargement of his fathers Temple of Khonsu at Karnak. Ramesses IV also sent several expeditions to the mines the Sinai. The Serabit el-Khadim stela of the Royal Butler Sobekhotep states, Year 3, panufer states that this expeditions mission was both to procure turquoise and to establish a cult chapel of king Ramesses IV at the Hathor temple of Serabit el-Khadim. The stela reads, Year 5, second month of Shomu, surviving a march in this inhospitable land would have presented formidable logistical obstacles, perhaps forcing an alternative route to be adopted. This would involve a departure from the Delta to a site near the port of Suez
Ramesses IV
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Limestone ostracon depicting Ramesses IV smiting his enemies.
Ramesses IV
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Ramses IV offering two Nu vases, British Museum.
Ramesses IV
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Relief of Ramesses IV at the Temple of Khonsu in Karnak
Ramesses IV
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Ring featuring ducks with Ramesses IV's name
138.
Ramesses VI
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Ramesses VI Nebmaatre-Meryamun was the fifth ruler of the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt who reigned from 1145 to 1137 BC and a son of Ramesses III by Iset Ta-Hemdjert. His royal tomb, KV9, is located near Tutankhamuns tomb in the Valley of the Kings, the first to establish beyond doubt that Ramesses VI lived into his 8th Regnal Year was the Dutch Egyptologist Jac. He based this on Ostracon IFAO1425, which mentions the loan of an ox in year 8 of a king which can only have been Ramesses VI. His 8th Regnal Year also seems to be attested in Theban graffito 1860a, in the past, this graffito has been ascribed to Ramesses X, but this interpretation has been abandoned and its ascription to Ramesses VI seems by far the best solution. Raphael Venturas interesting reconstruction of a sum in Turin Papyrus 1907+1908. The latest scholarly publication on Egyptian chronology in 2006 also assigned Ramesses VI8 years of rule, Ramesses VI probably lived for two months into his brief 9th regnal year before he died and was succeeded by his son, Ramesses VII. Ramesses VIs chief queen was Nubkhesbed who is mentioned on a stela of Iset E from Koptos and this pharaoh would be succeeded on the throne by his son Ramesses VII. Egypts political and economic decline continued unabated during Ramesses VIs reign, shortly after his burial, his tomb was penetrated and ransacked by grave robbers who hacked away at his hands and feet in order to gain access to his jewelry. A medical examination of his mummy which was found in KV35 in 1898 revealed severe damage to his body, with the head and torso being broken into several pieces by an axe used by the tomb robbers. The creation of Ramesses VIs tomb, however, protected Tutankhamuns own intact tomb from grave robbers since debris from its formation was dumped over the entrance to the boy kings tomb. J. Janssen, Year 8 of Ramesses VI Attested, Göttinger Miszellen 29, peden, Where did Ramesses VI bury his nephew. GM181, 83-88 Ramesses VI at Find a Grave
Ramesses VI
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Fragment of a sarcophagus showing Ramesses VI, on display at the British Museum.
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Ushabti of Ramesses VI in the British Museum
139.
Ramesses VIII
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Ramesses VIII is the most obscure ruler of this Dynasty and the current information from his brief kingship suggests that he lasted on the throne for one year at the most. Some scholars assign him a reign of two years. The fact that he succeeded to power after the death of Ramesses VII—a son of Ramesses VI—may indicate a problem in the royal succession. Ramesses VIIIs prenomen or royal name, Usermaatre Akhenamun, means Powerful is the Justice of Re, monuments from his reign are scarce and consist primarily of an inscription at Medinet Habu, a mention of this ruler in one document—Berlin stela 2081 of Hori at Abydos—and one scarab. His only known date is a Year 1, I Peret day 2 graffito in the tomb of Kyenebu at Thebes. According to Erik Hornung in a 2006 book, the date of Ramesses VIII has been established by Amin Amer to date to an 8-month interval between I Peret day 2 and I Akhet day 13. Since no year change occurs in this interval, the accession date for Ramesses VIII must fall outside this period of this text. An all-Egyptian team of researchers headed by Afifi Rohiem under the supervision of Dr. Zahi Hawass were looking for the pharaohs tomb, Ramesses VIII at Find a Grave
Ramesses VIII
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A relief of Prince Sethiherkhepeshef II, one of Ramesses III 's many sons from the latter's temple at Medinet Habu. Sethiherkhepeshef II later briefly ascended the throne as king Ramesses VIII.
140.
Smendes
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Hedjkheperre Setepenre Smendes was the founder of the Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt and succeeded to the throne after burying Ramesses XI in Lower Egypt – territory which he controlled. While Smendes precise origins remain a mystery, he is thought to have been a governor in Lower Egypt during the Renaissance era of Ramesses XI. Nesibanebdjedet may have been a son of a lady named Hrere, Hrere was a Chief of the Harem of Amun-Re and likely the wife of a high priest of Amun. If Hrere was the mother of Nesibanebdjedet, then he was a brother of Nodjmet and through her brother-in-law of the High Priests Herihor, Nesibanebdjedet was married to Tentamun B, likely a daughter of Ramesses IX. They may have been the parents of his successor Amenemnisu, Smendes features prominently in the Report of Wenamun. This story is set in an anonymous Year 5, generally taken to be year 5 of the so-called Renaissance of Pharaoh Ramesses XI, however, since Karl Jansen-Winkeln has proposed to reverse the order of the High Priests of Amun Herihor and Piankh, this ascription has become disputed. Following Jansen-Winkeln, Arno Egberts therefore argues that the story is set in the regnal year of Smendes. Wenamun first visits Smendes at Tanis and personally presented his letters of accreditation to Smendes in order to receive the permission to travel north to modern Lebanon. Smendes responds by dispatching a ship for Wenamuns travels to Syria, Smendes appears as a person of the highest importance in Tanis. The quarry stela describes how Smendes while residing in Memphis, heard of danger to the temple of Luxor from flooding, gave orders for repairs, Smendes is assigned a reign of 26 Years by Manetho in his Epitome and was the husband of Tentamun. Menkheperre then exiled the leaders of the rebellion to the Western Desert Oases and these individuals were pardoned several years later during the reign of Smendes successor, Amenemnisu. His prenomen or throne name Hedjkheperre Setepenre/Setepenamun—which means Bright is the Manifestation of Rê, Chosen of Rê/Amun—became very popular in the following 22nd Dynasty and 23rd Dynasty. In all, five kings, Shoshenq I, Shoshenq IV, Takelot I, Takelot II, on the death of Smendes in 1052 BC, he was succeeded by Neferkare Amenemnisu, who may have been this kings son. Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books
Smendes
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Picture of a scarab of Smendes by Flinders Petrie
141.
Osorkon the Elder
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Aakheperre Setepenre Osorkon the Elder was the fifth king of the twenty-first dynasty of Ancient Egypt and was the first Pharaoh of Libyan origin. He is also known as Osochor, following Manethos Aegyptiaca. Osorkon the Elder was the son of Shoshenq A, the Great Chief of the Ma by the latters wife Mehtenweshkhet who is given the title of Kings Mother in a document. Osochor was the brother of Nimlot A, the Great Chief of the Ma, and Tentshepeh A the daughter of the Great Chief of the Ma and, thus, young argued that this king Aakheperre Setepenre was the unknown Osochor. This hypothesis was not fully accepted by all Egyptologists at that time, since none of the other kings named Osorkon had a mother named Mehtenweshkhet, it was conclusively established that Aakheperre Setepenre was indeed Manethos Osochor, whose mother was Mehtenweshkhet. The Lady Mehtenweshkhet A was also the mother of Nimlot A, Great Chief of the Meshwesh and, thus, in 1999 Chris Bennett made a case for a Queen Karimala known from an inscription in the temple of Semna being his daughter. She is called both Kings Daughter and Kings Wife and her name suggests she may have been Libyan. Given the date of the inscription, she might have been the queen of either king Siamun or king Psusennes II and this would lead to the attribution to his throne name Aakheperre both the epithets Setepenre and Setepenamun. Osorkon the Elders reign is significant because it foreshadows the coming the Libyan Twenty-second dynasty and he is credited with a reign of six years in Manethos Aegyptiaca and was succeeded in power by Siamun, who was either Osorkons son or an unrelated native Egyptian
Osorkon the Elder
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Seal with royal cartouches, most likely belonging to Osorkon the Elder
142.
Psusennes II
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Titkheperure or Tyetkheperre Psusennes II or Hor-Pasebakhaenniut II, was the last king of the Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt. His royal name means Image of the transformations of Re in Egyptian, Psusennes II is often considered the same person as the High-Priest of Amun known as Psusennes III. This suggests that Psusennes was both king at Tanis and the High Priest in Thebes at the time, meaning he did not resign his office as High Priest of Amun during his reign. He was a High Priest of Amun at Thebes and the son of Pinedjem II and his daughter Maatkare B was the Great Royal Wife of Osorkon I. Items which can be added to the list of secure attestations of Psusennes II include a Year 5 Mummy linen that was written with the High Priest Psusennes IIIs name. It is generally assumed that a Year 13 III Peret 10+X date in fragment 3B, unfortunately, however, the kings name is not stated and the only thing which is certain is that the fragment must be dated after Siamuns reign whose Year 17 is mentioned in lines 3-5. Hence, it belongs to either Psusennes II or possibly Shoshenq Is reign, recently, the first conclusive date for king Psusennes II was revealed in a newly published priestly annal stone block. The preceding line of this document recorded the induction of Nesankhefenmaats father, Siamun was the predecessor of Psusennes II at Tanis. —with Shoshenq Is 21-year reign being skipped over. This would not be unexpected since most Egyptologists believe that a generation in Egyptian society lasted a minimum of 25 years, therefore, the Year 11 date can only be assigned to Psusennes II and constitutes the first securely attested date for this pharaohs reign. Dodson notes the recently found annal block document establishes that Psusennes II was indeed a real king, however, the German scholar Rolf Krauss has recently argued that Psusennes IIs reign was 24 years rather than Manethos original figure of 14 years. This is based on information recorded in the Large Dakhla stela which dates to Year 5 of Shoshenq I. However, since this document was composed under Shoshenq I, the use of the title Pharaoh before Psusennes here cannot establish whether the king was Psusennes I or II, wayhesets titles include Prince and Governor of the Oasis. His activities are recorded in the Large Dakhla stela, the land register recorded that certain water rights were formerly owned by Nysu-Bastets mother Tewhunet in Year 19 of a king Psusennes. This ruler was generally assumed by Egyptologists to be Psusennes I rather than Psusennes II since the reign was believed to have lasted only 14–15 years. Based on the land register evidence, Wayheset ordered that these rights should now be granted to Nysu-Bastet himself. The most significant component of the Great Dakhla stela is its palaeography, Pharaoh Shoshenq—which was an important palaeographical development in Egyptian history. Consequently, the practice of attaching the title pr-3 or pharaoh with a royal birth name had already started prior to the beginning of Shoshenq Is reign. Helen Jacquet-Gordon did not know of the two prior examples pertaining to Siamun and Psusennes II, Psusennes II ruled Egypt for a minimum of 19 years based on the internal chronology of the Large Dakhla stela
Psusennes II
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Statue with dedication to Psusennes II and Shoshenq I (originally for Thutmose III). Cairo, CG 42192 (JE 37005)
143.
Shoshenq II
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Heqakheperre Shoshenq II or Shoshenq IIa was a pharaoh of the 22nd dynasty of Egypt. He was the ruler of this Dynasty whose tomb was not plundered by tomb robbers. His final resting place was discovered within an antechamber of Psusennes Is tomb at Tanis by Pierre Montet in 1939, Montet removed the coffin lid of Shoshenq II on March 20,1939, in the presence of king Farouk of Egypt himself. It proved to contain a number of jewel-encrusted bracelets and pectorals, along with a beautiful hawkheaded silver coffin. The gold facemask had been placed upon the head of the king, Montet later discovered the intact tombs of two Dynasty 21 kings—Psusennes I and Amenemope a year later in February and April 1940 respectively. Shoshenq IIs prenomen, Heqakheperre Setepenre, means The manifestation of Ra rules, there is a small possibility that Shoshenq II was the son of Shoshenq I. These items may be interpreted as evidence of a possible filial link between the two men or just mere heirlooms. A forensic examination of Shoshenq IIs body by Dr. Douglas Derry, hence, Shoshenq II could have easily survived Osorkon Is 35-year reign and ruled Egypt for a few years before Takelot I came to power. Moreover, Sextus Julius Africanuss generally more accurate copy of Manethos Epitome explicitly states that “3 Kings” intervened between Osorkon I and Takelot I, Harsiese A was an early contemporary of Osorkon II and likely Takelot I too since the latter did not firmly control Upper Egypt in his reign. This implies that Shoshenq II and Harsiese A were near contemporaries since Harsiese A was the son of the High Priest of Amun Shoshenq C at Thebes and, thus, the grandson of Osorkon I. Harsieses funerary evidence places Shoshenq II roughly one or two generations after Osorkon I and may date him to the interval between Takelot I and Osorkon I at Tanis. In this case, the objects naming Shoshenq I in this kings tomb would simply be heirlooms and this latter interpretation is endorsed by Jürgen von Beckerath, in his 1997 book, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten who believes Shoshenq II was actually an elder brother of Takelot I. The view that Shoshenq II was a brother of Takelot I is also endorsed by Norbert Dautzenberg in a GM144 paper. Von Beckerath, however, places Shoshenq II between the reigns of Takelot I and Osorkon II at Tanis, kitchen suggests such a coregency is reflected on the bandages of the Ramesseum mummy of Nakhtefmut, which contain the dates Year 3 and Year 33 Second Heb Sed respectively. The “Year 33” date mentioned here almost certainly refers to Osorkon I since Nakhtefmut wore a ring which bore this kings prenomen, kitchen infers from this evidence that Year 33 of Osorkon I is equivalent to Year 3 of Shoshenq II, and that the latter was Shoshenq C himself. These two dates were not written on a piece of mummy linen—which would denote a true coregency. Rather, the dates were written on two separate and unconnected mummy bandages which were woven and used over a period of several years. As these two near contemporary examples show, the temple priests simply reused whatever old or recycled linens which they could access to for their mummification rituals
Shoshenq II
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Gold funerary mask of Shoshenq II in the Cairo Museum
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Pectoral of Sheshonk II.
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View of tomb NRT III showing where Shoshenq II was buried and discovered
144.
Takelot I
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Hedjkheperre Setepenre Takelot I was a son of Osorkon I and Queen Tashedkhons who ruled Egypt for 13 Years according to Manetho. Takelot would marry Queen Kapes who bore him Osorkon II, however, since the late 1980s, Egyptologists have assigned several documents mentioning a king Takelot in Lower Egypt to him rather than Takelot II. Takelot Is reign was short when compared to the three decades-long reigns of his father Osorkon I and son, Osorkon II. Evidently, both king Takelots used the same prenomen or royal name, Hedjkheperre Setepenre, the main difference between Takelot I and II is that Takelot I never employed the Theban inspired epithet Si-Ese in his titulary, unlike Takelot II. The only clear distinction. between Takeloth I and II is that Takeloth II uses also the epithet Si-Ese, Son of Isis, in his second cartouche. A second marker suggested by Jansen-Winkeln is that Takeloth I has his name spelt with the vertical t-sign, while Takeloth II and III use the small loaf t-sign, and the rope-tether sign. This would suggest attributing to Takeloth I a donation-stela of Year 9, another in Berlin and this also bears on the high priests of Ptah at Memphis and the Serapeum. Therefore it seems proper to move this priest back in time to the reign of Takeloth I, in addition, a heart scarab found in the kings burial gave his name simply as Takelot Meryamun without the Si-Ese epithet used by Takelot II. Recent confirmation of this evidence was published by the German scholar Jansen-Winkeln in 1987. His examination of inscriptions written on the tombs walls proved beyond doubt that the person buried here could only be Takelot I. Jansen-Winkelns conclusions have been accepted by Egyptologists today including Professor Kenneth Kitchen, Osorkon II arranged for this aforementioned inscription to be carved on a scene in his tomb where Osorkon is depicted adoring Osiris and Udjo. Above the inscription was carved the cartouche of Osorkon II and the following text and this Text establishes that Osorkon II honoured his father by reburying him in the Tanite royal tomb complex. Takelot Is final resting place forms the third chamber of Osorkon IIs tomb which means that Osorkon II interred his father within the walls of his own tomb, Takelot I was buried in a usurped Middle Kingdom sarcophagus that was inscribed with his own cartouche. Takelot Is authority was not fully recognised in Upper Egypt, and Harsiese A, or another local Theban king, uniquely, however, the Quay Texts specifically omit any reference to the identity of the king himself. This might suggest that there was a dispute in the succession following Osorkon Is death in Upper Egypt. Harsiese A, as the son of the High Priest Shoshenq C and grandson of Osorkon I, or a hypothethical king named Maatkheperre Shoshenq must have appeared as a rival. This situation was later resolved by Osorkon II who is clearly attested as Pharaoh at Thebes by his 12th Regnal Year, according to Nile Quay Text No.8. Gerard Broekman, The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties in Karnak, JEA88, pp. 163–178
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The Sarcophagus of Takelot I
145.
Shoshenq V
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Aakheperre Shoshenq V was a pharaoh of the late 22nd Dynasty. According to a Serapeum stela dated to his Year 11, Shoshenq was son and he ascended to the throne in ca.767 BC and, despite little information about his life, he is well attested by several monuments, dated and not. However, the provenance of such findings is limited to the Eastern Nile Delta – in fact the territory under his authority – and noticeably, at the end of his long reign – most likely lasting 38 years – Shoshenq ruled little more than the districts of Tanis and Bubastis. Before the discovery of the proper Shoshenq IV, Shoshenq V was often referred to with the IV numeral, Shoshenqs Year 11 is recorded at Memphis, commemorating the death, burial and replacement of the Apis bull which was installed in the Year 2 of Pami. Shoshenq is also attested in his years 8,15,19 and 30 by donation stelae of different Great Chiefs of the Libu, named Niumateped, Titaru, Ker, and Rudamun respectively. Then, his name again on a stela from Atfih. At Tanis, he ordered a temple for the Theban Triad, probably in his Year 30, he also celebrated his Sed festival by adding a jubilee chapel to the aforementioned temple. These buildings were dismantled and a sacred lake was made in their place. Undated monuments of Shoshenq V were unearthed at Tell el-Yahudiyeh, in Year 37 of Shoshenq, the Apis bull installed in his Year 11 died and was buried. This bull eventually outlived Shoshenq, dying in Year 5 of pharaoh Bakenranef of the 24th Dynasty, Shoshenq Vs highest Year date is an anonymous Year 38 donation stela from Buto issued by Tefnakht which can only belong to his reign since Tefnakht was a late contemporary of this king. The same argument can be applied to a stela, again issued by Tefnakht. Shoshenq V died probably in 730 BC, besides his father Pami, his family relationships are not entirely clear, but it is often assumed that his successor was Osorkon IV who also may have been his son. It is known that Osorkons mother was queen Tadibast III, thus, however, this reconstruction is complicated by the presence of the poorly known pharaoh Pedubast II who is sometimes placed as Shoshenqs successor. Egypt, from the Twenty-second to the Twenty-fourth Dynasty, the Third Intermediate Period in Egypt
Shoshenq V
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Year 11 Apis stela of Shoshenq V (Louvre Museum)
146.
Takelot II
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Hedjkheperre Setepenre Takelot II Si-Ese was a pharaoh of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Ancient Egypt in Middle and Upper Egypt. Based on two lunar dates belonging to Takelot II, this Upper Egyptian pharaoh is today believed to have ascended to the throne of a divided Egypt in either 845 BC or 834 BC. Takelot II rather ruled a kingdom that embraced Middle and Upper Egypt. While both Takelot I and II used the prenomen, Takelot II added the epithet Si-Ese to his royal titulary both to affiliate himself with Thebes and to distinguish his name from Takelot I. Takelot II controlled Middle and Upper Egypt during the final 3 Years of Osorkon II, the majority of Egyptologists today concede that king Osorkon III was the illustrious Crown Prince and High Priest Osorkon B, son of Takelot II. Osorkon B did not immediately ascend to his fathers throne presumably because he was involved in a civil war with his rival Pedubast I and, later, Shoshenq VI. Instead, he dated his activities to the serving Dynasty 22 Pharaoh at Tanis. In 1983, a stela was discovered by Japanese excavators at Tehna which reveals that Osorkon III was once a High Priest of Amun himself. In Year 11 of Takelot II, an insurrection began under Pedubast I whose followers challenged this kings authority at Thebes, Takelot reacted by dispatching his son, Osorkon B, to sail southwards to Thebes and quell the uprising. Osorkon B succeeded in retaining control of the city and then proclaimed himself as the new High Priest of Amun, some of the rebels bodies were deliberately burned by Osorkon to permanently deny their souls any hope of an afterlife. However, just four years later, in year 15 of Takelot II, a major revolt broke out. Osorkon B proclaimed himself as king Osorkon III sometime after his victory, as of 2008, no tomb or final resting place has been found for this king. Takelot II married his sister and Great Royal Wife Karomama Merymut II, they were the parents of, Osorkon B, mentioned in a text dating to year 39 of Osorkon III and said to be a brother of the king. Takelot II also married a lady whose name was partially preserved as Tashep. They had a son, Nimlot, mentioned on a stela as the son of King Takelot. Thought to be a son of Takelot II, Takelot also had a wife named Tabektenasket, they had a daughter, Isetweret. Known from the coffins of her son Ankhpakhered and daughter Tabektenasket, other children, Djed-Ptah-ef-ankh, a younger son of Takelot II. Married the Fourth Prophet of Amun Djed-Khons-ef-ankh and she is known from a statue now in the Cairo Museum Karomama
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Takelot II (left) and Amun-Ra at Karnak
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Titulary of Takelot II on a doorway in the temple of Ptah at Karnak.
147.
Pedubast I
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Pedubastis I or Pedubast I was an Upper Egyptian Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt during the 9th century BC. This local Pharaoh is recorded as being of Libyan ancestry and ruled Egypt for 25 years according to the redaction of Manetho done by Eusebius. He first became king at Thebes in Year 8 of Shoshenq III and this may show some tacit support for the Pedubast faction by the Tanite based 22nd dynasty king Shoshenq III. Pedubast I was the opponent to Takelot II and later, Osorkon B. His accession to power plunged Thebes into a civil war which lasted for nearly three decades between these two competing factions. Osorkon B was Pedubast I and Harsieses chief rival and this conflict is obliquely mentioned in the famous Chronicle of Prince Osorkon at Karnak. He was succeeded in power by Shoshenq VI and this object was purchased by Calouste Gulbenkian from December 13–16,1921 from Frederik Muller & Cie through the well-known art dealer Joseph Duveen. This objects provenance is not known but it is first recorded as being in the collection of Count Grigory Stroganoff --a member of the famous Russian family of connoisseurs, danel Kahn, A Problem of Pedubasts
Pedubast I
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Pedubast I's bronze torso at the Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon, Portugal.
148.
Takelot III
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Usimare Setepenamun Takelot III Si-Ese was Osorkon IIIs eldest son and successor. Takelot III ruled the first five years of his reign in a coregency with his father, according to the evidence from Nile Quay Text No.14 and he served previously as the High Priest of Amun at Thebes. A graffito on the roof of the Temple of Khonsu which records his Year 7, was believed to be his Highest Year date. However, in February 2005, a stela from Year 13 of his reign was discovered by a Columbia University archaeological expedition in the ruins of a Temple at the Dakhla Oasis. Their subsequent analysis of this dated document conclusively established this kings identity as Takelot III and this document—which measures between 42-48 cm wide, between 47-51 cm high, between 10-16 cm thick—has now been published in JEOL39 by Dr. Olaf Kaper and Robert Demarée. Part of the abstract for their article is given below. The stela belongs to a group of finds documenting the temple of the God Thoth. during the Third Intermediate Period. One block of temple decoration was found in the name of king Petubastis, and the stela under discussion was set up in the temple to which this block belonged. The stelas principal text has five lines, in which the date of the stela is given as Year 13 of Takeloth III, as well as the name of the god Thoth of SA-wHAt, the local deity. The governor mentioned here is Nes-Djehuti or Esdhuti who appears as the Chief of the Shamin Libyans in both the aforementioned Year 13 stela of Takelot III and also in the Smaller Dakhla Stela, the smaller Dakla stela dates to Year 24 of the Nubian king Piye. This could mean that Takelot III and Piye were near contemporaries during their respective reigns and this graffito would have been carved prior to Piyes Nubian conquest of Egypt in his 20th Year—by which time both Takelot III and Rudamun had already died. The Gods Wife Shepenupet II was Piyes daughter and Taharqas sister, jurman notes that no evidence from the innermost sanctuary of the chapel of Osiris Heqadjet at Karnak shows Shepenupet I associated with Piyes daughter, Amenirdis I. This means that the Year 19 date cannot be assigned to Takelot III, frederic Payraudeau once noted that Takelot III likely ruled Egypt for a minimum of 14 Years and was presumably the unknown Year 19 Egyptian monarch recorded at Wadi Gasus. He based his interpretation on the evidence of Papyrus Berlin 3048, the papyrus has traditionally been assigned to Takelot II since this rulers highest date is his Year 25, whereas Takelot IIIs highest unequivocal date was only thought to be his Year 7. The author observed 3 pieces of evidence which, taken together, Berlin 3048 specifically mentions two Royal treasurers. They were the descendants of Djedkhonsuiufankh A, who was the Fourth Prophet of Amun under Takelot I, Nakhtefmut A, Harsiese C and Djedkhonsuiufankh C. Djedkhonsuiufankh As son, Nakhtefmut A, first assumed the office of Royal Treasurer under Osorkon II, then Nakhtefmut As son, Harsiese C, in turn succeeded him. Finally, Harsiese Cs son, Djedkhonsuiufankh C, occupied this office from the end of Takelot IIs reign until the years of Osorkon IIIs reign under whom he is attested. Hence, the only viable candidate for Djedmontuiufankhs master is Takelot III for whom no Royal Treasurer is known with certainty
Takelot III
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Relief of Takelot III from Karnak temple
149.
Rudamun
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Rudamun was the final pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Ancient Egypt. His titulary simply reads as Usermaatre Setepenamun, Rudamun Meryamun, and he was the younger son of Osorkon III, and the brother of Takelot III. He is a poorly attested pharaoh of this dynasty according to Kenneth Kitchens seminal book on The Third Intermediate Period of Egypt, kitchen credits him with a brief reign of about two to three years due to the few contemporary documents known for him. These include a small amount of work done on the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet, several stone blocks from Medinet Habu. In recent years, two fragments of a faience statuette bearing Rudamuns name from Hermopolis have been discovered and this recent discovery suggests that Radamun managed to preserve the unity of his fathers large kingdom in Upper Egypt ranging from at least Herakleopolis Magna to Thebes during his brief reign. Some Egyptologists such as David Aston have argued that Rudamun was the anonymous Year 19 king attested at Wadi Gasus, jurman notes that no monumental evidence from the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet or Karnak depict Shepenupet I associated with Piyes daughter, Amenirdis I. However, there are doubts among scholars as to whether Nile Level Text No.3 contained the nomen Shoshenq rather than Takelot. Peftjaubast married Irbastudjanefu, Rudamuns daughter, and was, therefore, nothing is known about Rudamuns final burial place. The surviving contemporary information from his reign suggests that it was quite brief, the Third Intermediate Period in Egypt 2nd edition, Warminster, Aris & Phillips Limited, p.360. Payraudeau, Frédéric, Le règne de Takélot III et les débuts de la domination Koushite, GM198, perdu, Olivier, Le Roi Roudamon en personne. RdE53, pp. 151–178 Olaf Kaper and Robert Demarée, A Donation Stela in the Name of Takeloth III from Amheida, Dakhleh Oasis, JEOL39, pp. 19–37
Rudamun
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A small glass vase with the cartouches of Rudamun
150.
Ini (pharaoh)
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Menkheperre Ini was an Egyptian king reigning at Thebes during the 8th century BC following the last king of the 23rd dynasty, Rudamun. Menkheperre Ini was probably Rudamuns successor at Thebes but was not a member of his predecessors 23rd dynasty, unlike the 23rd dynasty rulers, he was a local king who ruled only at Thebes for at least 4–5 years after the death of Rudamun. His existence was first revealed with the publication of a dated Year 5 graffito at an Egyptian temple by Helen Jacquet-Gordon in 1979, prior to 1989, he was conventionally attested by only three documents, Graffito No. Then in 1989, Jean Yoyotte published an important new study on Ini/Inys reign in a CRIPEL11 paper, below is a partial English summary of his article by Chris Bennett, Engraved on a bronze plaque in Durham is the cartouche of the Son of Re Iny. This is surely the same individual as the Pharaoh Iny known from Graffito no 11 of the Temple of Khonsu where his Vth year is cited, a shard from Amélineaus work at Abydos bears perhaps another reference to the same king. H. Jacquet-Gordon has shown that the accession of this enigmatic king can be dated c, some remarks ensue concerning the use of imperial and old-fashioned royal titularies, and also archaizing bas-reliefs, during the late TIPE. His arguments here are today accepted by virtually all Egyptologists including Jürgen von Beckerath in the latters 1999 book on royal Egyptian kings names, barring this, Ini was only a local king of Thebes who ruled Egypt concurrently with Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis and Nimlot of Hermopolis. In this case, Ini would have been a Nubian vassal in Thebes and this would justify the view that Graffito No
Ini (pharaoh)
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The poetic stele Louvre C100, drawn by Flinders Petrie.
151.
Tefnakht
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Shepsesre Tefnakht was a prince of Sais and founder of the relatively short Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt, he rose to become a Chief of the Ma in his home city. He is thought to have reigned roughly 732 BCE to 725 BCE, Tefnakht I first began his career as the Great Chief of the West and Prince of Sais and was a late contemporary of the last ruler of the 22nd dynasty, Shoshenq V. A recently discovered statue, dedicated by Tefnakht I to Amun-Re, the statues text states that Tefnakht was the son of a certain Gemnefsutkapu and the grandson of Basa, a priest of Amun near Sais. Consequently, Tefnakht was not actually descended from a line of Chiefs of the Ma and Libu tribes as traditionally believed, Tefnakht erected two donation stelas in Years 36 and 38 of Shoshenq V as a Prince at Saïs. The 22nd Dynasty was politically fragmenting even prior to the death of Shoshenq V and he was able to capture and unify many of the cities of the Delta region, thus making Tefnakht considerably more powerful than any of his predecessors in either the 22nd or 23rd dynasties. Tefnakht was not a member of the Tanite-based 22nd Dynasty of Egypt since Tanis is located in the Eastern Delta whereas his local city of Sais was situated in the Western Delta closer to Libya and his modest title Great chief of the West also hints at a non-royal background. This caused him to face opposition from Piye, especially after Nimlot. A pair of naval engagements soon checked any further advances by Tefnakhts coalition into Piyes Middle Egyptian territories, after further campaigns, Tefnakhts allies surrendered to Piye and Tefnakht soon found himself isolated. He finally dispatched a letter formally submitting his loyalty and swearing his loyalty to Piye, Tefnakht, however, was the only Lower Egyptian prince to avoid seeing Piye face to face. These details are recounted in the Great Victory stela of Piye which this Nubian ruler erected on the New Years Day of his 21st regnal year, shortly afterwards, Piye returned home to Nubia at Gebel Barkal, and never returned to Lower Egypt again. Despite this setback, Tefnakht was left alone as the prince of his local region of Sais. He managed, over time, to reestablish his kingdoms control in the Delta region from the political vacuum which resulted after Piyes departure from this region. It is generally believed that prince Tefnakht officially proclaimed himself as king Shepsesre Tefnakht I and his successor at Sais was Bakenranef. Perdu, thus, infers that these two kings of Sais—Necho I and Tefnakht II—were close contemporaries, moreover, the head of the falcon-headed god Horus is, as Perdu himself noted, similar in style to the stela of Tefnakht, chief of the Meshwesh and Piyes chief rival. Unlike Necho I, neither of this kings presumed Saite royal predecessors, hence, the latter two kings who appear in the records of Manethos Epitome may well be fictitious. After all, the 24th dynasty Saite rulers Tefnakht and Bakenranef had fought Taharqas father Piye, dan-El Kahn, Did Tefnakht I rule as king
Tefnakht
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Tefnakht on his year 8 stela
Tefnakht
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Complete stele of Tefnakht
152.
Bakenranef
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Bakenranef, known by the ancient Greeks as Bocchoris, was briefly a king of the Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt. Based at Sais in the western Delta, he ruled Lower Egypt from c.725 to 720 BC, though the Ptolemaic period Egyptian historian Manetho considers him the sole member of the Twenty-fourth dynasty, modern scholars include his father Tefnakht in that dynasty. It establishes that Bakenranefs reign ended only at the start of his 6th regnal year which, under the Egyptian dating system, Bakenranefs prenomen or royal name, Wahkare, means Constant is the Spirit of Re in Egyptian. Manetho is the source for two events from Bakenranefs reign, the first is the story that a lamb uttered the prophecy that Egypt would be conquered by the Assyrians, a story later repeated by such classical authors as Claudius Aelianus. The second was that Bakenranef was captured by Shabaka, a king of the Twenty-fifth dynasty, a Kushite king, Shabaka extended his rule over the whole of Egypt, which had been split since the Twenty-first dynasty. Diodorus Siculus, writing three centuries after Manetho, adds some different details. Diodorus states that although Bakenranef was contemptible in appearance, he was wiser than his predecessors, the Egyptians attributed to him a law concerning contracts, which provided for a way to discharge debts where no bond was signed, it was observed down to Diodorus time. For this, and other acts, Diodorus included Bocchoris as one of the six most important lawgivers of ancient Egypt, ischia was the earliest of eighth-century BC Greek colonies in Italy. They agreed, and in utter ignorance began to advance at random, moses followed them, and, guided by the appearance of a grassy spot, discovered an abundant spring of water. Shabaka deposed and executed Bakenranef by burning him alive at the stake and this effectively ended the short-lived 24th Dynasty of Egypt as a potential rival to the Nubian 25th Dynasty. Despite the importance implied by these writers, few records of Bakenranef have survived. In a tomb in Tarquinia in Italy was found a vase with his names
Bakenranef
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Apis stela dated to Year 6 of Bakenranef's reign, found in Saqqara.
153.
Necho I
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Menkheperre Necho I was a ruler of the Ancient Egyptian city of Sais. He was the first attested local Saite king of the 26th Dynasty of Egypt who reigned for 8 years according to Manethos Epitome, Egypt was reunified by his son Psamtik I. In 672 BCE Necho became ruler of Sais, assuming the pharaonic titulary, Necho became one of Esarhaddons vassals, and the latter confirmed Nechos office and his possessions, as well as giving him new territories, possibly including the city of Memphis. Esarhaddons death led to a crisis in the Assyrian Empire. The counteroffensive planned by his father took place in 667/666 BCE, the Assyrian king captured the conspirators, killed part of the population of the cities they governed, and deported the prisoners to Nineveh. This Nubian invasion into the Egyptian Delta was subsequently repelled by the Assyrians who proceeded to advance south into Upper Egypt, with the Nile Delta secured once again, Psamtik I was appointed with his dead fathers offices and territories. Later, he ultimately was successful in reuniting Egypt under his sole control, danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt made claims regarding Necho I, studying a papyrus from Tebtunis, he stated that Necho I was the son of a king named Tefnakht, presumably Tefnakht II. French historian Christian Settipani believes that Necho married Istemabet, and they were the parents of Psamtik I, Necho I is primarily known from Assyrian documents but a few Egyptian objects are known too. Among these, a glazed pottery statuette of Horus which contains his cartouches, Necho Is Year 2 is now attested on a privately held donation stela that was first published by Olivier Perdu. The stela records a large donation to the Osirian triad of Per-Hebyt by the priest of Isis, Mistress of Hebyt. Media related to Necho I at Wikimedia Commons
Necho I
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Horus statuette bearing the cartouches of Necho I. London, Petrie Museum.
154.
Amasis II
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Amasis II or Ahmose II was a pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest, most of our information about him is derived from Herodotus and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins and he was originally an officer in the Egyptian army. His birthplace was Siuph at Saïs and he took part in a general campaign of Pharaoh Psamtik II in 592 BC in Nubia. A revolt which broke out among native Egyptian soldiers gave him his opportunity to seize the throne. General Amasis, sent to them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels instead, and Apries. Apries fled to the Babylonians and was killed mounting an invasion of his homeland in 567 BCE with the aid of a Babylonian army. An inscription confirms the struggle between the native Egyptian and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the year of Amasis. Amasis then married Chedebnitjerbone II, one of the daughters of his predecessor Apries, some information is known about the family origins of Amasis, his mother was a certain Tashereniset, as a bust of her, today located in the British Museum, shows. A stone block from Mehallet el-Kubra also establishes that his maternal grandmother—Tasherenisets mother—was a certain Tjenmutetj and his court is relatively well known. The head of the gate guard Ahmose-sa-Neith appears on numerous monuments and he was referenced on monuments of the 30th dynasty and apparently had a special significance in his time. Wahibre was Leader of the foreigners and Head of the doors of foreigners. Under Amasis the career of the doctor Udjahorresnet began, who was of importance to the Persians. Several heads of the fleet are known, psamtek Meryneit and Pasherientaihet / Padineith are the only known viziers. Herodotus describes how Amasis II would eventually cause a confrontation with the Persian armies, according to Herodotus, Amasis was asked by Cambyses II or Cyrus the Great for an Egyptian ophthalmologist on good terms. Amasis seems to have complied by forcing an Egyptian physician into mandatory labor, causing him to leave his family behind in Egypt, Cambyses complied and requested a daughter of Amasis for marriage. This daughter of Apries was none other than Nitetis, who was as per Herodotuss account, tall, Nitetis naturally betrayed Amasis and upon being greeted by the Persian king explained Amasiss trickery and her true origins. This infuriated Cambyses and he vowed to revenge for it
Amasis II
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A fragmentary statue head of Amasis II
Amasis II
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This head probably came from a temple statue of Amasis II. He wears the traditional royal nemes head cloth, with a protective uraeus serpent at the brow. Circa 560 BCE. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
Amasis II
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Relief showing Amasis from the Karnak temple
Amasis II
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Papyrus, written in demotic script in the 35th year of Amasis II, on display at the Louvre
155.
Cambyses II
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Cambyses II son of Cyrus the Great, was emperor of the Achaemenid Empire. Cambyses grandfather was Cambyses I, king of Anshan, after the Egyptian campaign and the truce with Libya, Cambyses invaded the Kingdom of Kush but with little success. Though numerous scholars link Cambyses to the Sanskrit tribal name Kamboja there are also few scholars who suggest Elamite origin of the name, jean Przyluski had sought to find an Austric affinity for Kamboja. Friedrich von Spiegel, Sten Konow, Ernst Herzfeld, James Hope Moulton, Wojciech Skalmowski, James Hope Moulton regards Spiegels suggestions as the best of other etymological explanations of these two names. On the other hand, Arnold J, when Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 BC, Cambyses was employed in leading religious ceremonies. In the cylinder which contains Cyrus proclamation to the Babylonians, Cambyses name is joined to his fathers in the prayers to Marduk, on a tablet dated from the first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babylon, although his authority seems to have been ephemeral. Only in 530 BC, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East, numerous Babylonian tablets of the time date from the accession and the first year of Cambyses, when Cyrus was king of the countries. After the death of his father in 530 BC, Cambyses became sole king, the tablets dating from his reign in Babylonia run to the end of his eighth year, in 522 BC. Herodotus, who dates his reign from the death of Cyrus, gives his reign a length of seven years five months, the traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek authors, come from two different sources. The first, which forms the part of the account of Herodotus, is of Egyptian origin. Here Cambyses is made the son of Cyrus and a daughter of Apries named Nitetis. Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek mercenaries, especially about their leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, who betrayed Egypt to the Persians. In the Persian tradition the crime of Cambyses is the murder of his brother, he is accused of drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes. These traditions are found in different passages of Herodotus, and in a later form and it is difficult to form a correct picture of Cambysess character from these inscriptions. It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered the Middle East, Cambyses should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the war took place in 525 BC, when Amasis II had just been succeeded by his son Psamtik III. Cambyses had prepared for the march through the desert by forming an alliance with Arabian chieftains, King Amasis had hoped that Egypt would be able to withstand the threatened Persian attack through his alliance with the Greeks. In the decisive battle at Pelusium the Egyptian army was defeated, the captive king Psammetichus was executed, having attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian inscriptions show that Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the dress of the Pharaohs
Cambyses II
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Cambyses II
Cambyses II
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The lost army of Cambyses II according to a 19th-century engraving
156.
Petubastis III
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Seheruibre Padibastet, better known as Petubastis III, is a proposed Egyptian ruler, c.522 –520 BCE, who revolted against Persian rule and satrap Aryandes. His name Padibastet means Given by Bastet, Petubastis was a native, local prince, dynast and probably a member of the old royal Saitic line who attempted to take control of Egypt and seize power. Although he assumed royal titles and titulary of a pharaoh, he has been an unknown character. Petubastis revolted in late 522 BCE or early 521 BCE, cunningly, the Great King promised a hundred talents of silver for the one that would provide a new Apis, impressing the natives to the point that they passed en masse to his side. It is most likely that the satrap Aryandes quelled the rebellion, certainly Egypt was pacified by 518 BCE when Darius arrived and authorised the codification of local Egyptian laws. The existence of this shadowy rebel ruler was confirmed by inscriptions found on two seals and one scarab that bear his name written in a royal form inside a cartouche. His figure appears on a doorjamb once covered in leaf, now at the Louvre Museum. There also exists a document that has dated to 522 BCE. In 2014, Olaf Kaper of the Leiden University announced that he found an inscription by Petubastis III claiming that he ambushed and defeated the famous Lost Army of Cambyses, psammetichus IV – another Egyptian rebel ruler during the First Persian Period. Yoyotte, J. Pétoubastis III, Revue dÉgyptologie 24, 216-23
Petubastis III
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Wooden doorjamb, originally covered with gold leaf and inlaid glass, representing Seheruibre Petubastis III making an offering, Louvre Museum.
157.
Darius I
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Darius I was the third king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing Gaumata, the alleged magus usurper of Bardiya with the assistance of six other Persian noble families, the new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time. A major event in Dariuss life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt, Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized a new monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights, through these changes the empire was centralized and unified. Darius also worked on projects throughout the empire, focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon. He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests, Darius is mentioned in the Biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra–Nehemiah. The Achaemenid Empire during Darius reign controlled the largest fraction of the population of any empire in history. Based on historical estimates, Darius I ruled over approximately 50 million people. Dārīus and Dārēus are the Latin forms of the Greek Dareîos, itself from Old Persian Dārayavauš, the longer form is also seen to have been reflected in the Elamite Da-ri-a-ma-u-iš, Babylonian Da-ri-ia-muš, Aramaic drywhwš, and possibly the longer Greek form Dareiaîos. The name is a nominative form meaning he who holds firm the good, which can be seen by the first part dāraya, meaning holder, and the adverb vau, meaning goodness. At some time between his coronation and his death, Darius left a tri-lingual monumental relief on Mount Behistun, the inscription begins with a brief autobiography including his ancestry and lineage. To aid the presentation of his ancestry, Darius wrote down the sequence of events occurred after the death of Cyrus the Great. Darius mentions several times that he is the king by the grace of Ahura Mazda. Herodotus, a Greek historian and author of The Histories, provided an account of many Persian kings and he wrote extensively on Darius, spanning half of Book 3 along with Books 4,5 and 6. It begins with the removal of the alleged usurper Gaumata and continues to the end of Dariuss reign, in the book of Daniel the kings name changes from king of the Chaldeans = Babylonians to king of the Persians which also occurred between the kingships of Darius I and Xerxes. Additionally the 120 satraps mentioned in Daniel 6,1 can be translated as 20 tribute owing satraps, the Book of Ezra describes the decree to continue reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, specifying financial support and supplies for the temple services. This decree is dated approximately 519 BCE, between Cyrus and Darius, an exchange of letters with King Ahasuerus and Artaxerxes is described, the grandson of Darius I, during whose reign Ezra and Nehemiah came to Jerusalem
Darius I
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Relief of Darius I in Persepolis
Darius I
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Darius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of Hibis
Darius I
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Letter from Darius I to Gadatas, satrap in Ionia, about his management of a paradise (royal garden). Greek copy made during the Roman Era, found near Magnesia ad Mæandrum.
Darius I
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Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire
158.
Artaxerxes I of Persia
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Artaxerxes I /ˌɑːrtəˈzɜːrksiːz/ was the fifth King of Persia from 465 BC to 424 BC. He was the son of Xerxes I. He may have been the Artasyrus mentioned by Herodotus as being a Satrap of the satrapy of Bactria. In Greek sources he is also surnamed μακρόχειρ Macrocheir, allegedly because his hand was longer than his left. Artaxerxes was probably born in the reign of his grandfather Darius I, to the son and heir. In 465 BC, Xerxes I was murdered by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard, Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias, Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxess eldest son, of the murder and persuaded Artaxerxes, but according to Aristotle, Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons and he had to face a revolt in Egypt in 460–454 BC led by Inaros II, who was the son of a Libyan prince named Psamtik, presumably of the old Saite line. In 460 BC, Inaros II revolted against the Persians with the help of his Athenian allies, the Persians retreated to Memphis, and the Athenians were finally defeated in 454 BC, by the Persian army led by Megabyzus, after a two-year siege. Inaros was captured and carried away to Susa, after Persia had been defeated at Eurymedon, military action between Greece and Persia was at a standstill. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece and this indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at the Battle of Cyprus, after Cimons failure to attain much in this expedition, the Peace of Callias was agreed among Athens, Argos and Persia in 449 BC. Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was probably his father Xerxess greatest enemy for his victory at the Battle of Salamis, also, Artaxerxes I gave him Magnesia, Myus, and Lampsacus to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave him Palaescepsis to provide him with clothes, Themistocles would go on to learn and adopt Persian customs, Persian language, and traditions. Artaxerxes commissioned Ezra, a Jewish priest and scribe, by means of a letter of decree, to charge of the ecclesiastical. A copy of this decree may be found in Ezra 7, Ezra thereby left Babylon in the first month of the seventh year of Artaxerxes reign, at the head of a company of Jews that included priests and Levites. They arrived in Jerusalem on the first day of the month of the seventh year. The rebuilding of the Jewish community in Jerusalem had begun under Cyrus the Great, consequently, a number of Jews returned to Jerusalem in 538 BC, and the foundation of this Second Temple was laid in 536 BC, in the second year of their return
Artaxerxes I of Persia
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The ancient Egyptian god Amun-Min in front of Artaxerxes' cartouche.
Artaxerxes I of Persia
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Relief of Artaxerxes from his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam
Artaxerxes I of Persia
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Themistocles stands silently before king Artaxerxes
159.
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt is usually classified as the fourth Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Late Period. It was founded after the overthrow of Amyrtaeus, the last Pharaoh of the 28th Dynasty, by Nefaarud I in 398 BC, Nefaarud I founded the 29th Dynasty by defeating Amyrtaeus in open battle, and later putting him to death at Memphis. Nefaarud then made Mendes his capital, psammuthes was overthrown by Hakor, who claimed to be the grandson of Nefaarud I. He successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt, drawing support from Athens, although his son Nefaarud II became king on his death, the younger Nefaarud was unable to keep hold on his inheritance. Clarysse, Willy, Nephorites, Founder of the 29th Dynasty and His Name, Chronique dÉgypte, Bulletin périodique de la Fondation égyptologique reine Élisabeth,69, 215–217. Lloyd, Alan Brian, The Late Period, in Shaw, Ian, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 369–394, ISBN 0-8109-1020-9. Myśliwiec, Karol, The Twilight of Ancient Egypt, First Millennium B. C. E, Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-8630-0. Ray, John D. Psammuthis and Hakoris, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Egypt Exploration Society,72, 149–158, doi,10. 2307/3821486, traunecker, Claude, Essai sur lhistoire de la XXIXe dynastie, Bulletin de lInstitut français darchéologie orientale,79, 395–436
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
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Sphinx of Hakor
160.
Nepherites I
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Nefaarud I or Nayfaurud I, better known with his hellenised name Nepherites I, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the founder of the 29th Dynasty. Nepherites then crowned himself pharaoh at Memphis and possibly also at Sais, according to Manetho, Nepherites I ruled for six years, although his highest archaeologically attested date is his regnal year 4. There has been evidence of Nepherites building work found in a number of locations across the country, in Lower Egypt, he is attested at Thmuis, Tell Roba, Buto, Memphis, Saqqara and his capital and hometown Mendes. In Middle and Upper Egypt, he ordered a chapel at Akoris while at Akhmim, near Sohag and he also added some buildings at Karnak such as a storeroom and a shrine meant to house a sacred bark. A basalt sphinx with his name is now located in the Louvre, in foreign affairs, he resumed the policy of Egyptian intervention in the Middle East. Nepherites supplied the Spartans with 500,000 measures of grain, however, the cargo reached Rhodes just after the Persians managed to retake the island, so it was entirely seized by the philo-Persian admiral Conon of Athens. Nepherites I died during the winter of 394/393 BC after six years of reign, the Demotic Chronicle simply states that his son was allowed to succeeded him, without providing any name. A tomb believed to be that of Nepherites was discovered by a joint team from the University of Toronto, possible ownership of the tomb was identified by the presence of a shabti bearing the name of Nepherites I, however, definitive proof has not been found. Although still containing funerary objects and a limestone sarcophagus, the tomb was believed to have been destroyed by the Persians in 343 BC. Ceramic vessels containing fish specimens and fish-covered stelae have been found on the site of Nepheritess funerary complex, the presence of the fish, often interpreted as votive offerings, could be an indication that the site was previously occupied by a temple of the fish-goddess Hatmehyt. Muthis – A conjectural pharaoh, once believed to be Nepherites Is son
Nepherites I
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Sphinx of pharaoh Nepherites I in the Louvre Museum
Nepherites I
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An ushabti, or funerary figure, of Nepherites I
161.
Hakor
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Hakor or Hagar, also known by the hellenized forms Achoris or Hakoris, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 29th Dynasty. His reign marks the apex of this feeble and short-lived dynasty, hakors accession and relationships with his predecessor Nepherites I were long debated. As a result, Hakor was alternately considered Nepherites legitimate successor or an unrelated usurper, ray suggested that Hakor was Nepherites heir, who ruled undisturbed until his Year 2 when he was deposed by Psammuthes. The third pretender, Muthis, could be inserted within this struggle, rays hypothesis is accepted by other Egyptologists such as Alan B. Shortly after his death, Hakor was called an usurper by the founder of the subsequent dynasty, however, it has been suggested that Achoris and Nectanebo might have been relatives in some way, possibly both related to Nepherites I but rivals to each other. Once re-established, Hakor made considerable exertions to affirm his legitimacy and his building activity was remarkable and he also extensively restored many monuments of his royal predecessors. His building activity is attested in various places in Upper Egypt, in the Temple of Hibis of Kharga Oasis. Hakor apparently reprised Nepherites foreign policy, Theopompus also reported an alliance between Hakor and the Pisidians. The peace of Antalcidas between the Persians and Greeks was a point, after that, Egypt and Cyprus remained the only opponents of Artaxerxes II as reported by Theopompus and Orosius. The following years are obscure, but it seems that the Persians first attacked Egypt in 385 BCE and. In 381 BCE Hakor sent aid, money and 50 triremes to Evagoras in order to contribute to his resistance against the Great King who, after the unsuccessful campaign in Egypt, was now focusing on Cyprus. However, when, in 380 BCE, Evagoras himself came to Egypt to beg other aid, Hakor saw no need to continue supporting him and sent him back to Cyprus with merely some more money. Hakor managed to get the Athenian general Chabrias into his service, Hakor died in 379/8 BCE, leaving his throne to his son Nepherites II
Hakor
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Granodiorite fragmentary statue torso of Hakor. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Hakor
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Hakor's chapel in Karnak
162.
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt is usually classified as the fifth Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Late Period. It was founded after the overthrow of Nefaarud II in 380 BC by Nectanebo I, Nectanebo I had gained control of all of Egypt by November of 380 BC, but spent much of his reign defending his kingdom from Persian reconquest with the occasional help of Sparta or Athens. In 365 BC, Nectanebo made his son Teos co-king and heir, tjahepimu took advantage of Teos unpopularity within Egypt by declaring his son—and Teos nephew, Nectanebo II—king. The Egyptian army rallied around Nectanebo which forced Teos to flee to the court of the king of Persia, Nectanebo IIs reign was dominated by the efforts of the Persian rulers to reconquer Egypt, which they considered a satrapy in revolt. For the first ten years, Nectanebo avoided the Persian reconquest because Artaxerxes III was forced to consolidate his control of the realm. Artaxerxes then attempted an invasion of Egypt in the winter of 351/350 BC, the repercussions of his defeat prompted revolts in Cyprus, Phoenicia. Although Nectanebo gave support to these revolts, Artaxerxes would eventually suppress these rebellions and was again able to invade Egypt in 343 BC. This second invasion proved successful, and Nectanebo was forced to withdraw from his defenses in the Nile Delta to Memphis and he thereupon fled south to Nubia, where he is assumed to have found refuge at the court of King Nastasen of Napata. Nectanebo, however, may have managed to some form of independent rule in the south of Egypt for 2 more years since a document from Edfu is dated to his eighteenth year. Although a shadowy figure named Khababash proclaimed himself king and led a rebellion against the Persians from about 338 to 335 BC and his flight marked the end of Egypt as an independent entity
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
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A 30th dynasty Egyptian funerary mask
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
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Stele of Nectanebo I
163.
Teos of Egypt
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Djedhor, better known as Teos or Tachos, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 30th Dynasty. A son of his predecessor Nectanebo I, Teos was his co-regent for three years before ascending to the throne in 361/0 BCE. However, to such an expedition, Teos had to impose new taxes and to expropriate the goods of the temples. This action ensured to Teos both the required finances and a great unpopularity, the operation against the Persians started with Chabrias as the admiral of the fleet, Agesilaus as the commander of the Greek mercenaries and Teos nephew Nakhthorheb as the leader of the machimoi. Teos placed himself in the command of the expedition leaving his brother Tjahapimu. The expedition made its way to Phoenicia without particular problems, unfortunately for Teos, his brother Tjahapimu was plotting against him. Taking advantage of Teos unpopularity, and with the support of the classes, Tjahapimu convinced his son Nakhthorheb to rebel against Teos. Nakhthorheb persuaded Agesilaus to join his side by taking advantage of the disagreements that had arisen between the Spartan king and the pharaoh. Nakhthorheb was acclaimed pharaoh – better known today as Nectanebo II – and the betrayed Teos had no alternative but to flee to Susa, the court of his enemies. Knowledge of the fate of Teos comes from the inscription by a noble called Wennefer. Wennefer was sent by Nectanebo II in search of Teos and managed to have him held by the Persian king Artaxerxes II at Susa, Wennefer then had Teos brought back with him in chains to the Egyptian pharaoh
Teos of Egypt
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Bowl shard with Teos' cartouches, Petrie Museum
164.
Nectanebo II
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Nectanebo II, ruled in 360—342 BC) was the third and last pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt as well as the last native ruler of ancient Egypt. During his reign, the Egyptian artists delivered a specific style that left a mark on the reliefs of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Nectanebo II, however, undertook more constructions and restorations than Nectanebo I, for several years, Nectanebo II was successful in keeping Egypt safe from the Achaemenid Empire. However, betrayed by his servant, Mentor of Rhodes, Nectanebo II was ultimately defeated by the combined Persian. The Persians occupied Memphis and then seized the rest of Egypt, Nectanebo fled south and preserved his power for some time, his subsequent fate is unknown. Except for the greywacke statue in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In the greywacke statue, Nectanebo II is shown in a nemes and his bent arm with the sword stands for the hieroglyph nakht, the falcon represents Horus, while the hieroglyph in Nectanebos right hand stands for heb. In 525 BC Egypt was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, because of internal struggles for the Persian imperial succession, Egypt managed to regain independence in 404 BC. In 389 BC, Pharaoh Hakor negotiated a treaty with Athens, in the beginning of 360 BC, Nectanebos predecessor Teos started preparations for war against intruders. In the same year, the Egyptian army set off, traveling along the coast by land, Nectanebo II accompanied his uncle Teos in that campaign and was in charge of the machimoi. In an attempt to raise finances for the war quickly, Teos imposed taxes on Egyptians, Egyptians, particularly the priests, resented those measures but supported Nectanebo II. Teos asked Spartan military leader Agesilaus and Athenian general Chabrias to preserve support for him, Agesilaus, however, said he was sent to aid Egypt and not to wage war against it. Chabrias returned home with his mercenaries, Teos decided to flee to the Achaemenid court, where he ultimately died of natural causes. Nectanebo contended with an unnamed pretender to the throne from the town of Mendes, the revolt was probably led by one of the descendants of Nepherites I, whose family had ruled the town before. The claimant sent messengers to Agesilaus in an attempt to persuade Agesilaus to his side, Agesilaus remained loyal to Nectanebo, fearing to become a turncoat. At one of the towns in the Nile Delta the troops of Nectanebo and Agesilaus were besieged by the usurper, despite the enemys numerical superiority, Nectanebo and Agesilaus were victorious and the revolt was put down in the fall of 360 BC. Acknowledging Agesilaus, Nectanebo sent him 220 talents of gold, religion played an important part in Nectanebos domestic policy. He began his reign by officiating over the funeral of an Apis bull in Memphis, there Nectanebo added a relief decoration to the eastern and western temples of Apis
Nectanebo II
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Head of Nectanebo II, Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon
Nectanebo II
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Obverse of gold stater of Nectanebo II.
Nectanebo II
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Black siltstone obelisk of Pharaoh Nectanebo II. According to the vertical inscriptions he set up this obelisk at the doorway of the sanctuary of Thoth, the Twice-Great, Lord of Hermopolis. Today, it is located in the British Museum, London.
Nectanebo II
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Papyrus of the Dream of Nectanebo, ca. 160–150 BC
165.
Artaxerxes III
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He was the son and successor of Artaxerxes II and was succeeded by his son, Arses of Persia. His reign coincided with the reign of Philip II in Macedon, before ascending the throne Artaxerxes was a satrap and commander of his fathers army. Artaxerxes came to power one of his brothers was executed, another committed suicide. Soon after becoming king, Artaxerxes murdered all of the family to secure his place as king. He started two major campaigns against Egypt, the first campaign failed, and was followed up by rebellions throughout the western part of his empire. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes defeated Nectanebo II, the Pharaoh of Egypt, driving him from Egypt, in Artaxerxes later years, Philip II of Macedons power was increasing in Greece, where he tried to convince the Greeks to revolt against Achaemenid Persia. His activities were opposed by Artaxerxes, and with his support, according to a Greek source, Diodorus of Sicily, Bagoas poisoned Artaxerxes, but a cuneiform tablet suggests that the king died from natural causes. Artaxerxes III was the name adopted by Ochus when he succeeded his father in 358 BC. He is generally referred to as Ochus, but in Iran he is known as Ardeshir III, in Babylonian inscriptions he is called Umasu, who is called Artakshatsu. The same form of the name occurs in the Syrian version of the Canon of Kings by Elias of Nisibis, before ascending the throne Artaxerxes had been a satrap and commander of his fathers army. In 359 BC, just before ascending the throne, he attacked Egypt as a reaction to Egypts failed attacks on coastal regions of Phoenicia and his first order was the execution of over 80 of his nearest relations to secure his place as king. In 355 BC, Artaxerxes forced Athens to conclude a peace which required the citys forces to leave Asia Minor, Artaxerxes started a campaign against the rebellious Cadusians, but he managed to appease both of the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, the order was however ignored by Artabazus of Lydia, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Orontes of Mysia also supported Artabazus and the forces managed to defeat the forces sent by Artaxerxes in 354 BC. However, in 353 BC, they were defeated by Artaxerxes’ army and were disbanded, orontes was pardoned by the king, while Artabazus fled to the safety of the court of Philip II of Macedon. In around 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt, at the same time a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor, which, being supported by Thebes, threatened to become serious. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes marched into Egypt, and engaged Nectanebo II, after a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius. Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt, soon after this defeat, Phoenicia, Asia Minor and Cyprus declared their independence from Persian rule
Artaxerxes III
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Artaxerxes III (Artaxšaçrā)
Artaxerxes III
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Tomb of Artaxerxes III at Persepolis
Artaxerxes III
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The Unfinished Gate at Persepolis gave archaeologists an insight into the construction of Persepolis.
166.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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Ptolemy II Philadelphus was the king of Ptolemaic Egypt from 283 to 246 BCE. He was the son of the founder of the Ptolemaic kingdom Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice and he had two half-brothers, Ptolemy Keraunos and Meleager, who both became kings of Macedonia, and who both died in the Gallic invasion of 280–279 BCE. Ptolemy was first married to Arsinoë I, daughter of Lysimachus, who was the mother of his children, after her repudiation he married his full sister Arsinoë II. During Ptolemys reign, the material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height and he promoted the Museum and Library of Alexandria, and he erected a commemorative stele, the Great Mendes Stela. Ptolemy II began his reign as co-regent with his father Ptolemy I from c.285 BCE to c.283 BCE, Egypt was involved in several wars during his reign. Magas of Cyrene opened war on his half-brother, and the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter, desiring Coele-Syria with Judea, two or three years of war followed. The Ptolemaic sphere of power extended over the Cyclades to Samothrace, in 275/4 BC, Ptolemaic forces invaded Nubia and annexed the Triakontaschoinos. In 270 BCE Ptolemy hired 4,000 Gallic mercenaries. ”The victory won by Antigonus II Gonatas, king of Macedonia, Ptolemy was of a delicate constitution. Elias Joseph Bickermann gives the date of his death as January 29, Ptolemys first wife, Arsinoë I, daughter of Lysimachus, was the mother of his legitimate children, Ptolemy III Euergetes, his successor. Lysimachus Berenice Phernopherus, married Antiochus II Theos, king of Syria, after her repudiation he married his full sister Arsinoë II, the widow of Lysimachus — an Egyptian custom—which brought him her Aegean possessions. Ptolemy deified his parents and his sister-wife after their deaths, the material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Although an enthusiast for Hellenic culture, he also adopted Egyptian religious concepts, callimachus, keeper of the library, Theocritus, and a host of lesser poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the library and to scientific research. The tradition preserved in the pseudepigraphical Letter of Aristeas which connects the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek with his patronage is probably overdrawn, pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Chap. 21 He is also mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka, Alexandrian Pleiad Library of Alexandria Ptolemaic period - period of Egyptian history during the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemais - towns and cities named after members of the Ptolemaic dynasty, list of people whose parent committed suicide Mookerji, Radha Kumud, Chandragupta Maurya and his times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0433-3 Clayton, Peter A. Chronicles of the Pharaohs, the record of the rulers. The Foreign Policy of Ptolemy II, in McKechnie, Paul R. Guillaume, Philippe
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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A bust depicting Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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Ptolemy II Philadelphus (front), and his sister/wife Arsinoe II
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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This granite statue depicts Ptolemy II in the traditional canon of ancient Egyptian art. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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" Cameo Gonzaga ", Hermitage
167.
Ptolemy IV Philopator
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Ptolemy IV Philopator, son of Ptolemy III and Berenice II, was the fourth Pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt. The decline of the Ptolemaic dynasty began under the reign of Ptolemy IV, among the children of Ptolemy IV Philopator and his sister-wife Arsinoe III of Egypt was Ptolemy V Epiphanes, who married Cleopatra I Syra, daughter of Antiochus III the Great and Laodice III. Philopator was devoted to orgiastic forms of religion and literary dilettantism and he built a temple to Homer and composed a tragedy, to which his favourite Agathocles added a commentary. He married his sister Arsinoë III, but continued to be ruled by his mistress Agathoclea, in late c.210 BC, Agathoclea may have given birth to a son from her affair with Ptolemy IV, who may have died shortly after his birth. Ptolemy is said to have built a giant ship known as the tessarakonteres and this showpiece galley was described by Callixenus of Rhodes, writing in the 3rd century BC, and quoted by Athenaeus in the 2nd century AD. Plutarch also mentions that Ptolemy Philopator owned this immense vessel in his Life of Demetrios, the current theory is that Ptolemys ship was an oversized catamaran galley, measuring 128 m. Ptolemy IV is a major antagonist of the apocryphal 3 Maccabees, Ptolemy IVs reign was also marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. In the 1930s, excavations by Mattingly at a close to Port Dunford in present-day southern Somalia yielded a number of Ptolemaic coins. Among these pieces were 17 copper mints from the reigns of Ptolemy III, Ptolemy IV and Ptolemy V, as well as late Imperial Rome, chronicles of the Pharaohs, the reign-by-reign record of the rulers and dynasties of ancient Egypt. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Ptolemy IV Philopator
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Gold octadrachm issued by Ptolemy IV Philopator, British Museum
Ptolemy IV Philopator
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Mediterranean in 218 BC.
168.
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
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Ptolemy V Epiphanes, son of Ptolemy IV Philopator and Arsinoe III of Egypt, was the fifth ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty. He inherited the throne at the age of five, and under a series of regents, the Rosetta Stone was produced during his reign as an adult. Ptolemy Epiphanes was only a boy when his father, Ptolemy Philopator. However, in 202 BC, Tlepolemus, the general in charge of Pelusium, once Epiphanes was in the hands of Tlepolemus he was persuaded to give a sign that his mothers killers should be killed. The child king gave his consent, it is more from fear than anything else. Antiochus III the Great and Philip V of Macedon made a pact to divide the Ptolemaic possessions overseas, Philip seized several islands and populated places in Caria and Thrace, whilst the Battle of Panium definitively transferred Coele-Syria, including Judea, from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids. Antiochus then concluded peace, giving his own daughter Cleopatra I to Epiphanes in marriage, nevertheless, when war broke out between Antiochus and Rome, Egypt ranged itself with the latter power. Epiphanes came of age in approximately 196 or 197 BC with a known as an anacleteria. In manhood, Epiphanes was a sportsman, he excelled in athletic exercises. Great cruelty and treachery were displayed in the suppression of the native rebellion, in 197 BC, Lycopolis was held by the forces of Ankmachis, the secessionist pharaoh of Upper Egypt, but he was forced to withdraw to Thebes. The war between Upper and Lower Egypt continued until 185 BC with the arrest of Ankhmachis by Ptolemaic general Conanus and this victory re-established Ptolemaic rule in Upper Egypt, as well as the Triakontaschoinos. In 183 BC/184 BC, the rebels in Lower Egypt surrendered on the basis of terms that Epiphanes had personally promised to honor, however, showing himself treacherous and vindictive, he had them put to death in a cruel manner. The elder of Ptolemy Vs two sons, Ptolemy VI Philometor, succeeded as an infant under the regency of his mother Cleopatra the Syrian and her death was followed by a rupture between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid courts, on the old question of Coele-Syria. Ptolemy Vs reign was marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. In the 1930s, excavations by Mattingly at a close to Port Dunford in present-day southern Somalia yielded a number of Ptolemaic coins. Among these pieces were 17 copper mints from the Ptolemy III to Ptolemy V dynasties, as well as late Imperial Rome, a History of Egypt Under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Chronicles of the Pharaohs, The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers, Ptolemy V Epiphanes entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
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Tetradrachm issued by Ptolemy V Epiphanes, British Museum
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
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Ptolemaic Empire in 200 BC, during the reign of Ptolemy V (before the second invasion of Antiochus III)
169.
Ptolemy VIII Physcon
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Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II, nicknamed Physcon, was a king of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Ptolemy VIIIs complicated political career started in 170 BC and this is when Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire invaded and captured King Ptolemy VI Philometor and all of Egypt, with the exception of the city of Alexandria. Antiochus allowed Ptolemy VI to continue as a puppet monarch, meanwhile, the people of Alexandria chose Ptolemy Euergetes, his younger brother, as king. Euergetes was popularly known as Physkōn, Latinized as Physcon, meaning sausage, potbelly or bladder, instead of taking up arms against one another, the brothers decided to co-rule Egypt. After Antiochus withdrew from the area in 168 BC due to threats from Rome, Physcon agreed to jointly rule Egypt in a triumvirate with Philometor and Cleopatra II. This arrangement led to continuous intrigues, lasting until October 164 BC, when Philometor traveled to Rome to appear before the Senate, who were somewhat agreeable with the arrangement. However, areas under Physcons sole rule were not satisfied with the arrangement and this left Physcon in charge of Cyrenaica. Although the arrangement lasted until Philometors death in 145 BC, it did not end the power struggles, Physcon convinced the Roman Senate to back his claims on Cyprus, but Philometor opposed this. Physcons attempt to conquer the island failed and the Senate sent Philometors ambassadors home, in 156 or 155 BC, Philometor tried to have Physcon assassinated but failed. Physcon went to Rome, displaying the scars he had received in the attempt, despite opposition from Cato the Elder, he received the Senates support and further resources for another attempt on Cyprus. During his time in Rome he met Cornelia Africana, and asked for her hand in marriage, the second attempt on Cyprus also failed. Philometor captured and held Physcon prisoner, but spared him, offering him instead the hand of his daughter, Cleopatra Thea, when Philometor died on a campaign in 145 BC, Cleopatra II quickly had her son proclaimed King Ptolemy VII. Physcon, however, returned from battle and proposed joint rule and marriage with Cleopatra II and he had the younger Ptolemy assassinated during the wedding feast and claimed the throne himself, as Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II, and had himself proclaimed pharaoh in 144 BC. In 145 BC, Physcon took his revenge on the intellectuals of Alexandria who had opposed him, including Aristarchus of Samothrace and he engaged in mass purges and expulsions, leaving Alexandria a changed city. Physcon seduced and married Cleopatra III without divorcing Cleopatra II, who became infuriated, many speculate that Physcon only married Cleopatra II because he was plotting to marry Cleopatra III when she became of marrying age. By 132 or 131 BC, the people of Alexandria had rioted, Physcon, Cleopatra III, and their children escaped to Cyprus, while Cleopatra II had their twelve-year-old son, Ptolemy Memphitis, acclaimed as king. Physcon was able to get hold of the boy, killed him, the ensuing civil war pitted Cleopatras city of Alexandria against the rest of the country, who supported Physcon. Growing desperate, Cleopatra offered the throne of Egypt to the Seleucid king Demetrius II Nicator, by 127 BC, Cleopatra fled to Syria
Ptolemy VIII Physcon
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tetradrachm of Ptolemy VIII
Ptolemy VIII Physcon
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Stele (monument) attributed to Ptolemy VIII, glorifying his rule and describing his support of Egyptian gods. The stele was written in Egyptian hieroglyphs as well as Greek.
170.
Ptolemy X Alexander I
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Ptolemy X Alexander I was King of Egypt from 110 BC to 109 BC and 107 BC till 88 BC. He was the son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III, in 110 BC he became King with his mother as co-regent, after his mother had deposed his brother Ptolemy IX Lathyros. However, in 109 BC he was deposed by Ptolemy IX, in 107 BC he became King again, and again with his mother as co-regent. In 101 BC he had his mother killed, and ruled either alone or with his niece/wife, when he died, Ptolemy IX regained the throne. When Ptolemy IX died, Ptolemy Xs wife Berenice III took over the throne for six months, Ptolemy X Alexander entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
Ptolemy X Alexander I
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Ptolemy X Alexander I
171.
Cleopatra
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Cleopatra VII Philopator, known to history simply as Cleopatra, was the last active ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt, briefly survived as pharaoh by her son Caesarion. After her reign, Egypt became a province of the recently established Roman Empire, Cleopatra was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Greek family of Macedonian origin that ruled Egypt after Alexander the Greats death during the Hellenistic period. By contrast, Cleopatra did learn to speak Egyptian and represented herself as the reincarnation of the Egyptian goddess Isis, as queen, she consummated a liaison with Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated Caesarion, her son with Caesar, to co-ruler in name, after Caesars assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesars legal heir Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios, Antony committed suicide after losing the Battle of Actium to Octavians forces, and Cleopatra followed suit. According to tradition, she killed herself by means of an asp bite on August 12,30 BC and she was outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, but he was soon killed on Octavians orders. Egypt then became the Roman province of Aegyptus, Cleopatras father Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the Greats general Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lagus, both of Macedon. Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterwards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed that Berenice IV poisoned her so that she could assume sole rulership, regardless of the cause, she ruled until Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided by Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was imprisoned and executed afterwards, her head allegedly being sent to the royal court on the decree of her father. Cleopatra now became joint regent and deputy to her father at age 14, Ptolemy XII died in March 51 BC. His will made 18-year-old Cleopatra and her 10-year-old brother Ptolemy XIII joint monarchs, the first three years of their reign were difficult due to economic failures, famine, deficient floods of the Nile, and political conflicts. Cleopatra was married to her brother, but she quickly made it clear that she had no intention of sharing power with him. In August 51 BC, relations broke down between Cleopatra and Ptolemy. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemys name from official documents and her face appeared on coins. The Gabiniani killed the sons of the Roman governor of Syria Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus when they came to ask the Gabiniani to assist their father against the Parthians, Cleopatra handed the murderers over to Bibulus in chains, whereupon the Gabiniani became bitter enemies of the queen. This conflict was one of the causes of Cleopatras fall from power shortly afterward. The sole reign of Cleopatra was finally ended by a cabal of courtiers led by the eunuch Pothinus, in connection with half-Greek general Achillas, circa 48 BC, Cleopatras younger brother Ptolemy XIII became sole ruler
Cleopatra
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Bust believed to be of Cleopatra VII, Altes Museum, Berlin
Cleopatra
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Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 B.C., 71.12, Brooklyn Museum
Cleopatra
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Cleopatra and Caesar (1866). Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme
Cleopatra
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Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera
172.
Ptolemaic family tree
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Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 to 30 BC. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt, Ptolemy, one of the seven somatophylakes who served as Alexander the Greats generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexanders death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself Ptolemy I, later known as Sōter Saviour, the Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemys family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC, all the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens regnant, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII and her apparent suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. Dates in brackets represent the dates of the Ptolemaic pharaohs. They frequently ruled jointly with their wives, who were also their sisters. Of these, one of the last and most famous was Cleopatra, several systems exist for numbering the later rulers, the one used here is the one most widely used by modern scholars. Arsinoe IV, in opposition to Cleopatra Ptolemy Keraunos - eldest son of Ptolemy I Soter, Ptolemy Apion - son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Ptolemy Philadelphus - son of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy of Mauretania - son of King Juba II of Numidia and Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony. Contemporaries describe a number of the Ptolemaic dynasty members as extremely obese, whilst sculptures and coins reveal prominent eyes, familial Graves disease could explain the swollen necks and eye prominence, although this is unlikely to occur in the presence of morbid obesity. A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt, the development of their political relations 273-80 B. C. J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs, Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305-30 BC. Livius. org, Ptolemies — by Jona Lendering
Ptolemaic family tree
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Eagle of Zeus
Ptolemaic family tree
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Bust of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt (305 BC–282 BC) and founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty
Ptolemaic family tree
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A bust depicting King Ptolemy II Philadelphus 309–246 BCE
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