1.
Shabaka (window)
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Shabaka are stained glass windows made by national Azerbaijani masters, without glue or nails. Shabaka fill walls and window openings of halls and rooms in the Palace of Shaki Khans, geometric patterns of shabaka-windows harmonize with the general composition of the palace’s façade. Stained-glass windows of central halls and side rooms open on the façade and these stained glass windows are the special feature in the palace’s architecture
Shabaka (window)
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Shabaka-windows in interior of the Palace of Shaki Khans
Shabaka (window)
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Shabaka-windows in facade of the Palace of Shaki Khans.
2.
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Nubian Dynasty or the Kushite Empire, was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. The 25th dynasty was a line of rulers originating in the Nubian Kingdom of Kush – in present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt – and they reigned in part or all of Ancient Egypt from 760 BCE to 656 BCE. The dynasty began with Kashtas invasion of Upper Egypt and culminated in several years of successful and unsuccessful war with the Mesopotamian based Assyrian Empire. The 25th Dynastys reunification of Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and they assimilated into society by reaffirming Ancient Egyptian religious traditions, temples, and artistic forms, while introducing some unique aspects of Kushite culture. It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids since the Middle Kingdom, war with Assyria resulted in the end of Kushite power in Northern Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by Assyria. They were succeeded by the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, initially a puppet dynasty installed by and vassals of the Assyrians, the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Persian conquest. The known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the dynasty are the following, The period starting with Kashta. The later Kings from the dynasty ruled over Napata, Meroe. The seat of government and the palace were in Napata during this period. The kings and queens were buried in El-Kurru and Nuri, alara, the first known Nubian king and predecessor of Kashta was not a 25th dynasty king since he did not control any region of Egypt during his reign. While Piye is viewed as the founder of the 25th dynasty, the twenty-fifth dynasty originated in Kush, or, which is presently in Northern Sudan. The city-state of Napata was the capital and it was from there that Piye invaded. Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic filled stele called the Stele of Victory, Piye revived one of the greatest features of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, pyramid construction. An energetic builder, he constructed the oldest known pyramid at the burial site of El-Kurru. Although Manetho does not mention the first king, Piye, mainstream Egyptologists consider him the first Pharaoh of the 25th dynasty, Manetho also does not mention the last king, Tantamani, although inscriptions exist to attest to the existence of both Piye and Tantamani. Piye made various attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East. In 720 BC he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria in Philistia and Gaza, however Piye was defeated by Sargon II, Shabaka conquered the entire Nile valley, including Upper and Lower Egypt, around 710 BC. Shabaka had Bocchoris of the preceding Sais dynasty burned to death for resisting him, after conquering Lower Egypt, Shabaka transferred the capital to Memphis
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
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Kushite Egypt in 700 BC.
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
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25th Dynasty royal monumental statues from Doukki-Gel
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
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25th Dynasty pyramids at Nuri
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
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Temple of Amun at the sacred mountain, Jebel Barkal
3.
Shebitku
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Shebitku was the third king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt who ruled from 707/706 BC-690 BC, according to Danel Kahns most recent academic research of the Tang-i Var inscription. Shebitku was the nephew and successor of Shabaka and he was a son of Piye, the founder of this dynasty. Shebitkus prenomen or throne name, Djedkare, means Enduring is the Soul of Re, in 1999, an Egypt-Assyrian synchronism from the Great Inscription of Tang-i Var in Iran was re-discovered and re-analysed. The pertinent section of the inscription by Sargon II reads, The Tang-i Var inscription dates to Sargons 15th year between Nisan 707 BC to Adar 706 BC. As Jansen-Winkeln writes, there has never been the slightest hint at any form of coregency of the Nubian kings of Dynasty 25, Sargon can also be expected to have named the regent of Egypt and senior king, rather than the distant viceroy Shebitku. If, on the hand, Shebitku was already Shabakas successor in 707/706. It had hitherto been assumed that the Nubian king handed over Yamani more or less immediately after his flight to Egypt, now it appears. certain that Yamani was only turned over to the Assyrians a couple of years later. Consequently, Shebitkus reign should be dated to c.707 or 706 BC to 690 BC, murnanes 1977 book on Ancient Egyptian Coregencies. However, the Turin Museum has subsequently acknowledged the statue to be a forgery, if correct, this would demonstrate that Shebitku had truly served as a coregent to Shabaka for 2 years. William Murnane also endorsed this interpretation by noting that Shebitkus Year 3 Nile Text need not refer to an accession or coronation at all. Rather, it simply to record an appearance of Shebitku in the temple of Amun during his third year. In other words, Shebitku was already king of Egypt and the purpose of his visit to Karnak was to receive, therefore, the evidence for a possible coregency between Shabaka and Shebitku is illusory at present. Recently the arguments for reversing the order of Shabaka and Shebitku have been taken up by Bányai, shebitku’s reign would then cover the years 712-704 BC. During Shebitkus reign, there was initially a policy of conciliation with Assyria which was marked by the extradition of Iamanni back into Sargon IIs hands. After Sargon IIs death, however, Shebitku appears to have adopted a different policy by actively resisting any new Assyrian expansion into Canaan under Sargons son, a stela from Kawa relates that Shebitku asked his brothers, including Taharqa, to travel north to Thebes from Nubia. The Nubian army travelled along with Taharqa presumably to fight the Assyrians at the Battle of Eltekeh in 701 BC, another stela records that when Jerusalem was under attack by the Assyrians, the king of Kush marched against Sennacherib. Shebitku joined in the resistance against Sennacherib and an Egyptian army was sent to Palestine, led by Shebitkus brother, Shebitku also completed the decoration of the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet in Thebes during his reign. The Temple had been constructed under Osorkon III, in 690 BC, Shebitku died and was succeeded by Taharqa, his younger brother
Shebitku
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Shebitku's statue in the Nubian Museum
4.
Taharqa
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Taharqa, also spelled Taharka or Taharqo, was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty and qore of the Kingdom of Kush. Taharqa was the son of Piye, the Nubian king of Napata who had first conquered Egypt, Taharqa was also the cousin and successor of Shebitku. The successful campaigns of Piye and Shabaka paved the way for a prosperous reign by Taharqa, Taharqas reign can be dated from 690 BC to 664 BC. Evidence for the dates of his reign is derived from the Serapeum stela and this stela records that an Apis bull born and installed in Year 26 of Taharqa died in Year 20 of Psammetichus I, having lived 21 years. This would give Taharqa a reign of 26 years and a fraction, Taharqa explicitly states in Kawa Stela V, line 15, that he succeeded his predecessor after the latters death with this statement, I received the Crown in Memphis after the Falcon flew to heaven. Although Taharqas reign was filled with conflict with the Assyrians, it was also a prosperous period in Egypt. When Taharqa was about 20 years old, he participated in a battle with the Assyrian emperor Sennacherib at Eltekeh. The might of Taharqas military forces was established at Eltekeh, leading to a period of peace in Egypt, during this period of peace and prosperity, the empire flourished. In the sixth year of Taharqas reign, prosperity was also aided by abundant rainfall, Taharqa took full advantage of the lull in fighting and abundant harvest. He restored existing temples, built new ones, and built the largest pyramid in the Napatan region, particularly impressive were his additions to the Temple at Karnak, new temple at Kawa, and temple at Jebel Barkal. Scholars have identified Taharqa with Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, who waged war against Sennacherib during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah, the events in the Biblical account are believed to have taken place in 701 BC, whereas Taharqa came to the throne some ten years later. Herodotus, the Greek historian who wrote his Histories ca.450 BC, speaks of a divinely-appointed disaster destroying an army of Sennacherib, which was defeated by Sethos after praying to the gods. The gods sent a multitude of field-mice, which devoured all the quivers and bowstrings of the enemy, and ate the thongs by which they managed their shields. This is commemorated in a statue of Sethos, with a mouse in his hand, and an inscription to this effect Look on me. While Taharqa was still in the neighbourhood of Pelusium, some unexpected disaster may have befallen the Assyrian host on the borders of Palestine, the two snakes in the crown of pharaoh Taharqa show that he was the king of both the lands of Egypt and Nubia. It was during his reign that Egypts enemy Assyria at last invaded Egypt, Esarhaddon led several campaigns against Taharqa, which he recorded on several monuments. His first attack in 677 BC, aimed at pacifying Arab tribes around the Dead Sea, Esarhaddon then proceeded to invade Egypt proper in Taharqas 17th regnal year, after Esarhaddon had settled a revolt at Ashkelon. Taharqa defeated the Assyrians on that occasion, three years later in 671 BC the Assyrian king captured and sacked Memphis, where he captured numerous members of the royal family
Taharqa
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Granite sphinx of Taharqa from Kawa in Sudan
Taharqa
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Taharqa offering wine jars to Falcon-god Hemen
Taharqa
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Taharqa as a sphinx
Taharqa
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Taharqa close-up
5.
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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The royal titulary or royal protocol of an Egyptian pharaoh is the standard naming convention taken by the kings of Ancient Egypt. It symbolises worldly power and holy might and also acts as a sort of mission statement for the reign of a monarch. The full titulary, consisting of five names, did not come into standard usage until the Middle Kingdom, the Horus name is the oldest form of the pharaohs name, originating in the Predynastic Period. Many of the oldest-known Egyptian pharaohs were known only by this title, the Horus name was usually written in a serekh, a representation of a palace façade. The name of the pharaoh was written in hieroglyphs inside this representation of a palace, typically an image of the falcon God Horus was perched on top of or beside it. At least one Egyptian ruler, the 2nd dynasty Seth-Peribsen, used an image of the god Seth instead of Horus and he was succeeded by Khasekhemwy, who placed the symbols of both Seth and Horus above his name. Thereafter, the image of Horus always appeared alongside the name of the pharaoh, by the time of the New Kingdom the Horus name was often written without the enclosing serekh. The name is first definitively used by the First Dynasty pharaoh Semerkhet and this particular name was not typically framed by a cartouche or serekh, but always begins with the hieroglyphs of a vulture and cobra resting upon two baskets, the dual noun nebty. Also known as the Golden Horus Name, this form of the name typically featured the image of a Horus falcon perched above or beside the hieroglyph for gold. The meaning of this title has been disputed. One belief is that it represents the triumph of Horus over his uncle Seth, Gold also was strongly associated in the ancient Egyptian mind with eternity, so this may have been intended to convey the pharaohs eternal Horus name. Similar to the Nebty name, this particular name typically was not framed by a cartouche or serekh, the pharaohs throne name, the first of the two names written inside a cartouche, and usually accompanied the title nsw-bity. The term nsw-bity It has been suggested that the Berber term for strong man, the epithet neb tawy, Lord of the Two Lands, referring to valley and delta regions of Egypt, often occurs as well. This was the name given at birth and it was first introduced to the set of royal titles in the Fourth Dynasty and emphasizes the kings role as a representative of the solar god Ra. For women who became pharaoh, the title was interpreted as daughter also. Modern historians typically refer to the ancient kings of Egypt by this name, Middle Egyptian, An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Cairo, London, and New York, The American University in Cairo Press and Thames and Hudson. The Great Name, Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary, Egyptian Grammar, Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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Serekh containing the name of Djet and an association with Wadjet, on display at the Louvre
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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Praenomen of the Cartouche of Thutmose II preceded by Sedge and Bee symbols, Temple of Hatshepsut, Luxor
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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In the Middle Kingdom, the full titulary was sometimes written in a single cartouche, as in this example from Senusret I, from Beni Hasan.
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
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Royal titulary
6.
Qalhata
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Qalhata was a Nubian queen dated to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. Qalhata was a daughter of King Piye and a consort to her brother Shabaka. She is known from the Dream Stela of King Tantamani and from her pyramid in El-Kurru, assyrian records state that King Tantamani was the son of Taharqas sister. The tomb of Qalhata at El-Kurru contains texts that say she is a Kings Mother, giving some evidence of the family relationships
Qalhata
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A Queen from the 25th Dynasty of Egypt
7.
Tantamani
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Tantamani, Tanutamun or Tanwetamani or Tementhes was a Pharaoh of Egypt and the Kingdom of Kush located in Northern Sudan and a member of the Nubian or Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt. His prenomen or royal name was Bakare which means Glorious is the Soul of Re and he was the son of King Shabaka and the nephew of his predecessor Taharqa. In some sources he is said to be the son of Shebitku, assyrian records call Tantamani a son of Shabaka and refer to Qalhata as a sister of Taharqa. Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left Egypt, Tantamani marched down the Nile from Nubia, Necho I, the Assyrians representative, was killed in Tantamanis campaign. In reaction, the Assyrians returned to Egypt in force, defeated Tantamanis army in the Delta and advanced as far south as Thebes, Tantamani died in 653 BC and was succeeded by Atlanersa, a son of Taharqa. He was buried in the cemetery at El-Kurru. The archaeologist Charles Bonnet discovered the statue of Tantamani at Kerma in 2003, robert Morkot, The Black Pharaohs, Egypts Nubian Rulers, The Rubicon Press,2000
Tantamani
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Head of a statue, perhaps showing Amun, bearing the name of Tantamani on its back pillar (Ashmolean Museum)
8.
El-Kurru
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El-Kurru was one of the royal cemeteries used by the Nubian royal family. Most of the date to the early part of the Kushite period. The area is divided into three parts by two wadis, the central section seems to be the oldest and contains several tumulus type tombs that predate the Kingdom of Napata. Reisner thought that the earliest tomb, Tum.1, dated back to the time of Pharaoh Sheshonq I of Ancient Egypt, the highest part of the cemetery contains 4 tumulus tomb. To the north, across the northern wadi Tum.6 is located, to the east of the tumul tombs we find row of at least eight pyramids. One of them partially intrudes on a tumuls tomb, the southernmost of this row of pyramids belonging to Kashta his wife Pebatjma. Before this row is another row of pyramids which includes those of Piye, Shabaka, to the south of the pyramid of Pebatjma, one has to cross the southern wadi to reach the southern pyramids. These are the pyramids of the Queens, Naparaye, Khensa, Qalhata,1, the oldest tomb at El-Kurru. 2, the tomb contained a female skull,6, tomb located to the north of Tum.1, across the northern wadi. 19, located to the east of the cluster of tumulus tombs, pyramid K.13 partly obliterated a section of this tomb. Pyramids dating to the time of the Kingdom of Napata and later K.1 Unknown King, located just south and adjacent to the pyramid of Piye Dated to ca 362-342 BC. Located next to the pyramid of Kashta K.8 - King Kashta, father of Piye K.9 – Possibly King Alara of Nubia K.10 K.11, the pyramid contained a female skull. K.13 K.14 K.15 – King Shabaka, son of Kashta, brother of Piye K.16 – King Tantamani, son of Shebitku and Queen Qalhata K.17 – King Piye, son of Kashta K.18 – King Shebitku, son of Piye. Located west of the pyramid of Kashta and south of the tumulus tombs, the pyramid still contained a human skull which may have belonged to Shebitku himself. The rows contained four, eight, eight and four graves respectively, the tombs had all been robbed, but enough remained to determine that the horses were all buried in an upright position. The horses were buried with all their trappings, in recent years, archaeological work has begun once again at El Kurru. Much of this work is discussed here, https, //internationalelkurruproject. sites. ku
El-Kurru
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Pyramid at El-Kurru
El-Kurru
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Exterior of one of the ancient Nubian tombs
El-Kurru
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Burial Chamber of the tomb of Tanutamani
El-Kurru
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Painting
9.
Kushite
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The Kingdom of Kush or Kush was an ancient Nubian kingdom situated on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile and River Atbara in what is now Sudan and South Sudan. The Kushite era of rule in Nubia was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, during Classical antiquity, the Kushite imperial capital was at Meroe. In early Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Aethiopia, by the 1st century AD, the Kushite capital had been captured by the Beja Dynasty, who tried to revive the empire. The Kushite kingdom with its capital at Meroe persisted until the 4th century AD, the Kushite capital was eventually captured and burnt to the ground by the Kingdom of Axum. It is also a term for the native population who initiated the kingdom of Kush. The term is also displayed in the names of Kushite persons, geographically, Kush referred to the region south of the first cataract in general. Kush also was the home of the rulers of the 25th dynasty, the name Kush, since at least the time of Josephus, has been connected with the biblical character Cush, in the Hebrew Bible, son of Ham. Ham had four sons named, Cush, Put, Canaan, according to the Bible, Nimrod, a son of Cush, was the founder and king of Babylon, Erech, Akkad and Calneh, in Shinar. The Bible also makes reference to someone named Cush who is a Benjamite, some modern scholars, such as Friedrich Delitzsch, have suggested that the biblical Cush might be linked to the Kassites of the Zagros Mountains. Mentuhotep II is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and this is the earliest Egyptian reference to Kush, the Nubian region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom. During the New Kingdom of Egypt, Nubia was an Egyptian colony, with the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BC, Kush became an independent kingdom centered at Napata in modern northern Sudan. The Kushites buried their monarchs along with all their courtiers in mass graves, archaeologists refer to these practices as the Pan-grave culture. This was given its due to the way in which the remains are buried. They would dig a pit and put stones around them in a circle, Kushites also built burial mounds and pyramids, and shared some of the same gods worshiped in Egypt, especially Ammon and Isis. With the worshiping of these gods the Kushites began to some of the names of the gods as their throne names. The Kush rulers were regarded as guardians of the religion and were responsible for maintaining the houses of the gods. Some scholars believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system, the state would collect taxes in the form of surplus produce and would redistribute to the people. Others believe that most of the society worked on the land and required nothing from the state, northern Kush seemed to be more productive and wealthier than the Southern area
Kushite
Kushite
Kushite
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Maximum extent of Kush in 700 BC
Kushite
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Sudan Meroe Pyramids – UNESCO World Heritage.
10.
Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt
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The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Nubian Dynasty or the Kushite Empire, was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. The 25th dynasty was a line of rulers originating in the Nubian Kingdom of Kush – in present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt – and they reigned in part or all of Ancient Egypt from 760 BCE to 656 BCE. The dynasty began with Kashtas invasion of Upper Egypt and culminated in several years of successful and unsuccessful war with the Mesopotamian based Assyrian Empire. The 25th Dynastys reunification of Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and they assimilated into society by reaffirming Ancient Egyptian religious traditions, temples, and artistic forms, while introducing some unique aspects of Kushite culture. It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids since the Middle Kingdom, war with Assyria resulted in the end of Kushite power in Northern Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by Assyria. They were succeeded by the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, initially a puppet dynasty installed by and vassals of the Assyrians, the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Persian conquest. The known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the dynasty are the following, The period starting with Kashta. The later Kings from the dynasty ruled over Napata, Meroe. The seat of government and the palace were in Napata during this period. The kings and queens were buried in El-Kurru and Nuri, alara, the first known Nubian king and predecessor of Kashta was not a 25th dynasty king since he did not control any region of Egypt during his reign. While Piye is viewed as the founder of the 25th dynasty, the twenty-fifth dynasty originated in Kush, or, which is presently in Northern Sudan. The city-state of Napata was the capital and it was from there that Piye invaded. Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic filled stele called the Stele of Victory, Piye revived one of the greatest features of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, pyramid construction. An energetic builder, he constructed the oldest known pyramid at the burial site of El-Kurru. Although Manetho does not mention the first king, Piye, mainstream Egyptologists consider him the first Pharaoh of the 25th dynasty, Manetho also does not mention the last king, Tantamani, although inscriptions exist to attest to the existence of both Piye and Tantamani. Piye made various attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East. In 720 BC he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria in Philistia and Gaza, however Piye was defeated by Sargon II, Shabaka conquered the entire Nile valley, including Upper and Lower Egypt, around 710 BC. Shabaka had Bocchoris of the preceding Sais dynasty burned to death for resisting him, after conquering Lower Egypt, Shabaka transferred the capital to Memphis
Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt
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Kushite Egypt in 700 BC.
Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt
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25th Dynasty royal monumental statues from Doukki-Gel
Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt
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25th Dynasty pyramids at Nuri
Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt
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Temple of Amun at the sacred mountain, Jebel Barkal
11.
God's Wife of Amun
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Gods Wife of Amun was the highest-ranking priestess of the Amun cult, an important religious institution in ancient Egypt. The cult was centered in Thebes in Upper Egypt during the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth dynasties, the office had political importance as well as religious, since the two were closely related in ancient Egypt. Although the title is first attested in the Middle Kingdom, its political potential was not realized until the advent of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The shorter version of the title Gods Wife is in use by the time of the Twelfth Dynasty, as early as the First Intermediate Period, there is mention of A Wife of the God in reference to the god Min. The full title of Gods Wife of Amun is only used during, at the beginning of the New Kingdom, the Gods Wife of Amun royal title started to be held by royal women, when its extreme power and prestige was first evident. The New Kingdom began in 1550 BC with the Eighteenth Dynasty and these were the rulers who drove the Hyksos out of Egypt and their native city was Thebes, which then became the leading city in Egypt. They believed that their local deity, Amun, had guided them in their victory, adjustments to the rituals and myths followed. The title, Gods Wife of Amun, referred to the myth of the birth of the king, according to which his mother was impregnated by the god Amun. This title was used in preference to the title, Great Royal Wife, which was the title of the queen who was the consort to the pharaoh, the new title conveyed that the pharaoh would be a demigod upon birth. Previously the pharaoh was considered to become divine only at death and she then passed it on to her daughter Ahmose-Meritamun, who in turn handed it to Hatshepsut, who used it before she ascended the throne as pharaoh. Both Ahmose-Nefertari and Hatshepsut sometimes used the title as an alternative to that of Kings Principal Wife, Hatshepsut passed the title on to her daughter Neferure. A series of scenes in Hatshepsuts Chapelle Rouge show the Gods Wife of Amun, other scenes elsewhere show the Gods Wife of Amun worshiping the deities, being purified in the sacred lake, and following the king into the sanctuary. These again show the importance of the role, but give little indication of the tasks. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and, upon his death, she became the wife of the youthful Thutmose II who was her young half-brother and she seems to have been a de facto co-regent with him, having a great deal of influence upon the affairs of state. They had only one child who survived childhood, a daughter, Neferure and he was her stepson and cousin. Shortly thereafter, Hatshepsut was named pharaoh and he became the head of the armies. Hatshepsut died after a 22-year reign and, Thutmose III became pharaoh, at the end of a thirty-year reign of his own, he entered into a co-regency with a son by a lesser wife who would become, Amenhotep II. The records of holders of the title, Gods Wife of Amun, after Thutmose III became pharaoh deviate from the established pattern, perhaps because of the line of royalty issue
God's Wife of Amun
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Statue of the God's Wife of Amun and Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Ankhnesneferibre
God's Wife of Amun
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Royal titulary
12.
Shepenupet I
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Shepenupet I or Shapenewpet I was an ancient Egyptian high priestess during the reign of the 23rd Dynasty. She was the first “hereditary” Gods Wife or Divine Adoratrice of Amun to wield power in ancient Thebes. She was the daughter of Osorkon III and Queen Karoadjet, and she was Gods Wife during her fathers whole reign. When Kashta, a monarch of the 25th Dynasty, extended his influence to the Theban area, she was compelled to adopt Kashtas daughter Amenirdis I as her successor, shepenupet and Amenirdis are depicted together in Wadi Gasus. Shepenupet is known to have survived into the reign of Shebitku since she is depicted on a section of a wall Temple J which was decorated under this Nubian king
Shepenupet I
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Shepenupet I at Karnak.
13.
Amenirdis I
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Amenirdis I was a Gods Wife of Amun during the 25th Dynasty of ancient Egypt. Originating from the Kingdom of Kush, she was the daughter of Pharaoh Kashta and Queen Pebatjma and she went on to rule as high priestess, and is has been shown in several artefacts from the period. She was a Kushite princess, the daughter of Pharaoh Kashta and she is likely to have been the sister of pharaohs Shabaka and Piye. Kashta arranged to have Amenirdis I adopted by the Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Shepenupet I and this shows that Kashta already controlled Upper Egypt prior to the reign of Piye, his successor. She ruled as high priestess approximately between 714 and 700 BCE, under the reigns of Shabaka and Shabataka, and she adopted Piyes daughter Shepenupet II as her successor and she also held the priestly titles of Divine Adoratrice of Amun and Gods Hand. Upon her death, she was buried in a tomb in the grounds of Medinet Habu and she is depicted in the Osiris-Hekadjet temple in the Karnak temple complex, and in Wadi Gasus, along with Shepenupet I. She is mentioned on two offering tables, five statues, a stela and several small objects including scarabs, a statue of Amenirdis I carved from granitoid and decorated in gold leaf is held by the Nubian Museum in Aswan, Upper Egypt. The statue itself shows her decorated as if Egyptian, with similarities to depictions of Isis, however, the physical attributes of Amenirdis on the statue demonstrate a distinct African influence in the Kushite style of the 25th dynasty
Amenirdis I
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Amenirdis in Medinet Habu
14.
6th-dynasty
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The Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt along with Dynasties III, IV and V constitute the Old Kingdom of Dynastic Egypt. Known pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty are as follows The pharaohs of this dynasty ruled for approximately 164 years, the Horus names and names of the Queens are taken from Dodson and Hilton. Dynasty VI is considered by authorities as the last dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Manetho writes that these kings ruled from Memphis, since their pyramids were built at Saqqara, Dynasty VI was founded by Teti, who had married Iput, commonly believed to be the daughter of the Dynasty V pharaoh Unas. Manetho claimed that Teti was eventually murdered by his own bodyguard, during this dynasty, expeditions were sent to Wadi Maghara in the Sinai Peninsula to mine for turquoise and copper, as well as to the mines at Hatnub and Wadi Hammamat. The pharaoh Djedkara sent trade expeditions south to Punt and north to Byblos, and Pepi I sent expeditions not only to these locations, but also as far as Ebla in modern-day Syria. The most notable member of dynasty was Pepi II, who is credited with a reign of 94 years. With the growing number of inscriptions in non-royal tombs, our knowledge of the contemporary history broadens. For example, we hear of a plot against Pepi I. We also read a written by the young king Pepi II, excited that one of his expeditions will return with a dancing pygmy from the land of Yam. These non-royal tomb inscriptions are but one example of the power of the nobility
6th-dynasty
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Tomb Relief of Iny
15.
Pepi II
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Pepi II was a pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty in Egypts Old Kingdom who reigned from c.2278 BC. His throne name, Neferkare, means Beautiful is the Ka of Re and he succeeded to the throne at age six, after the death of Merenre I. He was traditionally thought to be the son of Pepi I and Queen Ankhesenpepi II but the South Saqqara Stone annals record that Merenre had a minimum reign of 11 years. Inscriptions on these blocks give Ankhesenpepi II the royal titles of, Kings Wife of the Pyramid of Pepy I, Kings Wife of the Pyramid of Merenre. Therefore, today, many Egyptologists believe that Pepi II was likely Merenres own son, Pepi II would, therefore, be Pepi Is grandson while Merenre was, most likely, Pepi IIs father since he is known to have married Pepi IIs known mother, Queen Ankhesenpepi II. Pepi IIs reign marked a decline of the Old Kingdom. As the power of the nomarchs grew, the power of the pharaoh declined, with no dominant central power, local nobles began raiding each others territories and the Old Kingdom came to an end within mere decades after the close of Pepi IIs reign. His mother Ankhesenpepi II most likely ruled as regent in the years of his reign. An alabaster statuette in the Brooklyn Museum depicts a young Pepi II, in full kingly regalia, despite his long reign, this piece is one of only three known sculptural representations in existence of this particular king. She may have helped in turn by her brother Djau. Some scholars have taken the relative paucity of royal statuary to suggest that the court was losing the ability to retain skilled artisans. A glimpse of the personality of the pharaoh while he was still a child can be found in a letter he wrote to Harkhuf, a governor of Aswan, sent to trade and collect ivory, ebony, and other precious items, he captured a pygmy. She may be a daughter of Ankhesenpepi I and hence also Pepi IIs cousin, Iput II – A half-sister of Pepi II. Ankhesenpepi III She was the daughter of Merenre Nemtyemsaf I and hence a granddaughter of Pepi I, Ankhesenpepi IV – The mother of King Neferkare according to texts in her tomb. It is not known which Neferkare as there are several kings with that name during the First Intermediate Period and his name may be Neferkare Nebi. Udjebten She was also a daughter of Pepi I, of these queens, Neith, Iput, and Udjebten each had their own minor pyramids and mortuary temples as part of the kings own pyramid complex in Saqqara. Queen Ankhesenpepi III was buried in a pyramid near the pyramid of Pepi I Meryre, two more sons of Pepi II are known, Nebkauhor-Idu and Ptashepses. Pepi II seems to have carried on foreign policy in ways similar to that of his predecessors, copper and turquoise were mined at Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai, and alabaster was quarried from Hatnub
Pepi II
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Base of a headrest inscribed with Pepi II's titulary. Musée du Louvre.
Pepi II
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Alabaster statue of Ankhesenmeryre II and her son Pepi II.
Pepi II
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A plate mentioning Pepi II's first heb sed jubilee.
Pepi II
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Ruins of the pyramid complex of Pepi II
16.
Karnak
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The Karnak Temple Complex, commonly known as Karnak, comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. Building at the complex began during the reign of Senusret I in the Middle Kingdom and continued into the Ptolemaic period, the area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut and the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the city of Thebes. The Karnak complex gives its name to the nearby, and partly surrounded, the complex is a vast open-air museum, and the second largest ancient religious site in the world, after the Angkor Wat Temple of Cambodia. It is believed to be the second most visited site in Egypt. It consists of four parts, of which only the largest is currently open to the general public. The term Karnak often is understood as being the Precinct of Amun-Ra only, the three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public. There also are a few temples and sanctuaries connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amun-Re. The Precinct of Mut is very ancient, being dedicated to an Earth and creation deity, the original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area. Many portions of it may have carried away for use in other buildings. The key difference between Karnak and most of the temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued through to Ptolemaic times, approximately thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the features of Karnak are unique, but the size. The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture and it also contains evidence of adaptations, using buildings of the Ancient Egyptians by later cultures for their own religious purposes. One famous aspect of Karnak is the Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amun-Re,122 of these columns are 10 meters tall, and the other 12 are 21 meters tall with a diameter of over three meters. The architraves on top of columns are estimated to weigh 70 tons. These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers and this would be an extremely time-consuming process and also would require great balance to get to such great heights. A common alternative theory regarding how they were moved is that large ramps were constructed of sand, mud, brick or stone, if stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material
Karnak
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Pillars of the Great Hypostyle Hall from the Precinct of Amun-Re
Karnak
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Great hall, Karnak. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
Karnak
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Hieroglyphs from the great obelisk of Karnak, transcribed by Ippolito Rosellini in 1828
Karnak
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Photograph of the temple complex taken in 1914 - Cornell University Library
17.
Assyria
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Assyria was a major Mesopotamian East Semitic-speaking kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant. Centered on the Tigris in Upper Mesopotamia, the Assyrians came to rule powerful empires at several times. Assyria is named after its capital, the ancient city of Aššur. In the 25th and 24th centuries BC, Assyrian kings were pastoral leaders, Assyria can also refer to the geographic region or heartland where Assyria, its empires and the Assyrian people were centered. The indigenous modern Eastern Aramaic-speaking Assyrian Christian ethnic minority in northern Iraq, north east Syria, southeast Turkey, in prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria was home to a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria were the Jarmo culture c.7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, during the 3rd millennium BC, a very intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians throughout Mesopotamia, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian, and vice versa, is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a scale, to syntactic, morphological. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium BC as a sprachbund and it is highly likely that the city was named in honour of its patron Assyrian god with the same name. The city of Aššur, together with a number of other Assyrian cities, however it is likely that they were initially Sumerian-dominated administrative centres. In the late 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash, then the dominant Sumerian ruler in Mesopotamia, similarly, in c. the early 25th century BC, Lugal-Anne-Mundu the king of the Sumerian state of Adab lists Subartu as paying tribute to him. Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is known, in the Assyrian King List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya. According to Georges Roux he would have lived in the mid 25th century BC, Tudiya was succeeded on the list by Adamu, the first known reference to the Semitic name Adam and then a further thirteen rulers. The earliest kings, such as Tudiya, who are recorded as kings who lived in tents, were independent semi-nomadic pastoralist rulers and these kings at some point became fully urbanised and founded the city state of Ashur in the mid 21st century BC. During the Akkadian Empire, the Assyrians, like all the Mesopotamian Semites, became subject to the dynasty of the city state of Akkad, the Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great claimed to encompass the surrounding four quarters. Assyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his successors, and the city of Ashur became an administrative center of the Empire. On those tablets, Assyrian traders in Burushanda implored the help of their ruler, Sargon the Great, the name Hatti itself even appears in later accounts of his grandson, Naram-Sin, campaigning in Anatolia. Assyrian and Akkadian traders spread the use of writing in the form of the Mesopotamian cuneiform script to Asia Minor, the Akkadian Empire was destroyed by economic decline and internal civil war, followed by attacks from barbarian Gutian people in 2154 BC. The rulers of Assyria during the period between c.2154 BC and 2112 BC once again fully independent, as the Gutians are only known to have administered southern Mesopotamia
Assyria
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Letter sent by the high-priest Lu'enna to the king of Lagash (maybe Urukagina), informing him of his son's death in combat, c. 2400 BC, found in Girsu.
Assyria
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Overview map of the Ancient Near East in the 15th century BC (Middle Assyrian period), showing the core territory of Assyria with its two major cities Assur and Nineveh wedged between Babylonia downstream (to the south-east) and the states of Mitanni and Hatti upstream (to the north-west).
Assyria
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Assyrian attack on a town with archers and a wheeled battering ram, 865–860 BC
Assyria
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Jehu, king of Israel, bows before Shalmaneser III of Assyria, 825 BC
18.
Regnal year
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A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin regnum meaning kingdom, rule. The oldest dating systems were in years, and considered the date as an ordinal. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a year of rule, a third, and so on, but not a zero year of rule. Applying this ancient epoch system to modern calculations of time, which include zero, is led to the debate over when the third millennium began. Regnal years are finite era names, contrary to infinite era names such as Christian era, Jimmu era, Juche era, in ancient times, calendars were counted in terms of the number of years of the reign of the current monarch. Reckoning long periods of times required a king list, the oldest such reckoning is preserved in the Sumerian king list. In Canada, acts of Parliament are dated by the session, the Parliament, the year. While not strictly a regnal year, time in the United States of America can be derived from the Declaration of Independence, for example, the U. S.2017 is the 242nd year of the Independence of the United States of America. Time is also sometimes reckoned in terms of Congress, e. g. House of Representatives Bill 2 of the 112th Congress is dated 112th CONGRESS, 1st Session. An era name was assigned as the name of each year by the leader of the East Asian countries during some portion of their history, the people of the country referred to that year by that name. Era names were used for two millennia by Chinese emperors and are still used in North Korea, Japan and Taiwan. It could last from one year to the length of the leaders reign, if it lasted more than one year, numbers were appended to the era name. If it lasted the length of the leaders reign, then that leader is often referred to by that name posthumously. However, the leader was given a more complex formal posthumous name as well. It should not be confused with a name, by which many leaders are known. The Lanfang Republic era, Republic of Formosa era and Republic of China era are era names without an emperor, the Confucius era and Juche era are based on the year of birth of the thinker or eternal president. The Huangdi era, Dangun era and kōki were counted in terms of the number of years of the reign of the first monarch, some are transliterations of their Chinese era names. Chinese era names were employed in other East Asian countries
Regnal year
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Key concepts
19.
Pyramid
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A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, as such, a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces. The square pyramid, with base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version. A pyramids design, with the majority of the closer to the ground. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures and it has been demonstrated that the common shape of the pyramids of antiquity, from Egypt to Central America, represents the dry-stone construction that requires minimum human work. Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world, the largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Khufus Pyramid is built mainly of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains over 2,000,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes to 15 tonnes and is built on a base with sides measuring about 230 m. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees and it is still the tallest pyramid. The Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats, in ancient times, these were brightly painted in gold/bronze. Since they were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, little remains of them, ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC, the earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC, built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside, the facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks, the number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no evidence for this. Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a ramp from base to summit
Pyramid
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The Egyptian pyramids of the Giza Necropolis, as seen from the air
Pyramid
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Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacan
Pyramid
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Prasat Thom temple at Koh Ker
Pyramid
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Pyramids of Güímar, Tenerife (Spain)
20.
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
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The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal covering research and reviews of recent books of importance to Egyptology. It was established in 1914 by the Egypt Exploration Society, articles are published in English, German, or French. Official website Searchable index of article titles
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
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Cover of the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
21.
Iry-Hor
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Iry-Hor or Ro was a predynastic pharaoh of Upper Egypt during the 32nd century BC. Until recently, Iry-Hors existence was debated, with the Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson contesting the reading, however, continuing excavations at Abydos in the 1980s and 1990s and the discovery in 2012 of an inscription of Iry-Hor in the Sinai confirmed his existence. Iry-Hor is the earliest ruler of Egypt known by name and possibly the earliest historical person known by name, Iry-Hors name is written with the Horus falcon hieroglyph above a mouth hieroglyph. Given the archaic nature of the name, the translation proved difficult and, in the absence of better alternative, in the 1990s, Werner Kaiser and Günter Dreyer translate Iry-Hors name as Companion of Horus. Toby Wilkinson, who contested that Iry-Hor was a king, translated the signs as Property of the king. e, reading the bird above the mouth-sign as the swallow hieroglyph G36 rather than the Horus falcon. They translated the name as Spokesman or Chief and this was consequently accepted by von Beckerath and Iry-Hor is now the first entry in the latest edition of von Beckeraths Handbook of Egyptian Pharaohs. Until 2012, the name of Iry-Hor had not been found in or next to a serekh, Egyptologists Flinders Petrie, Laurel Bestock and Jochem Kahl nonetheless believed that he was indeed a real ruler. They pointed to the spelling of Iry-Hors name, the Horus falcon holds the mouth hieroglyph in its claws. On several clay seals, this group of characters is accompanied by a second. This notation is reminiscent of numerous anonymous serekhs held by a Horus falcon with individual hieroglyphs placed close to it rather than within the serekh, finally, the serekh could have been a convention that started with Ka, whose name has been found both with and without a serekh. Therefore, they concluded that the argument that Iry-Hor was not a king because his name was never found in a serekh was insufficient, supporters of the identification of Iry-Hor as a king, such as egyptologist Darell Baker, also pointed to the size and location of his tomb. It is a tomb, as big as those of Ka and Narmer. Furthermore, Iry-Hors name is inscribed on a large jar exhibiting the royal Horus falcon and is similar to found in the tombs of other kings of this period. In contrast, some Egyptologists doubted Iry-Hor even existed, precisely because his name never appeared in a serekh, Ludwig D. Morenz and Kurt Heinrich Sethe doubted the reading of Iry-Hors name and thus that he was a king. Morenz, for example, suspected that the sign may simply have been a phonetic complement to the Horus falcon. Sethe understood the group of characters forming Iry-Hors name as an indication of origin, Toby Wilkinson dismissed the tomb attributed to Iry-Hor as a storage pit and the name as a treasury mark. Indeed, r-Ḥr may simply mean property of the king, dreyers excavations of the necropolis of Abydos revealed that Iry-Hor was in fact well attested there with over 27 objects bearing his name and that his tomb was of royal proportions. Furthermore, in 2012 an inscription mentioning Iry-Hor was discovered in the Sinai, the inscription mentions the city of Memphis, pushing back its foundation to before Narmer and establishing that Iry-Hor was already reigning over it
Iry-Hor
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Signs r-Ḥr inscribed on a large vessel from the tomb of Iry-Hor, Ashmolean Museum.
Iry-Hor
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Name of Iry-Hor as found in Abydos.
Iry-Hor
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Iry-Hor's tomb at the Umm el-Qa'ab comprises two separate chambers B1 and B2, shown in inset. Iry-Hor's tomb is located close to Ka's (B7, B8, B9) and Narmer's tombs (B17, B18).
22.
Ka (pharaoh)
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Ka, also Sekhen, was a Predynastic pharaoh of Upper Egypt belonging to Dynasty 0. He probably reigned during the first half of the 32nd century BC, the length of his reign is unknown. The correct reading of Kas name remains uncertain, the second form of that writing indicates a reading as Sekhen rather than Ka. It was also thought to be the name of Narmer. Because the reading of the name is so uncertain, Egyptologists, Ka ruled over Thinis in the first half of 32nd century BC and was buried at Umm el-Qaab. He most likely was the successor to Iry-Hor and was succeeded either by Narmer or by Scorpion II. He is the earliest known Egyptian king with a serekh inscribed on a number of artifacts and this may thus be an innovation of his reign. Ka is one of the best attested predynastic kings with Narmer, the number of artifacts bearing Kas serekh found outside Abydos is much greater than that of his predecessor. This may be the sign of an influence and perhaps conquest of larger portions of Egypt by the Thinite kings. Two underground chambers, B7 and B9, in the Umm el-Qaab necropolis of Abydos are believed to be part of the tomb of King Ka. Each chamber is 1.90 m deep, B.7 is 6.0 ×3.2 m while B.9 is slightly smaller at 5.9 x 3.1 m, Kas tomb was first excavated by Petrie in 1902. The excavations yielded fragments of flint knife and pottery, in the southernmost chamber B7, more than forty inscriptions have been found on tall jars and cylinder vessels as well as a seal impression. The tomb of Ka is close to that of Iry-Hor and Narmer, furthermore, it is located within a sequential order linking the older U cemetery with the First Dynasty tombs, thus suggesting that Ka succeeded Iry-Hor and preceded Narmer on the throne. Wilkinson, Toby AH, Early Dynastic Egypt, London/New York, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-18633-1
Ka (pharaoh)
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Vessel found at Tarkhan bearing the serekh of king Ka. Petrie Museum, London
Ka (pharaoh)
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Seal impression with Ka's serekh. Note the absence of the Horus falcon. British Museum.
Ka (pharaoh)
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Ka's tomb in the Umm el-Qa'ab
23.
Scorpion II
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Scorpion II, also known as King Scorpion, refers to the second of two kings or chieftains of that name during the Protodynastic Period of Upper Egypt. King Scorpions name and title are of great dispute in modern Egyptology and his name is often introduced by a six- or seven-leafed, golden rosette or flower-sign. Its precise meaning has been discussed, the most common interpretation is that of an emblem meaning nomarch or high lord. Thus, the golden rosette became an emblem of Seshat. The reading of the sign is also disputed. Most linguists and Egyptologists read it Neb or Nesw, and they are convinced that the rosette was some kind of forerunner to the later serekh. The scorpion fetish, which underlies the name of Scorpion II, is linked to the later-introduced goddess Selket. But Egyptologists and linguists such as L. D, morenz, H. Beinlich, Toby Wilkinson and Jan Assmann have pointed out that the goddess was introduced no earlier than the late Old Kingdom period. In this view, the fetish of the protodynastic period should not be associated with Selket. Morenz points out that, in cases where an animal is included in a rulers name. The scorpion animal commonly stood for dangerous things, such as poison and illness, since it is unclear what actual meaning was reserved for the serekh animal of Scorpion II, scholars usually refer to him as King Scorpion II. There are several theories regarding his identity and chronological position and they also argue that the artistic style seen on the macehead of Scorpion II shows conspicuous similarities to that on the famous Narmer macehead. Wilkinson, Renée Friedman and Bruce Trigger, have identified king Scorpion II as the Gegenkönig of Narmer, at the time of Scorpion II, Egypt was divided into several minor kingdoms that were fighting each other. It is likewise conjectured that Narmer simply conquered the realms of Ka and Scorpion II and it is currently on display at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. The stratigraphy of this macehead was lost due to the methods of its excavators, the Scorpion Macehead depicts a single, large figure wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt. He holds a hoe, which has interpreted as a ritual either involving the pharaoh ceremonially cutting the first furrow in the fields. The use and placement of the iconography is similar to the depiction of the pharaoh Narmer on the side of the Narmer Palette. The king is preceded by servants, the first in row seems to throw seeds from a basket into the freshly hacked ground
Scorpion II
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Head of king Scorpion on his mace head
Scorpion II
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The Scorpion Macehead, Ashmolean Museum.
24.
Narmer
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Narmer was an ancient Egyptian king of the Early Dynastic Period. Probably the successor to the Protodynastic kings Scorpion and/or Ka, some consider him the unifier of Egypt and founder of the First Dynasty, and in turn the first king of a unified Egypt. This conclusion is based on the Narmer Palette and the two seals from the necropolis of Abydos that show him as the first king of the First Dynasty. The date commonly given for the beginning of his reign is c.3100 BC, other mainstream estimates using both the historical method and Radiocarbon dating are in the range 3273–2987 BC. Although highly inter-related, the question of “who was Menes. ”, while Menes is traditionally considered the first king of Ancient Egypt, Narmer has been identified by the majority of Egyptologists as the same person as Menes. Although vigorously debated, the predominant opinion is that Narmer was Menes, the issue is confusing because “Narmer” is a Horus Name, while “Menes” is a personal name. The difficulty is aligning the contemporary archaeological evidence which lists Horus Names with the King Lists that list personal names, two documents have been put forward as proof either that Narmer was Menes or alternatively Hor-Aha was Menes. The first is the “Naqada Label” which shows a serekh of Hor-Aha next to an enclosure inside of which are symbols that have been interpreted by scholars as the name “Menes”. The second is the impression from Abydos that alternates between a serekh of Narmer and the chessboard symbol, “mn”, which is interpreted as an abbreviation of Menes. Arguments have been made with regard to each of these documents in favour of Narmer or Hor-Aha being Menes, but in neither case, are the arguments conclusive. Two necropolis sealings, found in 1985 and 1991 in Abydos, in or near the tombs of Den and Qa’a, show Narmer as the founder of the First Dynasty, followed by Hor-Aha. The Qa’a sealing lists all eight of the kings of the First Dynasty in the correct order starting with Narmer and these necropolis sealings are strong evidence that Narmer was the first king of the First Dynasty – hence is the same person as Menes. The famous Narmer Palette, discovered by James E, since its discovery, however, it has been debated whether the Narmer Palette represents an actual historic event or is purely symbolic. Of course, the Narmer Palette could represent an historical event while at the same time having a symbolic significance. In 1993, Günter Dreyer discovered in Abydos, a “year label” of Narmer depicting the event that is depicted on the Narmer Palette. This year label shows that the Narmer Palette depicts an historical event. Archaeological evidence suggests that Egypt was at least partially unified during the reigns of Ka and Iry-Hor, but there is a substantial difference in the quantity and distribution of inscriptions with the names of those earlier kings in Lower Egypt and Canaan, compared to the inscriptions of Narmer. The archaeological evidence suggest that the unification began before Narmer, but was completed by him through the conquest of a polity in the North-West Delta as depicted on the Narmer Palette
Narmer
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Close-up view of Narmer on the Narmer Palette
Narmer
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Chambers B17 and B18 in the Umm el-Qa'ab constitute the tomb of Narmer.
Narmer
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Narmer wearing the Deshret crown of Lower Egypt on the Narmer Palette.
Narmer
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Incised inscription on a vessel found at Tarkhan (tomb 414), naming king Narmer; Petrie Museum UC 16083.
25.
Menes
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Menes was a pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period of ancient Egypt credited by classical tradition with having united Upper and Lower Egypt and as the founder of the First Dynasty. The identity of Menes is the subject of ongoing debate, although mainstream Egyptological consensus identifies Menes with the Naqada III ruler Narmer or First Dynasty pharaoh Hor-Aha, both pharaohs are credited with the unification of Egypt to different degrees by various authorities. The Egyptian form, mnj, is taken from the Turin and Abydos King Lists, by the early New Kingdom, changes in the Egyptian language meant his name was already pronounced */maˈneʔ/. The name mnj means He who endures, which, I. E. S, edwards suggests, may have been coined as a mere descriptive epithet denoting a semi-legendary hero whose name had been lost. Rather than a person, the name may conceal collectively the Naqada III rulers, Ka, Scorpion II. The commonly-used name Menes derives from Manetho, an Egyptian historian, Manetho noted the name in Greek as Μήνης. From this, various theories on the nature of the building, the meaning of the word mn and the relationship between Hor-Aha and Menes have arisen. Flinders Petrie first attempted this task, associating Iti with Djer as the pharaoh of Dynasty I, Teti with Hor-Aha as second pharaoh. Lloyd finds this succession extremely probable, and Cervelló-Autuori categorically states that Menes is Narmer, however, Seidlmayer states that it is a fairly safe inference that Menes was Hor-Aha. 3100–3050 BC, some academic literature uses c.3000 BC, by 500 BC, mythical and exaggerated claims had made Menes a culture hero, and most of what is known of him comes from a much later time. Ancient tradition ascribed to Menes the honor of having united Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom, however, his name does not appear on extant pieces of the Royal Annals, which is a now-fragmentary kings list that was carved onto a stela during the Fifth Dynasty. He typically appears in sources as the first human ruler of Egypt. He also appears in other, much later, kings lists, Menes also appears in demotic novels of the Hellenistic period, demonstrating that, even that late, he was regarded as important figure. Menes was seen as a figure for much of the history of ancient Egypt. Manetho records that Menes led the army across the frontier and won great glory, Manetho associates the city of Thinis with the Early Dynastic Period and, in particular, Menes, a Thinite or native of Thinis. Herodotus contradicts Manetho in stating that Menes founded the city of Memphis as his capital after diverting the course of the Nile through the construction of a levee, Manetho ascribes the building of Memphis to Menes son, Athothis, and calls no pharaohs earlier than Third Dynasty Memphite. Diodorus Siculus stated that Menes had introduced the worship of the gods, in Plinys account, Menes was credited with being the inventor of writing in Egypt. George Stanley Faber, taking the word campsa to mean either crocodile or ark and preferring the latter, identifies Menes with Noah, according to Manetho, Menes reigned for 62 years and was killed by a hippopotamus
Menes
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The cartouche of Menes on the Abydos King List
26.
Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
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The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt is the era immediately following the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt c.3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the end of the Naqada III archaeological period until about 2686 BC, with the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained the holy land in the south. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, before the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypts history thereafter, the pharaohs established a national administration and appointed royal governors. The buildings of the government were typically open-air temples constructed of wood or sandstone. The earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs appear just before this period, though little is known of the language they represent. By about 3600 BC, neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops, shortly after 3600 BC Egyptian society began to grow and advance rapidly toward refined civilization. A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the pottery in the Southern Levant, extensive use of copper became common during this time. The Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, and architectural building principles—including the use of the arch, concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt also underwent a unification process, warfare between Upper and Lower Egypt occurred often. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta, in mythology, the unification of Egypt is portrayed as the falcon-god, called Horus and identified with Lower Egypt, as conquering and subduing the god Set, who was identified with Upper Egypt. Divine kingship, which would persist in Egypt for the next three millennia, was established as the basis of Egypts government. The unification of societies along the Nile has also linked to the drying of the Sahara. Funeral practices for the peasants would have been the same as in predynastic times, thus, the Egyptians began construction of the mastabas which became models for the later Old Kingdom constructions such as the Step pyramid. Cereal agriculture and centralization contributed to the success of the state for the next 800 years and this would last for many centuries. It was also during this period that the Egyptian writing system was further developed, initially Egyptian writing had been composed primarily of a few symbols denoting amounts of various substances. By the end of the 3rd dynasty it had expanded to include more than 200 symbols
Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
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A plate created during the Early Dynastic period of Ancient Egypt. It depicts a man on a boat alongside a Hippopotamus and a Crocodile
Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
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27.
Djet
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Djet, also known as Wadj, Zet, and Uadji, was the fourth pharaoh of the First Dynasty. Djets Horus name means Horus Cobra or Serpent of Horus, Djets queen was his sister Merneith, who may have ruled as a pharaoh in her own right after his death. There is a possibility that a lady called Ahaneith was also one of his wives, Djet and Merneiths son was Den, and their grandson was Anedjib. How long Djet ruled is unknown, only one Sekar festival is attested by ivory labels dating to his reign, whose duration is estimated to be anywhere between six and ten years. According to Wolfgang Helck he reigned 10 years, from a calendar entry, Djer is known to have died on a 7 Peret III while Djet began his reign on 22 Peret IV. The reason for the 45 days of interregnum is unknown, details of Djets reign are lost in the lacunas of the Palermo Stone. However, finds of vessel fragments and seal impressions prove that there were intense trading activities with Syria, graves at Tarkhan and Saqqara dating to his reign yielded pottery from Palestine. Other activities can be inferred from the two known years tablets of the ruler, one of which is preserved in two copies. The reading of the events described on the tablets is highly problematic, Helck translated, Year of the planning of the underground/basement of the dual plant, birth of lotus buds, standing in the crown shrine of the two Ladies. The other year tablet mentions a victory, the production of a statue, finally, in Masra Alam in Nubia, the short inscription Hemka below Djet was discovered. Clay seals prove that official Amka begun his career under king Djer, under Djet, Amka became royal steward. In the early years of the kings successor Amka died after he was appointed to regional responsibilities in the western Nile Delta, other senior officials under the Djet were Sekhemkasedj and Setka. Djets tomb is located at Abydos in Petries Tomb Z and it is located west of his father, King Djers tomb. Surrounding Djets tomb are 174 subsidiary burials most of them being retainers that were sacrificed upon Djets death to him in the afterlife. Found within Djets tomb was a stele and this stele was a snake surmounted by a falcon and could be interpreted to mean Horus the snake. Also found within the tomb was a comb with the name of Djet on it. Copper tools and pottery were found in the tomb, a common find in Egyptian tombs. There is evidence that Djets tomb was intentionally burned, along with other tombs at Abydos from this time period, the tombs were later renovated because of the association with the cult of Osiris
Djet
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The famous stela of king Djet which once stood next to his tomb in the Umm el-Qa'ab.
Djet
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Ita, cartouche name of Djet in the Abydos king list.
Djet
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Fragment of an object bearing the serekh of Djet and the name of a court official Sekhemkasedj, Egyptian Museum.
28.
Merneith
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Merneith was a consort and a regent of Ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. Her rule occurred during the thirtieth century B. C. for an undetermined period, Merneith’s name means Beloved by Neith and her stela contains symbols of that deity. She may have been Djers daughter, and was probably Djets senior royal wife, the former meant that she would have been the great-granddaughter of unified Egypts first Pharaoh, Narmer. She was also the mother of Den, her successor, Merneith is linked in a variety of seal impressions and inscribed bowls with the kings Djer, Djet and Den. Merneith may have been the daughter of Djer, but there is no conclusive evidence, as the mother of Den, it is likely that Merneith was the wife of Djet. No information about the identity of her mother has been found, a clay seal found in the tomb of her son, Den, was engraved with Kings Mother, Merneith. It also is known that Den’s father was Djet, making it thus likely, Merneith is believed to have become ruler upon the death of Djet. The title she held, however, is debated and it is possible that her son Den was too young to rule when Djet died, so she may have ruled as regent until Den was old enough to be the king in his own right. Before her, Neithhotep is believed to have ruled in the way after her husband King Narmer died. Her name was written on a Naqada seal inside a serekh and this would mean Merneith may have actually been the second female in Egypts first dynasty to have ruled as pharaoh. The strongest evidence that Merneith was a ruler of Egypt is her tomb and this tomb in Abydos is unique among the otherwise exclusively male tombs. Merneith was buried close to Djet and Den and her tomb is of the same scale as the tombs of the kings of that period. Two grave stelae bearing her name were discovered near her tomb, Merneiths name is not included in the king lists from the New Kingdom. A seal containing a list of pharaohs of the first dynasty was found in the tomb of Qaa, however, this list does not mention the reign of Merneith. A few other pieces of evidence exist elsewhere about Merneith, Merneith’s name appears on a found in the tomb of her son. The seal includes Merneith on a list of the first dynasty kings, Merneiths name was the only name of a woman included on the list. All of the names on the list are the Horus names of the kings, however, Merneiths name is accompanied by the title Kings Mother. Merneith’s name may have included on the Palermo Stone
Merneith
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Tomb stela of Merneith from the Umm el-Qa'ab.
Merneith
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Segment of King list from tomb of Den at Saqqara, Merneith is mentioned twice as King's Mother Merneith (mwt-nsw mr nt)
29.
Anedjib
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Anedjib, more correctly Adjib and also known as Hor-Anedjib, Hor-Adjib and Enezib, is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who ruled during the 1st dynasty. The Egyptian historian Manetho named him Miebîdós and credited him with a reign of 26 years, egyptologists and historians now consider both records to be exaggerations and generally credit Adjib with a reign of 8–10 years. Adjib is well attested in archaeological records and his name appears in inscriptions on vessels made of schist, alabaster, breccia and marble. His name is preserved on ivory tags and earthen jar seals. Objects bearing Adjibs name and titles come from Abydos and Sakkara, Adjibs family has only partially been investigated. His parents are unknown, but it is thought that his predecessor, king Den, Adjib was possibly married to a woman named Betrest. On the Palermo Stone she is described as the mother of Adjibs successor, definite evidence for that view has not yet been found. It would be expected that Adjib had sons and daughters, a candidate for being a possible member of his family line is Semerkhet. It means The two lords and refers to the state patrons Horus and Seth. It also symbolically points to Lower- and Upper Egypt, Adjib is thought to have legitimised his role as Egyptian king with the use of this title. Clay seal impressions record the foundation of the new royal fortress Hor nebw-khet, Stone vessel inscriptions show that during Adjibs reign an unusually large number of cult statues were made for the king. At least six objects show the depicting of standing statues representing the king with his royal insignia, but recent investigations suggest that every object showing the Hebsed and Adjibs name together were removed from king Dens tomb. It would seem that Adjib had simply erased and replaced Dens name with his own and this is seen by egyptologists and historians as evidence that Adjib never celebrated a Hebsed and thus his reign was relatively short. Egyptologists such as Nicolas Grimal and Wolfgang Helck assume that Adjib, as Dens son and rightful heir to the throne, Helck additionally points to an unusual feature, All Hebsed pictures of Adjib show the notation Qesen written on the stairways of the Hebsed pavilion. Possibly the end of Adjibs reign was a violent one, Adjibs burial site was excavated at Abydos and is known as Tomb X. It measures 16.4 x 9.0 metres and is the smallest of all royal tombs in this area, Adjibs tomb has its entrance at the eastern side and a staircase leads down inside. The burial chamber is surrounded by 64 subsidiary tombs and simply divided by a wall into two rooms. Until the end of the 1st dynasty, it would seem to have been a tradition that the family and court of the king committed suicide and were then buried alongside the ruler in his necropolis
Anedjib
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Pharaoh Anedjib on a stone bowl fragment
Anedjib
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Cartouche name Merbiape from the Abydos King List
Anedjib
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Seal impression of king Anedjib
Anedjib
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Stone vessel fragment bearing Anedjib serekh.
30.
Semerkhet
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Semerkhet is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who ruled during the 1st dynasty. This ruler became known through a legend handed down by ancient Greek historian Manetho. Manetho named Semerkhet Semêmpsés and credited him with a reign of 18 years, Egyptologists and historians now consider both statements as exaggerations and credit Semerkhet with a reign of 8½ years. This evaluation is based on the Cairo Stone inscription, where the complete reign of Semerkhet has been recorded, additionally, they point to the archaeological records, which strengthen the view that Semerkhet had a relatively short reign. Semerkhet is well attested in archaeological records and his name appears in inscriptions on vessels made of schist, alabaster, breccia and marble. His name is preserved on ivory tags and earthen jar seals. Objects bearing Semerkhets name and titles come from Abydos and Sakkara, Semerkhets serekh name is commonly translated as companion of the divine community or thoughtful friend. The latter translation is questioned by scholars, since the hieroglyph khet normally was the symbol for body or divine community. Semerkhets birth name is more problematic, the reading and meaning of this special sign is disputed, since it doesnt appear in this form before king Semerkhet. Indeed, the hieroglyph of the man is extremely rare. It appears only twice in relief inscriptions depicting ceremonial processions of priests, Egyptologists such as Toby Wilkinson, Bernhard Grdseloff and Jochem Kahl read Iry-Netjer, meaning divine guardian. During the Old Kingdom period, this word is written with uniliteral signs of a netjer flag, some contemporary ivory tags show the Nebty name written with the single eye symbol only. Thus, the scholars also read Semerkhets throne name as Iry and this reconstruction is strengthened by the observation that Semerkhet was the first king using the Nebty title in its ultimate form. For unknown reason Semerkhet did not use the Nebuy title of his predecessor and it seems that he felt connected with the Two Ladies, a title referring to the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet, both the female equivalents of Horus and Seth. The Nebty title in turn was thought to function as an addition to the Nisut-Bity title. Scribes and priests of the Ramesside era were also confused, because the archaic ideogram that was used during Semerkhets lifetime was very similar to the sign of an old man with a walking stick and this had been read as Semsu or Sem and means the eldest. It was used as a title identifying someone as the head of the house, the Royal Table of Sakkara omits Semerkhets throne name. The reason for that is unknown, but all kings from Narmer up to king Den are also missing their throne names, virtually nothing is known about Semerkhets family
Semerkhet
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Alabaster vase of Semerkhet, the inscription reads King Iry-Nebty visits the house-of-the-pleased-king, oil jars for it, National Archaeological Museum (France).
Semerkhet
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Semsu, cartouche name of Semerkhet in the Abydos king list.
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Pottery sherd inscribed with Semerkhet's serekh name, originally from his tomb, now in the Petrie Museum, UC 36756.
Semerkhet
31.
Second Dynasty of Egypt
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The Second Dynasty of ancient Egypt is the latter of the two dynasties of the Egyptian Archaic Period, when the seat of government was centred at Thinis. Save for the time of its last ruler Khasekhemwy, it one of the most obscure periods in ancient Egyptian history. Though archaeological evidence of the time is very scant, contrasting data from the First and Third Dynasties indicates important institutional, the names of the actual rulers of the Second Dynasty are in dispute. For the first five pharaohs, the sources are fairly close in agreement, known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for this dynasty are as follows, However, the identity of the next two or three rulers is unclear. We may have the Horus name or Nebty name and their names for these rulers, yet they may be entirely different individuals or they may be legendary names. Beyond this, little can be said about the events during this period as the records on the Palermo stone only survive to the end of the reign of Nebra. One important event possibly happened during the reign of Khasekhemwy, many Egyptologists read his name, Khasekhemwy, as the Two Powers arise, possibly commemorating the union of the Upper and Lower Egypts
Second Dynasty of Egypt
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Dynasties of Ancient Egypt
32.
Hotepsekhemwy
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Hotepsekhemwy is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who was the founder of the 2nd dynasty. The exact length of his reign is not known, the Turin canon suggests an improbable 95 years while the Ancient Egyptian historian Manetho reports that the reign of Boëthôs lasted for 38 years, Egyptologists consider both statements to be misinterpretations or exaggerations. They credit Hotepsekhemwy with either a 25- or a 29-year rule, Hotepsekhemwys name has been identified by archaeologists at Sakkara, Giza, Badari and Abydos from clay seal impressions, stone vessels and bone cylinders. Several stone vessel inscriptions mention Hotepsekhemwy along with the name of his successor Raneb, the Horus name of Hotepsekhemwy is the subject of particular interest to Egyptologists and historians, as it may hint at the turbulent politics of the time. The Egyptian word Hotep means peaceful and to be pleased though it can also mean conciliation or to be reconciled, so Hotepsekhemwys full name may be read as the two powers are reconciled or pleasing in powers, which suggests a significant political meaning. In this sense, the two powers could be a reference to Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt as well as to the major deities Horus, from the reign of Hotepsekhemwy onward it became a tradition to write the Horus name and the nebty name in the same way. It is thought that some kind of philosophic background affected that choice, since the Horus name reveals a clearly defined, horus- and nebty names being the same might also indicate, that the Horus name was adopted after ascending the throne. The name of Hotepsekhemwys wife is unknown, egyptologist Wolfgang Helck points to the similar name Bedjatau, which appears in a short king list found on a writing board from the mastaba tomb G1001 of the high official Mesdjeru. The signs of two Sekhem sceptres were misread as a leg and a drill, a similar phenomenon might have occurred in the case of King Khasekhemwy, where the two sceptres in the Horus name were misread as two leg-symbols or two drill-signs. The Abydos king list imitates this Old Kingdom name form of “Bedjatau”, the names Netjerbau and Bau-hetepju are problematic, since Egyptologists cant find any name source from Hotepsekhemwys time that could have been used to form them. Little is known about Hotepsekhemwys reign, contemporary sources show that he may have gained the throne after a period of political strife, including ephemeral rulers such as Horus Bird and Sneferka. The plundering of the cemetery and the unusually conciliatory meaning of the name Hotepsekhemwy may be clues of a dynastic struggle, seal impressions provide evidence of a new royal residence called Horus the shining star that was constructed by Hotepsekhemwy. He also built a temple near Buto for the little-known deity Netjer-Achty, the white crown is a symbol of Upper Egypt. This is thought to be another clue to the origin of Hotepsekhemwys dynasty, Egyptologists such as Nabil Swelim point out that there is no inscription from Hotepsekhemwys reign mentioning a Sed festival, indicating the ruler cannot have ruled longer than 30 years. The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho called Hotepsekhemwy Boëthôs and reported that during this rulers reign a chasm opened near Bubastis, the location of Hotepsekhemwys tomb is unknown. Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie, Alessandro Barsanti and Toby Wilkinson believe it could be the giant underground Gallery Tomb B beneath the funeral passage of the Unas-necropolis at Saqqara, many seal impressions of king Hotepsekhemwy have been found in these galleries
Hotepsekhemwy
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Stone vase bearing Hotepsekhemwy's serekh, National Archaeological Museum (France).
Hotepsekhemwy
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Cartouche name of Hotepsekhemwy in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 9).
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Bone cylinder inscribed with the serekh of Hotepsekhemwy.
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Entrance to the gallery tomb beneath the Unas passway.
33.
Nynetjer
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Nynetjer is the Horus name of the third early Egyptian king during the 2nd dynasty. The exact length of his reign is unknown, the Turin Canon suggests an improbable reign of 96 years and Egyptian historian Manetho suggested that Nynetjers reign lasted 47 years. Egyptologists question both statements as misinterpretations or exaggerations and they generally credit Nynetjer with a reign of either 43 years or 45 years. Their estimation is based on the reconstructions of the well known Palermo Stone inscription reporting the years 7–21, according to different authors, Nynetjer ruled Egypt from c.2850 BC to 2760 BC or later from c.2760 BC to 2715 BC. Nynetjer is one of the best archaeologically attested kings of 2nd dynasty and his name appears in inscriptions on stone vessels and clay sealings in large numbers from his tomb at Sakkara. A large number of bearing his name were also found in the tomb of king Peribsen at Abydos. However, the datings of some inscriptions, especially those made of black ink, writing experts and archaeologists such as Ilona Regulski point out that the ink inscriptions are of a somewhat later date than the stone and seal inscriptions. She dates the ink markings to the reigns of kings such as Khasekhemwy and Djoser, in fact, alabaster vessels and earthen jars with black ink inscriptions with very similar font design showing Nynetjers name were found in Peribsens tomb. Nynetjers name also appears on an inscription near Abu Handal in Lower Nubia. This might represent a clue that Nynetjer sent an expedition into this region. Nynetjer is commonly identified with the Ramesside cartouche names Banetjer from the Abydos King List, Banetjeru from the Sakkara table, the Palermo Stone inscription presents an unusual goldname of Nynetjer, Ren-nebu, meaning golden offspring or golden calf. Most of the information known about Nynetjers reign are found on the fragments of the Annal Stone of the 5th dynasty. The Palermo Stone lists the events, 7th year, Escort of Horus. 8th year, Appearance of the king, stretching the cords for Hor-Ren, Flood level,1.09 metres 10th year, Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt, Race of the Apis bull. 12th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, second celebration of the Sokar feast, 14th year, First celebration of Hor-seba-pet, Destruction/Foundation of the cities of Schem-Re and Ha Flood level,2.15 metres. 16th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, second Race of the Apis bull, 18th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, third celebration of the Sokar feast. 20th year, Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt, offering for the kings mother, the Cairo Stone gives the years 36–44. The surface of the slab is damaged
Nynetjer
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Fragment of a vase of Nynetjer discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen which may have been part of the equipment of a boat of the king, depicted below his name.
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Cartouche of Nynetjer in the Abydos King List (no. 11).
34.
Nubnefer
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Nubnefer is the birth name of a king who may have ruled during the 2nd dynasty of Ancient Egypt. The exact length of his reign is unknown and his position is unclear. Therefore, Egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony, Jochem Kahl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that Nubnefers reign should be chronologically set close to that of Nynetjer, Nubnefers name does not appear in any further contemporary or posthumous document. Egyptologists such as Battiscombe Gunn and Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards believe that the name Nubnefer could be the name of king Raneb. In contrast egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Toby Wilkinson think that Nubnefer was the successor of Nynetjer. Peter Kaplony identifies Nubnefer as a king who have ruled between the kings Wadjenes and Senedj, Francesco Raffaele, Nwbnefer, Neferkara and Neferkaseker
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Fragment of black schist presenting Nubnefer´s name beside the building ″Menti Ankh″ (left).
35.
Wadjenes
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Wadjenes, also known as Wadjlas, Ougotlas and Tlas, is the name of an early Egyptian king who may have ruled during the 2nd dynasty. The kings name Wadjenes is attested only in the Ramesside kinglists, the same goes for the Royal Canon of Turin, where the entry for his name is damaged so only the years of rulership are preserved. Whilst all kinglists match each other regarding the position of Wadjenes. It is possible that ramesside scribes interchanged the Weneg flower with the papyrus haulm, besides the artefacts with the name Weneg-Nebti, further objects made of alabaster show the personal name Wadj-sen in connection with the Sed festival. However, egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony and Jürgen von Beckerath believe that Weneg-Nebti and Wadjenes are identical, the ancient Greek historian Manetho called Wadjenes Tlas. This name distortion may be based on the Coptic rewriting of the name Wadjenes as Ougotlas, very little is known about Wadjeness reign. The Turin Canon lists Wadjenes as ruling for 54 years, whilst Manetho assigns 17 years to him, Egyptologists evaluate both lists as misinterpretations by Ramesside scribes or as an exaggeration. If Wadjenes was an independent ruler he was evidently the last to rule over a unified realm and it is largely accepted by Egyptologists that the immediate successor of king Ninetjer left a divided Egypt, which was headed by two kings who ruled at the same time. The theory is based on the unusual name of a king called Peribsen, who succeeded Ninetjer. Since the deity Seth was of Ombite origin, king Peribsen was probably of Ombite origin, too and his name is missing from the Ramesside Memphite kinglists, because they were all written by Memphite priests and they did not accept any non-Memphite ruler as a rightful ancestor
Wadjenes
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Cartouche name of Wadjenes in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 12)
36.
Neferkasokar
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Neferkasokar is the name of an Ancient Egyptian king who may have ruled in Egypt during the 2nd dynasty. Very little is known about him, since no records about him have been found. Rather his name has found in later sources. Neferkasokar appears in the Saqqara king list from the tomb of the high priest Tjuneroy and he also appears in the Royal Canon of Turin as the successor of a king Neferka and as the predecessor of king Hudjefa I. His cartouche can be found in column III, line 1, the Turin papyrus records him having a reign of 8 years and 3 months. Furthermore, Neferkasokars name appears on a cylinder seal of unknown provenance. The inscription bears the name twice within royal cartouches. Interestingly, the first cartouche shows the name of the god Sokar on top, a guiding inscription says Meri-netjeru, which means beloved one of the gods. This titulary was common from the Middle Kingdom onwards, thus the cylinder seal is not likely to originate from the 2nd dynasty, most Egyptologists date the object to the 13th dynasty. Some Egyptologists also question the authenticity of the seal, Neferkasokar also plays an important role in a papyrus originating from Middle Kingdom. The text was translated around 237 BC into demotic language and is preserved in papyrus pWien D6319, the papyrus gives instructions on how to build temples and how the temple priests should perform their tasks. The papyrus also includes a story that royal scribes under the supervision of prince Djedefhor had discovered an old document in a chamber which was sealed by king Neferkasokar. The discovered papyrus contained a report of a famine that affected Egypt for seven years, when the king finished his mission successfully, the Nile started flowing normally again. As a result, Neferkasokar issues a decree which is rediscovered by prince Djedefhor, egyptologist and linguist Joachim Friedrich Quack later gave this treatise the name “Book of the Temple”. Very little is known about Neferkasokars reign, Neferkasokar is also thought to have ruled in Lower Egypt around the same time that kings such as Peribsen and Sekhemib-Perenmaat ruled in Upper Egypt. This assumption would be consistent with the view of a number of Egyptologists that at that time Egypt was divided into two parts, Peribsen himself is contemporaneously documented in materials found in the Thinite region, but was excluded from documentation associated with the Memphites. His case is therefore corresponding to Neferkasokar´s case, but for Lower Egypt, Neferkasokar´s predecessors may have been king Senedj and king Neferkara I, his successor may have been king Hudjefa I. Francesco Raffaele, Nwbnefer, Neferkara and Neferkaseker
Neferkasokar
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Seal impression showing the cartouche name of king Neferkasokar
37.
Khasekhemwy
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Khasekhemwy was the final king of the Second dynasty of Egypt. Little is known of Khasekhemwy, other than that he led several significant military campaigns and built monuments, still extant. His name means The Two Powerful Ones Appear, according to Toby Wilkinsons study of the Palermo Stone in Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, this near contemporary 5th dynasty document assigns Khasekhemwy a reign of 17.5 or nearly 18 full years. Since the cattle count is shown to be regularly biennial during the dynasty from the Palermo Stone. Khasekhemwy is normally placed as the successor of Seth-Peribsen, though some Egyptologists believe that another Pharaoh, Khasekhem, most scholars, however, believe Khasekhem and Khasekhemwy are, in fact, the same person. Khasekhem may have changed his name to Khasekhemwy after he reunited Upper and Lower Egypt after a war between the followers of the gods Horus and Set. Others believe he defeated the king, Seth-Peribsen, after returning to Egypt from putting down a revolt in Nubia. Either way he ended the infighting of the Second dynasty and reunited Egypt, Khasekhemwy is unique in Egyptian history as having both the symbols of Horus and Set on his serekh. Some Egyptologists believe that this was an attempt to unify the two factions, but after his death, Set was dropped from the serekh permanently and he was the earliest Egyptian king known to have built statues of himself. Khasekhemwy apparently undertook considerable building projects upon the reunification of Egypt and he built in stone at el-Kab, Hierakonpolis, and Abydos. He apparently built a unique, as well as huge, tomb at Abydos, the trapezoidal tomb measures some 70 meters in length and is 17 meters wide at its northern end, and 10 meters wide at its southern end. This area was divided into 58 rooms, prior to some recent discoveries from the 1st dynasty, its central burial chamber was considered the oldest masonry structure in the world, being built of quarried limestone. Here, the excavators discovered the kings scepter of gold and sard, as well as beautifully made small stone pots with gold leaf lid coverings. In fact, Petrie detailed a number of items removed during the excavations of Amélineau, other items included flint tools, as well as a variety of copper tools and vessels, stone vessels and pottery vessels filled with grain and fruit. There were also small, glazed objects, carnelian beads, model tools, basketwork, Khasekhemwy built a fort at Nekhen, and at Abydos and was buried there in the necropolis at Umm el-Qaab. He may also have built the Gisr el-Mudir at Saqqara, Khasekhemwys wife was Queen Nimaethap, mother of the Kings Children. They were the parents of Djoser and Djosers wife Hetephernebti and its also possible that Khasekhemwys son was Sanakhte. Toby Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, The Palermo Stone, Egypt, Khasekhem/Khasekhemwy of Egypts 2nd dynasty
Khasekhemwy
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Statue of Khasekhemwy, Ashmolean Museum
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Limestone vessel with gold cover from Khasekhemwy's tomb
Khasekhemwy
Khasekhemwy
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The surviving remains of Khasekhemwy's tomb at Umm el-Qa'ab
38.
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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The term itself was coined by eighteenth-century historians and the distinction between the Old Kingdom and the Early Dynastic Period is not one which would have been recognized by Ancient Egyptians. The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty, many Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration centralized at Memphis. During the Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt became a god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services. Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign, King Djosers architect, Imhotep is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form—the Step Pyramid. Indeed, the Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypts kings. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyramids, the first king of the Old Kingdom was Djoser of the third dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid in Memphis necropolis, Saqqara. An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier and it was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes, under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection, Egyptians in this era worshipped their king as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the worked in cycles. They also perceived themselves as a specially selected people, the Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty, which began with Sneferu. Using more stones than any king, he built three pyramids, a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur. However, the development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara. Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu who built the Great Pyramid of Giza, after Khufus death, his sons Djedefra and Khafra may have quarrelled. The latter built the pyramid and the Sphinx in Giza. Recent reexamination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx had been built by Djedefra as a monument to his father Khufu, alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafra and Khufu himself. There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia, with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today the Sudan, the later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were king Menkaure, who built the smallest pyramid in Giza, Shepseskaf and, perhaps, Djedefptah. The Fifth Dynasty began with Userkaf and was marked by the importance of the cult of sun god Ra
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara.
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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Temple of Djoser at Saqqara
Old Kingdom of Egypt
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Head of a King, ca. 2650-2600 B.C.E, Brooklyn Museum; The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. Not until Dynasty III were statues made which show the ruler life-size; this forceful head wearing the tall crown of Upper Egypt even surpasses human scale, both in measurements and in its aim to depict the godlike power and strength of the Pharaoh.
39.
Djoser
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Djoser was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the Old Kingdom and the founder of this epoch. He is well known under his Hellenized names Tosorthros and Sesorthos and he was the son of king Khasekhemwy and queen Nimaathap, but if he also was the direct throne successor is still unclear. The painted limestone statue of Djoser, now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, is the oldest known life-sized Egyptian statue, today at the site in Saqqara where it was found, a plaster copy of the statue stands in place of the original. The statue was found during the Antiquities Service Excavations of 1924–1925, in contemporary inscriptions, he is called Netjerikhet, meaning divine of body. Later sources, which include a New Kingdom reference to his construction, help confirm that Netjerikhet, more significantly, the English Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson has demonstrated that burial seals found at the entrance to Khasekhemwys tomb in Abydos name only Djoser, rather than Nebka. This supports the view that it was Djoser who buried and, hence, directly succeeded Khasekhemwy and this is also suggested by another jar sealing, dating to Djosers reign, calling her Mother of the King of the Two Lands. Her cult seems to have still been active in the reign of Sneferu. Inetkawes was their only known by name. There was also a royal female attested during Djosers reign. The relationship between Djoser and his successor, Sekhemkhet, is not known, and the date of his death is uncertain, manetho states Djoser ruled Egypt for twenty-nine years, while the Turin King List states it was only nineteen years. Because of his many building projects, particularly at Saqqara. Manethos figure appears to be accurate, according to Wilkinsons analysis. Unfortunately, next to all entrances are illegible today, the Year of coronation is preserved, followed by the year events receiving the twin-pillars and stretching the cords for the fortress Qau-Netjerw. Djoser dispatched several military expeditions to the Sinai Peninsula, during which the inhabitants were subdued. He also sent expeditions there to mine for minerals such as turquoise. This is known from inscriptions found in the desert there, sometimes displaying the banner of Seth alongside the symbols of Horus, the Sinai was also strategically important as a buffer between the Nile valley and Asia. His most famous monument was his step pyramid, which entailed the construction of several mastaba tombs one over another and these forms would eventually lead to the standard pyramid tomb in the later Old Kingdom. Some fragmentary reliefs found at Heliopolis and Gebelein mention Djosers name, also, he may have fixed the southern boundary of his kingdom at the First Cataract
Djoser
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Limestone statue of Djoser from his serdab
Djoser
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Cartouche name...djeser-sah in the king list of Abydos. Note the upper part of the cartouche, which shows signs of erased hieroglyphs.
Djoser
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The Famine Stele, mentioning Djoser.
Djoser
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Step Pyramid of Zoser, old photography.
40.
Qahedjet
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Qahedjet could be the horus name of an Ancient Egyptian king who may have ruled during the 3rd dynasty or could be a voluntarily archaistic representation of Thutmose III. The stela of king Qahedjet is 50.5 cm high,31.0 cm wide and 3.0 cm thick and it was bought in 1967 by the Louvre at Paris, where it is now on display. The front shows king Qahedjet embracing an anthropomorphic form of the god Horus, king Qahedjet wears the White crown of Upper Egypt, a artificial kings beard and looks directly into Horus´ eyes, both figures being the same height. His face looks remarkable with his nose, the bulging lips. The king wears a kilt with a dagger in a belt, in his left hand, he holds a mace while in his right hand he holds a staff with a wing-like mark at middle height. Horus has laid his right arm around Qahedjet´s shoulder and holds Qahedjet´s elbow in his left hand, the hieroglyphic inscription describes the king´s visit to the northern shrine of the god Ra at Heliopolis. The authenticity of Qahedjets stela is questioned by Egyptologists such as Jean-Pierre Pätznik and they point to several stylistic contradictions that can be found within the relief motif. Firstly, they stress that the earliest known depiction of an anthropomorphic Horus is found in the temple of Sahure. Depictions showing a king in a pose with a god would therefore be heretical. Further arguments of Pätznik and Vandier concern the inscriptions right of Qahedjets serekh, the hieroglyphic signs are unusually shifted to the right and they are not square in arrangement. This contradicts the Egyptian rules of calligraphy on royal monuments, additionally, the details on the owl-sign of the stele do not appear before the first half of the 18th dynasty and the stele would represent the earliest formulation Horus + m + toponym. Alternatively, the face of Qahedjet, that reminds so much of that of king Djoser makes them think that the stela could be an archaistic production from the much later Sait period. During this era reliefs with clear hommages to the art of the Old Kingdom were seen as “en vogue”, as an example, Pätznik and Vandier point to a naos of Djoser found at Heliopolis, that show Djoser sitting on a Hebsed-throne. Djoser appears nearly identical in the reliefs of his necropolis at Saqqara and their last argument concern the word Hut-aa, the place which Qahedjet is represented visiting. The way Hut-aa is written on the stela is known not to be in use before the end of the Old Kingdom. Furthermore, Hut-aa is generally identified with the temple of Ra in Heliopolis which is located in Lower Egypt while Qahedjet wears the crown of Upper Egypt. At the opposite, reliefs from Djosers pyramid complex always depict the king wearing the corresponding to the places he is shown visiting. Thus, the contradictions in the reliefs artistic program make Jaques Vandier
Qahedjet
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Detail of the stela.
Qahedjet
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Stela of Qahedjet
41.
Huni
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Huni was an ancient Egyptian king and the last pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. Following the Turin king list, he is credited with a reign of 24 years. Hunis chronological position as the last king of the dynasty is seen as fairly certain. It is also unclear under which Hellenized name the ancient historian Manetho could have listed him in his historical writing Aegyptiacae, most possibly he is to be identified with the Hellenized name Aches, as Winfried Barta proposes. Many Egyptologists believe that Huni was the father and direct predecessor of king Sneferu, Huni is seen by scholars as a confusing figure in Egyptian history, because he was long remembered in Egyptian traditions, but only very few documents, objects or monuments have endured. Huni is not a well attested pharaoh, most of the only point indirectly to him. There are only two objects with his name. The first one is a stele made of red granite. The object is 62.99 inches long,27.16 inches thick and 19.69 inches broad and its shape resembles a typical Benben stele, as known from mastaba tombs of early dynastic kings. At the front, the cone presents a niche with an incarved inscription inside. The inscription mentions a palace named Palace of the headband of Huni. The decorated niche is interpreted by scholars as a so-called apparition window, the lower part of the window frame is flattened and elongated and shows traces of a second inscription, apparently the same as inside the window. It is not fully clarified, where exactly the object was once on display, because it was found very close to a stepped pyramid, Egyptologists such as Rainer Stadelmann propose a position on the very front of the monument, or even visibly embedded in one of the steps. Today Hunis dedication cone is on display in the Cairo Museum as object JE41556, the stone vessel inscription mentions Hunis name without a cartouche, but with the Njswt-Bity title. The orthography of the hieroglyphs that form Hunis name makes a reading as Njswt-Hw or Hw-en-Niswt plausible, Huni is also attested in mastaba L6 at Saqqara, attributed to the official Metjen and dating to the end of the 3rd dynasty. There, an inscription was found with the name of a royal domain Hw. t-njswt. -hw of Huni, the temple, however, has not yet been located. Finally, Huni is attested in the papyrus Prisse, in the Instructions of Kagemni, Hunis identity is difficult to establish, since his name is passed down mostly as cartouche name and in different variations. The earliest mention of his name may possibly appearing on the granite cone from Elephantine
Huni
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The Meidum pyramid, initially believed to have been started by Huni, is now thought to be exclusively the work of Snefru.
Huni
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Pink granite head attributed to Huni, Brooklyn Museum
Huni
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The Layer Pyramid, attributed to Khaba, who may be the same person as Huni.
42.
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Fourth Dynasty of ancient Egypt is characterized as a golden age of the Old Kingdom. Dynasty IV lasted from c. 2613 to 2494 BC and it was a time of peace and prosperity as well as one during which trade with other countries is documented. Dynasties III, IV, V and VI are often combined under the title the Old Kingdom. The capital at time was Memphis. The Fourth Dynasty heralded the height of the pyramid-building age, the relative peace of the Third Dynasty allowed the Dynasty IV rulers the leisure to explore more artistic and cultural pursuits. Sneferu’s building experiments led to the evolution from the mastaba styled step pyramids to the smooth sided “true” pyramids, no other period in Egypt’s history equaled Dynasty IV’s architectural accomplishments. Each of the rulers of this dynasty commissioned at least one pyramid to serve as a tomb or cenotaph, the pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty ruled for approximately 120 years, from c. 2613 to 2494 BC. The names in the table are taken from Dodson and Hilton and he also constructed a number of smaller step pyramids, making him the most prolific pyramid builder of the era. It is said that Sneferu had more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh, sneferus chief wife was Hetepheres I, his half-sister and the mother of his son Khufu. His other two wives bore him more children, a well-liked ruler, Sneferu bolstered the power of the ruling family line by giving official titles and positions to relatives. He maintained control over the nobility by keeping a tight rein on lands and he conducted military excursions into Sinai, Nubia, Libya, and began trade arrangements with Lebanon for the acquisition of cedar. Surviving from this era are the records of Egyptian contact with her neighbors. They are recorded on the Palermo stone, information carved on the stone pre-dates and antedates this dynasty. Objects dating to the reign of Khafre have been found farther away, at Ebla. Khufu is the ruler who is known in Greek as Χέοψ = Cheops and his son is Khafre and his grandson is Menkaure. All of these rulers achieved lasting fame in the construction of their pyramids at Giza. In fact, recent excavations outside the Wall of the Crow by Dr. Mark Lehner have uncovered a city which seems to have housed, fed. Some records indicate that each household was responsible for providing a worker for civic projects, civic duties were not necessarily building projects, there were duties for the temples, libraries, and festivals as well, and both men and women filled some of the positions
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
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Statue of Menkaura, flanked by Hathor and Bat to lend authority to the rule of the pharaoh
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
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Fragment of the Palermo Stone which documents the arrival of ships during the reign of Sneferu - Petrie Museum, London
43.
Sneferu
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Sneferu, well known under his Hellenized name Soris, was the founder of the 4th dynasty during the Old Kingdom. He built at least three pyramids that survive to this day and introduced innovations in the design and construction of pyramids in Ancient Egypt. Snefru, however, was known to have a minimum of at least three years after the cattle count dates, his years after the 10th, the 13th and this would mean that Sneferu ruled Egypt a minimum of 27 full years. However, in the Palermo Stone, recto 6 at the bottom of the fragment shows the year of the 7th count of Sneferu while recto 7 on the following row shows the year of the 8th count of Sneferu. Significantly, there is a mostly intact column for Sneferu in recto 5 which also mentions events in this kings reign in a specific year. This column must, therefore, be dated to the year after the 6th count of Sneferu, hence, Sneferus reign would be a minimum of 28 years. Sneferu was the first king of the dynasty of Ancient Egypt. Manetho was an Egyptian priest, living in the third century BC, manetho’s schematic has its flaws, nevertheless, modern scholars conventionally follow his method of grouping. The Papyrus Prisse, a Middle Kingdom source, supports the fact that King Huni was indeed Sneferu’s predecessor, aside from Sneferu’s succession, we learn from this text that later generations considered him to be a beneficent ruler. This idea may stem from the etymology of the king’s name and it is uncertain whether Huni was Sneferu’s father, however, the Cairo Annals Stone denotes that his mother may have been a woman named Meresankh. Hetepheres I was Sneferu’s main wife and the mother of Khufu, sons of Sneferu, Khufu - son of Sneferu and Hetepheres I, successor to Sneferu. Ankhhaf - King’s Son of his Body, King’s vizier, a famous bust of Ankhhaf is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Ankhhaf was married to the King’s Daughter Hetepheres, kanefer - King’s eldest son and Son of his Body. Buried in tomb 28 in Dashur, second Vizier of Sneferu, who continued to serve under Khufu. Nefermaat I - eldest son of Sneferu and husband of Itet, titles included, Priest of Bastet, Hereditary Prince, Guardian of Nekhen, great one of the five at the house of Thoth. Rahotep - King’s Son of his Body, High Priest of Re in Heliopolis, buried in Meidum with his wife Nofret. Owner of the statues now in the Cairo Museum. Daughters of Sneferu, Hetepheres A, married Ankhhaf and she was named after her mother, Queen Hetepheres
Sneferu
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Limestone statue of Sneferu, Egyptian Museum
Sneferu
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Detail of a relief showing Sneferu wearing the white robe of the Sed-festival, from his funerary temple of Dahshur and now on display at the Egyptian Museum.
Sneferu
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Cartouche name Sneferu in the Abydos King List
Sneferu
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The Meidum pyramid.
44.
Khufu
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Khufu, originally Khnum-Khufu, is the birth name of an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty in the first half of the Old Kingdom period. Khufu was the pharaoh of the 4th dynasty, he followed his possible father, king Sneferu. He is generally accepted as having commissioned the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the only completely preserved portrait of the king is a three-inch high ivory figurine found in a temple ruin of later period at Abydos in 1903. All other reliefs and statues were found in fragments and many buildings of Khufu are lost, everything known about Khufu comes from inscriptions in his necropolis at Giza and later documents. For example, Khufu is the actor of the famous Papyrus Westcar from the 13th dynasty. Most documents that mention king Khufu were written by ancient Egyptian, thanks to these documents, an obscure and critical picture of Khufus personality persists. Khufus name was dedicated to the earth deity Khnum, which point to an increase of Khnums popularity. Khufu may have viewed himself as a creator, a role that was already given to Khnum. As a consequence, the king connected Khnums name with his own, interestingly, the pharaoh officially used two versions of his birth name, Khnum-khuf and Khufu. The first version clearly exhibits Khufus religious loyalty to Khnum, the version does not. It is unknown as to why the king would use a shortened version, since it hides the name of Khnum. It might be possible though, that the name wasnt meant to be connected to any god at all. Khufu is well known under his Hellenized name Khêops or Cheops and less well known under another Hellenized name, a rare version of the name of Khufu, used by Josephus, is Sofe. Arab historians, who wrote stories about Khufu and the Giza pyramids. The royal family of Khufu was quite large and it is uncertain if Khufu was actually the biological son of Sneferu. Mainstream Egyptologists believe Sneferu was Khufus father, but only because it was handed down by historians that the eldest son or a selected descendant would inherit the throne. In 1925 the tomb of queen Hetepheres I, G 7000x, was found east of Khufus pyramid and it contained many precious grave goods, and several inscriptions give her the title Mut-nesut, together with the name of king Sneferu. Therefore, it seemed clear at first that Hetepheres was the wife of Sneferu, more recently, however, some have doubted this theory, because Hetepheres is not known to have borne the title Hemet-nesut, a title indispensable to confirm a queens royal status
Khufu
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Statue of Khufu in the Cairo Museum
Khufu
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Portrait of Sneferu, Khufu's father or stepfather
Khufu
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Granite fragment with Khufu's horus name Medjedu on it.
Khufu
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Ivory idol of Khufu in detail
45.
Userkaf
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Userkaf was the founder of the Fifth dynasty of Egypt and the first pharaoh to start the tradition of building sun temples at Abusir. He ruled from 2494 to 2487 BC and constructed the pyramid of Userkaf complex at Saqqara, Userkaf may have been a grandson of Djedefre by his daughter, Neferhetepes. His father is unknown, while some believe his mother to have been Khentkaus I, another of Userkafs wives was the similarly named Queen Neferhetepes, known to be the mother of Sahure. Userkaf may also have been the father of Neferirkare Kakai, a son by Khentkaus I, another less common view, in concordance with a story of the Westcar Papyrus, is that the first three rulers of the fifth dynasty were brothers—the sons of a woman named Raddjedet. Thus, Sahure, Userkafs successor was most likely his son, Userkaf is given a reign of seven years by the Turin Royal Canon while Africanus states that Manethos Epitome attributes him 28 years of reign. Analyses of the space available on the Palermo stone between this date and Sahures register indicates that Userkaf did not reign longer than 12 to 14 years, in his comparative study of the fragments of the Palermo stone, Georges Daressy concluded that Userkaf reigned about 10 years. This figure is considered more plausible than Manethos 28 years given the monumental remains dating to his reign, four mentions of the year of the fifth cattle count were also found in Userkafs sun temple, which could indicate that Userkaf reigned for at least 10 years. However, these inscriptions are incomplete, in particular the kings name is lost, nikaankh, an official during Userkafs reign, had a royal decree of Userkaf reproduced in his mastaba. By this decree, Userkaf donates and reforms several royal domains in middle Egypt for the maintenance of the cult of Hathor, apparently, Userkaf also started the temple of Monthu at Tod, where he is the oldest attested pharaoh. Userkafs reign might have witnessed a recrudescence of trade between Egypt and its Mediterranean neighbors thanks to a series of expeditions, which are represented in his mortuary temple. Userkafs most innovative monument is undoubtedly his sun temple at Abu Gorab, first recognized by Richard Lepsius in the mid-19th century, it was studied by Ludwig Borchardt in the early 20th century and thoroughly excavated by Herbert Ricke in 1954. According to the annals, the construction of the temple started in Userkafs 5th year on the throne and, on that occasion. The site of Abusir may have been due to its proximity to Sakhebu. Userkafs sun temple covered an area of 44 ×83 m and was called Nḫn Rˁ. w, The fortress of Ra. It is believed that the construction of the sun temple marks a shift from the cult, so preponderant during the early 4th dynasty. The king was not revered directly as a god anymore but rather as the son of Re and this, in turn, changed the royal mortuary cult. In this context, the sun temple, oriented to the west, was a place of worship for the sun and was thought of as a part of the royal mortuary complex. However, the temple is not oriented to any cardinal point
Userkaf
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Head of Userkaf, recovered from his sun temple at Abu Gurob.
Userkaf
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Cartouche of Userkaf on the Abydos king list.
Userkaf
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Userkaf sun Temple. Rendered image of a 3d model
Userkaf
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Fragment of an alabaster statue of Userkaf from his Sun Temple at Abu Gurob, now at the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin (ÄM 19774).
46.
Shepseskare
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Shepseskare or Shepseskara was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. Shepseskare lived in the mid-25th century BC and was probably the owner of a pyramid in Abusir. He is the most obscure ruler of dynasty and the Egyptologist Miroslav Verner has strongly argued that Shepseskares reign lasted only a few months at the most. This conclusion is based upon the state and location of Shepseskares unfinished pyramid in Abusir as well as the small number of artefacts attributable to this king. Verners arguments have now convinced several Egyptologists such as Darrell Baker, Shepseskares relations to his predecessor and successor are not known for certain. Verner has proposed that he was a son of Sahure and a brother to Neferirkare Kakai, Shepseskare may himself have died unexpectedly or he may have lost the throne to another of his nephews, the future pharaoh Nyuserre Ini. The possibility that Shepseskare was a usurper from outside the royal family cannot be totally excluded. Shepseskare was a king of Ancient Egypt, the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, Egypt was unified at the time, with its capital located at Memphis. Shepseskare is the king of the Fifth Dynasty as very few artefacts dating to his reign have survived to this day. Only two cylinder seals of Shepseskare are known, one, made of bronze, bears Shepseskares Horus name and was uncovered in the ruins of Memphis in the early 20th century. The second seal, of unknown provenance, is made of serpentine and reads Shepseskare beloved of the gods. These fragments probably come from three different seals and were most likely placed on the doors of rooms in the temple. Finally, there is a scarab seal reading Shepeskare that the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie attributed to Shepseskare at the end of the 19th century. Modern scholars doubt this attribution and rather believe the scarab to be a work of the much later Saite period executed in archaic style, equally, the scarab could belong to Gemenefkhonsbak Shepeskare, an obscure kinglet of Tanis during the 25th Dynasty. The only ancient Egyptian king list mentioning Shepseskare is the Saqqara Tablet, the tablet was inscribed during the reign of Ramesses II, around 1200 years after Shepseskares lifetime, and records the dynastic succession Neferikare → Shepseskare → Neferkhare. Shepseskare is completely absent from another king list dating to the same period and he is also absent from the Turin canon, although in this case a lacuna affects the papyrus on which the list is written at the place where Shepseskare and Neferefres names should have been. Of the two entries concerning Shepseskare and Neferefre on the king list, only one reign length is still legible and it has been read as one year. The damaged state of the papyrus also makes it impossible to decide safely whose reign length this is, Shepseskare was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II by the Egyptian priest Manetho
Shepseskare
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Drawing by the Egyptologist Georges Émile Jules Daressy of a bronze cylinder seal of Shepseskare bearing his Horus name "Sekhemkhaw".
47.
Nyuserre Ini
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Nyuserre Ini was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the sixth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. He is credited with a reign of 24 to 35 years depending on the scholar, Nyuserre was the younger son of Neferirkare Kakai and queen Khentkaus II, and the brother of the short-lived king Neferefre. He may have succeeded his brother directly, as indicated by much later historical sources, alternatively, Shepseskare may have reigned between the two as advocated by Miroslav Verner, albeit only for a few weeks or months at the most. The relation of Shepseskare with Neferefre and Nyuserre remains highly uncertain, Nyuserre was in turn succeeded by Menkauhor Kaiu, who could have been his nephew and a son of Neferefre. Nyuserre was the most prolific builder of his dynasty, having built three pyramids for himself and his queens and a further three for his father, mother and brother, all in the necropolis of Abusir. He built the largest temple to the sun god Ra constructed during the Old Kingdom and he also completed the Nekhenre, the Sun temple of Userkaf in Abu Gorab, and the valley temple of Menkaure in Giza. As with other Old Kingdom pharaohs, Nyuserre benefited from a funerary cult established at his death, in Nyuserres case, this official state-sponsored cult existed for centuries, surviving the chaotic First Intermediate Period and lasting until the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. In parallel, a popular cult appeared, with people venerating Nyuserre under his birth name Iny. In this cult, Nyuserre played a similar to that of a saint. It left little evidence and seems to have continued until the New Kingdom. Nyuserre is attested in three ancient Egyptian king lists, all dating to the New Kingdom, Nyuserres prenomen occupies the 30th entry of the Abydos King List, written nearly 200 years later during the reign of Seti I. Nyuserres prenomen was most likely also given on the Turin canon, dating to the reign of Ramses II, fragments of his reign length are still visible on the papyrus, indicating a reign of somewhere between 11 and 34 years. Nyuserre is the only Fifth Dynasty king absent from the Saqqara Tablet, Nyuserre was also mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt probably written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II by the Egyptian priest Manetho. Even though no copies of the text survive, it is known through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius, in particular, Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh ´Ραθούρης, that is Rathurês, reigning for forty-four years as the sixth king of the Fifth Dynasty. Rathurês is believed to be the Hellenised form of Nyuserre, in this scenario, Neferefre is the father of Nyuserre, who would have become pharaoh after Neferefres unexpected death. Neferefre would be the successor of Shepseskare, credited with seven years of reign, Verner proposes that the royal succession was Neferirkare Kakai → Neferefre → Shepseskare → Nyuserre Ini. Nyuserre was then still a child and, in this hypothesis, his claim to the throne faced a challenge in the person of his possible uncle Shepseskare who might have been a son of Sahure. Alternatively, Shepseskare may have been a son of Neferefre or, less likely
Nyuserre Ini
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The famous Double Statue in the Museum of Egyptian Art in Munich, portraying Nyuserre as both a young man and an old man
Nyuserre Ini
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Head and torso in the style of a 5th Dynasty king, thought to represent Nyuserre Ini
Nyuserre Ini
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Isometric views of the pyramids of Neferirkare and Niuserre taken from 3d models
Nyuserre Ini
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Image of the sun Temple of Nyuserre Ini taken from a 3d model
48.
Unas
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Unas /ˈjuːnəs/ or Wenis, also spelled Unis, was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the ninth and last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid-24th century BC succeeding Djedkare Isesi, little is known of Unas activities during his reign, which was a time of economic decline. Egypt maintained trade relations with the Levantine coast and Nubia, Unas built a pyramid in Saqqara, the smallest of the royal pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom. These texts identify the king with Ra and with Osiris, whose cult was on the rise in Unas time, Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him. Manetho, an Egyptian priest of the Ptolemaic period and author of the first history of Egypt, Unas was succeeded by Teti, the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty, possibly after a short crisis. The funerary cult of Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom, the cult was still in existence or revived during the later Middle Kingdom. This did not prevent Amenemhat I and Senusret I from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials. In parallel to the cult, Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis until as late as the Late Period. Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to the New Kingdom period mentioning him, Unas occupies the 33rd entry of the Abydos King List, which was written during the reign of Seti I. Unas name is present on the Saqqara Tablet and on the Turin canon. The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign and these sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, succeeding Djedkare Isesi and preceding Teti on the throne. This relative chronology is corroborated by evidence, for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings. In addition to sources, Unas was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius, Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh Onnos reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. Onnos is believed to be the form for Unas. The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas activities are the reliefs from his pyramid complex. Excluding these, surprisingly few documents dating to Unas reign have survived to this day, excavations at Abusir, the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty, have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas. They explicitly mention his third, fourth, sixth and eighth years on the throne, Unas also left a rock inscription on the island of Elephantine, next to the First Cataract of the Nile in Nubia
Unas
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Black basalt sarcophagus in the funerary chamber of Unas' pyramid
Unas
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Alabaster globular vase of Unas, Louvre Museum
Unas
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Relief showing starving nomads from Unas' causeway at Saqqara
Unas
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The pyramid of Unas at Saqqara
49.
Pepi II Neferkare
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Pepi II was a pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty in Egypts Old Kingdom who reigned from c.2278 BC. His throne name, Neferkare, means Beautiful is the Ka of Re and he succeeded to the throne at age six, after the death of Merenre I. He was traditionally thought to be the son of Pepi I and Queen Ankhesenpepi II but the South Saqqara Stone annals record that Merenre had a minimum reign of 11 years. Inscriptions on these blocks give Ankhesenpepi II the royal titles of, Kings Wife of the Pyramid of Pepy I, Kings Wife of the Pyramid of Merenre. Therefore, today, many Egyptologists believe that Pepi II was likely Merenres own son, Pepi II would, therefore, be Pepi Is grandson while Merenre was, most likely, Pepi IIs father since he is known to have married Pepi IIs known mother, Queen Ankhesenpepi II. Pepi IIs reign marked a decline of the Old Kingdom. As the power of the nomarchs grew, the power of the pharaoh declined, with no dominant central power, local nobles began raiding each others territories and the Old Kingdom came to an end within mere decades after the close of Pepi IIs reign. His mother Ankhesenpepi II most likely ruled as regent in the years of his reign. An alabaster statuette in the Brooklyn Museum depicts a young Pepi II, in full kingly regalia, despite his long reign, this piece is one of only three known sculptural representations in existence of this particular king. She may have helped in turn by her brother Djau. Some scholars have taken the relative paucity of royal statuary to suggest that the court was losing the ability to retain skilled artisans. A glimpse of the personality of the pharaoh while he was still a child can be found in a letter he wrote to Harkhuf, a governor of Aswan, sent to trade and collect ivory, ebony, and other precious items, he captured a pygmy. She may be a daughter of Ankhesenpepi I and hence also Pepi IIs cousin, Iput II – A half-sister of Pepi II. Ankhesenpepi III She was the daughter of Merenre Nemtyemsaf I and hence a granddaughter of Pepi I, Ankhesenpepi IV – The mother of King Neferkare according to texts in her tomb. It is not known which Neferkare as there are several kings with that name during the First Intermediate Period and his name may be Neferkare Nebi. Udjebten She was also a daughter of Pepi I, of these queens, Neith, Iput, and Udjebten each had their own minor pyramids and mortuary temples as part of the kings own pyramid complex in Saqqara. Queen Ankhesenpepi III was buried in a pyramid near the pyramid of Pepi I Meryre, two more sons of Pepi II are known, Nebkauhor-Idu and Ptashepses. Pepi II seems to have carried on foreign policy in ways similar to that of his predecessors, copper and turquoise were mined at Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai, and alabaster was quarried from Hatnub
Pepi II Neferkare
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Base of a headrest inscribed with Pepi II's titulary. Musée du Louvre.
Pepi II Neferkare
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Alabaster statue of Ankhesenmeryre II and her son Pepi II.
Pepi II Neferkare
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A plate mentioning Pepi II's first heb sed jubilee.
Pepi II Neferkare
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Ruins of the pyramid complex of Pepi II
50.
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Egypt
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The Dynasties VII and VIII ruled Egypt for approximately 20–45 years and various dates have been proposed, 2181–2160 BC, 2191–2145 BC, 2150–2118 BC. The power of the pharaohs of the 7th/8th Dynasties was waning while that of the provincial governors, eventually the nomarchs of Heracleopolis Magna overthrew the 8th Dynasty and founded the 9th Dynasty. The Egyptian priest Manetho wrote an history of Egypt during the 3rd century BC known as the Aegyptiaca, Manethos work has not survived to this day and is only known to us via three later writers who quoted from it. Unfortunately, these three sources are difficult to work with. Africanus claims that Dynasty VII consisted of 70 kings that ruled during a period of seventy days in Memphis, however, Eusebius records that during Dynasty VII five kings ruled over seventy five days, and Dynasty VIII includes five kings who ruled for 100 years. Seventy kings in seventy days is considered the correct version of Manetho. This epithet is interpreted to mean that the pharaohs of this period were extremely ephemeral, because Manetho does not provide actual historical data on this period, many argue that the seventh dynasty is fictitious. The Turin and Abydos king lists were written during the reigns of Seti I and his son Ramses II and both record the pharaohs of Egypt from the 1st Dynasty onwards. The kings mentioned on the entries 42 to 56 of the Abydos king list come between the end of Dynasty VI and the beginning of Dynasty XI, and do not appear to be from the 9th nor from the 10th and these are thus assigned to the 8th Dynasty. The Turin Canon is heavily damaged, and cannot be read without much difficulty, there seems to be room for two more kings before the end of the dynasty. This would indicate that the parts of the Turin Papyrus probably contained the kings in the fifty-first to fifty-fifth registers of the Abydos King List. Because the Turin papyrus omits the first nine kings on the Abydos list, hayes thinks it reasonable that the Egyptians may have divided Dynasties VII and VIII at this point. Some of the acts of the final four Dynasty VIII kings are recorded in their decrees to Shemay and his pyramid has been found at Saqqara near that of Pepi II and, like its predecessors, had the Pyramid Texts written on the walls. However many kings there actually were, it is clear that during this period a breakdown of the central authority of Egypt was underway. The rulers of these dynasties were based in Memphis, with the exception of the final Dynasty VIII kings and this group of kings was eventually overthrown by a rival group, Dynasty IX, based in Herakleopolis Magna. The classification of the Egyptian pharaohs into dynasties is due to the Egyptian priest Manetho who wrote an history of Egypt called Aegyptiaca in the 3rd century BC. Manetho assigns 70 kings ruling 70 days to the 7th Dynasty thereby reflecting the chaos prevailing at the end of the Old Kingdom and in the early First Intermediate Period
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Egypt
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Kings of the 8th Dynasty on the Abydos king list, from Netjerkare Siptah to Neferkamin.
51.
Neferkare II
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Neferkare II was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darell Baker he was the king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasty. As a pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty, Neferkare IIs capital would have been Memphis, Neferkare II is only attested through his name, which given on the 42nd entry of the Abydos King List. The Abydos king list was redacted some 900 years after the First intermediate period during the reign of Seti I, Jürgen von Beckerath tentatively identified Neferkare II with the prenomen Wadjkare, which is attested on a graffito from the Wadi Hammamat contemporary with First Intermediate Period
Neferkare II
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The cartouche of Neferkare II on the Abydos King List.
52.
Neferkare Pepiseneb
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Neferkare Pepiseneb was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darell Baker he was the king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasty. The name Neferkare Pepiseneb is attested on the Abydos King List, however, Jürgen von Beckerath has proposed that Neferkare Pepiseneb is to be identified with a Neferkare Khered Seneb appearing on the Turin canon. Both of these sources are dated to long after the dynasty, to the 19th dynasty and later. The epithet Khered given to Neferkare Pepiseneb in the Turin canon means child or young, consequently, Neferkare Khered Seneb is variously translated as Neferkare The Child is Healthy, Neferkare the Younger is Healthy or Neferkare Junior is Healthy. Thus this error might be due to some damage affecting the document from which the canon was being copied in the Ramesside period. Another hypothesis explaining Khered and which Ryholt deems more likely is that this epithet is in this context synonymous with Pepi. Indeed, the Pepi of Pepiseneb could be Pepi II Neferkare, last great pharaoh of the Old Kingdom of Egypt and who may have had the longest reign of any monarch in history with 94 years on the throne. Furthermore, this pharaoh, who must have been well remembered so close to his reign, accessed the throne as a child, Ryholt thus proposes that the child referred to in Neferkare Pepisenebs name on the Turin canon is Pepi II. Since additionally, Pepi IIs nomen was Neferkare, Neferkare Seneb, Khered Seneb and Pepiseneb all could refer to Pepi II and this hypothesis is possibly vindicated by the divine determinative attached to the epithet Khered on the Turin canon. This is normally reserved for the names of kings and gods, according to Ryholts latest reading of the Turin canon, Neferkare Pepiseneb reigned at least one year and some months and days. The Old Kingdom in Egypt and the Beginning of the First Intermediate Period, in The Cambridge Ancient History, I, part 2, ed. Edwards, I. E. S, et al. p.197. Cambridge University Press, New York,1971
Neferkare Pepiseneb
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The cartouche of Neferkare Pepiseneb on the Abydos King List.
53.
Neferkamin Anu
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Neferkamin Anu was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. According to the Abydos King List and the latest reconstruction of the Turin canon by Kim Ryholt and this opinion is shared by the egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath, Thomas Schneider and Darell Baker. As a pharaoh of the 7th/8th Dynasty, Neferkamin Anu would have reigned over the Memphite region, Neferkamin Anu is mentioned on the entry 52 of the Abydos King list, which was compiled in the early Ramesside period. The list names his predecessor as Neferkare Pepiseneb and his successor as Qakare Ibi, the Turin canon identifies Nerferkamin Anu with a Nefer mentioned on column 4, line 10 of the document, which is in agreement with the Abydos king list. Any detail about Neferkamin Anus reign is lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon, the name of Neferkamin Anu is translisterated as Neferkamin Anu even though it is reported as Sneferka Anu on the Abydos King list. The reason for this transliteration is that the hieroglyph sign O34, reading s, could replace the sign R22 for the god Min and reading Mn
Neferkamin Anu
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The cartouche of Neferkamin Anu on the Abydos King List reading Sneferka Anu.
54.
Qakare Ibi
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Qakare Ibi was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the early First Intermediate Period and the 14th ruler of the combined 7th/8th Dynasty. As such Qakare Ibis seat of power was Memphis and he probably did not hold power over all of Egypt, Qakare Ibi is one of the best attested pharaohs of the 7th/8th Dynasty thanks to the discovery of his small pyramid in South Saqqara. Qakare Ibi is attested on the 56th entry of the Abydos King List, according to Kim Ryholts latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list compiled in the Ramesside era, Qakare Ibi is also attested there on column 5, line 10. The Turin canon further indicates that he reigned for 2 years,1 month and 1 day, the only other attestion for Qakare Ibi is his pyramid in South Saqqara. Qakare Ibi was buried in a pyramid at Saqqara-South. It was discovered by Karl Richard Lepsius in the 19th century who listed it as the number XL in his pioneering list of pyramids, the pyramid was excavated from 1929 until 1931 by Gustave Jéquier. Ibis pyramid is the last ever built in Saqqara, located to the northeast of Shepseskafs tomb and it is very similar in plan, dimensions and decorations to the pyramids of the queens of Pepi II, the last great pharaoh of the Old Kingdom. Consequently it was proposed that the pyramid was originally that of Ankhnespepi IV a wife of Pepi II, adjacent to the pyramid is a small chapel where the funerary cult took place. No trace of a causeway nor of a temple has been found to this day. Ibis pyramid is not oriented to any point, being rather on a northwest–southeast axis. The edifice would have been around 31.5 m large and 21 m high with a slope of 53°7′ at the time of its construction. The core of the pyramid was built with blocks of local origin, most of which are now gone. As a result, the monument appears today as a 3 m high heap of mud, on some of the remaining blocks, inscriptions in red ink were found mentioning a chief of the Libyans, the meaning of which is unclear. It seems that though the foundations for the outer casing of the pyramid were laid. On the north side of the edifice, Jéquier found a 8 m long corridor leading down with an inclination of 25° to a large granite portcullis. Behind this portcullis lay the burial chamber. Both the corridor and the walls of the chamber were inscribed with the last known instance of the Pyramid Texts. The texts seem to have been inscribed for Ibi rather than appropriated by him
Qakare Ibi
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Qakare Ibi's cartouche on the Abydos king list.
55.
Nebkaure Khety
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Nebkaure Khety was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 9th or 10th Dynasty, during the First Intermediate Period. Practically nothing is known about the events of Nebkaures reign, due to the opinions of scholars. Many egyptologists assign Nebkaure to the 9th Dynasty, possibly the fourth king, on the other hand, other scholars such as Jürgen von Beckerath believe instead that Nebkaure reigned during the subsequent 10th Dynasty, possibly before Meryibre Khety. Revisionist historian David Rohl in his New Chronology, assumes that Nebkaure Khety was the pharaoh met by Abraham during the stay in Egypt. Like many of the kings who preceded or succeeded him, attestations of Nebkaure Khety are scant, on the Turin King List he was tentatively placed in the register 4.21. Royal Titulary of Nebkaure Khety on Eglyphica. net
Nebkaure Khety
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Jasper weight with the cartouche of Nebkaure Khety.
56.
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
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Some scholars also include the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt wholly into this period as well, in which case the Middle Kingdom would finish c. 1650, while others only include it until Merneferre Ay c.1700 BC, during the Middle Kingdom period, Osiris became the most important deity in popular religion. The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty onwards which was centered on el-Lisht, after the collapse of the Old Kingdom, Egypt entered a period of weak Pharaonic power and decentralization called the First Intermediate Period. Towards the end of period, two rival dynasties, known in Egyptology as the Tenth and Eleventh, fought for power over the entire country. The Theban 11th Dynasty only ruled southern Egypt from the first cataract to the Tenth Nome of Upper Egypt, to the north, Lower Egypt was ruled by the rival 10th Dynasty from Herakleopolis. The struggle was to be concluded by Mentuhotep II, who ascended the Theban throne in 2055 B. C, during Mentuhotep IIs fourteenth regnal year, he took advantage of a revolt in the Thinite Nome to launch an attack on Herakleopolis, which met little resistance. After toppling the last rulers of the 10th Dynasty, Mentuhotep began consolidating his power over all Egypt, for this reason, Mentuhotep II is regarded as the founder of the Middle Kingdom. Mentuhotep II commanded military campaigns south as far as the Second Cataract in Nubia and he also restored Egyptian hegemony over the Sinai region, which had been lost to Egypt since the end of the Old Kingdom. He also sent the first expedition to Punt during the Middle Kingdom, by means of ships constructed at the end of Wadi Hammamat, Mentuhotep III was succeeded by Mentuhotep IV, whose name significantly is omitted from all ancient Egyptian king lists. The Turin Papyrus claims that after Mentuhotep III came seven kingless years, despite this absence, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. The leader of expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future pharaoh Amenemhet I. Mentuhotep IVs absence from the king lists has prompted the theory that Amenemhet I usurped his throne, while there are no contemporary accounts of this struggle, certain circumstantial evidence may point to the existence of a civil war at the end of the 11th dynasty. Inscriptions left by one Nehry, the Haty-a of Hermopolis, suggest that he was attacked at a place called Shedyet-sha by the forces of the reigning king, but his forces prevailed. Khnumhotep I, an official under Amenemhet I, claims to have participated in a flotilla of 20 ships to pacify Upper Egypt, donald Redford has suggested these events should be interpreted as evidence of open war between two dynastic claimants. What is certain is that, however he came to power, from the 12th dynasty onwards, pharaohs often kept well-trained standing armies, which included Nubian contingents. These formed the basis of larger forces which were raised for defence against invasion, however, the Middle Kingdom was basically defensive in its military strategy, with fortifications built at the First Cataract of the Nile, in the Delta and across the Sinai Isthmus. Early in his reign, Amenemhet I was compelled to campaign in the Delta region, in addition, he strengthened defenses between Egypt and Asia, building the Walls of the Ruler in the East Delta region. Perhaps in response to this perpetual unrest, Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt in the north, known as Amenemhet Itj Tawy, or Amenemhet, the location of this capital is unknown, but is presumably near the citys necropolis, the present-day el-Lisht
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
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An Osiride statue of the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
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The head of a statue of Senusret I.
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
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Statue head of Senusret III
57.
Mentuhotep IV
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Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV was the last king of the 11th Dynasty. He seems to fit into a 7-year period in the Turin Canon for which there is no recorded king and he is known from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. It seems that he was a son of his predecessor, also, he is attested by the inscriptions at Wadi el-Hudi. Another relevant inscription is found in Ain Sukhna and these locations were the usual staging harbours for the expeditions to the Sinai. Despite Mentuhoteps obscurity, the show the organization and makeup of a large expedition during his reign. A fragment of a slate bowl had found at Lisht North that is inscribed on the outside with the official titulary of Mentuhotep IV. It is assumed by some Egyptologists that Amenemhat either usurped the throne or assumed power after Mentuhotep IV died childless, there is currently no archaeological or textual evidence to prove that Mentuhotep was deposed by his vizier or that he chose Amenemhat to be his designated successor. Neither his mummy nor his burial place have been found, W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 25-26
Mentuhotep IV
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Mentuhotep IV (right) gives offerings to Min. From Wadi Hammamat
58.
Amenemhat I
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See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat I, also Amenemhet I and the hellenized form Ammenemes, was the first ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty and he ruled from 1991 BC to 1962 BC. Amenemhat I was probably the same as the vizier named Amenemhat who led an expedition to Wadi Hammamat under his predecessor Mentuhotep IV, and possibly overthrew him from power. Scholars differ as to whether Mentuhotep IV was killed by Amenemhat I, Amenemhat I moved the capital from Thebes to Itjtawy and was buried in el-Lisht. Theres some evidence that the reign of Amenemhat I was beset with political turmoil, as indicated by the inscriptions of Nehri. There were some naval battles where an associate of Amenemhat I by the name of Khnumhotep I was involved, later, Khnumhotep was appointed as an important local governor at Beni Hasan, and he founded a dynasty of local governors there. In the inscriptions by Khnumhotep, mention is made of military campaigns against the Asiatics. The cult of the king was also promoted during this period, the vizier at the beginning of the reign was Ipi, at the end of the reign Intefiqer was in charge. Two treasurers can be placed under this king, another Ipi, two high stewards, Meketre and Sobeknakht, have also been identified. His pyramid was made in the fashion as 5th and 6th dynasty pyramids by having a rough core clad with a fine mantle of smooth limestone. The core of the pyramid was made up of rough blocks of limestone with a loose fill of sand, debris. Perhaps the most remarkable feature is that it included fragments of relief-decorated blocks from Old Kingdom monuments – many from pyramid causeways and temples, granite blocks from Khafres complex went into the lining and blocking of Amenemhat Is descending passage. We can only conclude that they were picked up at Saqqara and Giza, when the limestone outer layer was taken, the core slumped. The pyramid and temple have been used as a source of material for lime burners so only a small amount remains today, the Middle Kingdom pyramids were built closer to the Nile and Amenemhet Is burial chamber is now underwater because the River Nile has shifted course. The complex has a wall of limestone and an outer wall of mudbrick. There are a number of mastaba tombs between the walls and 22 burial shafts on the side of the pyramid. Two literary works dating from the end of the give an picture about Amenemhat Is death. The Instructions of Amenemhat were supposedly counsels that the king gave to his son during a dream
Amenemhat I
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Relief of Amenemhat I from his mortuary complex at El-Lisht
Amenemhat I
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The ruined pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht.
Amenemhat I
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Isometric image taken from a 3d model
Amenemhat I
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The double dated stela CG 20516
59.
Senusret I
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Senusret I, also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I, was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 BC to 1926 BC, and was one of the most powerful kings of this Dynasty and he was the son of Amenemhat I and his wife Nefertitanen. His wife and sister was Neferu and she was also the mother of the successor Amenemhat II. Senusret I was known by his prenomen, Kheperkare, which means the Ka of Re is created and he also organized an expedition to a Western Desert oasis. Senusret I established diplomatic relations with rulers of towns in Syria. He also tried to centralize the countrys political structure by supporting nomarchs who were loyal to him and his pyramid was constructed at el-Lisht. Senusret I dispatched several quarrying expeditions to the Sinai and Wadi Hammamat and built numerous shrines and temples throughout Egypt and he rebuilt the important temple of Re-Atum in Heliopolis which was the centre of the sun cult. He erected 2 red granite obelisks there to celebrate his Year 30 Heb Sed Jubilee, one of the obelisks still remains and is the oldest standing obelisk in Egypt. It is now in the Al-Masalla area of Al-Matariyyah district near the Ain Shams district and it is 67 feet tall and weighs 120 tons or 240,000 pounds. A shrine with fine, high quality reliefs of Senusret I, was built at Karnak to commemorate his Year 30 jubilee and it has subsequently been successfully reconstructed from various stone blocks discovered by Henri Chevrier in 1926. Finally, Senusret remodelled the Temple of Khenti-Amentiu Osiris at Abydos, some of the key members of the court of Senusret I are known. The vizier at the beginning of his reign was Intefiqer, who is known from many inscriptions and he seems to have held this office for a long period of time and was followed by a vizier named Senusret. Two treasurers are known from the reign of the king, Sobekhotep and Mentuhotep, the latter had a huge tomb next to the pyramid of the king and he seems to have been the main architect of the Amun temple at Karnak. Hor is known from several stelae and from an inscription in the Wadi el-Hudi where he was evidently the leader of an expedition for amethyst, one of the stelae is dated to year nine of the king. A certain Nakhr followed in office attested around year 12 of the king, a certain Antef, son of a woman called Zatamun is known again from several stelae, one dates to year 24 another one to year 25 of Senusret I. Another Antef was the son a woman called Zatuser and was most likely also high steward in the kings reign, Senusret was crowned coregent with his father, Amenemhat I, in his fathers 20th regnal year. Towards the end of his own life, he appointed his son Amenemhat II as his coregent, the stele of Wepwawetō is dated to the 44th year of Senusret and to the 2nd year of Amenemhet, thus he would have appointed him some time in his 43rd year. Senusret is thought to have died during his 46th year on the throne since the Turin Canon ascribes him a reign of 45 Years, loyalist Teaching Senusret Kheperkare Sesostris I
Senusret I
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Heliopolis obelisk (Senusret I)
Senusret I
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Bust of Senusret I in the Neues Museum, Berlin
Senusret I
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Osiride statue (Senusret I)
Senusret I
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Stone weight with Senusret I's cartouche
60.
Amenemhat II
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See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Nubkaure Amenemhat II was the pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. Although he ruled for at least 35 years, his reign is rather obscure, archaeological findings have provided the name of Amenemhats mother, the kings mother Neferu III, but not the name of his father. Nevertheless, it is assumed that he was a son of his predecessor Senusret I. The identity of Amenemhats queen consort is unknown and his successor Senusret II was likely his son, although this is never explicitly stated anywhere. The most important record for Amenemhats early reign is on fragments of the so-called Annals of Amenemhat II unearthed at Memphis and it provides records of donations to temples and, sometimes, of political events. Under Amenemhat II several mining expeditions are known, at least 3 in the Sinai, one in the Wadi Gasus and he is known to have ordered building works at Heliopolis, Herakleopolis, Memphis, in the Eastern Delta, and rebuilt a ruined temple at Hermopolis. There are some mentions of the building of a First temple, a well-known finding associated with Amenemhat II is the sphinx Louvre A23 from Tanis, later usurped by many other pharaohs. Many private stelae bears Amenemhats cartouches – and sometimes even his regnal years – but are of little help in providing information about the events of his reign. Some members of Amenemhats court are known, beside Siese, other known treasurers were Rehuerdjersen and Merykau. The overseer of the gateway, Khentykhetywer, was buried near the kings pyramid, other known officials were the overseers of the chamber, Snofru and Senitef, and the royal scribe and iry-pat Samont. Amenemhat II and his successor Senusret II shared a brief coregency, Amenemhats year 35 on the stela of Hapu is also the highest date known for him. At the present time, Amenemhats pyramid – originally called Amenu-sekhem, the mortuary temple adjacent the pyramid was called Djefa-Amenemhat. One likely statue of Amenemhat in 3D model on Sketchfab
Amenemhat II
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Sphinx of Amenemhat II
Amenemhat II
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Head from a sphinx, ca. 1876-1842 B.C.E.,56.85, Brooklyn Museum; This head depicts an ancient Egyptian princess, daughter of King Amenemhat II, and originally had a lion’s body.
61.
Senusret III
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Khakaure Senusret III was a pharaoh of Egypt. He ruled from 1878 BC to 1839 BC during a time of power and prosperity. He was a pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and is considered to be perhaps the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty. Consequently, he is regarded as one of the sources for the legend about Sesostris and his military campaigns gave rise to an era of peace and economic prosperity that reduced the power of regional rulers and led to a revival in craftwork, trade and urban development. Senusret III was one of the few kings who were deified and honored with a cult during their own lifetime, Senusret III was the son of Senusret II and of Khenemetneferhedjet I also called Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret. Two wives of Senusret III are known for certain and these are Khenemetneferhedjet II and Neferthenut, both mainly known from their burials next to the pyramid of the king at Dahshur. Several daughters are known, although they are also just attested by the burials around the kings pyramid and these include Sithathor, Menet, Senetsenebtysy and Meret. Amenemhat III was most likely a son of the king, Senusret III cleared a navigable canal through the first cataract. He also relentlessly pushed his kingdoms expansion into Nubia where he erected massive river forts including Buhen, Semna and he carried out at least four major campaigns into Nubia in his Years 8,10,16 and 19. His Year 8 stela at Semna documents his victories against the Nubians through which he is thought to have made safe the southern frontier, another great stela from Semna dated to the third month of Year 16 of his reign mentions his military activities against both Nubia and Canaan. Such was his nature and immense influence that Senusret III was worshipped as a god in Semna by later generations. Jacques Morgan, in 1894, found rock inscriptions near Sehel Island documenting his digging of a canal under the king, Senusret III erected a temple and town in Abydos, and another temple in Medamud. His court included the viziers Sobekemhat, Nebit and Khnumhotep, ikhernofret worked as treasurer for the king at Abydos. Senankh cleared the canal at Sehel for the king and he notes that the only possible solution for the blocks existence here is that Senusret III had a 39-year reign, with the final 20 years in coregency with his son Amenemhet III. Since the project was associated with a project of Senusret III, his Regnal Year was presumably used to date the block and this implies that Senusret was still alive in the first two decades of his sons reign. Senusrets pyramid complex was built north-east of the Red Pyramid of Dashur and in grandeur far surpassed those from the early 12th dynasty in size and underlying religious conceptions. There has been speculation that Senusret was not necessarily buried there, senusrets pyramid is 105 meters square and 78 meters high. The total volume was about 288,000 cubic meters, the pyramid was built of a core of mud bricks
Senusret III
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Heads of Senusret III from the British Museum
Senusret III
Senusret III
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The Year 16 border stela of Senusret III (Altes Museum), Berlin
Senusret III
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Plan of the Pyramid complex at Dashur
62.
Amenemhat III
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See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat III, also spelled Amenemhet III, was a pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from c.1860 BC to c.1814 BC and his reign is regarded as the golden age of the Middle Kingdom. He may have had a coregency with his father, Senusret III. His daughter, Sobekneferu, later succeeded Amenemhat IV, as the last ruler of the twelfth dynasty, Amenemhat IIIs throne name, Nimaatre, means Belonging to the Justice of Re. He built his first pyramid at Dahshur, but there were construction problems, around Year 15 of his reign the king decided to build a new pyramid at Hawara, near the Faiyum. The pyramid at Dahshur was used as ground for several royal women. The mortuary temple attached to the Hawara pyramid may have known to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus as the Labyrinth. Strabo praised it as a wonder of the world, nevertheless, the kings burial was robbed in antiquity. His daughter or sister, Neferuptah, was buried in a separate pyramid 2 km southwest of the kings, the pyramidion of Amenemhet IIIs pyramid tomb was found toppled from the peak of its structure and preserved relatively intact, it is today located in the Cairo Egyptian Museum. There is very little evidence for military expeditions in the reign of the king, there is only one record for a small mission in year nine of the king. The evidence for that was found in an inscription in Nubia. The short text reports that a mission was guided by the mouth of Nekhen Zamonth who reports that he went north with a small troop. Many expeditions to mining areas are recorded under the king, there are two expeditions known to the Wadi el-Hudi at the southern border of Egypt, where Amethyst was collected. One of the dates to year 11, of the king. Two further to year 20 and to year 28, there were further mining expeditions to the Wadi Hammamat. These are dated to year 2,3,19,20 and 33 of the kings reign, the inscriptions of year 19 and 20 might be related to the building start of the pyramid complex at Hawara. They report the breaking of stone for statues, at the Red Sea coast, at Mersa was discovered a stela mentioning an expedition to Punt under Amenemhat III
Amenemhat III
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Statuette head of Amenemhat III, now in the Louvre
Amenemhat III
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Statue from the Egyptian Collection of the Hermitage Museum
Amenemhat III
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Pectoral of Amenemhat III, tomb of Mereret.
Amenemhat III
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Pyramidion or Capstone of Amenemhat III's pyramid.
63.
Sobekneferu
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Sobekneferu was an Egyptian woman reigning as pharaoh after the death of her brother Amenemhat IV. She was the last ruler of the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt and her name means the beauty of Sobek. She was the daughter of Pharaoh Amenemhat III, manetho states she also was the sister of Amenemhat IV, but this claim is unproven. Sobekneferu had a sister named Nefruptah, who may have been the intended heir. Neferuptahs name was enclosed in a cartouche and she had her own pyramid at Hawara, neferuptah died at an early age, however. Sobekneferu was the first known woman reigning as pharaoh for which there is confirmed proof, there are five women who are believed to have ruled as early as the First Dynasty and Nitocris may have ruled in the Sixth Dynasty. Amenemhat IV most likely died without a heir, consequently, Amenemhat IIIs daughter, Sobekneferu. According to the Turin Canon, she ruled for 3 years,10 months and she died without heirs and the end of her reign concluded Egypts brilliant Twelfth Dynasty and the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom as it inaugurated the much weaker Thirteenth Dynasty. One statue with a head is known, a bust in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin, lost in World War II, could be identified as belonging to her. Today, the sculpture is only from photographic images and plaster casts. It came in 1899 to the museum, the head fits on top of the lower part of a royal statue discovered at Semna. The latter can be identified for sure as royal because the royal symbol unification of the two countries appears on the side of her throne and it is known that she made additions to the funerary complex of Amenemhat III at Hawara and also built structures at Herakleopolis Magna. A fine cylinder seal bearing her name and royal titulary is located in the British Museum, a Nile graffito, at the Nubian fortress of Kumma records the Nile inundation height of 1.83 meters in Year 3 of her reign. Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records year 4, second month of the peret season, additionally, all Egyptian rulers were given the title king, regardless of gender. Her tomb has not been identified positively, although she may have been interred in a complex in Mazghuna that lacks inscriptions. It is immediately north of a similar complex ascribed to Amenemhat IV, a place called Sekhem-Neferu is mentioned in a papyrus found at Harageh. This might be the name of her pyramid, the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press
Sobekneferu
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Bust of Queen Sobekneferu (Louvre)
Sobekneferu
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Head of ruling queen Sobekneferu
64.
Sonbef
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Mehibtawy Sekhemkare Amenemhat Sonbef was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker, he was the 2nd king of the dynasty, there is a debate between egyptologists as whether or not Sekhemkare Sonbef is the same king as Sekhemkare Amenemhat V, 4th ruler of the 13th dynasty. Thus, they see Sonbef and Amenemhat V as two different rulers, an opinion shared by Jürgen von Beckerath. At the opposite Detlef Franke and Stephen Quirke believe that Amenemhat V and Sonbef are one, Franke and others regard Amenemhat Sonbef as a double name. Indeed, double naming was common in Egypt and especially in the late 12th and 13th Dynasty, Sonbef is attested on column 7, line 6 of the Turin canon, where he appears as Sekhemkare f. Although, as a king of the early 13th dynasty, Sonbef certainly reigned from Itjtawy in the Faiyum, the only contemporary attestations of him are from south of Thebes. Two Nile records are also attributable to him, one from Askut and dated to his year 3, a further, much damaged record from Semna and dated to a year 5 may also belong to him. The ownership of these Nile records is still in doubt however, as they bear the prenomen Sekhemkare. The egyptologist and archaeologist Stuart Tyson Smith who studied the records initially attributed them to Sonbef, but later changed his opinion and attributed them to Amenemhat V
Sonbef
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Cylinder seal bearing the royal titulary of Sonbef, drawing by Flinders Petrie.
65.
Hotepibre
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Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the king of the dynasty, reigning for one to five years. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke see him as the king of the dynasty. Ryholt further proposes that he was succeeded by a king named Iufni, after the short reign of Iufni, the throne went to another grandson of Amenemhat V named Ameny Antef Amenemhat VI. A statue dedicated to Ptah and bearing the name of Hotepibre was found in Khatana, a Temple-block from el-Atawla with his name is now in the Cairo Museum. Hotepibre is sometimes credited as the founder of a palace recently rediscovered at Tell El-Daba
Hotepibre
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Drawing of the ceremonial mace handle with Hotepibre's name, from Ebla
66.
Sehetepibre
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Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the early Second Intermediate Period, possibly the fifth or tenth king of the Dynasty. The position of Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy within the 13th Dynasty is not entirely clear, in the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period, two kings are listed with the name Sehetepibre, both in Column 7. The first Sehetepibre appears as the king of the Dynasty. Therefore, the chronological position of Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy cannot be ascertained using only the Turin canon. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy was in fact the king of the Dynasty. They believe that the first Sehetepibre is a resulting from the corruption of the name of Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef. They further propose that the author of the list did not include two kings, Nerikare and Ameny Qemau, thereby artificially making Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy the eighth king when he was the tenth. On the other hand, Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath see Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy as the first Sehetepibre listed in the Turin canon, Franke and von Beckerath both identify the second Sehetepibre with Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef. For a long time, Sehetepibre was known only from the Turin canon, the seal, of unknown provenance, was bought by a private collector in Cairo and finally sold in 1926 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where it is now on display. The seal bears Sehetepibres prenomen and is dedicated to Hathor, Lady of, the seal is further inscribed with the name in cuneiform of a governor of Byblos named Yakin-Ilu. If Albrights hypothesis is correct, then Sehetepibre would be one generation removed from Neferhotep I, the principal contemporary attestion of Sehetepibre is a stela published in 1980 and discovered earlier at Gebel Zeit, by the Red Sea, where galena mines where located. The stela bears the name of a king Sehetepibre together with the Horus name Sewesekhtawy and this stela, contemporary with his reign, further confirms the existence of this king. In addition, two found in debris from the north pyramid cemetery at el-Lisht bear the name Sehetepibre. A virtually identical scarab was found at Tell el-ʿAjjul in a Middle Bronze Age context. Whether or not these refer to the individual, is not certain
Sehetepibre
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Lapis lazuli cylinder seal with Sehetepibre's cartouche
67.
Khaankhre Sobekhotep
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Khaankhre Sobekhotep was an pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Khaankhre Sobekhotep was the 13th pharaoh of the dynasty and had a short reign ca.1735 BC, alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the 16th pharaoh of the dynasty. Sobekhotep appears in the Karnak king list as Khaankhre, a name Sobekpre is also given on column 6, line 15 of the Turin canon, which could be Sobekhotep I. However this identification is not certain and Sobekhotep Is chronological position within the 13th Dynasty is debated, contemporary attestations of Sobekhotep comprise reliefs coming from a chapel which once stood in Abydos and a fragment of inscribed column. Furthermore, the name Khaankhre Sobekhotep appears in an inscription on a granite statue pedestal once in the Amherst collection and, since 1982 and his reign was most likely short, amounting to three to four-and-a-half years. Ryholt mentions that Sobekhotep I may be identical with Sobekhotep II, List of pharaohs Media related to Sebekhotep Khaankhre at Wikimedia Commons
Khaankhre Sobekhotep
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Doorjamb of a temple bearing Khaankhre Sobekhotep's nomen, originally from Abydos, now on display at the Louvre
68.
Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw
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Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw was an Egyptian pharaoh of the early 13th dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, he was the king of the dynasty, reigning for 3 years. Thomas Schneider, on the hand, places his reign from 1752 BC until 1746 BC. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the king of the dynasty. As a ruler of the early 13th Dynasty, Khabaw would have ruled from Memphis to Aswan, Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw is not listed on the Turin canon nor on any other ancient king list. According to Ryholt, Khabaws name was lost in a wsf lacuna of the Turin canon reported in Column 7, line 17 of the document. The redactor of this king list, which was written in the early Ramesside period, Khabaw is however well attested through archaeological finds. The architrave is now in the British Museum, under the catalog number BM EA1100, another architrave discovered in Tanis shows Khabaws name together with that of pharaoh Hor of the 13th Dynasty. Darrell Baker and Ryholt suggest that close association might mean that Khabaw was Hors son. Ryholt and Baker believe that both architraves did not originate from the Delta region but from Memphis, alternatively, the architraves may have stayed in Avaris until the reign of Ramses II, when this king built his capital at Pi-Ramesses using material from Avaris. Pi-Ramesses was subsequently dismantled during the 21st Dynasty and its monuments scattered in the Delta region, finally, Khabaw is attested by a cylinder-seal now in the Petrie Museum,4 seal impressions from Uronarti and one from Mirgissa, both places being Egyptian fortresses in Nubia. The nomen of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw is unknown and his identity is not completely established. Ryholt has proposed Khabaws nomen could have been Sobek, as this nomen is attested from artifacts which must belong to a king of the first half of the 13th Dynasty, only two kings of this time period have their nomina unknown, Khabaw and Nerikare. Sobek may thus possibly be the nomen of Khabaw, on the other hand, Jürgen von Beckerath identified Khabaws nomen as Pantjeny, thereby equating Khabaw with Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny, who is otherwise attested by a single stele. However, this hypothesis has been invalidated in a recent study of stele by Marcel Marée, Marée has shown that the stele was produced by the same workshop who produced the stelae of Wepwawetemsaf and Rahotep. The latter is dated to the early 17th Dynasty c.1580 BC and thus Pantjeny must have ruled c.1600 BC. Alternatively, Pantjeny could be a member of the Abydos Dynasty, wolfgang Helck and Stephen Quirke have equated Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw with Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep, called Sobekhotep I or Sobekhotep II depending on the scholar. Spalinger argues that the Nile records of Nubia associated to Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep cannot be attributed to Khabaw
Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw
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Drawing by Wallis Budge of a fragment of a red granite architrave discovered in Bubastis and bearing the name of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw.
69.
Djedkheperew
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Djedkheperew was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty reigning for an estimated two-year period, from c.1772 BC until 1770 BC. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Djedkheperew was the 17th king of this dynasty, Djedkheperew is this pharaohs Horus name, the prenomen and nomen of Djedkheperew, which would normally be employed by modern conventions to name a pharaoh, are unknown. Contemporary attestations The reign of Djedkheperew is supported by eleven seal impressions from Egyptian fortresses at the second cataract in Nubia, ten of these seal impressions were found at Uronarti in close association with seal impressions of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and Maaibre Sheshi. The last one was discovered in Mirgissa, besides the seal impressions, Djedkheperew is authenticated by the Bed of Osiris, a massive sculpture of black basalt showing Osiris lying on a bier. The Bed of Osiris was found in the tomb of the 1st Dynasty pharaoh Djer, the sculpture is now in the Egyptian Museum. The sculpture was attributed to another 13th Dynasty pharaoh, Khendjer, by Leahy. The nomen of Djedkheperew was erased at some point in antiquity, Ryholt argues that this is because Djedkheperews reign was already lost in a lacuna of the document from which the canon was copied. According to Ryholt, Djedkheperew was a brother of his predecessor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw, Ryholt based his conclusion on the seals from Uronarti and the Bed of Osiris. The seals show that Khabaw and Djedkheperew reigned closely in time and this suggests that Djedkheperews nomen indicated his filiation to Hor. Since Khabaw is known to have succeeded Hor, Ryholt deduced that Djedkheperew was Khabaws brother and successor
Djedkheperew
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The Bed of Osiris, from the tomb of Djer, and inscribed with the name of Djedkheperew.
70.
Wegaf
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Khutawyre Wegaf was a pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt who is known from several sources, including a stele and statues. There is a general known from a scarab with the name who is perhaps identical with this king. A king with the name Khutawyre appears in the Turin King List as first ruler of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt. In particular, Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep is regarded by Ryholt and other Egyptologists, including Darrell Baker, as the first pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty, Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 BC
Wegaf
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Drawing of the Rubensohn plaquette from Elephantine realized in 1907 by Georges Legrain. The plaquette mentions Khutawyre Wegaf and a king Senwosret.
71.
Khendjer
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Userkare Khendjer was the twenty-first pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Khendjer reigned from Memphis during 4 years 3 months and 5 days, Khendjer had a small pyramid built for himself in Saqqara. The name Khendjer is poorly attested in Egyptian, Khendjer has been interpreted as a foreign name hnzr and equated with the Semitic personal name hzr, boar according to the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt. He notes that this identification is confirmed by the fact that the name hzr is written as hzr in a variant spelling of this name on a seal from this kings reign. Ryholt states that the boar is, attested as huzīru in Akkadian, hinzīr in Arabic, hazīrā in Aramaic, hazīr in Hebrew hu-zi-ri in the Nuzi texts, hnzr in Ugarit. Khendjer was, therefore, the earliest known Semitic king of a native Egyptian dynasty, Khendjers prenomen or throne name, Userkare, translates as The Soul of Re is Powerful. Khendjer, however, may have had a second prenomen at his coronation and this name appears together with the name Khendjer at the top of the stela of Amenyseneb. The exact chronological position of Khendjer in the Thirteenth Dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. Egyptologist Darrell Baker makes him the twenty-first king of the dynasty, Ryholt sees him as the twenty-second king, the highest attested date for Khendjers reign is the fourth month of the season of the Inundation), day 15 in his fifth regnal year. Kim Ryholt notes that two dated control notes on stone blocks from his pyramid complex give him a minimum reign of 3 or 4 years 3 months and 5 days. The aforementioned control notes are dated to Year 1 I Akhet day 10, in these control notes, the names of three officials involved in building the pyramid are also identified. They are the chamberlain of the palace, Senebtyfy, the chamberlain Ameny, the latter is also attested by other sources. Khendjer is known primarily from his pyramid complex excavated by G. Jequier at Saqqara which was completed as a pyramidion was found. There was found a fragment of a jar, which offers a partial name for his queen. Other objects with the name of the king are a stela from Abydos recording building projects by the king at the Osiris temple at Abydos, another stela once in Liverpool, provides the name of the kings son Khedjer. He might be a son of the king, other objects with his name, according to the list provided by Ryholt, include three cylinder-seals from Athribis, a tile found near el-Lisht, scarab seals and an axe blade. Media related to Khendjer at Wikimedia Commons
Khendjer
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Detail of the stela of Ameny-Sonb showing the nomen of Khendjer, Louvre Museum.
72.
Imyremeshaw
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Smenkhkare Imyremeshaw was an Egyptian pharaoh of the mid 13th dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. Imyremeshaw reigned from Memphis, starting in 1759 BC or 1711 BC, the length of his reign is not known for certain, he may have reigned for 5 years and certainly less than 10 years. Imyremeshaw is attested by two colossal statues now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Imyremeshaw is attested on the Turin canon, on column 7, line 21 as kare Imyremeshaw. Later, the colossi were moved to Pi-Ramesses by Ramses II who also had his name inscribed on them together with a dedication to Seth. Finally, the statues were moved to Tanis during the 21st dynasty where the remained until the 1897 excavations under the direction of Flinders Petrie. The two statues are now in the Egyptian Museum and are numbered JE37466 and JE37467, the only other contemporary attestation of Imyremeshaw is a white steatite bead bearing the inscription The good god, Smenkhkare, beloved of Sobek, Lord of Shedyt. The bead is now in the British Museum, numbered BM EA74185, finally, W. Davies has proposed that the torso of a statuette discovered in the ruins of a 13th dynasty pyramid at Saqqara south and dating to close successor of Khendjer may belong to Imyremeshaw. The fragment however is uninscribed and Davies identification of the owner of the statuette as Imyremeshaw is based solely on grounds of provenance, the statuette is now in the Egyptian Museum, JE54493. The nomen of Imyremeshaw is a well attested name in use during the Second Intermediate Period, for this reason, it has been assumed without further evidence that Imyremeshaw was a general before becoming king. Jürgen von Beckerath proposes that Imyremeshaw was of foreign origin and had a name that could not be understood by the Egyptians. Furthermore, Imyremeshaw did not use any filiative nomina—that is, he was not related to his predecessor Khendjer. Thus, scholars suggested that he may have come to power by orchestrating a coup against his predecessor Khendjer. Baker and Ryholt contest this hypothesis and they point to the lack of evidence for a military coup as one cannot rule out an usurpation by political means. Additionally, they note that Imyremeshaw was a personal name at the time. Similar common names based on titles include Imyrikhwe, Imyreper and Imyrekhenret, for these reasons, Stephen Quirke suggests that the name of Imyremeshaw may simply reflect a family tradition and Ryholt adds that it could indicate a family with a military background. The exact chronological position of Imyremeshaw in the 13th dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty, according to the Turin canon, Imyremeshaw was the immediate successor of Khendjer. Baker makes him the king of the dynasty, Ryholt sees him as the twenty-third king. The exact duration of the reign of Imyremeshaw is mostly lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon and cannot be recovered, Ryholt proposes that the combined reigns of Imyremeshaw and his two successors Sehetepkare Intef and Seth Meribre amount to about 10 years
Imyremeshaw
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Syenite statue of Imyremeshaw photographed by Flinders Petrie during his excavations at Tanis
73.
Sehetepkare Intef
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Sehetepkare Intef was the twenty-third king of the 13th dynasty during the Second intermediate period. Sehetepkare Intef reigned from Memphis for a period, certainly less than 10 years. Sehetepkare Intef is attested in the Turin canon, entry 7.22 or 6.22, the Turin canon places Sehetepkare Intef between Imyremeshaw and Seth Meribre. Intef is also attested on the Karnak king list, beyond these documents, Sehetepkare Intef is attested by the lower half of a seated statue from the temple complex of goddess Renenutet at Medinet Madi in the Faiyum. The statue, JE67834, is now in the Egyptian Museum, the exact chronological position of Sehetepkare Intef in the 13th dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. Darrell Baker places him as the king of the dynasty, Kim Ryholt as the twenty-fourth. Furthermore, Ryholt believes Sehetepkare Intef was the fifth ruler bearing that name, making him Intef V, while Aidan Dodson, von Beckerath and Darrell Baker posit that he was Intef IV. The length of his reign is lost in a lacuna of the papyrus and cannot be recovered, Kim Ryholt gives 10 years for the combined reigns of Imyremeshaw, Sehetepkare Intef and Seth Meribre. Even though the name is lost in a lacuna, Ryholts analysis of the papyrus only leaves Imyremeshaw. This is significant because the reports a year 3 and a year 5 dates for this king. The exact circumstances of the end of Intefs reign are unknown, consequently, Ryholt proposes that Seth Meribre may have usurped the throne
Sehetepkare Intef
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Cylinder seal bearing the cartouche of pharaoh Hetepkare, probably [Se]hetepkare Intef IV.
74.
Sobekhotep III
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Sobekhotep III was an Egyptian king of the 13th dynasty who reigned 3 to 4 years, c.1740 BCE or 1700 BCE. The family of the king is known from several sources, a monument from Sehel Island shows Sobekhotep with his father Mentuhotep, his mother was Iuhetibu, his brothers Seneb and Khakau, and a half-sister called Reniseneb. Reniseneb was a daughter of Iuhetibu and her second husband Dedusobek, Sobekhotep III had two wives, Senebhenas and Neni. A stela from Koptos, now in the Louvre, mentions the daughters of Nenni, Iuhetibu, Iuhetibu Fendy wrote her name in a cartouche. This is the time in Egyptian history that a kings daughter received this honor. Senebhenas is shown with Sobekhotep on an altar in Sehel Island, the stela depicts Sobekhotep III before the god Monthu. He receives an ankh and a was-scepter from the god, Sobekhotep is followed by his father Montuhotep, his mother Iuhetibu, and his wife Senebhenas. Sobekhotep III is known from a number of objects despite the fact that the Turin King List gives him a reign of only four years. He added inscriptions to the temple of Menthu at Madamud and built a chapel at El Kab, on Sehel was found an altar with his name. A number of seals have been found that were from an officier of the rulers table Sobekhotep begotten of the officier of the rulers table Mentuhotep. It is possible that these belonged to Sobekhotep III before he became king. Sobekhotep III was the first of a group of Thirteenth Dynasty kings about whom there exists historical records and this group of Thirteenth Dynasty kings are all known from a large number of objects. These kings produced many seals and there are many monuments that can be dated to these reigns. This would seem to indicate that Egypt was relatively stable during this period, ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c
Sobekhotep III
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Sobekhotep III worshipping Satet. The central hole was made when the relief was used as a grinding stone, long after the original carving. Now on display at the Brooklyn Museum.
75.
Neferhotep I
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One of the best attested rulers of the 13th Dynasty, Neferhotep I reigned for 11 years. The grandson of a non-royal townsman from a Theban family with a background, Neferhotep Is relation to his predecessor Sobekhotep III is unclear. Neferhotep I was likely contemporaneous with kings Zimri-Lim of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon, toward the end of his reign, Neferhotep I shared the throne with his brother Sihathor, a coregency that lasted a few months to a year. Sihathor died shortly before Neferhotep, who may have then appointed another brother, Sobekhotep IV, in any case, Sobekhotep IV succeeded Neferhotep I soon afterwards, and reigned over Egypt for almost a decade. The reigns of the two brothers mark the apex of the 13th Dynasty, Neferhotep I seems to have come from a non-royal family of Thebes with a military background. His grandfather, Nehy, held the title officer of a town regiment, Nehy was married to a woman called Senebtysy. Nothing is known about her other than that she held the common title lady of the house and their only known son was called Haankhef. Haankhef always appears in the sources as Gods father and royal sealer, the parentage of Neferhotep and Haankhef is directly confirmed by a number of scarab seals from El-Lahun where the latter is said to be the father of the former. This is a rare occurrence as the Turin canon normally only names the pharaohs while non-royal people are excluded from the list. Beyond Haankhef, the other exception to this rule is the father of Sobekhotep II. This is at odds with the traditional Egyptian system where the legitimation of the new king rests mainly on his filiation and these proclamations of non-royal origins were possibly made to dissociate these kings from their immediate predecessors, in particular Seth Meribre whose monuments have been usurped and defaced. The reason for this remains unknown, inscriptions from Aswan indicate that Neferhotep I had at least two children named Haankhef and Kemi like his parents, whom he had with a woman called Senebsen. He also possibly had another son named Wahneferhotep, I saw the vigor of his majesty at every single feast when I was a child who could not yet conceive. Similarly, Neferhotep I could well have been born in Thebes, even though the capital of Egypt during the 13th Dynasty was still Itjtawy in the north, a single attestation is known from Lower Egypt, a scarab from Tell el-Yahudiya. Other attestations include over 60 scarab seals,2 cylinder-seals, a statue from Elephantine, the inscriptions record the members of Neferhoteps family as well as two high officials serving him The royal acquaintance Nebankh and the Treasurer Senebi. Two stelae are known from Abydos one of which, usurped from king Wegaf and dated to his 4th regnal year, two naoses housing two statues each of Neferhotep as well as a pedestal bearing Neferhoteps and Sobekhotep IVs cartouches have been found in Karnak. King lists Beyond these contemporary attestations, Neferhotep is listed on the 34th entry of the Karnak king list as well as the 7th column, 25th row of the Turin canon. The Turin king list credits Neferhotep with a reign of 11 years and 1 to 4 months, Neferhotep Is relative chronological position is secured thanks to the Turin canon as well as contemporary attestations
Neferhotep I
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Statue of Neferhotep I from the Faiyum, Archaeological Museum of Bologna.
Neferhotep I
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Inscription on Sehel island showing Anukis giving the life sign to Neferhotep I.
76.
Merhotepre Sobekhotep
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Merhotepre Sobekhotep was an Egyptian king of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologist Kim Ryholt he was the pharaoh of the dynasty. In older studies, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke identified Merhotepre Sobekhotep with Merhotepre Ini, thereby making him Sobekhotep VI, the identity of Merhotepre Sobekhotep is debatable because his name is missing from the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period. According to Kim Ryholt, Merhotepre Sobekhotep is missing from the list because he was listed in the line below that of Sobekhotep IV and this line was lost in a lacuna of the papyrus. That this king must have ruled during the 13th dynasty however is uncontested since a seated statue of the king bearing his cartouche has been found and is now located in the Cairo Museum. Furthermore, Ryholt points to the rulers of the period who shared prenomen. Ryholt thus sees him as a ruler from Merhotepre Ini. Merhotepre Sobekhoteps position following the reign of Sobekhotep IV is strongly suggested by the fact that five 13th dynasty pharaohs are attested by seals which mention their parents. Four of these pharaohs are known to have been Sobekhotep III, Neferhotep I, but two genealogical seals bear name of the rulers mother as The kings Mother Nubhotepti and the king as Sobekhotep. However, Sobekhotep IIIs mother was Jewhetibew whereas Neferhotep I, Sihathor and this means that there was a different king named Sobekhotep who used genealogical seals in his lifetime. This seal impression is likely, therefore, to have made by the paternal counterpart to the seal naming Nubhotepti. Thus, Merkawre Sobekhotep would not have used it in his reign since he was the successor of Sobekhotep IV. Merhotepre Sobekhotep employed genealogical seals and his name was lost in a lacuna at the bottom of a column of the Turin canon
Merhotepre Sobekhotep
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A seated Statue of Merhotepre Sobekhotep V from the Cairo Museum, on display at the King Tut exhibit in Seattle. It clearly bears both his royal names.
77.
Sewahenre Senebmiu
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Sewahenre Senebmiu is a poorly attested Egyptian pharaoh of the late 13th dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath, he was the forty-first king of the 13th dynasty, alternatively, Darrell Baker proposes that he may have been its fifty-seventh ruler. Kim Ryholt only specifies that Senebmius short reign dates to between 1660 BC and 1649 BC, Senebmiu is a poorly attested pharaoh. Senebmius prenomen Sewahenre may nonetheless have been preserved on column 8, line 16 of the papyrus. Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt note that this attribution is far from certain as it could also correspond to another king of this period with the name Sekhaenre. Otherwise, Senebmiu is attested on entry 49 of the Karnak king list, contemporary attestations of Senebmiu are few and all originate from Upper Egypt. Darrell Baker and Daphna Ben Tor suggest that this may signal that the 13th dynasty had lost control of Lower, a fragment of a limestone stele discovered by G. W. Fraser in 1893 in Gebelein and now in the British Museum bears the mention The son of Ra, of his body, the stele once depicted the king wearing the double crown and probably making an offering, but most of the relief is lost. Another attestation of Senebmiu was uncovered in the temple of Mentuhotep II at Deir el-Bahri
Sewahenre Senebmiu
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Drawing by Wallis Budge of a fragment of a limestone stele of Senebmiu, from Gebelein.
78.
Merkheperre
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Merkheperre was an Egyptian pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period reigning some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC. As such Merkheperre would have reigned either over Upper Egypt from Thebes or over Middle, at the time, the Eastern Nile Delta was under the domination of the 14th Dynasty. Merkheperre appears on the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period, according to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, the canon gives his prenomen on the 8th column, line 17. The Turin papyrus is damaged on the covering the late 13th dynasty. Merkheperre is also attested by two dating to his reign, a glazed weight of grey schist bearing his cartouche, now in the Petrie Museum UC16372. Although the scarab is accepted as evidence of Merkheperre by Darrell Baker, Jürgen von Beckerath, Stephen Quirke and others, Ryholt points to its lack of royal attributes and insignia as well as its stylistic features which depart from other royal seals of the 13th dynasty. Rather, Ryholt proposes that the scarab simply represents Kheper pushing the sun, the exact chronological position of Merkheperre is not known for certain as the damaged state of the Turin canon only allows for conjectural reconstructions of the late 13th dynasty. According to Ryholt he was the ruler of the dynasty, while Baker sees him as the forty-sixth
Merkheperre
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Scarab seal of pharaoh Merkheperre, now in the British Museum BM EA 42204.
79.
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt was a series of rulers reigning during the Second Intermediate Period over the Nile Delta region of Egypt. It lasted between 75 and 155 years, depending on the scholar, the capital of the dynasty was probably Avaris. The 14th dynasty existed concurrently with the 13th dynasty based in Memphis, names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king Nehesy and queen Tati. More commonly, the 14th dynasty is grouped with the 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th in the Second Intermediate Period. Such are the gaps in the knowledge of the 14th dynasty, egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that the 14th dynasty emerged during the late 12th dynasty, c.1805 BC, during or shortly after Sobekneferus rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared its independence, according to Ryholt, the 14th dynasty thus lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the Hyksos 15th dynasty, c.1650 BC, i. e. lasting 155 years. 1720 BC, after the reign of Sobekhotep IV. e. after c.1700 BC. The same famine may have affected the 13th dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, the weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c.1650 BC. The Manethonian tradition credits the fourteenth dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from Xois rather than Avaris, however, egyptologist Kim Ryholt notes that the Turin canon mentions only c.56 kings and does not have enough space to have recorded over 70 kings. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris which revealed the existence of a royal palace dating to the second intermediate period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-sized, for these reasons, Ryholt and most egyptologists share the view that Avaris rather than Xois was the seat of power of the 14th dynasty. The precise borders of the 14th dynasty state are not known due to the scarcity of monuments left by this dynasty. Seals attributable to the 14th dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper-Egypt, then 13th dynasty territory, to the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast and as far north as Tell Kabri, in modern-day Israel. This indicates the existence of an important trade with the 13th dynasty, Canaanite city-states, Ryholt further proposes that king Sheshi, whom he sees as a 14th dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom. The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin canon and is accepted, except for the first five rulers. Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a seriation of their seals and his conclusions are debated however in Ben Tors study of the strata levels in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that Sheshis, Ammus and Yakbims reigns date to the half of the Hyksos 15th dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Thus according to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings reigning in the Nile Delta and their identities and chronological position remain unclear, K. S. B
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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In orange, the territory possibly under control of the 14th dynasty according to Ryholt.
80.
Yakbim Sekhaenre
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Sekhaenre Yakbim or Yakbmu was a ruler during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. His name never appears inside a cartouche, which was a pharaonic prerogative, nevertheless, on his seals he is called the good god, Sekhaenre. There is no evidence that Yakbims throne name was Sekhaenre. Assuming that Ward was right, Sekhaenre Yakbim is attested by a remarkable 123 seals, based on that, Ryholt estimated for him a reign length of around 25 years, in the interval 1805–1780 BCE
Yakbim Sekhaenre
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Scarab seal of Sekhaenre, now likely in the Petrie Museum
81.
Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
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Nubwoserre Yaammu was a ruler during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. This ruler seems to have little use of the cartouche — which was a pharaonic prerogative — since it was used only for the throne name, Nubwoserre. His personal name never appears inside a cartouche, and is reported as the son of Ra. The Turin King List can not help with this issue since the ruler does not appear on it, however, about the events of his reign absolutely nothing is known. Israeli Egyptologist Raphael Giveon identifies Yaammu with his proposed predecessor Yakbim
Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
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Drawing of a scarab seal of Nubwoserre. Petrie Museum (UC16597)
82.
Qareh
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Qareh Khawoserre was possibly the third king of the Canaanite 14th Dynasty of Egypt, who reigned over the eastern Nile Delta from Avaris during the Second Intermediate Period. His reign is believed to have lasted about 10 years, from 1770 BC until 1760 BC or later, alternatively, Qareh could have been a later vassal of the Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty and would then be classified as a king of the 16th Dynasty. Qarehs name is West Semitic and means The bald one and his existence is only attested by thirty royal seals inscribed with his name, only one of which has a known provenance, Jericho in Canaan. Qarehs name was misread as Qar, Qur, and Qal. The egyptologist Kim Ryholt equates Qareh with the prenomen Khawoserre, which is only attested through scarab seals. Qarehs chronological position is uncertain, with Ryholt and Darrell Baker placing him as the king of the 14th dynasty based on the style of his seals. On the other hand, Thomas Schneider and Jürgen von Beckerath see him as a ruler of the 16th dynasty, alternatively, James Peter Allen proposes that he was an Hyksos ruler of the early 15th dynasty
Qareh
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Scarab of pharaoh Qareh.
83.
Aahotepre
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Ammu Ahotepre was a minor Hyksos pharaoh of Dynasty XIV of ancient Egypt. Ryholt identified Ammu Ahotepre in his reconstruction of the Turin canon, von Beckerath had previously assigned the praenomen Ahotepre to a pharaoh of Dynasty XVI. von Beckerath, Jürgen,2. Zwischenzeit, Archiv für Orientforschung Hayes, William C, Egypt, From the death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800 -1550 BC, Copenhagen, Museum Tusculanum Press, ISBN 87-7289-421-0
Aahotepre
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Scarab seal of Ahotepre, Petrie Museum.
84.
Sheshi
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Maaibre Sheshi was a ruler of areas of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. The dynasty, chronological position, duration and extent of his reign are uncertain, the difficulty of identification is mirrored by problems in determining events from the end of the Middle Kingdom to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt. Hundreds of scaraboid seals bearing his name have been found throughout Canaan, Egypt, Nubia, three competing hypotheses have been put forth for the dynasty to which Sheshi belonged. Salitis is credited with 19 years of reign and would have lived some time between c.1720 BC and 1650 BC. The Egyptologist William Ayres Ward and the archaeologist Daphna Ben-Tor propose that Sheshi was a Hyksos king and belongs to the half of the 15th Dynasty. Alternatively, Manfred Bietak has proposed that Sheshi was a vassal of the Hyksos, the very existence of such vassals is debated. Finally, Sheshi could be a ruler of the early 14th Dynasty, proponents of this theory, such as Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, credit Sheshi with 40 years of reign starting c.1745 BC. Ryholt proposed that Sheshi allied his kingdom with the Kushites in Nubia via a marriage with the Nubian princess Tati. Ryholt further posits that the son of Sheshi and Tati was Nehesy, whose name means The Nubian, the nomen of Sheshi is inscribed on over two hundred scarab seals, which constitute the sole attestations of his reign. The number of scarabs attributed to Sheshi is paralleled in number only by those bearing the prenomen Maaibre, based on the close stylistic similarities between both groups of scarabs as well as their otherwise unmatched numbers, The consensus among Egyptologists is that Maaibre was the prenomen of Sheshi. This figure is three times higher than the 123 seals attributed to the next best attested king of the period, Yakbim Sekhaenre. In addition to seals, Manfred Bietak has suggested that a scarab discovered in Avaris. This conclusion is rejected by Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, who believe that Shenshek was a separate king, important finds include seals from Lachish, Gezer, Jericho, Tel Michal, Amman and Tell el-Ajjul in Canaan. In Lower Egypt, three seals have been unearthed in Tell el-Yahudiya and Tell el-Mashkuta and a further eight are from the wider Delta region. Four seals originate from Saqqara and a five from the Middle Egyptian sites of Abusir el-Melek, Kom Medinet Ghurab, Kom el-Ahmar. Finally, two seal impressions of Sheshi have been found in Carthage, in a context dated archeologically to the 2nd century BC, no historical attestation of Sheshi is known for certain. Sheshi is absent from the Turin canon, a list of written on papyrus during the Ramesside period. This is because the section of the covering the 13th to 17th Dynasties is heavily damaged
Sheshi
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Scarab seal inscribed with "The son of Ra, Sheshi, given life".
Sheshi
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Seal reading "The Son of Ra, Sheshi, living for ever", Walters Art Museum.
Sheshi
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Seal reading "The son of Ra, Sheshi, living forever", Walters Art Museum.
Sheshi
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Scarab of Sheshi reading "The good god Maaibre, given life".
85.
Nebefawre
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The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt was a series of rulers reigning during the Second Intermediate Period over the Nile Delta region of Egypt. It lasted between 75 and 155 years, depending on the scholar, the capital of the dynasty was probably Avaris. The 14th dynasty existed concurrently with the 13th dynasty based in Memphis, names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king Nehesy and queen Tati. More commonly, the 14th dynasty is grouped with the 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th in the Second Intermediate Period. Such are the gaps in the knowledge of the 14th dynasty, egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that the 14th dynasty emerged during the late 12th dynasty, c.1805 BC, during or shortly after Sobekneferus rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared its independence, according to Ryholt, the 14th dynasty thus lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the Hyksos 15th dynasty, c.1650 BC, i. e. lasting 155 years. 1720 BC, after the reign of Sobekhotep IV. e. after c.1700 BC. The same famine may have affected the 13th dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, the weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c.1650 BC. The Manethonian tradition credits the fourteenth dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from Xois rather than Avaris, however, egyptologist Kim Ryholt notes that the Turin canon mentions only c.56 kings and does not have enough space to have recorded over 70 kings. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris which revealed the existence of a royal palace dating to the second intermediate period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-sized, for these reasons, Ryholt and most egyptologists share the view that Avaris rather than Xois was the seat of power of the 14th dynasty. The precise borders of the 14th dynasty state are not known due to the scarcity of monuments left by this dynasty. Seals attributable to the 14th dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper-Egypt, then 13th dynasty territory, to the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast and as far north as Tell Kabri, in modern-day Lebanon. This indicates the existence of an important trade with the 13th dynasty, Canaanite city-states, Ryholt further proposes that king Sheshi, whom he sees as a 14th dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom. The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin canon and is accepted, except for the first five rulers. Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a seriation of their seals and his conclusions are debated however in Ben Tors study of the strata levels in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that Sheshis, Ammus and Yakbims reigns date to the half of the Hyksos 15th dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Thus according to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings reigning in the Nile Delta and their identities and chronological position remain unclear, K. S. B
Nebefawre
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In orange, the territory possibly under control of the 14th dynasty according to Ryholt.
86.
'Apepi
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Apepi was a ruler of some part of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1650 BC. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Apepi was the fifty-first ruler of the 14th Dynasty, as such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees Apepi as a member of the late 16th Dynasty, Apepis only secure attestation is the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the Ramesside period. Apepi is listed on a fragment of the document corresponding to column 10, the chronological position of Apepi cannot be ascertained beyond doubt due to the fragile and fragmentary state of the canon. Furthermore, the document preserves only the beginning of Apepis prenomen as Ap. which, Ryholt argues, ryholts reconstruction of the name of Apepi is significant because five scarab seals inscribed with Kings son Apophis are known. On two of these seals the inscription is furthermore enclosed in a cartouche and followed by di-ˁnḫ meaning given life and these two attributes are normally reserved to kings or designated heirs to the throne and Apepi could be the Apophis referred to on the seals. Tentatively confirming this attribution, Ryholt notes that both scarabs can be dated on stylistic grounds to the 14th Dynasty, between the reigns of Sheshi and Yaqub-Har
'Apepi
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Scarab of "king's son Apepi", who may be 'Apepi
87.
Yaqub-Har
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Meruserre Yaqub-Har was a pharaoh of Egypt during the 17th or 16th century BCE. As he reigned during Egypts fragmented Second Intermediate Period, it is difficult to date his reign precisely and even the dynasty to which he belonged is uncertain. The dynasty to which Yaqub-Har belongs is debated, with Yaqub-Har being seen variously as a 14th dynasty king, Yaqub-Har is attested by no less than 27 scarab seals. Three are from Canaan, four from Egypt, one from Nubia, the wide geographic repartition of these scarabs indicate the existence of trade relations among the Nile Delta, Canaan and Nubia during the second intermediate period. The 14th Dynasty of Egypt was a Canaanite dynasty, which ruled the eastern Delta region just prior to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt. The Danish specialist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Yaqub-Har was a king of the late 14th Dynasty, first, Ryholt points to a scarab seal of Yaqub-Har which was discovered during excavations in Tel Shikmona in modern-day Israel. The archaeological context of the seal was dated the MB IIB period, since the name Yaqub-Har may have a West Semitic origin, meaning Protected by Har, Yaqub-Har would then be a 14th dynasty ruler. This change happened under Khyan who ruled as the Heka-Khawaset early in his reign, later Hyksos kings, such as Apophis, abandoned the Heka-Khawaset title and retained instead the customary Egyptian prenomen, just like the kings of the 14th dynasty. Ryholt then notes that Yaqub-Har himself always used a prenomen, Meruserre, since the end of the 15th dynasty is known not to have included a ruler by the name of Meruserre, Ryholt concludes that Yaqub-Har was a 14th dynasty ruler. As Ben-Tor writes, Supporting evidence for the Fifteenth Dynasty affiliation of King Yaqubhar is provided by the stylistic similarity between his scarabs and the scarabs of King Khayan. Jacobovici ignores the fact that Yaqub-Har is a well-attested pharaoh of the Second Intermediate Period, and Yakov and variants are common Semitic names from the period
Yaqub-Har
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Drawing of a scarab of Yaqub-Har by Flinders Petrie
88.
Aperanat
–
Aper-Anati was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in the mid-17th century BC. According to Jürgen von Beckerath he was the king of the 16th Dynasty. This opinion was rejected by Kim Ryholt. In his 1997 study of the intermediate period, Ryholt argues that the kings of the 16th Dynasty ruled an independent Theban realm c. Consequently, Ryholt sees Aper-Anati as an early Hyksos king of the 15th Dynasty and this analysis has convinced some egyptologists, such as Darrell Baker and Janine Bourriau, but not others including Stephen Quirke. Aper-Anati is only known from a single scarab-seal, now in the Petrie Museum, on the scarab he is given the title of Heka-chasut, which translates as Ruler of the Foreign Lands and from which the word Hyksos is derived. Significantly, this title was borne by the early Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty, based on this evidence, Ryholt tentatively proposes that Aper-Anati was the second ruler of the 15th dynasty, but points out that this identification is not certain
Aperanat
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Scarab seal of 'Aper-'Anati made of glazed steatite. London, Petrie Museum.
89.
Khyan
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Seuserenre Khyan, Khian or Khayan was a king of the Hyksos Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt. His royal name Seuserenre translates as The one whom Re has caused to be strong, Khyan bears the titles of an Egyptian king, but also the title ruler of the foreign land. The later title is the designation of the Hyksos rulers. Khyan is one of the better attested kings from the Hyksos period, known from many seals, remarkable are objects with his name found at Knossos and Hattusha indicating diplomatic contacts with Crete and the Hittites. A sphinx with his name was bought on the art market at Baghdad, the remains of a palace were recently excavated at Avaris. Seal impressions of Khyan were found there, indicating that this was his palace, Khyan is identified with king Iannas in the works of Josephus whose knowledge of the Hyksos Pharaohs was derived from a history of Egypt written by Manetho. Josephus mentions him after Apophis when discussing the lengths of kings who ruled after Salitis. This led 18th century scholars such as Arthur Bedford to place Khyan after Apophis towards the end of the Hyksos dynasty, however, in Africanus version of Manethos Epitome, Khyan is listed after a king Pachnan, perhaps Yaqub-Har. Stylistically Khyans scarabs resemble closely those of Yaqub-Har, who might date rather to the beginning and this indicates that Khyan was one of the earlier rulers of the 15th dynasty. The early position of Khyan within the 15th dynasty may be confirmed by new finds at Edfu. These conclusions are rejected by Robert Porter who argues that Khyan ruled much later than Sobekhotep IV, another option he proposed is that Sobekhotep IV reigned much later as previously thought. A stela of Khyan mentioning a kings son was also discovered at Avaris, manfred Bietak observed that, a stela set up in Avaris contains the nomen and prenomen of Khyan and a now lost dedication below which are inscribed the title and name of the Eldest Kings Son Yanassi. Ryholt notes that the name, Khyan, generally has been interpreted as Amorite Hayanu which the Egyptian form represents perfectly, and it should be stressed that Khyans name was not original and had been in use for centuries prior to the fifteenth Hyksos Dynasty. The name Hayanu is recorded in the Assyrian king lists—see Khorsabad List I,17, kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B. C. Museum Tuscalanum Press,463 pages, ISBN 87-7289-421-0
Khyan
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Lion inscribed with the cartouche of Khyan, British Museum, EA 987.
90.
Khamudi
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Khamudi was the last Hyksos ruler of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Khamudi came to power in 1534 BC or 1541 BC, ruling the northern portion of Egypt from his capital Avaris and his ultimate defeat at the hands of Ahmose I, after a short reign, marks the end of the Second Intermediate Period. Khamudi is listed on the Turin canon, column 10, line 28 as the last Hyksos king, beyond this, only two scarab seals are firmly attributed to him, both from Jericho. Additionally, a seal of unknown provenance but possibly from Byblos is inscribed with a cartouche which may read Khamudi. This reading is contested by the egyptologist Kim Ryholt who proposed that the cartouche reads Kandy instead and refers to an hitherto unknown king. In any case, even if the cartouche bears Khamudis name, the seal is currently housed in the Petrie Museum, catalog number UC11616. Based on the scarcity of material dating to Khamudis reign, Ryholt has proposed that his reign must have been short, amounting to no more than a year. In this situation, Khamudi would have inherited more than the Hyksos throne, being possibly already besieged in Sharuhen. This is contested by scholars, such as Manfred Bietak. Bietak and many believe that this year 11 belongs to Khamudi since the text of the papyrus refers to Ahmose I. Since he of the South must denote the Theban ruler Ahmose, the Hyksos capital Avaris will have fallen to Ahmose not much later. Another date on the papyrus is dated to Year 33 of Khamudis predecessor Apepi. It is generally believed that Ahmose I defeated the Hyksos king by his 18th or 19th regnal year and this is suggested by a graffito in the quarry at Tura whereby oxen from Canaan were used at the opening of the quarry in Ahmoses regnal year 22
Khamudi
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Cylinder seal with a cartouche possibly reading "Khamudi".
91.
Djehuti
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Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuti was possibly the second king of the Theban 16th Dynasty reigning over parts of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Alternatively, he may be a king of the late 13th Dynasty or the king of the 17th Dynasty. Djehuty is credited with a reign of 3 years in the first entry of the 11th column of the Turin canon, according to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was succeeded by Sobekhotep VIII. Indeed, on point, the Turin Canon is open to interpretations. There are several recorded with the name Sekhemre and the damage to the original document does not preserve the complete name. As a result, Djehuti, named Sekhemre Sementawy, may in principle correspond to any Sekhemre preserved on the king list, i. e. may be a ruler of the 13th, 16th and even 17th Dynasty. The Egyptologists Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt believe that he was part of the 16th Dynasty, alternatively, two studies by Claude Vandersleyen and Christina Geisen date Djehutis reign to the very end of the Memphite 13th Dynasty. Geisens datation relies on stylistic considerations of his queens coffin, which however and this theory is supported by the discovery of the tomb of Djehutis queen, Mentuhotep, which is located in Dra Abu el-Naga, a necropolis usually associated with the 17th Dynasty. Scholars such as Chris Bennett however, point out that this not necessarily mean that Djehuti was buried in Dra Abu el-Naga as well. Djehuti is attested on the Turin canon and the Karnak king list, all of Djehutis contemporary attestions come from a 145 kilometres long stretch of the Nile valley from Deir el-Ballas in the north to Edfu in the south. This roughly corresponds to the territory in the sphere of influence of the rulers of the 16th dynasty, Djehutis nomen and prenomen are known from a single block discovered by Flinders Petrie in Deir el-Ballas. Queen Mentuhoteps tomb was found intact in 1822 and her coffin was inscribed with one of the earliest cases of the texts from the Book of the Dead. Mentuhoteps cosmetic box bears Djehutis nomen, prenomen and cartouche together with funerary formulae and it has been suggested that the unattributed Southern South Saqqara pyramid may have been built for Djehuti. This hypothesis is based on an inscription found within the pyramid. A possible reference to Weserkhau i. e. Djehutis Golden Horus name
Djehuti
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Djehuti on a block from Edfu
Djehuti
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Cosmetics box of queen Mentuhotep, wife of Djehuti. The box may have been intended to be the king's canopic chest.
92.
Sobekhotep VIII
–
Sekhemre Seusertawy Sobekhotep VIII was possibly the third king of the 16th Dynasty of Egypt reigning over the Theban region in Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Alternatively, he may be a ruler of the 13th or 17th Dynasty. If he was a king of the 16th Dynasty, Sobekhotep VIII would be credited 16 years of reign by the Turin canon, starting c.1650 BC, at the time of the Hyksos invasion of Egypt. The 2nd line of the 11th column of the Turin canon reads Sekhemre and refers, according to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, to Sekhemre Seusertawy, if this identification is correct, then Sobekhotep VIII reigned for 16 years as the third king of the 16th Dynasty. This would make him the successor of Djehuti and the predecessor to Neferhotep III. In older studies by Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath and Labib Habachi, the only contemporary attestation of Sobekhotep VIII is a stela found inside the third pylon at Karnak. This stela was used as material to fill the pylon during Amenhotep IIIs extensive works at the site
Sobekhotep VIII
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Sobekhotep VIII (left) facing the god Hapi, from the Inundation Stela
93.
Neferhotep III
–
Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III Iykhernofret was the third or fourth ruler of the Theban 16th Dynasty, reigning after Sobekhotep VIII according to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker. He is assigned a reign of 1 year in the Turin Canon and is primarily by a single stela from Thebes. In an older study, Von Beckerath dated Neferhotep III to the end of the 13th Dynasty, in the heavily damaged stela, Neferhotep III repeatedly calls Thebes my city and praises himself as the guide of victorious Thebes. This emphasis on Thebes is understood by Ryholt as showing that Neferhotep III reigned exclusively over the Theban region, in his Theban stela, Neferhotep III emphasizes his role as provider of food for his people stating that he who nourishes his city, saving it from famine. This, together with his royal name Sekhemre Sanhktawy, The might of Ra, another king of the period, Senusret IV, adopted a similar royal name. Neferhotep III got certainly embroiled in a war against the Hyksos 15th Dynasty. Neferhotep praises himself on his stela as He who raises his city, interestingly, the stela is thought to be the first object mentioning the Khepresh crown. Neferhotep is said to be Adorned with the Khepresh, the image of Re
Neferhotep III
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Neferhotep III (right) on the stela JE 59635
94.
Semenre
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Semenre, also Smenre or Semenenre, is a poorly attested Theban pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt who succeeded the equally obscure Nebiriau II. He reigned from 1601 to 1600 BC or ca.1580 BC, for this ruler only the Throne name is known, carved on a tin-bronze axe head of unknown provenance, now in the Petrie Museum, London. He is possibly also listed on the Turin Canon, semenre was succeeded by Seuserenre Bebiankh who left behind more traces of building projects and mining activity in his reign than most kings of this dynasty with the exception of Djehuti. The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C
Semenre
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Axehead with the name of Semenre, Petrie Museum UC30079
95.
Bebiankh
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Seuserenre Bebiankh was a native Ancient Egyptian king of the 16th Theban Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period and, according to Kim Ryholt, the successor of king Semenre. He is assigned a reign of 12 years in the Turin Canon, Bebiankh was succeeded either by a poorly known king named Sekhemre Shedwast or by the equally shadowy ruler Seneferankhre Pepi III. This modest stela records this kings activities in the Gebel Zeit galena mines and he is also known to have built an extension to the Temple of Medamud. Bebiankhs nomen was also found on a dagger found in Naqada and now in the British Museum
Bebiankh
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Bronze dagger bearing the inscription "The son of Ra, Bebiankh, given life". British Museum EA 66062.
96.
Dedumose II
–
Djedneferre Dedumose II was a native Ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was a ruler of the Theban 16th Dynasty, alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath, Thomas Schneider and Detlef Franke see him as a king of the 13th Dynasty. Williams and other place Dedumose as the last king of Egypts 13th Dynasty, precise dates for Dedumose are unknown, but according to the commonly accepted Egyptian chronology his reign probably ended around 1690 BC. There have been attempts by the revisionist historians Immanuel Velikovsky and David Rohl to identify him as the Pharaoh of the Exodus, Djedneferre Dedumose II is known from a stela originally from Gebelein which is now in the Cairo Museum. On the stela Dedumose claims to have raised for kingship. Attempts have been made to link Dedumose to the story of Tutimaios or Timaios, his conflict with the Hyksos and his fall, however, the link between Dedumose and Tutimaios is tenuous at best and not supported by linguistic or historical facts. David Rohls 1995 A Test of Time attempted to change views on Egyptian history by shortening the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt by almost 300 years, as a by-result the synchronisms with the biblical narrative have changed, making the 13th Dynasty pharaoh Djedneferre Dedumose the pharaoh of the Exodus. Rohls theory, however, has failed to support among most scholars in his field
Dedumose II
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Stele CG 20533 of Djedneferre Dedumose II from Gebelein.
97.
Merankhre Mentuhotep
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Merankhre Mentuhotep VI was a Theban king of the 16th dynasty based in Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. He was perhaps the 14th king of the dynasty, Merankhre Mentuhotep is only attested through two statuettes, JE 37418/CG42021 and BM EA65429. The first, discovered in the Karnak cachette, is missing its head and feet and gives the nomen and prenomen as well as a dedication to the goddess Sobek. The second statuette whose origin is unknown also bears the titulary of the king, another possible attestation of Merankhre Mentuhotep VI is given by a fragment of a wooden coffin, now in the British Museum under the catalog number BM EA29997. The coffin bears the text, The prenomen of the king Mentuhotep is missing. Kim Ryholt notes however that the coffin is also inscribed with a version of passages of the Book of the Dead. Thus, Ryholt argues that this Mentuhotep must have reigned during the second intermediate period. Thus three kings could possibly be the one mentioned on the coffin, Seankhenre Mentuhotepi, Sewadjare Mentuhotep V, although it sounds similar to Mentuhotep, Ryholt has shown that Mentuhotepi is a different name than Mentuhotep and would therefore not have been reported as Mentuhotep. In this case, the text is almost identical to that found on Herunefers coffin, while Sewadjare Mentuhotep reigned c.10 years before Djehuti, Merankhre Mentuhotep is believed to have reigned 60 years after him. Hence, Ryholt concludes that Sewadjare Mentuhotep is the Mentuhotep of the coffin, Sitmut his queen and Herunefer his son. Merankhre Mentuhotep is not attested on the fragments of the Turin canon, his reign. For this reason, the chronological position as well as the length of his reign cannot be ascertained. Ryholt proposes that Merankhre Mentuhotep was a king of the late 16th dynasty based on two arguments, first, his prenomen Merankhre has the form X-ankh-re, similar to that of Djedankhre Montemsaf and both kings bear the nomen Montu-X which indicates that they succeeded one another closely in time. In an older study conducted in 1964 by Jürgen von Beckerath, Merankhre Mentuhotep was classified as a king of the 13th dynasty
Merankhre Mentuhotep
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Statue of Mentuhotep VI, British Museum EA 65429.
98.
Senusret IV
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Senusret IV Seneferibre was an ancient Egyptian Theban king during the late Second Intermediate Period that is attested only through finds from Upper Egypt. The chronological position of Senusret IV is unclear and even the dynasty to which he belongs is debated. According to Jürgen von Beckerath Senusret IV belonged to the late 13th dynasty, alternatively, Norbert Dautzenberg proposed that Senusret IV is part of the 17th dynasty. Dautzenberg bases this hypothesis on his reading of entry 11.4 of the Turin canon as referring to Senusret IV. He also attributes graffiti on a gate of the Medamud temple mentioning a king Senusret to Senusret IV since the gate was decorated by Sobekemsaf I, both arguments are rejected by Ryholt, first, Ryholt notes that the Turin canon entry 11. In the new arrangement the dynasty of Senusret IV is left partially undetermined, Senusret IV is attested on the Karnak king list under his prenomen Seneferre. The most important contemporary attestation of the king is a 2m 75 cm tall statue of him, sculpted in pink granite. Finally, a lintel from Edfu and an axe-blade bearing the nomen Senusret have also attributed to Senusret IV based on stylistic considerations. In the case of the axe blade however, some have attributed it to Senusret I
Senusret IV
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Colossal statue CG 42026 of Senusret IV, discovered in 1901 by Georges Legrain in Karnak.
99.
Wepwawetemsaf
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Sekhemraneferkhau Wepwawetemsaf was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was a king of the Abydos Dynasty, alternatively, the egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath sees Wepwawetemsaf as a king of the late 13th Dynasty, while Marcel Marée proposes that he was a king of the late 16th Dynasty. The only contemporaneous attestation of Wepwawetemsafs reign is a stele of exceptionally crude quality discovered in Abydos. The stele shows the king before the god Wepwawet, lord of Abydos and is described as of poor worksmanship. The stela was produced by an operating in Abydos. Other stelae produced by this workshop belong to king Rahotep and king Pantjeny, the egyptologist Marcel Marée therefore concludes that these three kings reigned quite close in time. He believes that the stela of Pantjeny was made by a different artist, while the stelae of Rahotep and he argues that Wepwawetemsaf reigned directly after king Rahotep. 2 at Beni Hasan belonging to the 12th Dynasty nomarch Amenemhat and located about 250 km north of Abydos, the graffito has been tentatively read by Beckerath as Sekhemreneferkhau but this remains uncertain as the original is now lost. The Abydos Dynasty thus designates a group of local kinglets reigning for a time in central Egypt. Ryholt notes that Wepwawetemsaf is only attested in central Egypt and that his name comprises the theophoric reference to the Abydene god Wepwawet, thus he concludes that Wepwawetemsaf most likely ruled from Abydos and belongs to the Abydos Dynasty. This conclusion is shared by Darrell Baker but not by Beckerath, the egyptologist Marcel Marée also rejects Ryholts hypothesis and instead holds that Wepwawetemsaf is a king of the late 16th Dynasty. Marée therefore concludes that Rahotep, Pantjeny and Wepwawetemsaf reigned quite close in time and this reasoning also precludes the existence of an Abydos Dynasty c.1650 BC
Wepwawetemsaf
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Stele of Wepwawetemsaf, drawing made in 1913 by Wallis Budge
100.
Pantjeny
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Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was a king of the Abydos Dynasty, alternatively, Pantjeny could be a king of the late 16th Dynasty. According to Jürgen von Beckerath, Pantjeny is to be identified with Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw, Pantjeny is known from a single limestone stela of exceptionally crude quality found in Abydos by Flinders Petrie. The stele is dedicated to the kings son Djehuty-aa and to the kings daughter Hotepneferu, the stela is in the British Museum under the catalog number BM EA630. The stela was produced by an operating in Abydos. Other stelae produced by this workshop belong to king Rahotep and king Wepwawetemsaf, all three kings reigned therefore quite close in time. The Abydos Dynasty thus designates a group of local kinglets reigning for a time in central Egypt. Ryholt notes that Pantjeny is attested by a find from Abydos and furthermore that his name means He of Thinis. Thus he concludes that Pantjeny most likely ruled from Abydos and belongs to the Abydos Dynasty, as such, Pantjeny would have ruled over parts of central Egypt and would have been contemporary with the 15th and 16th Dynasties. The egyptologist Marcel Marée rejects Ryholts hypothesis and instead holds that Pantjeny is a king of the late 16th Dynasty. Indeed, Marée notes that the workshop which produced Pantjenys stele is also responsible for the production of the stelae of Wepwawetemsaf and Rahotep, Marée therefore concludes that Rahotep, Pantjeny and Wepwawetemsaf reigned quite close in time. This reasoning also precludes the existence of an Abydos Dynasty c.1650 BC
Pantjeny
–
Limestone stele depicting prince Djehuti-Aa and princess Hotepneferu and bearing the cartouches of pharaoh Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny.
101.
Nebmaatre
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Nebmaatre is the prenomen of a poorly attested ruler of the late Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. Nebmaatre may have been a member of the early 17th dynasty, alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Nebmaatre was a ruler of the late 16th Dynasty. The prenomen Nebmaatre is attested on a bronze axe-head discovered in a tomb at Mostagedda in Middle Egypt, the same prenomen is inscribed on a black steatite amulet representing a lion of unknown provenance and now in the Petrie Museum under the catalog number 11587. A degree of uncertainty affects the ownership of these artifacts since Amenhotep IIIs prenomen was Nebmaatre as well, instead Petrie suggested that the amulet be attributable to Ibi, an obscure ruler of the late 13th dynasty whose prenomen is partially preserved in Turin canon as maatre. However, Kim Ryholts recent study of the Turin canon precludes this identification as a stroke in the lacuna just prior to maatre rules out the hieroglyph for neb. The chronological position of Nebmaatre in the intermediate period is highly uncertain. The egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath proposes that Nebmaatre was a ruler of a compounded 15th-16th dynasty, alternatively, Kim Ryholt put forth the hypothesis that Nebmaatre was a king of the 17th dynasty, although he left his position in the dynasty unspecified. Ryholts datation is based on the observation that the axe-head bearing Nebmaatres name was found in a tomb belonging to the Pan-grave culture, the Pan-grave people were Nubian mercenaries employed by rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt in their fight against the Hyksos foe. Egyptologist Darrell Baker points out that the Theban rulers of the period might indeed have provided weapons to their mercenaries. Nebmaatre was the prenomen of pharaoh Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty whose reign marked the apex of Egypts power, a 20th dynasty prince and High priest of Ra in Heliopolis was also named Nebmaatre
Nebmaatre
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Base of the lion amulet of Nebmaatre, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 11587).
102.
Sobekemsaf II
–
Sobekemsaf II was an Egyptian king of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt who reigned during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was ruled by multiple kings. His throne name, Sekhemre Shedtawy, means Powerful is Re, Ryholt believed that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf intervened between the line of Intef kings and the accession of Senakhtenre—the first 17th Dynasty kings from the Ahmoside family line. This means that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf ruled on the throne before the Intef kings took power early in the 17th Dynasty—and that he would be Sobekemsaf I instead and the father of Sobekemsaf II. Sobekemsaf II would, therefore, be the son of Sobekemsaf I, the Abbott and Leopold-Amherst Papyruses, which are dated to Year 16 of Ramesses IX, state that this kings royal pyramid tomb was violated and destroyed by tomb robbers. The document ends with the conviction of the thieves—with a probable death sentence—and notes that a copy of the trial transcripts was dispatched to Ramesses IX in Lower Egypt. Amenpnufer himself would have been sentenced to death by impalement, a punishment which was reserved for the most heinous crimes in Ancient Egypt, kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B. C, Museum Tuscalanum Press,1997. ISBN 87-7289-421-0,393 File 17/2 Leonard Cottrell, The Lost Pharaohs, Pan Books London and Sydney, 8th printing,1977
Sobekemsaf II
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Sobekemsaf's cartouches on the top of a stele for a scribe.
103.
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
–
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef is sometimes referred to as Intef V, and sometimes as Intef VI. His nomen, Intef-aa, translates as His father brought him, the great or Intef and he ruled from Thebes, and was probably buried in a tomb in the necropolis. His rishi coffin, Louvre E3019, was discovered in the 19th century and found to preserve an inscription which reveals that this kings brother Nubkheperre Intef buried – and thus succeeded – him. While his own tomb has not been located, it was located in the area of Dra Abu el-Naga where the pyramid tomb of his brother Nubkheperre Intef was found in 2001. The pyramidion of the pyramid of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intefs pyramid was found in Dra Abu el-Naga and it has a slope of 60 degrees and is inscribed with this kings names. The pyramidion is now in the British Museum
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
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Sarcophagus of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Louvre Museum
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
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Canopic chest of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Musée du Louvre.
104.
Senakhtenre Ahmose
–
Senakhtenre Ahmose was the seventh king of the Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Senakhtenre reigned for a period over the Theban region in Upper Egypt at a time where the Hyksos 15th dynasty ruled Lower Egypt. Senakhtenre died c.1560 or 1558 BC at the latest and he may or may not have been the son of Nubkheperre Intef, the most prominent of the Intef kings. He was succeeded by his son, Seqenenre Tao, king Senakhtenre would also be the husband of Tetisheri who is called the great kings wife and the mother of my mother in a stela at Abydos by pharaoh Ahmose I. Senakhtenre was, therefore, the grandfather of Ahmose I, donald Redfords book mentions these 2 Theban tombs. The archaeological evidence prior to 2012 suggests that his reign was brief, however, in 2012, two important contemporary monuments of this king were uncovered at Karnak, a doorway found carved with his royal name as well as a fragmentary limestone lintel. From a reference in the Abbott Papyrus it was for a time believed that Senakhtenres nomen was Tao. Indeed, the papyrus mentions two kings with the name Tao, the second king Tao was identified with Senakhtenre because the first mention of a Tao refers to Seqenenre Tao for which the complete name is written. Consequently, the hypothesis that Senakhtenres nomen was Tao was dominant in egyptology until 2012 and was shared for example by Darrell Baker, for example, the egyptologist Claude Vandersleyen rejected this view as early as 1983. The doorjamb bears Senakhtenres full royal name and reveals his nomen to have been Ahmose and this is the same name as that of his grandson, Nebpehtyre Ahmose I, who founded the 18th dynasty by defeating the Hyksos and ousting them from Egypt. Inscriptions on the door indicate that it was following the orders of Senakhtenre himself. The door was subsequently re-used and discovered in the foundations of a building adjoining the temple of Ptah at Karnak. The inscription on the reused door proceeds to state that Senakhtenre made a monument for his father Amun-Re. from the white stone of Anu. Anu is the modern Tura, located near Cairo, which could mean that Senakhtenre imported the limestone from the then Hyksos controlled area of Tura in Lower Egypt. However, Biston-Moulin cautions that beautiful white stone of Anu was sometimes used as a term for stones which were actually taken from local quarries. Biston-Moulin writes in the summary of his article, Clayton, Peter, pharaonic King-Lists, Annals, and Day-Books, A Contribution to the Study of the Egyptian Sense of History. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, copenhagen, Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications
Senakhtenre Ahmose
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Lintel bearing Senakhtenre's cartouches, from Karnak
105.
Seqenenre Tao
–
Seqenenre Tao, called The Brave, ruled over the last of the local kingdoms of the Theban region of Egypt in the Seventeenth Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. He probably was the son and successor to Senakhtenre Ahmose and Queen Tetisheri, the dates of his reign are uncertain, but he may have risen to power in the decade ending in 1560 BC or in 1558 BC. Seqenenre Tao is credited with starting the opening moves in the war of liberation against the Hyksos, new Kingdom literary tradition states that Seqenenre Tao came into contact with his Hyksos contemporary in the north, Apepi or Apophis. Seqenenre Tao participated in active diplomatic posturing, which went beyond simply exchanging insults with the Asiatic ruler in the North. He seems to have led military skirmishes against the Hyksos and, judging from the head wound on his mummy in the Cairo Museum. On an adjacent hillside overlooking the river, the foundations of a building were found that almost certainly was a observation post. Interestingly, a large amount of pottery known as Kerma-ware was found at the site. It is thought that they were there as allies of the pharaoh in his wars against the Hyksos, seqenenres mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with those of later, eighteenth and nineteenth dynasty leaders, Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, the mummy was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero on June 9,1886. There are no wounds on his arms or hands, which suggests he was not able to defend himself, until 2009 the main hypotheses have been that he died either in a battle against the Hyksos or was killed while sleeping. His mummy appears to have been hastily embalmed, x-rays that were taken of the mummy in the late-1960s show that no attempt had been made to remove the brain or to add linen inside the cranium or eyes, both normal embalming practice for the time. In the opinion of James E and he is the earliest royal mummy on display in the recently revamped Royal Mummies Hall at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Egypt, From the Death of Ammenemes III to Sequenenre II, in Volume 2, Chapter 2 of the Cambridge Ancient History, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament
Seqenenre Tao
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Fragment of the death shroud of Ahmose bearing Seqenenre Tao's titulary, Museo Egizio
Seqenenre Tao
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Mummified head of Seqenenre depicting his battlewounds
106.
Kamose
–
Kamose was the last king of the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty. He was possibly the son of Seqenenre Tao and Ahhotep I and his reign fell at the very end of the Second Intermediate Period. Kamose is usually ascribed a reign of three years, although scholars now favor giving him a longer reign of approximately five years. His reign is important for the decisive military initiatives he took against the Hyksos and his father had begun the initiatives and, quite possibly, lost his life in battle with the Hyksos. It is thought that his mother, as regent, continued the campaigns after the death of Kamose, Kamose was the final king in a succession of native Egyptian kings at Thebes. Originally, the Theban Seventeenth dynasty rulers were at peace with the Hyksos kingdom to their north prior to the reign of Seqenenre Tao and they controlled Upper Egypt up to Elephantine and ruled Middle Egypt as far north as Cusae. Kamose sought to extend his rule northward over all of Lower Egypt and this apparently was met with much opposition by his courtiers. Kamose sought to regain by force what he thought was his by right, Kamose states his reasons for an attack on the Hyksos was nationalistic pride. He was also likely merely continuing the military policies of his immediate predecessor. In Kamoses third year, he embarked on his campaign against the Hyksos by sailing north out of Thebes on the Nile. He first reached Nefrusy, which was just north of Cusae and was manned by an Egyptian garrison loyal to the Hyksos, a detachment of Medjay troops attacked the garrison and overran it. The Carnavon Tablet recounted this much of the campaign, but breaks off there, nonetheless, Kamoses military strategy probably can be inferred. This kind of tactic probably allowed him to travel very quickly up the Nile, a second stele also found in Thebes, continues Kamoses narrative again with an attack on Avaris. Because it does not mention Memphis or other cities to the north, it has long been suspected that Kamose never did attack Avaris. Kim Ryholt recently has argued that Kamose probably never advanced farther than the Anpu or Cynopolis Nome in Middle Egypt and did not enter either the Nile Delta, nor Lower Egypt proper. Kamose promptly ordered a detachment of his troops to occupy and destroy the Bahariya Oasis in the western desert, Kamose, called the Strong in this text, ordered this action to protect his rearguard. Atfih, hence, formed either the new border or a land between the now shrunken Hyksos kingdom and Kamoses expanding seventeenth dynasty state. This information confirms that Kamose confined his activities to this Egyptian nome and his Year 3 is the only attested date for Kamose and was once thought to signal the end of his reign
Kamose
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Sarcophagus of Kamose, Cairo Egyptian Museum
Kamose
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Kamose's second stela which records his victory against the Hyksos (Luxor Museum).
107.
New Kingdom of Egypt
–
Radiocarbon dating places the exact beginning of the New Kingdom between 1570–1544 BC. The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period and it was Egypt’s most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power. The later part of period, under the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties is also known as the Ramesside period. It is named after the pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses I. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria, the Eighteenth Dynasty contained some of Egypts most famous Pharaohs, including Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun. Queen Hatshepsut concentrated on expanding Egypts external trade by sending an expedition to the land of Punt. Thutmose III expanded Egypts army and wielded it with success to consolidate the empire created by his predecessors. This resulted in a peak in Egypts power and wealth during the reign of Amenhotep III, during the reign of Thutmose III, Pharaoh, originally referring to the kings palace, became a form of address for the person who was king. Akhenatens religious fervor is cited as the reason why he was written out of Egyptian history. Under his reign, in the 14th century BC, Egyptian art flourished and attained a level of realism. Towards the end of the 18th Dynasty, the situation had changed radically, Ramesses II sought to recover territories in the Levant that had been held by the 18th Dynasty. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of Kadesh, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Ramesses was caught in historys first recorded military ambush, although he was able to rally his troops, the outcome of the battle was undecided with both sides claiming victory at their home front, ultimately resulting in a peace treaty between the two nations. The last great pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely considered to be Ramesses III, in the eighth year of his reign the Sea Peoples invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles and he incorporated them as subject peoples and settled them in Southern Canaan although there is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states, such as Philistia and he was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his sixth year and eleventh year respectively. The heavy cost of this warfare slowly drained Egypts treasury and contributed to the decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground, one proposed cause is the Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland but the dating of this remains disputed
New Kingdom of Egypt
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New Kingdom at its maximum territorial extent in the 15th century BC.
New Kingdom of Egypt
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Relief of a Nobleman, ca. 1295-1070 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum
New Kingdom of Egypt
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Queen Ahmose-Nefertari
108.
Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
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The Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BC, ending the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. The period was one of decline and political instability, coinciding with the Late Bronze Age collapse of civilizations in the Near East and it marked by division of the state for much of the period and conquest and rule by foreigners. But many aspects of life for ordinary Egyptians changed relatively little, the period of the Twenty-First Dynasty is characterized by the countrys fracturing kingship. Even in Ramesses XIs day, the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt was losing its grip on power in the city of Thebes, after his death, his successor Smendes I ruled from the city of Tanis, but was mostly active only in Lower Egypt which they controlled. Meanwhile, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes effectively ruled Middle and Upper Egypt in all, however, this division was less significant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came from the same family. The country was reunited by the Twenty-Second Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC. In Thebes, a civil war engulfed the city between the forces of Pedubast I, who had proclaimed himself Pharaoh versus the existing line of Takelot II/Osorkon B. These two factions squabbled consistently and the conflict was resolved in Year 39 of Shoshenq III when Osorkon B comprehensively defeated his enemies. The Nubian kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division, piye established the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty and appointed the defeated rulers as his provincial governors. He was succeeded first by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa respectively, the reunited Nile valley empire of the 25th dynasty was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Pharaohs, such as Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, the 25th dynasty ended with its rulers retreating to their spiritual homeland at Napata. It was there that all 25th dynasty pharaohs are buried under the first pyramids to be constructed in the Nile valley in millennia, the Napatan dynasty led to the Kingdom of Kush, which flourished in Napata and Meroe until at least the 2nd century AD. The international prestige of Egypt had declined considerably by this time, the countrys international allies had fallen firmly into the sphere of influence of Assyria and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states. This disparity became critical during the Assyrian invasion of Egypt in 670 BC, consequently, Pharaoh Taharqas reign, and that of his successor and cousin Tantamani, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians. In 664 BC the Assyrians delivered a blow, sacking Thebes. In 656 BC Psamtik I occupied Thebes and became Pharaoh, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt into another period of peace and prosperity from 610 to 525 BC. Unfortunately for this dynasty, a new power was growing in the Near East – Persia, Pharaoh Psamtik III had succeeded his father Ahmose II for only 6 months before he had to face the Persian Empire at Pelusium. The Persians had already taken Babylon and Egypt was no match, the historiography of this period is disputed for a variety of reasons
Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
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25th Dynasty
Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
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Nuri pyramids
109.
Amenhotep I
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His reign is generally dated from 1526 to 1506 BC. He was a son of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari, but had at least two brothers, Ahmose-ankh and Ahmose Sapair, and was not expected to inherit the throne. However, sometime in the eight years between Ahmose Is 17th regnal year and his death, his heir apparent died and Amenhotep became crown prince and he then acceded to the throne and ruled for about 21 years. Although his reign is documented, it is possible to piece together a basic history from available evidence. He inherited the kingdom formed by his fathers military conquests and maintained dominance over Nubia, after his death, he was deified as a patron god of Deir el-Medina. Amenhotep I was the son of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari and his elder brothers, the crown prince Ahmose Sapair and Ahmose-ankh, died before him, thus clearing the way for his ascension to the throne. Amenhotep probably came to power while he was still young himself, the evidence for this regency is that both he and his mother are credited with founding a settlement for workers in the Theban Necropolis at Deir el-Medina. Amenhotep took his sister Ahmose-Meritamon as his Great Royal Wife, another wifes name, Sitkamose, is attested on a nineteenth dynasty stele. Beyond this, the relationships between Amenhotep I and other family members are unclear. Ahhotep II is usually called his wife and sister, despite an alternate theory that she was his grandmother and he is thought to have had one son by Ahhotep II, Amenemhat, who died while still very young. This remains the consensus, although there are arguments against that relationship as well, with no living heirs, Amenhotep was succeeded by Thutmose I, whom he married to his sister, Aahmes. Since Aahmes is never given the title Kings Daughter in any inscription, in Amenhotep Is ninth regnal year, a heliacal rise of Sothis was observed on the ninth day of the third month of summer. Modern astronomers have calculated that, if the observation was made from Memphis or Heliopolis, if the observation was made in Thebes, however, it could only have taken place in 1517. Manethos Epitome states that Amenhotep I ruled Egypt for twenty years and seven months or twenty-one years, while Amenhotep Is highest attested regnal year is only his Year 10, Manethos statement is confirmed by a passage in the tomb autobiography of a magician named Amenemhet. This explicitly states that he served under Amenhotep I for 21 Years, Amenhotep Is Horus and Two Ladies names, Bull who conquers the lands and He who inspires great terror, are generally interpreted to mean that Amenhotep I intended to dominate the surrounding nations. Two tomb texts indicate that he led campaigns into Nubia, according to the tomb texts of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Amenhotep later sought to expand Egypts border southward into Nubia and he led an invasion force which defeated the Nubian army. The tomb biography of Ahmose Pen-Nekhebet says he fought in a campaign in Kush, however it is quite possible that it refers to the same campaign as Ahmose. Amenhotep built a temple at Saï, showing that he had established Egyptian settlements almost as far as the third cataract, a single reference in the tomb of Ahmose Pen-Nekhebet indicates another campaign in Iamu in the land of Kehek
Amenhotep I
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Relief of Amenhotep I from Karnak.
Amenhotep I
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One of the few surviving three-dimensional representations of Amenhotep I contemporary to his reign, now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Amenhotep I
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Stele showing Amenhotep I with his mother
Amenhotep I
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Amenhotep I's reconstructed alabaster chapel at Karnak
110.
Thutmose I
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Thutmose I was the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. He received the throne after the death of the previous king, during his reign, he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt farther than ever before. He also built temples in Egypt, and a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings. He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose IIs sister and it has been speculated Thutmoses father was Amenhotep I. His mother, Senseneb, was of non-royal parentage and may have been a wife or concubine. Assuming she was related to Amenhotep, it could be thought that she was married to Thutmose in order to guarantee succession, however, this is known not to be the case for two reasons. Firstly, Amenhoteps alabaster bark built at Karnak associates Amenhoteps name with Thutmoses name well before Amenhoteps death, secondly, Thutmoses first-born son with Ahmose, Amenmose, was apparently born long before Thutmoses coronation. Thutmose had another son, Wadjmose, and two daughters, Hatshepsut and Nefrubity, by Ahmose, Wadjmose died before his father, and Nefrubity died as an infant. Thutmose had one son by another wife, Mutnofret and this son succeeded him as Thutmose II, whom Thutmose I married to his daughter, Hatshepsut. It was later recorded by Hatshepsut that Thutmose willed the kingship to both Thutmose II and Hatshepsut, however, this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsuts supporters to legitimise her claim to the throne when she later assumed power. A heliacal rising of Sothis was recorded in the reign of Thutmoses predecessor, Amenhotep I, the year of Amenhoteps death and Thutmoses subsequent coronation can be accordingly derived, and is dated to 1506 BC by most modern scholars. However, if the observation were made at either Heliopolis or Memphis, as a minority of scholars promote, manetho records that Thutmose Is reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months as a certain Mephres in his Epitome. This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign bearing his cartouche found inscribed on a block in Karnak. According to the autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Thutmose traveled up the Nile and fought in the battle. Upon victory, he had the Nubian kings body hung from the prow of his ship and this helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire. His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with no, Year 3, first month of the third season. His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush and this indicates that he already fought a campaign in Syria, hence, his Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of his second regnal year. This second campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned, although it has not been found in modern times, he apparently set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River
Thutmose I
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A stone head, most likely depicting Thutmose I, at the British Museum
Thutmose I
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Stela of Thutmose I in the Cairo Museum
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Court of the 4th pylon: obelisk of Thutmose I at Karnak
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Hatshepsut donated this quartzite sarcophagus which was made in her reign for the reburial of her father, Thutmose I, in KV20 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
111.
Hatshepsut
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Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the second historically confirmed female pharaoh, the first being Sobekneferu, Hatshepsut came to the throne of Egypt in 1478 BC. Officially, she ruled jointly with Thutmose III, who had ascended to the throne the year as a child of about two years old. Hatshepsut was the wife of Thutmose II, Thutmose III’s father. She is generally regarded by Egyptologists as one of the most successful pharaohs, according to Egyptologist James Henry Breasted she is also known as the first great woman in history of whom we are informed. Hatshepsut was the daughter and only child of Thutmose I and his primary wife Ahmose and her husband Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I and a secondary wife named Mutnofret, who carried the title Kings daughter and was probably a child of Ahmose I. Hatshepsut and Thutmose II had a daughter named Neferure, Thutmose II fathered Thutmose III with Iset, a secondary wife. Today Egyptologists generally agree that Hatshepsut assumed the position of pharaoh, Hatshepsut was described as having a reign of about 22 years by ancient authors. Josephus and Julius Africanus both quote Manethos king list, mentioning a woman called Amessis or Amensis who has identified as Hatshepsut. In Josephus work, her reign is described as lasting 21 years and nine months, dating the beginning of her reign is more difficult, however. Her fathers reign began in either 1526 or 1506 BC according to the high and low estimates of her reign, the length of the reigns of Tuthmosis I and Tuthmosis II, however, cannot be determined with absolute certainty. With short reigns, Hatshepsut would have ascended the throne 14 years after the coronation of Tuthmosis I, longer reigns would put her ascension 25 years after Tuthmosis Is coronation. Thus, Hatshepsut could have assumed power as early as 1512 BC, or, Hatshepsut established the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos occupation of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, thereby building the wealth of the eighteenth dynasty. She oversaw the preparations and funding for a mission to the Land of Punt and this trading expedition to Punt was roughly during Hatshepsuts ninth year of reign. It set out in her name with five ships, each measuring 70 feet long bearing several sails, many trade goods were bought in Punt, notably frankincense and myrrh. Hatshepsuts delegation returned from Punt bearing 31 live myrrh trees, the roots of which were kept in baskets for the duration of the voyage. This was the first recorded attempt to transplant foreign trees and it is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her mortuary temple complex. Egyptians also returned with a number of gifts from Punt
Hatshepsut
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Statue of Hatshepsut on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
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A tree in front of Hatshepsut's temple, claimed to have been brought from Punt by Hatshepsut's Expedition which is depicted on the Temple walls
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Djeser-Djeseru is the main building of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri. Designed by Senemut, her vizier, the building is an example of perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon, and it was the first complex built on the site she chose, which would become the Valley of the Kings
Hatshepsut
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Colonnaded design of Hatshepsut temple
112.
Amenhotep III
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Amenhotep III, also known as Amenhotep the Magnificent, was the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. According to different authors, he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC, or from June 1388 BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC, Amenhotep III was Thutmoses son by a minor wife, Mutemwiya. His reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity and artistic splendour, when he died in the 38th or 39th year of his reign, his son initially ruled as Amenhotep IV, but then changed his own royal name to Akhenaten. The son of the future Thutmose IV and a minor wife Mutemwiya and he was a member of the Thutmosid family that had ruled Egypt for almost 150 years since the reign of Thutmose I. Amenhotep III was the father of two sons with his Great Royal Wife Tiye and their first son, Crown Prince Thutmose, predeceased his father and their second son, Amenhotep IV, later known as Akhenaten, ultimately succeeded Amenhotep III to the throne. Amenhotep III also may have been the father of a third child—called Smenkhkare, Amenhotep III and Tiye may also have had four daughters, Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Isis or Iset, and Nebetah. They appear frequently on statues and reliefs during the reign of their father, Nebetah is attested only once in the known historical records on a colossal limestone group of statues from Medinet Habu. Amenhotep III elevated two of his four daughters—Sitamun and Isis—to the office of royal wife during the last decade of his reign. Evidence that Sitamun already was promoted to office by Year 30 of his reign, is known from jar-label inscriptions uncovered from the royal palace at Malkata. The goddess Hathor herself was related to Ra as first the mother and later wife, hence, Amenhotep IIIs marriage to his two daughters should not be considered unlikely based on contemporary views of marriage. Amenhotep III is known to have married several women, Gilukhepa. Tadukhepa, the daughter of his ally Tushratta of Mitanni, Around Year 36 of his reign, a daughter of Kurigalzu, king of Babylon. A daughter of Kadashman-Enlil, king of Babylon, a daughter of Tarhundaradu, ruler of Arzawa. A daughter of the ruler of Ammia, Amenhotep III has the distinction of having the most surviving statues of any Egyptian pharaoh, with over 250 of his statues having been discovered and identified. Since these statues span his life, they provide a series of portraits covering the entire length of his reign. Their lengthy inscribed texts extol the accomplishments of the pharaoh, for instance,123 of these commemorative scarabs record the large number of lions that Amenhotep III killed with his own arrows from his first regnal year up to his tenth year. Similarly, five other state that the foreign princess who would become a wife to him, Gilukhepa. She was the first of many such princesses who would enter the pharaohs household, another eleven scarabs record the excavation of an artificial lake he had built for his Great Royal Wife, Queen Tiye, in his eleventh regnal year, Regnal Year 11 under the Majesty of
Amenhotep III
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Colossal statue of Amenhotep III
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Vase in the Louvre with the names Amenohotep III and Tiye written in the cartouches on the left, (and Tiye's on the right).
Amenhotep III
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Queen Tiye, whose husband, Amenhotep III, may have been depicted to her right in this broken statue
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One of the many commemorative scarabs of Amenhotep III. This scarab belongs to a class called the "marriage scarabs," which affirm the divine power of the king and the legitimacy of his wife, Tiye. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
113.
Smenkhkare
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Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu was a short-lived pharaoh in the late 18th dynasty. His names translate as Living are the Forms of Re and Vigorous is the Soul of Re – Holy of Forms and his reign was during the Amarna Period, a time when Akhenaten sought to impose new religious views. He is to be distinguished from his predecessor, the female ruler Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Unlike Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare did not use epithets in his name or cartouche. Very little is known of Smenkhkare for certain because later kings, beginning with Horemheb, for the complete historiography regarding the names, see Neferneferuaten Smenkhkare was known as far back as 1845 from the tomb of Meryre II. There he and Meritaten, bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tombs owner, the names of the king have since been cut out but had been recorded by Lepsius circa 1850. Later, a different set of names emerged using the throne name. This led to a deal of confusion since throne names tended to be unique. For the better part of a century, the repetition of names was taken to mean that Smenkhare changed his name to Neferneferuaten at some point. Indeed, Petrie makes exactly that distinction in his notes of 1894. By the 1970s, feminine traces in some versions of the name, among them, that Nefertiti was masquerading as Smenkhkare before changing her name again to Neferneferuaten. When considered with various stela depicting Akhenaten with another king in familiar, if not intimate poses, in 1978, it was proposed that there were 2 individuals using the same name, a male king Smenkhkare and a female Neferneferuaten. Ten years later, James Allen pointed out the name Ankhkheperure nearly always included an epithet referring to Akhenaten such as desired of Wa en Re when coupled with Neferneferuaten. Smenkhkare, as son in law, might be desired of Akhenaten, by the start of the 21st Century, a fair degree of consensus emerged that Neferneferuaten was a female king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly among specialists of the period. Almost as important, when presented with just the name Ankhkheperure, aside from the Meryre tomb depiction already mentioned there are several pieces of evidence which establish Smenkhkare as king. A calcite globular vase from the tomb of Tutankhamun bears the double cartouche of Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of Smenkhkare. This is the object to carry both names side by side. A single wine docket, Year 1, wine of the house of Smenkhkare, line drawings of a block depicting the nearly complete names of King Smenkhkare and Meritaten as Great Royal Wife were recorded before the block was lost
Smenkhkare
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Line drawing from Meryre II. The lost names had been recorded previously (inset) as Smenkhkare and Meritaten.
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The desecrated royal coffin found in Tomb KV55
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The skull of the KV55 mummy, believed to be Smenkhkare.
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A royal vulture pectoral which was found placed on the head of the KV55 mummy.
114.
Neferneferuaten
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For other individuals named Neferneferuaten, see Neferneferuaten. Ankhkheperure-mery-Neferkheperure/ -mery-Waenre/ -mery-Aten Neferneferuaten was a used to refer to either Queen Meritaten or more likely Queen Nefertiti. The archaeological evidence relates to a woman who reigned as pharaoh toward the end of the Amarna Period during the Eighteenth Dynasty and her gender is confirmed by feminine traces occasionally found in the name and by the epithet Akhet-en-hyes, incorporated into one version of her second cartouche. She is to be distinguished from the king who used the name Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare-Djeser Kheperu, with little dated evidence to fix their reigns with any certainty, the order depends on how the evidence is interpreted. Many encyclopedic sources and atlases will show Smenkhkare succeeding Akhenaten on the basis of dating back to 1845. The period from the 13th year of Akhenatens reign to the ascension of Tutankhaten is very murky, the reigns of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were very brief and left little monumental or inscriptional evidence to draw a clear picture of political events. Adding to this, Neferneferuaten shares her prenomen, or throne name, with Smenkhkare, the Egyptians themselves tried to hide the evidence of the Amarna kings reigns from us. The result is that 3300 years later, scholars would have to piece together events, with the evidence so murky and equivocal, at one time or another, the name, gender, identity and even the existence of Neferneferuaten has been a matter of debate among Egyptologists. Manetho was a priest in the time of the Ptolemies in the Third Century B. C. E and his Egyptian History divided the rulers into dynasties which forms the basis of the modern system of dating Ancient Egypt. His work has been lost and is only in fragmentary form from later writers quoting his work. As a result of the suppression of the Amarna kings, Manetho is the ancient record available. Manethos Epitome, a summary of his work, describes the late 18th Dynasty succession as Amenophis for 30 years 10 months, who seems likely to be Amenhotep III. Then his son Orus for 36 years 5 months, this is seen as a corruption of the name Horemheb with the entire Amarna period attributed to him. Next comes his daughter Acencheres for 12 years 1 month then her brother Rathotis for 9 years, Acencheres is Ankhkheperure according to Gabolde, with a transcription error assumed which converted 2 years,1 month into the 12 years,1 month reported by the addition of 10 years. Most agree that Rathotis refers to Tutankhamun, therefore, the order also supports Acencheres as Ankhkheperure. Rathotis is followed by his son Acencheres for 12 years 5 months, his son Acencheres II for 12 years 3 months which are inexplicable, there are several items central to the slow unveiling regarding the existence, gender and identity of Neferneferuaten. These continue to be key elements to various theories today, the name of King Ankheprure Smenkhkare-Djeserkheperu was known as far back as 1845 from the tomb of Meryre II. There, he and Meritaten, bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tombs owner, the names of the king have since been cut out but had been recorded by Lepsius ca 1850
Neferneferuaten
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Inscription from Carter 001k, a box from Tutankhamun's tomb.
Neferneferuaten
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Image commonly taken to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but may not be them.
Neferneferuaten
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Ankhkheperure with feminine indicators (93, 94) and without (95). These read: (93) Ankhkheperure desired (f) of Neferkheperure (Akhenaten). (94) Ankh-et-kheprure (f) desired (f) of Wa-en-Re (using indicators in the name and epithet). (95) Ankhkheeprure desired of Wa-en-Re. From Tell el Amarna, Flinders Petrie; 1894
Neferneferuaten
115.
Tutankhamun
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Tutankhamun was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom or sometimes the New Empire Period. He has, since his discovery, been referred to as King Tut. His original name, Tutankhaten, means Living Image of Aten, in hieroglyphs, the name Tutankhamun was typically written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase to show appropriate reverence. The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon of Tutankhamuns nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage and it sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamuns mask, now in the Egyptian Museum, remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world, in February 2010, the results of DNA tests confirmed that he was the son of Akhenaten. His mother was Akhenatens sister and wife, whose name is unknown, the mysterious deaths of a few of those who excavated Tutankhamuns tomb has been popularly attributed to the curse of the pharaohs. Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of Akhenatens sisters, as a prince, he was known as Tutankhaten. He ascended to the throne in 1333 BC, at the age of nine or ten and his wet nurse was a woman called Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara. His teacher was most likely Sennedjem, when he became king, he married his half-sister, Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both stillborn, computed tomography studies released in 2011 revealed that one daughter died at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at 9 months of pregnancy. No evidence was found in either mummy of congenital anomalies or an apparent cause of death, given his age, the king probably had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb and Grand Vizier Ay. Horemheb records that the king appointed him lord of the land as hereditary prince to maintain law and he also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared. In his third year, under the influence of his advisors. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy, the ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten abandoned and this is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, Living image of Amun, reinforcing the restoration of Amun. As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, many monuments were erected, and an inscription on his tomb door declares the king had spent his life in fashioning the images of the gods. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet and his restoration stela says, The temples of the gods and goddesses. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown and their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads
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Mask of Tutankhamun's mummy, the popular icon for ancient Egypt at The Egyptian Museum.
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Stripped of all its jewels, the mummy of Tutankhamun remains in the Valley of the Kings in his KV62 chamber
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Bust of Tutankhamun found in his tomb, 1922
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Wooden bust of the boy king, found in his tomb
116.
Horemheb
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Horemheb was the last pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from either 1319 BC to late 1292 BC, or 1306 to late 1292 BC although he was not related to the royal family and is believed to have been of common birth. Before he became pharaoh, Horemheb was the commander in chief of the army under the reigns of Tutankhamun, after his accession to the throne, he reformed the Egyptian state and it was under his reign that official action against the preceding Amarna rulers began. Due to this, he is considered the man who restabilized his country after the troublesome, Horemheb demolished monuments of Akhenaten, reusing their remains in his own building projects, and usurped monuments of Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb presumably remained childless since he appointed his vizier Paramesse as his successor and his parentage is unknown but he is believed to have been a commoner. According to the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal, Horemheb does not appear to be the person as Paatenemheb who was the commander-in-chief of Akhenatens army. Grimal notes that Horemhebs political career first began under Tutankhamun where he is depicted at this side in his own tomb chapel at Memphis. In the earliest known stage of his life, Horemheb served as the spokesman for foreign affairs. This resulted in a visit by the Prince of Miam to Tutankhamuns court. Horemheb quickly rose to prominence under Tutankhamun, becoming commander-in-chief of the army, when used alone, the Egyptologist Alan Gardiner has shown that the iry-pat title contains features of ancient descent and lawful inheritance which is identical to the designation for a Crown Prince. This means that Horemheb was the openly recognised heir to Tutankhamuns throne and not Ay, no objects belonging to Horemheb were found in Tutankhamuns tomb, whereas items donated by other high-ranking officials such as Maya and Nakhtmin were found in tomb KV62 by Egyptologists. Further, Tutankhamuns queen, Ankhesenamun, refused to marry Horemheb, a commoner, having pushed Horemhebs claims aside, Ay proceeded to nominate the aforementioned Nakhtmin, who was possibly Ays son or adopted son, to succeed him rather than Horemheb. However, he spared Tutankhamuns tomb from vandalism presumably because it was Tutankhamun who had promoted his rise to power and chosen him to be his heir. Horemheb also usurped and enlarged Ays mortuary temple at Medinet Habu for his own use, Horemheb appointed judges and regional tribunes. Reintroduced local religious authorities and divided legal power between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt between the Viziers of Thebes and Memphis respectively and these deeds are recorded in a stela which the king erected at the foot of his Tenth Pylon at Karnak. Occasionally called The Great Edict of Horemheb, it is a copy of the text of the kings decree to re-establish order to the Two Lands. The stelas creation and prominent location emphasizes the importance which Horemheb placed upon domestic reform. Horemheb was a builder who erected numerous temples and buildings throughout Egypt during his reign
Horemheb
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Detail of a statue of Horemheb, at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
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A statue of Horemheb as a scribe
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Relief from Horemheb's tomb. Receiving 'gold of honour' collars.
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Horemheb with Amun at the Museo Egizio
117.
Ramesses I
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Menpehtyre Ramesses I was the founding pharaoh of ancient Egypts 19th dynasty. The dates for his reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292–1290 BC is frequently cited as well as 1295–1294 BC. Originally called Pa-ra-mes-su, Ramesses I was of non-royal birth, being born into a military family from the Nile delta region. He was a son of a commander called Seti. His uncle Khaemwaset, an officer, married Tamwadjesy, the matron of the Harem of Amun, who was a relative of Huy, the viceroy of Kush. This shows the status of Ramesses family. Ramesses I found favor with Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the tumultuous Eighteenth dynasty, upon his accession, Ramesses assumed a prenomen, or royal name, which is written in Egyptian hieroglyphs to the right. When transliterated, the name is mn-pḥty-r‘, which is interpreted as Menpehtyre. However, he is known by his nomen, or personal name. This is transliterated as r‘-ms-sw, and is realised as Ramessu or Ramesses. Already an old man when he was crowned, Ramesses appointed his son, Seti was charged with undertaking several military operations during this time– in particular, an attempt to recoup some of Egypts lost possessions in Syria. Ramesses appears to have charge of domestic matters, most memorably, he completed the second pylon at Karnak Temple. Jürgen von Beckerath observes that Ramesses I died just 5 months later—in June 1290 BC—since his son Seti I succeeded to power on III Shemu day 24. Ramesses Is only known action was to order the provision of endowments for the aforementioned Nubian temple at Buhen and the construction of a chapel, the aged Ramesses was buried in the Valley of the Kings. His tomb, discovered by Giovanni Belzoni in 1817 and designated KV16, is small in size, the red granite sarcophagus too was painted rather than carved with inscriptions which, due to their hasty preparation, included a number of unfortunate errors. Seti I, his son and successor, later built a chapel with fine reliefs in memory of his deceased father Ramesses I at Abydos. In 1911, John Pierpont Morgan donated several exquisite reliefs from this chapel to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, a mummy currently believed to be that of Ramesses I was stolen from Egypt and displayed in a Canadian museum for many years before being repatriated. Moreover, the arms were found crossed high across his chest which was a position reserved solely for Egyptian royalty until 600 BC
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Pharaoh Ramses I making an offering before Osiris, Allard Pierson Museum.
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Stone head carving of Paramessu (Ramesses I), originally part of a statue depicting him as a scribe. On display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
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Reliefs from the Abydos chapel of Ramesses I. The chapel was specifically built and dedicated by Seti I in memory of his late father.
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Ramesses II
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Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great and Ozymandias, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. He often is regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and his successors and later Egyptians called him the Great Ancestor. Ramesses II led several expeditions into the Levant, reasserting Egyptian control over Canaan. He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali, at age fourteen, Ramesses was appointed Prince Regent by his father Seti I. He is believed to have taken the throne in his teens and is known to have ruled Egypt from 1279 BC to 1213 BC. Manetho attributes Ramesses II a reign of 66 years and 2 months, most Egyptologists today believe he assumed the throne on May 31,1279 BC, estimates of his age at death vary,90 or 91 is considered most likely. Ramesses II celebrated an unprecedented 14 sed festivals during his reign—more than any other pharaoh. On his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings, his later was moved to a royal cache where it was discovered in 1881. The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples and he established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and used it as the main base for his campaigns in Syria. He is known as Ozymandias in the Greek sources, from a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses throne name, Usermaatre Setepenre, The justice of Rê is powerful – chosen of Rê. Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on campaigns to restore possession of previously held territories lost to the Nubians and Hittites. He also was responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya, during Ramesses IIs reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled about 100,000 men, a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence. The Sherden people probably came from the coast of Ionia, from southwest Anatolia or perhaps, a stele from Tanis speaks of their having come in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them. In that sea battle, together with the Sherden, the pharaoh also defeated the Lukka, the immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Canaan. The inscription is almost totally illegible, due to weathering, additional records tell us that he was forced to fight a Canaanite prince who was mortally wounded by an Egyptian archer, and whose army subsequently, was routed. Ramesses carried off the princes of Canaan as live prisoners to Egypt, Ramesses then plundered the chiefs of the Asiatics in their own lands, returning every year to his headquarters at Riblah to exact tribute. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of Amurru during his campaign in Syria, the Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces of Muwatallis. The pharaoh wanted a victory at Kadesh both to expand Egypts frontiers into Syria, and to emulate his father Seti Is triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier and he also constructed his new capital, Pi-Ramesses
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One of the four external seated statues of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel.
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Ramesses II as a child (Cairo Museum)
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Relief from Ramesseum showing the siege of Dapur
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Tablet of treaty between Hattusili III of Hatti and Ramesses II of Egypt, at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum
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Merneptah
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Merneptah or Merenptah was the fourth ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He may have born in 1273 BC, ruling Egypt for almost ten years from late July or early August 1213 BC until his death on May 2,1203 BC. He was the son of Ramesses II and only came to power because all his older brothers. By the time he ascended to the throne he was almost sixty years old and his throne name was Ba-en-re Mery-netjeru, which means The Soul of Ra, Beloved of the Gods. It is presumed that Merneptah also was married to Queen Takhat and one of their sons would become the later Nineteenth Dynasty pharaoh, Seti II. They also were the parents of prince Merenptah and possibly the usurper, Amenmesse, Merneptah had to carry out several military campaigns during his reign. In year 5 he fought against the Libyans, who—with the assistance of the Sea Peoples—were threatening Egypt from the West, Merneptah led a victorious six-hour battle against a combined Libyan and Sea People force at the city of Perire, probably located on the western edge of the Delta. Later in the inscription Merneptah receives news of the attack and he has brought his wife and his children--leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire. In the Athribis Stele, in the garden of Cairo Museum, it states His majesty was enraged at their report, like a lion, assembled his court and gave a rousing speech. Later he dreamed he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying Take thou, when the bowmen went forth, says the inscription, Amun was with them as a shield. After six hours the surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons, abandoned their baggage and dependents, Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion, killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. its seed is no more. This is the first recognised ancient Egyptian record of the existence of Israel--not as a country or city, Merneptah was already an elderly man in his late 60s, if not early 70s, when he assumed the throne. Merneptah moved the center of Egypt from Piramesse, his fathers capital, back to Memphis. This palace was excavated in 1915 by the University of Pennsylvania Museum, merneptahs successor, Seti II, was a son of Queen Isetnofret. Seti was able to reassert his authority over Thebes in his fifth year and it is possible that before seizing Upper Egypt, Amenmesse had been known as Messuwy and had been viceroy of Kush. Merneptah suffered from arthritis and atherosclerosis and died an old man after a reign which lasted for nearly a decade, Merneptah was originally buried within tomb KV8 in the Valley of the Kings, but his mummy was not found there. In 1898 it was located along with eighteen other mummies in the mummy found in the tomb of Amenhotep II by Victor Loret. Merneptahs mummy was taken to Cairo and eventually unwrapped by Dr. G. Elliott Smith on July 8,1907, Dr Smith notes that, The body is that of an old man and is 1 meter 714 millimeters in height
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Merneptah makes an offering to Ptah on a column
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Statue of Merenptah on display at the Egyptian Museum.
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Stone sarcophagus of Merneptah in KV8.
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Amenmesse
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Amenmesse was the fifth ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty in Ancient Egypt, possibly the son of Merneptah and Queen Takhat. Others consider him to be one of the sons of Ramesses II. Very little is known about this king, who ruled Egypt for only three to four years, various Egyptologists date his reign between 1202 BC–1199 BC or 1203 BC–1200 BC with others giving an accession date of 1200 BC. Amenmesse means born of or fashioned by Amun in Egyptian, additionally, his nomen can be found with the epithet Heqa-waset, which means Ruler of Thebes. His royal name was Menmire Setepenre and it is likely that he was not Merneptahs intended heir. It is unclear how this would have happened, kitchen has written that Amenmesse may have taken advantage of a momentary weakness of Seti-Merneptah or seized power while the crown prince was away in Asia. Seti-Merneptah was most likely the man as king Seti II. The cartouches of Seti IIs tomb in Upper Egypt were deliberately erased and then repainted, confusion generally clouds Amenmesses reign and location within the Egyptian 19th Dynasty. Amenmesse was documented in power at Thebes during his third and fourth year where Seti IIs Year 3, the treatment of Amenmesse as a rival king also best explains the pattern of destruction to Seti IIs tomb which was initially ransacked and later restored again by Seti IIs officials. Then Seti was ousted from power in Upper Egypt by Amenmesse whose agents desecrated Seti IIs tomb, Seti would finally defeat his rival Amenmesse and return to Thebes in triumph whereupon he ordered the restoration of his damaged tomb. Rolf Krauss, followed by Aidan Dodson, suggests that Amenmesse was once a Kushite Viceroy called Messuwy, an inscription at the temple of Amada also calls him the kings son himself but this may be merely a figure of speech to emphasize Messuwys high stature as Viceroy under Merneptah. This strongly implies that Seti II held no grudge against Messuwy, there has also been a suggestion that the story of the Tale of Two Brothers, first attested during the reign of Seti II, may contain a veiled reference to the struggle between Amenmesse and Seti II. The records of a court case early in the reign of Seti II also throw some light on the matter, papyrus Salt 124 records that Neferhotep, one of the two chief workmen of the Deir el-Medina necropolis, had been killed during the reign of Amenmesse. Neferhotep was replaced by Paneb his adopted son, against whom many crimes were alleged by Neferhoteps brother Amennakhte in a strongly worded indictment preserved on a papyrus in the British Museum, whatever the truth of these accusations, it is clear that Thebes was going through very troubled times. There are references elsewhere to a war that had occurred during these years, Neferhotep had complained of the attacks upon himself to the vizier Amenmose, presumably a predecessor of Praemhab, whereupon Amenmose had Paneb punished. Paneb, however, then brought a complaint before Mose/Msy whereupon the latter decided to dismiss Amenmose from office. Evidently this Mose/Msy was a person of the highest importance here who most probably should be identified with king Amenmesse himself and his mother is known to be Queen Takhat, but who she is exactly is a matter of interpretation complicated by inscriptions being revised by Seti II and Amenmesse. Among her titles are Kings Daughter, which would make her a daughter of Merenptah or Ramesses II or possibly a granddaughter of Ramesses, the name Takhat appears in a list of princesses dated to Year 53 of Ramesses II
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Head from a statue of Amenmesse, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Seti II
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Seti II, was the fifth ruler of the Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt and reigned from c.1200 BC to 1194 BC. His throne name, Userkheperure Setepenre, means Powerful are the manifestations of Re and he was the son of Merneptah and Isetnofret II and sat on the throne during a period known for dynastic intrigue and short reigns, and his rule was no different. The erasures were subsequently repaired by Seti IIs agents and this suggests that Seti IIs reign at Thebes was interrupted by the rise of a rival, king Amenmesse in Upper Egypt. This conforms well with the evidence of Seti IIs control over Thebes in his first two years, which is attested by various documents and papyri. In contrast, Seti II is absent from Upper Egypt during his third and this indicates that the reigns of Amenmesse and Seti II must have partly overlapped with one another and suggests that both rulers were rivals who were fighting each another for the throne of Egypt. Prior to his year, however, Amenmesse was finally defeated by his rival, Seti II. Seti IIs agents completely erased both scenes and texts from KV10, the tomb of Amenmesse. Seti II promoted Chancellor Bay to become his most important state official and built 3 tombs – KV13, KV14 and this was an unprecedented act on his part for Bay, who was of Syrian descent and was not connected by marriage or blood ties to the royal family. Due to the brevity of his reign, Setis tomb was unfinished at the time of his death. Twosret later rose to power herself after the death of Siptah, according to an inscribed ostraca document from the Deir el-Medina workers community, Seti IIs death was announced to the workmen by The police Nakht-min on Year 6, I Peret 19 of Seti IIs reign. Seti II likely died sometime late in IV Akhet or early in I Peret, Wolfgang Helck, demarée have now proposed I Peret 2 as the date of Seti IIs actual death, presumably since it is 70 days before the day of his burial. From a graffito written in the first corridor of Twosrets KV14 tomb, Seti II was buried in his KV15 tomb on Year 1, III Peret day 11 of Siptahs reign. Seti IIs earliest prenomen in his First Year was Userkheperure Setepenre which is written above an inscription of Messuwy, Seti II soon changed his royal name to Userkheperure Meryamun, which was the most common form of his prenomen. Two important papyri date from the reign of Seti II, the second is the records of the trial of Paneb. Neferhotep, one of the two chief workmen of the Deir el Medina necropolis, had replaced by Paneb, his troublesome son-in-law. Many crimes were alleged by Neferhoteps brother—Amennakhte—against Paneb in a violently worded indictment preserved in papyrus now in the British Museum, whatever the truth of these accusations, it is clear that Thebes was going through very troubled times. There are references elsewhere to a war that had occurred during these years, neferhotep had complained of Panebs attacks on himself to the vizier Amenmose, presumably a predecessor of Praemhab, whereupon Amenmose had punished Paneb. This trouble-maker had then brought a complaint before Mose, who acted to remove Praemhab from his office
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Statue of Seti II at the Turin Museum
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A replica statue of Seti II holding a shrine to the god Amun on display at the Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum
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A small temple erected by Seti II in the atrium of the temple of Karnak.
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Gold earrings containing Seti II's name discovered in KV56
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Siptah
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Akhenre Setepenre Siptah or Merenptah Siptah was the penultimate ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. His fathers identity is currently unknown, both Seti II and Amenmesse have been suggested although the fact that Siptah later changed his royal name or nomen to Merneptah Siptah after his Year 2 suggests rather that his father was Merneptah. If correct, this would make Siptah and Seti II half-brothers since both of them were sons of Merneptah and he was not the crown prince, but succeeded to the throne as a child after the death of Seti II. His accession date occurred on I Peret day 2 around the month of December, historically, it was believed that Tiaa, a wife of Seti II, was the mother of Siptah. This view persisted until it was realized that a relief in the Louvre Museum pairs Siptahs name together with the name of his mother a certain Sutailja or Shoteraja. Sutailja was a Canaanite rather than a native Egyptian name which means that she was almost certainly a kings concubine from Canaan, however, Dodson/Hilton assert that this is not correct and that the lady was, instead, the mother of Ramesses-Siptah and a wife of Ramesses II. This suggests that Amenmesse and Siptah were inter-related in such a way that they were regarded as illegitimate rulers, a headless statue of Siptah now in Munich shows him seated on the lap of another Pharaoh, presumably his father. The demolition of this figure is likely to have followed the fall of Bay or the death of Siptah himself. If Siptah was a son of Seti II, it is unlikely that he would have considered as an illegitimate king by later 20th Dynasty New Kingdom pharaohs. Due to his youth and perhaps his problematic parentage, he was placed under the guidance of his stepmother—the queen regent Twosret, Siptah ruled Egypt for almost 6 years as a young man. Siptah was only a child of ten or eleven years when he assumed power since a medical examination of his mummy reveals the king was about 16 years old at death. He was tall at 1.6 metres and had reddish brown hair. Bay, however, later out of favor at Court presumably for overreaching himself. He was executed in the year of Siptahs reign, on orders of the king himself. News of his execution was passed to the Workmen of Deir el-Medina in Ostraca IFAO1254 and this ostraca was translated and published in 2000 by Pierre Grandet in a French Egyptological journal. Callendar notes that the reason for the message to the workmen was to notify them to cease all work on decorating Bays tomb since Bay had now been deemed a traitor to the state. Siptah himself is last attested sometime in his 6th regnal Year on a graffito located at the South Temple of Buhen and he likely died in the middle of II Akhet—perhaps around II Akhet 12 of his 6th Year. This assumes a traditional 70-day mummification period if Siptah was buried on IV Akhet 22, evidence for his burial on the latter date is recorded in ostracon O. Cairo CG25792
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Siptah
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A scarab with king Siptah's name.
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Ramesses III
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Usimare Ramesses III was the second Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty and is considered to be the last New Kingdom king to wield any substantial authority over Egypt. His long reign saw the decline of Egyptian political and economic power, linked to a series of invasions, Ramesses III was the son of Setnakhte and Queen Tiy-Merenese. He was probably murdered by an assassin in a conspiracy led by one of his wives, Tiye. Ramesses two main names transliterate as wsr-mꜢʿt-rʿ–mry-ỉmn rʿ-ms-s–ḥḳꜢ-ỉwnw and they are normally realised as Usermaatre-Meryamun Rameses-Heqaiunu, meaning The Maat of Ra is strong, Beloved of Amun, Born of Ra, Ruler of Heliopolis. Ramesses III is believed to have reigned from March 1186 to April 1155 BC and this is based on his known accession date of I Shemu day 26 and his death on Year 32 III Shemu day 15, for a reign of 31 years,1 month and 19 days. Alternate dates for his reign are 1187 to 1156 BC, in Year 8 of his reign, the Sea Peoples, including Peleset, Denyen, Shardana, Meshwesh of the sea, and Tjekker, invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles, although the Egyptians had a reputation as poor seamen, they fought tenaciously. Rameses lined the shores with ranks of archers who kept up a continuous volley of arrows into the ships when they attempted to land on the banks of the Nile. Then, the Egyptian navy attacked using grappling hooks to haul in the enemy ships, in the brutal hand-to-hand fighting which ensued, the Sea People were utterly defeated. The Harris Papyrus states, As for those who reached my frontier, their seed is not, their heart and their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Ramesses III was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his Year 5 and Year 11 respectively. The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypts treasury and contributed to the decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground, the result in Egypt was a substantial increase in grain prices under the later reigns of Ramesses VI–VII, whereas the prices for fowl and slaves remained constant. Thus the cooldown affected Ramesses IIIs final years and impaired his ability to provide a constant supply of rations to the workmen of the Deir el-Medina community. No temple in the heart of Egypt prior to Ramesses reign had ever needed to be protected in such a manner. Thanks to the discovery of papyrus trial transcripts, it is now known there was a plot against his life as a result of a royal harem conspiracy during a celebration at Medinet Habu. The conspiracy was instigated by Tiye, one of his three wives, over whose son would inherit the throne. Tytis son, Ramesses Amonhirkhopshef, was the eldest and the chosen by Ramesses III in preference to Tiyes son Pentaweret
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Relief from the sanctuary of the Temple of Khonsu at Karnak depicting Ramesses III
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Ramses III offering incense, wall painting in KV11.
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Osirid statues of Ramses III at his temple in Karnak (in the first courtyard of the Great Temple of Amun).
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Red granite sarcophagus of Ramesses III (Louvre)
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Ramesses IV
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Heqamaatre Ramesses IV was the third pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. His name prior to assuming the crown was Amonhirkhopshef and he was the fifth son of Ramesses III and was appointed to the position of crown prince by the twenty-second year of his fathers reign when all four of his elder brothers predeceased him. His promotion to crown prince, is suggested by his appearance in a scene of the festival of Min at the Ramesses III temple at Karnak, amenemopes Theban tomb also accords prince Ramesses all three of his aforementioned sets of royal titles. Due to the three decade long rule of Ramesses III, Ramesses IV is believed to have been a man in his forties when he took the throne and his rule has been dated to either 1151 to 1145 BC or 1155 to 1149 BC. It is now believed that Ramesses IVs mother was most likely Queen Tyti from recently discovered notes published in the 2010 issue of the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. They reveal that Tyti—who was both a daughter, a kings wife and a kings mother in her own right—was identified in Papyrus BM EA10052 to be a queen of Ramesses III. This leaves Ramesses IV as the only credible primary subject of the title in the tomb. Thus, the identity of Ramesses IVs mother has been resolved in favour of Queen Tyti who was erroneously thought to be the mother of another king in the mid-1980s. Ramesses IV was succeeded to the throne by his son Ramesses V. Ramesses came to the throne in difficult circumstances. A plot by one of his fathers wives, Tiye, to establish her own son, Pentawer. The king was wounded, and died soon after. Ramesses IV, however, was able to secure himself on the throne, the scribes who composed the text also noted that this figure included 900 men who are dead and omitted from this list. 7%. Some of the stones which were dragged 60 miles to the Nile from Wadi Hammamat weighed 40 tons or more, other Egyptian quarries including Aswan were located much closer to the Nile which enabled them to use barges to transport stones long distances. Part of the program included the extensive enlargement of his fathers Temple of Khonsu at Karnak. Ramesses IV also sent several expeditions to the mines the Sinai. The Serabit el-Khadim stela of the Royal Butler Sobekhotep states, Year 3, panufer states that this expeditions mission was both to procure turquoise and to establish a cult chapel of king Ramesses IV at the Hathor temple of Serabit el-Khadim. The stela reads, Year 5, second month of Shomu, surviving a march in this inhospitable land would have presented formidable logistical obstacles, perhaps forcing an alternative route to be adopted. This would involve a departure from the Delta to a site near the port of Suez
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Limestone ostracon depicting Ramesses IV smiting his enemies.
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Ramses IV offering two Nu vases, British Museum.
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Relief of Ramesses IV at the Temple of Khonsu in Karnak
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Ring featuring ducks with Ramesses IV's name
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Ramesses V
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Usermaatre Sekheperenre Ramesses V was the fourth pharaoh of the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt and was the son of Ramesses IV and Queen Duatentopet. His reign was characterized by the growth of the power of the priesthood of Amun. The Turin 1887 papyrus records a financial scandal during his reign that involved the priests of Elephantine, a period of domestic instability also afflicted his reign since Turin Papyrus Cat. Another incursion by these raiders into Thebes is recorded a few days later and this shows that the Egyptian state was having difficulties ensuring the security of its own elite tomb workers, let alone the general populace, during this troubled time. It reveals most of Egypts land was controlled by the Amun temples which also directed the countrys finances, the document highlights the increasing power of the High Priest of Amun Ramessesnakht whose son, a certain Usimarenakhte, held the office of chief tax master. The circumstances of Ramesses Vs death are unknown but it is believed he had a reign of almost 4 full years and it is possible he was dethroned by his paternal uncle and successor, Ramesses VI because Ramesses VI usurped his predecessors KV9 tomb. Moreover, a Theban work journal dated to Year 2 of Ramesses VIs reign shows that a period of normality had returned to the Theban West Bank by this time. The mummy of Ramesses V was recovered in 1898 and seems to indicate that he suffered from smallpox due to lesions found on his face and he is thought to be one of the earliest known victims of variola. Peden, Where did Ramesses VI bury his nephew, GM181, 83-88 Ramesses V at Find a Grave
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Obelisk of Ramesses V
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Ramesses VI
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Ramesses VI Nebmaatre-Meryamun was the fifth ruler of the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt who reigned from 1145 to 1137 BC and a son of Ramesses III by Iset Ta-Hemdjert. His royal tomb, KV9, is located near Tutankhamuns tomb in the Valley of the Kings, the first to establish beyond doubt that Ramesses VI lived into his 8th Regnal Year was the Dutch Egyptologist Jac. He based this on Ostracon IFAO1425, which mentions the loan of an ox in year 8 of a king which can only have been Ramesses VI. His 8th Regnal Year also seems to be attested in Theban graffito 1860a, in the past, this graffito has been ascribed to Ramesses X, but this interpretation has been abandoned and its ascription to Ramesses VI seems by far the best solution. Raphael Venturas interesting reconstruction of a sum in Turin Papyrus 1907+1908. The latest scholarly publication on Egyptian chronology in 2006 also assigned Ramesses VI8 years of rule, Ramesses VI probably lived for two months into his brief 9th regnal year before he died and was succeeded by his son, Ramesses VII. Ramesses VIs chief queen was Nubkhesbed who is mentioned on a stela of Iset E from Koptos and this pharaoh would be succeeded on the throne by his son Ramesses VII. Egypts political and economic decline continued unabated during Ramesses VIs reign, shortly after his burial, his tomb was penetrated and ransacked by grave robbers who hacked away at his hands and feet in order to gain access to his jewelry. A medical examination of his mummy which was found in KV35 in 1898 revealed severe damage to his body, with the head and torso being broken into several pieces by an axe used by the tomb robbers. The creation of Ramesses VIs tomb, however, protected Tutankhamuns own intact tomb from grave robbers since debris from its formation was dumped over the entrance to the boy kings tomb. J. Janssen, Year 8 of Ramesses VI Attested, Göttinger Miszellen 29, peden, Where did Ramesses VI bury his nephew. GM181, 83-88 Ramesses VI at Find a Grave
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Fragment of a sarcophagus showing Ramesses VI, on display at the British Museum.
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Ushabti of Ramesses VI in the British Museum
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Ramesses VII
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Usermaatre Setepenre Meryamun Ramesses VII was the sixth pharaoh of the 20th dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He reigned from about 1136 to 1129 BC and was the son of Ramesses VI, other dates for his reign are 1138-1131 BC. The Turin Accounting Papyrus 1907+1908 is dated to Year 7 III Shemu day 26 of his reign and has been reconstructed to show that 11 full years passed from Year 5 of Ramesses VI to Year 7 of his reign. Ramesses VIIs seventh year is also attested in Ostraca O. Strasbourg h 84, in 1980, C. J. Eyre demonstrated that a Year 8 papyrus belonged to the reign of Ramesses VII. 1883 +2095, dated to Year 8 IV Shemu day 25, details the record of the commissioning of some copper work, the new Year 8 papyrus proves that Hormose succeeded to his fathers office as foreman by Year 8 of Ramesses VII. The respected German Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath also accepts C. J. Eyres evidence that Year 8 IV Shemu day 25 was Ramesses VIIs highest known date. However, the date of his successor, Ramesses VIII, has been fixed by Amin Amer to an 8-month period between I Peret day 2 and I Akhet day 13. Or 5 months after the Year 8 IV Shemu day 25 date of Ramesses VII, therefore, it is possible that Ramesses VII could have ruled Egypt for almost 8 years, at present, his certain reign length is 7 years and 5 months. Very little is known about his reign, though it was evidently a period of turmoil as grain prices soared to the highest level. Ramesses VII was buried in Tomb KV1 upon his death and his mummy has never been found, though four cups inscribed with the pharaohs name were found in the royal cache in DB320 along with the remains of other pharaohs. K. A. Kitchen, Ramses VII and the Twentieth Dynasty, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 58, 182-194 Benoît Lurson, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 98, 297-304 Ramesses VII at Find a Grave
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Ramesses VII from tomb KV1, drawn by Karl Richard Lepsius
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Seated deities from the tomb of Ramesses VII
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Ramesses VIII
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Ramesses VIII is the most obscure ruler of this Dynasty and the current information from his brief kingship suggests that he lasted on the throne for one year at the most. Some scholars assign him a reign of two years. The fact that he succeeded to power after the death of Ramesses VII—a son of Ramesses VI—may indicate a problem in the royal succession. Ramesses VIIIs prenomen or royal name, Usermaatre Akhenamun, means Powerful is the Justice of Re, monuments from his reign are scarce and consist primarily of an inscription at Medinet Habu, a mention of this ruler in one document—Berlin stela 2081 of Hori at Abydos—and one scarab. His only known date is a Year 1, I Peret day 2 graffito in the tomb of Kyenebu at Thebes. According to Erik Hornung in a 2006 book, the date of Ramesses VIII has been established by Amin Amer to date to an 8-month interval between I Peret day 2 and I Akhet day 13. Since no year change occurs in this interval, the accession date for Ramesses VIII must fall outside this period of this text. An all-Egyptian team of researchers headed by Afifi Rohiem under the supervision of Dr. Zahi Hawass were looking for the pharaohs tomb, Ramesses VIII at Find a Grave
Ramesses VIII
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A relief of Prince Sethiherkhepeshef II, one of Ramesses III 's many sons from the latter's temple at Medinet Habu. Sethiherkhepeshef II later briefly ascended the throne as king Ramesses VIII.
129.
Amenemope (pharaoh)
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Usermaatre Amenemope was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty. A probable son of Psusennes I and his queen Mutnedjmet, Amenemope succeeded his fathers long reign after a period of coregency. This coregency has been deduced thanks to a linen bandage mentioning a. king Amenemope, which has been reconstructed as king Amenemope, Year 49. Kitchen refers to the existence of Papyrus Brooklyn 16, during his reign as Pharaoh, Amenemope claimed the title of High Priest of Amun in Tanis as Psusennes also did before him. Apart from his Tanite tomb and the aforementioned Theban burials, Amemenope is a poorly attested ruler and he continued with the decoration of the chapel of Isis Mistress of the Pyramids at Giza and made an addition to one of the temples in Memphis. All versions of Manethos Epitome reports that Amenophthis enjoyed 9 years of reign, neither children nor wives are known for him, and he was succeeded by the seemingly unrelated Osorkon the Elder. According to the analysis of his skeleton performed by Dr. Douglas Derry and it seems that the king suffered a skull infection which likely developed into meningitis and led to his death. His undisturbed tomb was rediscovered by French Egyptologists Pierre Montet and Georges Goyon in April 1940, Montet had to stop his excavation until the end of World War II, then resumed it in 1946 and later published his findings in 1958. When the excavators entered the burial chamber, they argued that it was originally made for queen Mutnedjmet. On the mummy were found two gilt funerary masks, two pectorals, necklaces, bracelets, rings and a cloisonné collar, four of these items bore the name of Psusennes I. The funerary masks depict the king as young, although Goyon stated that at the moment of discovery the masks had an expression of suffering and pleading, the mummy and funerary goods are now in Cairo Museum. La Découverte des trésors de Tanis, hornung, Erik, Krauss, Rolf, Warburton, David A. eds. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt
Amenemope (pharaoh)
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Grave mask of pharaoh Amenemope in the Cairo Museum
Amenemope (pharaoh)
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Funerary mask of Amenemope.
Amenemope (pharaoh)
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Tanite tomb NRT III
130.
Osorkon the Elder
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Aakheperre Setepenre Osorkon the Elder was the fifth king of the twenty-first dynasty of Ancient Egypt and was the first Pharaoh of Libyan origin. He is also known as Osochor, following Manethos Aegyptiaca. Osorkon the Elder was the son of Shoshenq A, the Great Chief of the Ma by the latters wife Mehtenweshkhet who is given the title of Kings Mother in a document. Osochor was the brother of Nimlot A, the Great Chief of the Ma, and Tentshepeh A the daughter of the Great Chief of the Ma and, thus, young argued that this king Aakheperre Setepenre was the unknown Osochor. This hypothesis was not fully accepted by all Egyptologists at that time, since none of the other kings named Osorkon had a mother named Mehtenweshkhet, it was conclusively established that Aakheperre Setepenre was indeed Manethos Osochor, whose mother was Mehtenweshkhet. The Lady Mehtenweshkhet A was also the mother of Nimlot A, Great Chief of the Meshwesh and, thus, in 1999 Chris Bennett made a case for a Queen Karimala known from an inscription in the temple of Semna being his daughter. She is called both Kings Daughter and Kings Wife and her name suggests she may have been Libyan. Given the date of the inscription, she might have been the queen of either king Siamun or king Psusennes II and this would lead to the attribution to his throne name Aakheperre both the epithets Setepenre and Setepenamun. Osorkon the Elders reign is significant because it foreshadows the coming the Libyan Twenty-second dynasty and he is credited with a reign of six years in Manethos Aegyptiaca and was succeeded in power by Siamun, who was either Osorkons son or an unrelated native Egyptian
Osorkon the Elder
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Seal with royal cartouches, most likely belonging to Osorkon the Elder
131.
Osorkon II
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Usermaatre Setepenamun Osorkon II was the fifth pharaoh of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt and the son of Takelot I and Queen Kapes. He ruled Egypt around 872 BC to 837 BC from Tanis, after succeeding his father, he was faced with the competing rule of his cousin, king Harsiese A, who controlled both Thebes and the Western Oasis of Egypt. This consolidated the authority over Upper Egypt and meant that Osorkon II ruled over a united Egypt. Osorkon IIs reign would be a time of large scale monumental building, according to a recent paper by Karl Jansen-Winkeln, king Harsiese A, and his son were only ordinary Priests of Amun, rather than High Priests of Amun, as was previously assumed. The inscription on the Koptos lid for, Harsiese As son and this demonstrates that the High Priest Harsiese who served as attested in statue CGC42225 – which mentions this High Priest and is dated explicitly under Osorkon II – was, in fact, Harsiese B. The High Priest Harsiese B served Osorkon II in his final 3 years and this statue was dedicated by the Letter Writer to Pharaoh, Hor IX, who was one of the most powerful men in his time. Hor IX later served under both Shoshenq III, Pedubast I and Shoshenq VI and this means that the High Priest Harsiese mentioned on statue CGC42225 must be the second Harsiese, Harsiese B. Despite his astuteness in dealings with matters at home, Osorkon II was forced to be aggressive on the international scene. The growing power of Assyria meant the latters increased meddling in the affairs of Israel, mutemhat was another of his wives. Monumental construction was performed at Thebes, Memphis, Tanis and Leontopolis. Many officials are datable under Osorkon II, ankhkherednefer was inspector of the palace, Paanmeny probably was his chief physician, Djeddjehutyiuefankh was fourth prophet of Amun, Bakenkhons was another prophet of Amun under that king. Osorkon II died around 837 BC and is buried in Tomb NRT I at Tanis and he is now believed to have reigned for more than 30 years, rather than just 25 years. The fact that this kings own grandson, Takelot F, served him as High Priest of Amun at Thebes–as the inscribed Walls of Temple J prove – supports the hypothesis of a reign for Osorkon II. Recently, it has demonstrated that Nile Quay Text No.14 belongs to Osorkon II on palaeographical grounds. This finding suggests that Osorkon II likely did celebrate his first Heb Sed in his 30th Year as was traditionally the case with other Libyan era Pharaohs such as Shoshenq III and Shoshenq V. In addition, a Year 22 Stela from his reign preserves no mention of any Heb Sed celebrations in this year as would be expected, however, these much higher figures are not verified by the current monumental evidence. Gerard Broekman gives Osorkon II a slightly shorter reign of 34 Years, kitchen suggests that Osorkon II would have died shortly after in his Year 31. Osorkon II is known to have had at least three wives, Isetemkheb is known to be the mother of a daughter named Tjesbastperu, who was married to the High Priest of Ptah Takelot B
Osorkon II
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Pendant bearing the cartouche of Osorkon II
Osorkon II
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Entrance to the Tomb of Osorkon II
Osorkon II
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Reliefs from the Tomb of Osorkon II
Osorkon II
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Interior photo of the tomb of Osorkon II
132.
Shoshenq III
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King Usermaatre Setepenre/Setepenamun Shoshenq III ruled Egypts 22nd Dynasty for 39 years according to contemporary historical records. Two Apis Bulls were buried in the fourth and 28th years of his reign, little is known of the precise basis for his successful claim to the throne since he was not a son of Osorkon II and Shoshenqs parentage and family ties are unknown. From Shoshenq IIIs eighth regnal year, his reign was marked by the loss of Egypts political unity, henceforth, the kings of the 22nd Dynasty only controlled Lower Egypt. On the basis of Osorkon Bs well known Chronicle, most Egyptologists today accept that Takelot IIs 25th regnal year is equivalent to Shoshenq IIIs 22nd year. Shoshenq III married Djed-Bast-Es-Ankh, the daughter of Takelot, a High Priest of Ptah at Memphis and he had at least 4 sons and 1 daughter, Ankhesen-Shoshenq, Bakennefi A, Pashedbast B, Pimay the Great Chief of the Ma, and Takelot C, a Generalissimo. A certain Padehebenbast may also have another son of Shoshenq III. They all appear to have predeceased their father through his nearly four-decade-long rule, instead, it was an unrelated individual named Shoshenq IV who ultimately succeeded Shoshenq III. Shoshenq III was buried in the looted Royal Tomb NRT V at Tanis
Shoshenq III
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Shoshenq III, standing on the boat "msktt", the boat of the night, with the god Atum. From his tomb in Tanis.
Shoshenq III
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Tomb of Shoshenq III at Tanis.
Shoshenq III
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Reliefs on the walls of the tomb.
133.
Shoshenq IV
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Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq IV ruled Egypts 22nd Dynasty between the reigns of Shoshenq III and Pami. At the same time the old Usermaatre Shoshenq IV was renumbered as Shoshenq VI. ’ which appeared in 1993 and these two epithets were only gradually employed by the 22nd Dynasty pharaohs, starting from the reign of Osorkon II. By contrast, Shoshenq I’s nomen simply reads ‘Shoshenq-meryamun’, Shoshenq Is immediate successors, Osorkon I and Takelot I also never used epithets beyond the standard ‘meryamun’. This suggests that the newly identified Hedjkhperre Shoshenq IV was a late Tanite-era king who ruled in Egypt either during or after the reign of Shoshenq III. Rohl had already pointed out in 1989 that the cartouches of a Hedjkheperre Shoshenq appear on a stela dated to Year 10 of the king. This stela mentions a Great Chief of the Libu, Niumateped, since the title ‘Chief of the Libu’ is only documented from Year 31 of Shoshenq III onwards, it seems this new king must have ruled contemporary with or after Shoshenq III. Dodson would therefore place Hedjkheperre Shoshenq IV between Shoshenk III and Pami, the unmarked sarcophagus, however, ‘was clearly a secondary introduction’ according to its position in the tomb. In the Tanite tomb’s debris, several fragments were found one or two canopic jars bearing the cartouches of a Hedjkheperre Shoshenq. Rohl ‘used the evidence of the jars as the key element of his theory that there were indeed two Hedjkheperre Shoshenqs’. It also establishes that the buried in the second sarcophagus in Shoshenq IIIs tomb was certainly not Shoshenq I. ”This is now the mainstream consensus view within Egyptology
Shoshenq IV
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A rendering of the tomb NRT V, showing the two sarcophagi.
134.
Osorkon IV
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Usermaatre Osorkon IV was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the late Third Intermediate Period. Traditionally considered the very last king of the 22nd Dynasty, he was de facto little more than ruler in Tanis and Bubastis, in Lower Egypt. He is generally – though not universally – identified with the King Shilkanni mentioned by Assyrian sources, during his reign, he had to face the power, and ultimately submit himself—to the Kushite King Piye during Piyes conquest of Egypt. Osorkon IV also had to deal with the threatening Neo-Assyrian Empire outside his eastern borders. Osorkon IV ascended to the throne of Tanis in c.730 BC, at the end of the reign of his predecessor Shoshenq V of the 22nd Dynasty. Osorkons mother, named on a electrum aegis of Sekhmet now in the Louvre, was Tadibast III, Osorkon IVs realm was restricted only to the district of Tanis and the territory of Bubastis, both in the eastern Nile Delta. His neighbors were Libyan princes and Meshwesh chiefs who ruled their small realms outside of his authority, around 729/28 BC, soon after his accession, Osorkon IV faced the crusade led by the Kushite pharaoh Piye of the Nubian 25th Dynasty. Nevertheless, Osorkon IV and the others were allowed to keep their former domains, the Kingdom of Israel ceased to exist, and many Israelites were brought to Assyria as exiles. Assyrian sources claim that time the Egyptian king did send a turtanu called Reʾe or Reʾu as well as troops in order to support his neighboring ally. However, the coalition was defeated in battle at Raphia, Reʾe fled back to Egypt, Raphia and Gaza were looted and Hanno was burnt alive by the Assyrians. In 716 BC, Sargon II almost reached Egypts boundaries, the Assyrian king appreciated his gifts and did not take action against Osorkon IV. Shortly after, Osorkon IV and his dynasty vanished into obscurity, kahn believed that this pharaoh was Shabaka, who might have previously deposed Osorkon IV, guilty for being too philo-Assyrian. A few decades later a man called Gemenefkhonsbak, possibly a descendant of the dynasty, claimed for himself the pharaonic royal titles. It is believed that Shilkanni is a rendering of shilkan, which in turn is derived from sorkon – hence Osorkon IV – as first proposed by William F. Albright in 1956 and this identification is accepted by several scholars while others remain uncertain or even skeptical. In the same way, the Piru of Musri to whom Hanno of Gaza asked for help in 720 BC could only have been Osorkon IV, the identity of the biblical King So is somewhat less definite. Osorkon IV is attested by Assyrian documents and probably also by the Books of Kings and he is undoubtedly attested by the well-known Victory Stela of Piye on which he is depicted while prostrating in front of the owner of the stela along with other submitted rulers. Pharaohs in the Bible for other historical or conjectural pharaohs cited in the Bible Albright, further Synchronisms between Egypt and Asia in the Period 935-685 BC. Mainz am Rhein, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, petits monuments royaux de la XXIe à la XXVe dynastie
Osorkon IV
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Relief thought to depict Osorkon IV, from Tanis
Osorkon IV
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Closeup of the Victory Stela of Piye. Osorkon IV is the left one among the prostrating kings.
Osorkon IV
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Sargon II, Osorkon's Assyrian opponent.
Osorkon IV
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Small aegis of Sekhmet with the name of Osorkon and Tadibast, in the Louvre.
135.
Harsiese A
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The archaeological evidence does suggest that he was indeed Shoshenq Cs son. Rather both Harsiese A and his son —whose existence is known from inscriptions on the funerary objects at Coptos —are only attested as Ordinary Priests of Amun. While Harsiese A may have become king at Thebes prior to Year 4 of Osorkon II, contra Kitchen, Osorkon IIs control over this great city is only first documented by 2 separate Year 12 Quay Texts which means that Harsiese had died by this time. Takelot Is name is left deliberately blank here and this might indicate a possible rivalry between Takelot I and Harsiese A at Thebes. The Amun Priests may have not to involve themselves in this dispute by omitting any mention of the reigning kings name. When cleared, four canopic jars were found. No trace of any lids have survived, Dodson notes that Harsieses coffin is similar in style to the hawk-headed silver coffin of Shoshenq II, and to the surviving traces of the gilded coffin and cartonnage of Osorkon II. Gerard Broekman, The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties in Karnak, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 88, aidan Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, pp. 88–89 and p.92. Karl Jansen-Winkeln, Historische Probleme Der 3, zwischenzeit, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 81, pp. 129–149. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 3rd ed. Warminster, Aris and Phillips Limited, John H. Taylor, A daughter of King Harsiese, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 74, pp. 230-231
Harsiese A
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Sarcophagus of king Harsiese A
136.
Pedubast I
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Pedubastis I or Pedubast I was an Upper Egyptian Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt during the 9th century BC. This local Pharaoh is recorded as being of Libyan ancestry and ruled Egypt for 25 years according to the redaction of Manetho done by Eusebius. He first became king at Thebes in Year 8 of Shoshenq III and this may show some tacit support for the Pedubast faction by the Tanite based 22nd dynasty king Shoshenq III. Pedubast I was the opponent to Takelot II and later, Osorkon B. His accession to power plunged Thebes into a civil war which lasted for nearly three decades between these two competing factions. Osorkon B was Pedubast I and Harsieses chief rival and this conflict is obliquely mentioned in the famous Chronicle of Prince Osorkon at Karnak. He was succeeded in power by Shoshenq VI and this object was purchased by Calouste Gulbenkian from December 13–16,1921 from Frederik Muller & Cie through the well-known art dealer Joseph Duveen. This objects provenance is not known but it is first recorded as being in the collection of Count Grigory Stroganoff --a member of the famous Russian family of connoisseurs, danel Kahn, A Problem of Pedubasts
Pedubast I
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Pedubast I's bronze torso at the Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon, Portugal.
137.
Rudamun
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Rudamun was the final pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Ancient Egypt. His titulary simply reads as Usermaatre Setepenamun, Rudamun Meryamun, and he was the younger son of Osorkon III, and the brother of Takelot III. He is a poorly attested pharaoh of this dynasty according to Kenneth Kitchens seminal book on The Third Intermediate Period of Egypt, kitchen credits him with a brief reign of about two to three years due to the few contemporary documents known for him. These include a small amount of work done on the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet, several stone blocks from Medinet Habu. In recent years, two fragments of a faience statuette bearing Rudamuns name from Hermopolis have been discovered and this recent discovery suggests that Radamun managed to preserve the unity of his fathers large kingdom in Upper Egypt ranging from at least Herakleopolis Magna to Thebes during his brief reign. Some Egyptologists such as David Aston have argued that Rudamun was the anonymous Year 19 king attested at Wadi Gasus, jurman notes that no monumental evidence from the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet or Karnak depict Shepenupet I associated with Piyes daughter, Amenirdis I. However, there are doubts among scholars as to whether Nile Level Text No.3 contained the nomen Shoshenq rather than Takelot. Peftjaubast married Irbastudjanefu, Rudamuns daughter, and was, therefore, nothing is known about Rudamuns final burial place. The surviving contemporary information from his reign suggests that it was quite brief, the Third Intermediate Period in Egypt 2nd edition, Warminster, Aris & Phillips Limited, p.360. Payraudeau, Frédéric, Le règne de Takélot III et les débuts de la domination Koushite, GM198, perdu, Olivier, Le Roi Roudamon en personne. RdE53, pp. 151–178 Olaf Kaper and Robert Demarée, A Donation Stela in the Name of Takeloth III from Amheida, Dakhleh Oasis, JEOL39, pp. 19–37
Rudamun
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A small glass vase with the cartouches of Rudamun
138.
Ini (pharaoh)
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Menkheperre Ini was an Egyptian king reigning at Thebes during the 8th century BC following the last king of the 23rd dynasty, Rudamun. Menkheperre Ini was probably Rudamuns successor at Thebes but was not a member of his predecessors 23rd dynasty, unlike the 23rd dynasty rulers, he was a local king who ruled only at Thebes for at least 4–5 years after the death of Rudamun. His existence was first revealed with the publication of a dated Year 5 graffito at an Egyptian temple by Helen Jacquet-Gordon in 1979, prior to 1989, he was conventionally attested by only three documents, Graffito No. Then in 1989, Jean Yoyotte published an important new study on Ini/Inys reign in a CRIPEL11 paper, below is a partial English summary of his article by Chris Bennett, Engraved on a bronze plaque in Durham is the cartouche of the Son of Re Iny. This is surely the same individual as the Pharaoh Iny known from Graffito no 11 of the Temple of Khonsu where his Vth year is cited, a shard from Amélineaus work at Abydos bears perhaps another reference to the same king. H. Jacquet-Gordon has shown that the accession of this enigmatic king can be dated c, some remarks ensue concerning the use of imperial and old-fashioned royal titularies, and also archaizing bas-reliefs, during the late TIPE. His arguments here are today accepted by virtually all Egyptologists including Jürgen von Beckerath in the latters 1999 book on royal Egyptian kings names, barring this, Ini was only a local king of Thebes who ruled Egypt concurrently with Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis and Nimlot of Hermopolis. In this case, Ini would have been a Nubian vassal in Thebes and this would justify the view that Graffito No
Ini (pharaoh)
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The poetic stele Louvre C100, drawn by Flinders Petrie.
139.
Late Period of ancient Egypt
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It ran from 664 BC until 332 BC. Libyans and Persians alternated rule with native Egyptians, but traditional conventions continued in the arts and it is often regarded as the last gasp of a once great culture, during which the power of Egypt steadily diminished. The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, also known as the Saite Dynasty after Sais, reigned from 672 BC to 525 BC, canal construction from the Nile to the Red Sea began. One major contribution from the Late Period of ancient Egypt was the Brooklyn Papyrus and this was a medical papyrus with a collection of medical and magical remedies for victims of snakebites based on snake type or symptoms. Artwork during this time was representative of animal cults and animal mummies and this image shows the god Pataikos wearing a scarab beetle on his head, supporting two human-headed birds on his shoulders, holding a snake in each hand, and standing atop crocodiles. The First Achaemenid Period period saw Egypt conquered by an expansive Achaemenid Empire under Cambyses, a total of eight pharaohs from this dynasty ruled over Egypt. The initial period of Achaemenid Persian occupation when Egypt became a satrapy, the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty consisted of a single king, Amyrtaeus, prince of Sais, who rebelled against the Persians. He left no monuments with his name and this dynasty reigned for six years, from 404 BC to 398 BC. The Twenty-Ninth Dynasty ruled from Mendes, for the period from 398 BC to 380 BC, the Thirtieth Dynasty took their art style from the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. A series of three pharaohs ruled from 380 BC until their defeat in 343 BC led to the re-occupation by the Persians. The final ruler of dynasty, and the final native ruler of Egypt until nearly 2,300 years later, was Nectanebo II. There was a Second Achaemenid Period of the Thirty-First Dynasty, and consisted of four pharaohs, Artaxerxes III, Artaxerxes IV, Khababash, gozzoli, The Writing of History in Ancient Egypt During the First Millennium BCE. Trend and Perspectives, London 2006, ISBN 0-9550256-3-X Lloyd, Alan B.2000, the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, 71-74 Primary sources Herodotus Fragments of Ctesias Thucydides Diodorus Siculus Fragments of Manetho Flavius Josephus
Late Period of ancient Egypt
Late Period of ancient Egypt
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Egypt 664-332 BC - Brooklyn Museum
Late Period of ancient Egypt
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Figure of Pataikos, 664-30 BC - Brooklyn Museum
140.
Ptolemaic Kingdom
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The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a Hellenistic kingdom based in Egypt. Alexandria became the city and a major center of Greek culture. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves the successors to the Pharaohs, the later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life. The Ptolemies had to fight native rebellions and were involved in foreign and civil wars led to the decline of the kingdom. Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods until the Muslim conquest. The era of Ptolemaic reign in Egypt is one of the most well documented periods of the Hellenistic Era. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great, King of Macedon invaded the Achaemenid satrapy of Egypt and he visited Memphis, and traveled to the oracle of Amun at the Oasis of Siwa. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun, the wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexanders conquest of the rest of the Persian Empire. Early in 331 BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia and he left Cleomenes as the ruling nomarch to control Egypt in his absence. Following Alexanders death in Babylon in 323 BC, a crisis erupted among his generals. Perdiccas appointed Ptolemy, one of Alexanders closest companions, to be satrap of Egypt, Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV. However, as Alexander the Greats empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right, Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consolidated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the Wars of the Diadochi. In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of King, as Ptolemy I Soter, he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy, while princesses and queens preferred the names Cleopatra, Arsinoe and Berenice. Because the Ptolemaic kings adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, many of the kings ruled jointly with their spouses and this custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The only Ptolemaic Queens to officially rule on their own were Berenice III, Cleopatra V did co-rule, but it was with another female, Berenice IV. Cleopatra VII officially co-ruled with Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, Ptolemy XIV, and Ptolemy XV, upper Egypt, farthest from the centre of government, was less immediately affected, even though Ptolemy I established the Greek colony of Ptolemais Hermiou to be its capital. But within a century Greek influence had spread through the country, nevertheless, the Greeks always remained a privileged minority in Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemaic Kingdom
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Eagle of Zeus
Ptolemaic Kingdom
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Bust of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt (305 BC–282 BC) and founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty
Ptolemaic Kingdom
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A bust depicting King Ptolemy II Philadelphus 309–246 BCE
141.
Necho II
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Necho II of Egypt was a king of the 26th Dynasty. Necho undertook a number of projects across his kingdom. In his reign, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, Necho II sent out an expedition of Phoenicians and his son, Psammetichus II, upon succession may have removed Nechos name from monuments. Necho played a significant role in the histories of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Necho II is most likely the pharaoh mentioned in several books of the Bible. The aim of the second of Nechos campaigns was Asiatic conquest, to contain the Westward advance of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, however, the Egyptians were defeated by the unexpected attack of the Babylonians and were eventually expelled from Syria. Necho II was the son of Psammetichus I by his Great Royal Wife Mehtenweskhet and his prenomen or royal name Wahem-Ib-Re means Carrying out Heart Re. That once mighty empire was now reduced to the troops, officials, and nobles who had gathered around a general holding out at Harran, who had taken the throne name of Ashur-uballit II. Necho attempted to assist this remnant immediately upon his coronation, but the force he sent proved to be too small, in the spring of 609 BC, Necho personally led a sizable force to help the Assyrians. He prepared to cross the ridge of hills which shuts in on the south the great Jezreel Valley and their king, Josiah, sided with the Babylonians and attempted to block his advance at Megiddo, where a fierce battle was fought and Josiah was killed. Although Necho became the first pharaoh to cross the Euphrates since Thutmose III, he failed to capture Harran, at this point, Ashur-uballit vanished from history, and the Assyrian Empire was conquered by the Babylonians. The Book of Kings states that Necho met King Josiah of the Kingdom of Judah at Megiddo, leaving a sizable force behind, Necho returned to Egypt. On his return march, he found that the Judeans had selected Jehoahaz to succeed his father Josiah and he brought Jehoahaz back to Egypt as his prisoner, where Jehoahaz ended his days. The Book of Chronicles gives an account of his death and he was then brought back to Jerusalem to die. Necho is quoted as saying, What quarrel is there between you and me, O king of Judah and it is not you I am attacking at this time, but the house with which I am at war. God has told me to hurry, so stop opposing God, the Babylonian king was planning on reasserting his power in Syria. In 609 BC, King Nabopolassar captured Kumukh, which cut off the Egyptian army, Necho responded the following year by retaking Kumukh after a four-month siege, and executed the Babylonian garrison. Nabopolassar gathered another army, which camped at Qurumati on the Euphrates, however, Nabopolassars poor health forced him to return to Babylon in 605 BC. In response, in 606 BC the Egyptians attacked the leaderless Babylonians who fled their position, although Nebuchadnezzar spent many years in his new conquests on continuous pacification campaigns, Necho was unable to recover any significant part of his lost territories
Necho II
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Aerial view of Tel Megiddo site of the battle of Megiddo in 609 BC.
Necho II
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A small kneeling bronze statuette, likely Necho II, now residing in the Brooklyn Museum
Necho II
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The world according to Herodotus, 440 BC
Necho II
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A 15th-century depiction of the Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geographia (c. 150)
142.
Amasis II
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Amasis II or Ahmose II was a pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest, most of our information about him is derived from Herodotus and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins and he was originally an officer in the Egyptian army. His birthplace was Siuph at Saïs and he took part in a general campaign of Pharaoh Psamtik II in 592 BC in Nubia. A revolt which broke out among native Egyptian soldiers gave him his opportunity to seize the throne. General Amasis, sent to them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels instead, and Apries. Apries fled to the Babylonians and was killed mounting an invasion of his homeland in 567 BCE with the aid of a Babylonian army. An inscription confirms the struggle between the native Egyptian and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the year of Amasis. Amasis then married Chedebnitjerbone II, one of the daughters of his predecessor Apries, some information is known about the family origins of Amasis, his mother was a certain Tashereniset, as a bust of her, today located in the British Museum, shows. A stone block from Mehallet el-Kubra also establishes that his maternal grandmother—Tasherenisets mother—was a certain Tjenmutetj and his court is relatively well known. The head of the gate guard Ahmose-sa-Neith appears on numerous monuments and he was referenced on monuments of the 30th dynasty and apparently had a special significance in his time. Wahibre was Leader of the foreigners and Head of the doors of foreigners. Under Amasis the career of the doctor Udjahorresnet began, who was of importance to the Persians. Several heads of the fleet are known, psamtek Meryneit and Pasherientaihet / Padineith are the only known viziers. Herodotus describes how Amasis II would eventually cause a confrontation with the Persian armies, according to Herodotus, Amasis was asked by Cambyses II or Cyrus the Great for an Egyptian ophthalmologist on good terms. Amasis seems to have complied by forcing an Egyptian physician into mandatory labor, causing him to leave his family behind in Egypt, Cambyses complied and requested a daughter of Amasis for marriage. This daughter of Apries was none other than Nitetis, who was as per Herodotuss account, tall, Nitetis naturally betrayed Amasis and upon being greeted by the Persian king explained Amasiss trickery and her true origins. This infuriated Cambyses and he vowed to revenge for it
Amasis II
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A fragmentary statue head of Amasis II
Amasis II
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This head probably came from a temple statue of Amasis II. He wears the traditional royal nemes head cloth, with a protective uraeus serpent at the brow. Circa 560 BCE. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
Amasis II
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Relief showing Amasis from the Karnak temple
Amasis II
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Papyrus, written in demotic script in the 35th year of Amasis II, on display at the Louvre
143.
Petubastis III
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Seheruibre Padibastet, better known as Petubastis III, is a proposed Egyptian ruler, c.522 –520 BCE, who revolted against Persian rule and satrap Aryandes. His name Padibastet means Given by Bastet, Petubastis was a native, local prince, dynast and probably a member of the old royal Saitic line who attempted to take control of Egypt and seize power. Although he assumed royal titles and titulary of a pharaoh, he has been an unknown character. Petubastis revolted in late 522 BCE or early 521 BCE, cunningly, the Great King promised a hundred talents of silver for the one that would provide a new Apis, impressing the natives to the point that they passed en masse to his side. It is most likely that the satrap Aryandes quelled the rebellion, certainly Egypt was pacified by 518 BCE when Darius arrived and authorised the codification of local Egyptian laws. The existence of this shadowy rebel ruler was confirmed by inscriptions found on two seals and one scarab that bear his name written in a royal form inside a cartouche. His figure appears on a doorjamb once covered in leaf, now at the Louvre Museum. There also exists a document that has dated to 522 BCE. In 2014, Olaf Kaper of the Leiden University announced that he found an inscription by Petubastis III claiming that he ambushed and defeated the famous Lost Army of Cambyses, psammetichus IV – another Egyptian rebel ruler during the First Persian Period. Yoyotte, J. Pétoubastis III, Revue dÉgyptologie 24, 216-23
Petubastis III
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Wooden doorjamb, originally covered with gold leaf and inlaid glass, representing Seheruibre Petubastis III making an offering, Louvre Museum.
144.
Xerxes I
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Xerxes I, called Xerxes the Great, was the fourth king of kings of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, Xerxes I is most likely the Persian king identified as Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther. He is also notable in Western history for his invasion of Greece in 480 BC. Like his predecessor Darius I, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex and his forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth until the losses at Salamis and Plataea a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. Xerxes was born to Darius I and Atossa, Darius and Atossa were both Achaemenids as they were both descendants of Achaemenes. While Darius was preparing for war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions, when Darius decided to leave, Darius prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health, Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC when he was about 36 years old. Almost immediately, Xerxes crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before, and appointed his brother Achaemenes as satrap over Egypt. In 484 BC, he outraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down the statue of Bel. This comes from the Daiva Inscriptions of Xerxes, lines 6-13, although Herodotus report in the Histories has created debate concerning Xerxess religious beliefs, modern scholars consider him a Zoroastrian. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxess first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax, in retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxess second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful, many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles, Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Persian Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants, at the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae, most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated, Xerxes burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt
Xerxes I
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Xerxes attending the lashing and "chaining" of the Hellespont (Illustration from 1909)
Xerxes I
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Rock relief of Xerxes at his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam
Xerxes I
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Inscription of Xerxes the Great near the Van Citadel
Xerxes I
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The rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam north of Persepolis, copying that of Darius, is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes
145.
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
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The Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt is usually classified as the fourth Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Late Period. It was founded after the overthrow of Amyrtaeus, the last Pharaoh of the 28th Dynasty, by Nefaarud I in 398 BC, Nefaarud I founded the 29th Dynasty by defeating Amyrtaeus in open battle, and later putting him to death at Memphis. Nefaarud then made Mendes his capital, psammuthes was overthrown by Hakor, who claimed to be the grandson of Nefaarud I. He successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt, drawing support from Athens, although his son Nefaarud II became king on his death, the younger Nefaarud was unable to keep hold on his inheritance. Clarysse, Willy, Nephorites, Founder of the 29th Dynasty and His Name, Chronique dÉgypte, Bulletin périodique de la Fondation égyptologique reine Élisabeth,69, 215–217. Lloyd, Alan Brian, The Late Period, in Shaw, Ian, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 369–394, ISBN 0-8109-1020-9. Myśliwiec, Karol, The Twilight of Ancient Egypt, First Millennium B. C. E, Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-8630-0. Ray, John D. Psammuthis and Hakoris, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Egypt Exploration Society,72, 149–158, doi,10. 2307/3821486, traunecker, Claude, Essai sur lhistoire de la XXIXe dynastie, Bulletin de lInstitut français darchéologie orientale,79, 395–436
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
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Sphinx of Hakor
146.
Psammuthes
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Psammuthes was a pharaoh of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt during 392/1 BC. The place of king in the dynasty is a matter of debate. According to a hypothesis of the Egyptologist John D. Ray, upon the death of Nepherites I in 393 BC, the passed to his son and successor. However, it seems that in his Year 2 an usurper, Psammuthes, seized power and deposed Hakor, Psammuthes is generally credited to have ordered the construction of a chapel in Karnak, which was later usurped and finished by Hakor. It is also possible, however, that the chapel was started by Hakor before his deposition, muthis Ray, J. D.1986, Psammuthis and Hakoris, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology,72, 149-158
Psammuthes
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Bronze statue of Psammuthes, LACMA.
Psammuthes
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Relief bearing part of Psammuthes' royal titulary, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
147.
Teos of Egypt
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Djedhor, better known as Teos or Tachos, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 30th Dynasty. A son of his predecessor Nectanebo I, Teos was his co-regent for three years before ascending to the throne in 361/0 BCE. However, to such an expedition, Teos had to impose new taxes and to expropriate the goods of the temples. This action ensured to Teos both the required finances and a great unpopularity, the operation against the Persians started with Chabrias as the admiral of the fleet, Agesilaus as the commander of the Greek mercenaries and Teos nephew Nakhthorheb as the leader of the machimoi. Teos placed himself in the command of the expedition leaving his brother Tjahapimu. The expedition made its way to Phoenicia without particular problems, unfortunately for Teos, his brother Tjahapimu was plotting against him. Taking advantage of Teos unpopularity, and with the support of the classes, Tjahapimu convinced his son Nakhthorheb to rebel against Teos. Nakhthorheb persuaded Agesilaus to join his side by taking advantage of the disagreements that had arisen between the Spartan king and the pharaoh. Nakhthorheb was acclaimed pharaoh – better known today as Nectanebo II – and the betrayed Teos had no alternative but to flee to Susa, the court of his enemies. Knowledge of the fate of Teos comes from the inscription by a noble called Wennefer. Wennefer was sent by Nectanebo II in search of Teos and managed to have him held by the Persian king Artaxerxes II at Susa, Wennefer then had Teos brought back with him in chains to the Egyptian pharaoh
Teos of Egypt
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Bowl shard with Teos' cartouches, Petrie Museum
148.
Nectanebo II
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Nectanebo II, ruled in 360—342 BC) was the third and last pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt as well as the last native ruler of ancient Egypt. During his reign, the Egyptian artists delivered a specific style that left a mark on the reliefs of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Nectanebo II, however, undertook more constructions and restorations than Nectanebo I, for several years, Nectanebo II was successful in keeping Egypt safe from the Achaemenid Empire. However, betrayed by his servant, Mentor of Rhodes, Nectanebo II was ultimately defeated by the combined Persian. The Persians occupied Memphis and then seized the rest of Egypt, Nectanebo fled south and preserved his power for some time, his subsequent fate is unknown. Except for the greywacke statue in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In the greywacke statue, Nectanebo II is shown in a nemes and his bent arm with the sword stands for the hieroglyph nakht, the falcon represents Horus, while the hieroglyph in Nectanebos right hand stands for heb. In 525 BC Egypt was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, because of internal struggles for the Persian imperial succession, Egypt managed to regain independence in 404 BC. In 389 BC, Pharaoh Hakor negotiated a treaty with Athens, in the beginning of 360 BC, Nectanebos predecessor Teos started preparations for war against intruders. In the same year, the Egyptian army set off, traveling along the coast by land, Nectanebo II accompanied his uncle Teos in that campaign and was in charge of the machimoi. In an attempt to raise finances for the war quickly, Teos imposed taxes on Egyptians, Egyptians, particularly the priests, resented those measures but supported Nectanebo II. Teos asked Spartan military leader Agesilaus and Athenian general Chabrias to preserve support for him, Agesilaus, however, said he was sent to aid Egypt and not to wage war against it. Chabrias returned home with his mercenaries, Teos decided to flee to the Achaemenid court, where he ultimately died of natural causes. Nectanebo contended with an unnamed pretender to the throne from the town of Mendes, the revolt was probably led by one of the descendants of Nepherites I, whose family had ruled the town before. The claimant sent messengers to Agesilaus in an attempt to persuade Agesilaus to his side, Agesilaus remained loyal to Nectanebo, fearing to become a turncoat. At one of the towns in the Nile Delta the troops of Nectanebo and Agesilaus were besieged by the usurper, despite the enemys numerical superiority, Nectanebo and Agesilaus were victorious and the revolt was put down in the fall of 360 BC. Acknowledging Agesilaus, Nectanebo sent him 220 talents of gold, religion played an important part in Nectanebos domestic policy. He began his reign by officiating over the funeral of an Apis bull in Memphis, there Nectanebo added a relief decoration to the eastern and western temples of Apis
Nectanebo II
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Head of Nectanebo II, Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon
Nectanebo II
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Obverse of gold stater of Nectanebo II.
Nectanebo II
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Black siltstone obelisk of Pharaoh Nectanebo II. According to the vertical inscriptions he set up this obelisk at the doorway of the sanctuary of Thoth, the Twice-Great, Lord of Hermopolis. Today, it is located in the British Museum, London.
Nectanebo II
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Papyrus of the Dream of Nectanebo, ca. 160–150 BC
149.
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
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The Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Second Egyptian Satrapy, was effectively a short-lived province of the Achaemenid Persian Empire between 343 BC to 332 BC. The period of the 31st Dynasty was the occasion in which Persian pharaohs ruled Egypt. Before the 31st Dynasty was founded, Egypt had enjoyed a period of independence. The period before this is referred to as the First Egyptian Satrapy or the 27th Dynasty and it is not known who served as satrap after Artaxerxes III, but under Darius III there was Sabaces, who fought and died at Issus and was succeeded by Mazaces. In 332 BC, Mazaces handed over the country to Alexander the Great without a fight, the Achaemenid empire had ended, and for a while Egypt was a satrapy in Alexanders empire. Later the Ptolemies and the Romans successively ruled the Nile valley, occasionally Egyptians wore foreign costumes and jewelry. The taste for non-Egyptian fashion arose during periods of trade or diplomatic contact with distant courts. The Persians, who invaded the Nile Valley from their Iranian homeland, dominated Egypt during Dynasty 27. This statue to the dates to the later period of Persian rule in Egypt. The long skirt shown wrapped around this body and tucked in at the upper edge of the garment is typically Persian. The necklace, called a torque, is decorated with images of ibexes, symbols in ancient Persia of agility, the depiction of this official in Persian dress may have been a demonstration of loyalty to the new rulers. Fragments of Ctesias Diodorus Siculus Fragments of Manetho Flavius Josephus Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt — also known as the First Egyptian Satrapy
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
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Egyptian Man in a Persian Costume, ca. 343-332 B.C.E., 71.139, Brooklyn Museum
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
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Standard of Cyrus the Great
150.
Argead dynasty
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The Argead dynasty was an ancient Greek royal house. They were the founders and the dynasty of Macedon from about 700 to 310 BC. Their tradition, as described in ancient Greek historiography, traced their origins to Argos, initially the rulers of the homonymous tribe, by the time of Philip II they had expanded their reign further, to include under the rule of Macedonia all Upper Macedonian states. The mythical founder of the Argead dynasty is King Caranus, the words Argead and Argive derive from the Greek Ἀργεῖος, of or from Argos, which is first attested in Homer, where it was also used as a collective designation for the Greeks. The Argead dynasty claimed descent from the Temenids of Argos, in the Peloponnese, whose ancestor was Temenus. In the excavations of the royal Palace at Aegae Manolis Andronikos discovered in the room an inscription relating to that belief. The latter asked them to leave his territory, believing in an omen that something great would happen to Perdiccas, the boys went to another part of Macedonia, near the garden of Midas, above which mount Bermio stands. There they made their abode and gradually formed their own kingdom, the Hellanodikai, however, after examining his Argead claim confirmed that the Macedonians were Greeks and allowed him to participate. They also added Mygdonia in their territory through the expulsion of the Edoni, Eordians, the Kings of Makedon, 399–369 BC. Archived from the original on 26 April 2008
Argead dynasty
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Vergina Sun
151.
Ptolemaic dynasty
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Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 to 30 BC. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt, Ptolemy, one of the seven somatophylakes who served as Alexander the Greats generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexanders death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself Ptolemy I, later known as Sōter Saviour, the Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemys family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC, all the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens regnant, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII and her apparent suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. Dates in brackets represent the dates of the Ptolemaic pharaohs. They frequently ruled jointly with their wives, who were also their sisters. Of these, one of the last and most famous was Cleopatra, several systems exist for numbering the later rulers, the one used here is the one most widely used by modern scholars. Arsinoe IV, in opposition to Cleopatra Ptolemy Keraunos - eldest son of Ptolemy I Soter, Ptolemy Apion - son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Ptolemy Philadelphus - son of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy of Mauretania - son of King Juba II of Numidia and Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony. Contemporaries describe a number of the Ptolemaic dynasty members as extremely obese, whilst sculptures and coins reveal prominent eyes, familial Graves disease could explain the swollen necks and eye prominence, although this is unlikely to occur in the presence of morbid obesity. A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt, the development of their political relations 273-80 B. C. J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs, Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305-30 BC. Livius. org, Ptolemies — by Jona Lendering
Ptolemaic dynasty
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Ptolemy I Soter.
Ptolemaic dynasty
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Ptolemy II
Ptolemaic dynasty
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Ptolemy V
Ptolemaic dynasty
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Ptolemy VI
152.
Ptolemy I Soter
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Ptolemy I Soter I, also known as Ptolemy Lagides, was a Macedonian Greek general under Alexander the Great, one of the three Diadochi who succeeded to his empire. Ptolemy became ruler of Egypt and founded a dynasty which ruled it for the three centuries, turning Egypt into a Hellenistic kingdom and Alexandria into a center of Greek culture. He assimilated some aspects of Egyptian culture, however, assuming the title pharaoh in 305/4 BC. The use of the title of pharaoh was often situational, pharaoh was used for an Egyptian audience, like all Macedonian nobles, Ptolemy I Soter claimed descent from Heracles, the mythical founder of the Argead dynasty that ruled Macedon. Ptolemy was one of Alexanders most trusted generals, and was among the seven somatophylakes attached to his person and he was a few years older than Alexander and had been his intimate friend since childhood. He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Ptolemy served with Alexander from his first campaigns, and played a principal part in the later campaigns in Afghanistan and India. Ptolemy had his first independent command during the campaign against the rebel Bessus whom Ptolemy captured and handed over to Alexander for execution. During Alexanders campaign in the Indian subcontinent Ptolemy was in command of the guard at the siege of Aornos. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Ptolemy is said to have instigated the resettlement of the made at Babylon. Ptolemy quickly moved, without authorization, to subjugate Cyrenaica, by custom, kings in Macedonia asserted their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. Ptolemy then openly joined the coalition against Perdiccas, Perdiccas appears to have suspected Ptolemy of aiming for the throne himself, and may have decided that Ptolemy was his most dangerous rival. Ptolemy executed Cleomenes for spying on behalf of Perdiccas — this removed the check on his authority. In 321 BC, Perdiccas attempted to invade Egypt only to fall at the hands of his own men, Ptolemys decision to defend the Nile against Perdiccass attempt to force it ended in fiasco for Perdiccas, with the loss of 2000 men. This failure was a blow to Perdiccas reputation, and he was murdered in his tent by two of his subordinates. Ptolemy immediately crossed the Nile, to provide supplies to what had the day before been an enemy army, Ptolemy was offered the regency in place of Perdiccas, but he declined. Ptolemy was consistent in his policy of securing a power base and his first occupation of Syria was in 318, and he established at the same time a protectorate over the petty kings of Cyprus. When Antigonus One-Eye, master of Asia in 315, showed dangerous ambitions, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him, in Cyprus, he fought the partisans of Antigonus, and re-conquered the island. A revolt in Cyrene was crushed the same year, in 312, Ptolemy and Seleucus, the fugitive satrap of Babylonia, both invaded Syria, and defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, in the Battle of Gaza
Ptolemy I Soter
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Bust of Ptolemy I in the Louvre Museum
Ptolemy I Soter
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Ptolemy as Pharaoh of Egypt, British Museum, London.
Ptolemy I Soter
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The taking of Jerusalem by Ptolemy Soter ca. 320 BC, by Jean Fouquet.
Ptolemy I Soter
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A rare coin of Ptolemy I, a reminder of his successful campaigns with Alexander in India. Obv: Ptolemy in profile at the beginning of his reign. Rev: Alexander triumphantly riding a chariot drawn by elephants.
153.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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Ptolemy II Philadelphus was the king of Ptolemaic Egypt from 283 to 246 BCE. He was the son of the founder of the Ptolemaic kingdom Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice and he had two half-brothers, Ptolemy Keraunos and Meleager, who both became kings of Macedonia, and who both died in the Gallic invasion of 280–279 BCE. Ptolemy was first married to Arsinoë I, daughter of Lysimachus, who was the mother of his children, after her repudiation he married his full sister Arsinoë II. During Ptolemys reign, the material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height and he promoted the Museum and Library of Alexandria, and he erected a commemorative stele, the Great Mendes Stela. Ptolemy II began his reign as co-regent with his father Ptolemy I from c.285 BCE to c.283 BCE, Egypt was involved in several wars during his reign. Magas of Cyrene opened war on his half-brother, and the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter, desiring Coele-Syria with Judea, two or three years of war followed. The Ptolemaic sphere of power extended over the Cyclades to Samothrace, in 275/4 BC, Ptolemaic forces invaded Nubia and annexed the Triakontaschoinos. In 270 BCE Ptolemy hired 4,000 Gallic mercenaries. ”The victory won by Antigonus II Gonatas, king of Macedonia, Ptolemy was of a delicate constitution. Elias Joseph Bickermann gives the date of his death as January 29, Ptolemys first wife, Arsinoë I, daughter of Lysimachus, was the mother of his legitimate children, Ptolemy III Euergetes, his successor. Lysimachus Berenice Phernopherus, married Antiochus II Theos, king of Syria, after her repudiation he married his full sister Arsinoë II, the widow of Lysimachus — an Egyptian custom—which brought him her Aegean possessions. Ptolemy deified his parents and his sister-wife after their deaths, the material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Although an enthusiast for Hellenic culture, he also adopted Egyptian religious concepts, callimachus, keeper of the library, Theocritus, and a host of lesser poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the library and to scientific research. The tradition preserved in the pseudepigraphical Letter of Aristeas which connects the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek with his patronage is probably overdrawn, pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Chap. 21 He is also mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka, Alexandrian Pleiad Library of Alexandria Ptolemaic period - period of Egyptian history during the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemais - towns and cities named after members of the Ptolemaic dynasty, list of people whose parent committed suicide Mookerji, Radha Kumud, Chandragupta Maurya and his times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0433-3 Clayton, Peter A. Chronicles of the Pharaohs, the record of the rulers. The Foreign Policy of Ptolemy II, in McKechnie, Paul R. Guillaume, Philippe
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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A bust depicting Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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Ptolemy II Philadelphus (front), and his sister/wife Arsinoe II
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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This granite statue depicts Ptolemy II in the traditional canon of ancient Egyptian art. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
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" Cameo Gonzaga ", Hermitage
154.
Ptolemy III Euergetes
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Ptolemy III Euergetes was the third king of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Euergetes was the eldest son of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his first wife, Arsinoe I and he married Berenice of Cyrene in the year corresponding to 244/243 BC, and their children were, Arsinoe III, born in c. She later married her brother Ptolemy IV Ptolemy IV Philopator, born c.244 BC Possibly Lysimachus, the name of the son is not known, but he is said to have been born in c.243 BC. Alexander, born in c.242 BC Magas, born in c.241 BC, scalded to death in his bath by Theogos or Theodotus, at the orders of Ptolemy IV. Berenice, probably born in c.239 BC and died a year later, Ptolemy III Euergetes was responsible for the first known example of a series of decrees published as bilingual inscriptions on massive stone blocks in three writing systems. His stone stela is the Canopus Stone of 238 BC, Ptolemy IIIs stone contains decrees about priestly orders, and is a memorial for his daughter Berenice. But two of its 26 lines of hieroglyphs decree the use of a day added to the Egyptian calendar of 365 days. Also, the reliefs on the pylon were only completed in the reign of Ptolemy XII. He, like many Pharaohs before him, also added to the Temple of Karnak, due to a falling out at the Seleucid court, Ptolemys eldest sister Berenice Phernophorus was murdered along with her infant son. In response Ptolemy III invaded Syria, during this war, the Third Syrian War, he occupied Antioch and even reached Babylon. In exchange for a peace in 241 BC, Ptolemy was awarded new territories on the northern coast of Syria, including Seleucia Pieria, from this capture he received fifteen hundred talents of silver, roughly a tenth of his annual income. During his involvement in the Third Syrian War, he managed to regain many Egyptian works of art that had been stolen when the Persians conquered Egypt. While he was fighting, he left his wife, Berenice II, in charge of the country. The Ptolemaic kingdom reached the height of its power during this reign and he maintained his fathers foreign policy of subduing Macedonia by supporting its enemies. He continued his predecessors work on Alexandria, especially in the Great Library and he had every book unloaded in the Alexandria docks seized, had copies made of each one, and gave the copies to the previous owners while the original copies were kept in the Library. He was even more liberal towards Egyptian religion than his predecessors, Ptolemy IIIs reign was also marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. In the 1930s, excavations by Mattingly at a close to Port Dunford in present-day southern Somalia yielded a number of Ptolemaic coins. Among these pieces were 17 copper mints from the reigns of Ptolemy III to Ptolemy V, as well as late Imperial Rome, history of Ptolemaic Egypt- Ptolemais - towns and cities named after members of the Ptolemaic dynasty
Ptolemy III Euergetes
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Gold coin depicting Ptolemy III issued by Ptolemy IV to honor his deified father
Ptolemy III Euergetes
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Statue of Ptolemy III in the guise of Hermes wearing the chlamys cloak. Ptolemaic Egypt.
Ptolemy III Euergetes
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Bronze coin issued by Ptolemy III depicting Zeus-Amun (obverse) and traditional Ptolemaic eagle (reverse). Ptolemy III did not issue coins with his own image.
155.
Ptolemy VI Philometor
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Ptolemy VI Philometor was a king of Egypt from the Ptolemaic period. He reigned from 180 to 145 BC, in 173 BC he married his sister, Cleopatra II, as it was customary for Pharaohs, for the Ptolemaic Greek kings had adopted many customs of the Pharaohs. He had at least four children with her, Ptolemy Eupator, Ptolemy Neos, Cleopatra Thea and Cleopatra III, the outbreak of the Sixth Syrian War in 170 BC saw Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II becoming co-rulers. A period of reconciliation followed, but the invasion of Egypt in 168 created further unrest. In 164 Ptolemy VI was driven out by his brother and went to Rome to seek support, the Romans partitioned the Ptolemaic land, granting Ptolemy VI Cyprus and Egypt, and Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cyrenaica. Around 150 BC he recognized Alexander Balas as the Seleucid king by marrying his daughter Cleopatra Thea to him in a ceremony at Ptolemais Akko and he remarried his daughter to Alexanders rival Demetrius II, and went to Antioch, where he crowned himself King of Asia. Alexander was defeated by Ptolemy when he returned from Cilicia with his army and fled to Arabia, for the first time since the death of Alexander the Great, Egypt and Syria were united. However, Ptolemy died three days later, in unknown circumstances, Ptolemy Philometor at LacusCurtius — Ptolemy VI — Ptolemy VI Philometor entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
Ptolemy VI Philometor
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Ptolemy VI
Ptolemy VI Philometor
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Coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor
Ptolemy VI Philometor
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Ring of Ptolemy VI Philometor as Egyptian pharaoh (Louvre)
156.
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
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Ptolemy IX Soter II or Lathyros was king of Egypt three times, from 116 BC to 110 BC,109 BC to 107 BC and 88 BC to 81 BC, with intervening periods ruled by his brother, Ptolemy X Alexander. At first he was chosen by his mother Cleopatra III to be her co-regent and he married his sister Cleopatra IV, but his mother pushed her out and replaced her with his younger sister Cleopatra Selene. Later, she claimed that he tried to kill her, and successfully deposed him, however, she later grew tired of the now Ptolemy X and deposed him, putting Ptolemy IX back on the throne. She was soon murdered by Ptolemy X, who took the throne again and he was then killed in battle, and Ptolemy IX reigned until his own death. His daughter Berenice III took the throne after his death, and she was forced to marry her stepson Alexander, who reigned under the name Ptolemy XI Alexander II and had her killed nineteen days later. Ptolemy IXs name recalls that of his great Macedonian ancestor, Ptolemy I Soter, in references and in younger ones by the German historian Huss. Ptolemy Soter II at LacusCurtius — Ptolemy IX Lathyrus entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy IX at Thebes by Robert Ritner
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
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Silver tetradrachma of Egyptian pharaoh Ptolemy IX. Soter II., 109 BC
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
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Ptolemy IX Lathyros
Ptolemy IX Lathyros
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Fragment of a stella of Ptolemy IX, 115 BC, from Aswan
157.
Ptolemy XII Auletes
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Ptolemy Neos Dionysos Theos Philopator Theos Philadelphos, more commonly known as Auletes or Nothos, was an Egyptian king of Macedonian descent. Auletes means pipes-player, referring to the love of playing the pipes. Ptolemy reigned during the Hellenistic period and he is assumed to have been an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX Soter, perhaps by an Alexandrian woman. But he may instead be the son of Ptolemy IX by Cleopatra IV and his reign as king was interrupted by a general rebellion that resulted in his exile from 58 to 55 BC. Thus, Ptolemy XII ruled Egypt from 80 to 58 BC, Ptolemy XII was generally described as a weak, self-indulgent man, a drunkard, and a music lover. Ptolemy may have had two wives and he married Cleopatra Tryphaena, who may have been either a sister or a cousin. Cleopatra Tryphaena is not mentioned after 69 BC and it is not clear who the mother of Ptolemys three youngest children is and his children include, Possibly a daughter named Cleopatra Tryphaena. Porphyry mentions a daughter Cleopatra Tryphaena who ruled with her sister Berenice, strabo however states that Ptolemy had only three daughters of whom the eldest has been referred to Berenice IV. Suggesting that the Cleopatra Tryphaena referred to by Porphyry may have been Ptolemys wife, many experts now identify Cleopatra VI with Cleopatra V of Egypt, Ptolemys wife. When Ptolemy XI died without a heir, the only available male descendents of the Ptolemy I lineage were the illegitimate sons of Ptolemy IX by an unknown Greek concubine. The boys were living in exile in Sinope, at the court of Mithridates VI, as the eldest of the boys Ptolemy XII was proclaimed king as Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos and married his sister, Tryphaena. Ptolemy XII was coregent with his daughter Cleopatra VI Tryphaena and his wife Cleopatra V Tryphaena, however, Ptolemy XI had left the throne to Rome in his will, therefore Ptolemy XII was not the legitimate successor. Nevertheless, Rome did not challenge Ptolemy XIIs succession because the Senate was unwilling to acquire an Egyptian expansion, before Ptolemy XIIs reign, the geographical distance between Rome and Egypt resulted in an indifferent attitude towards each other. Nevertheless, Egyptians asked the Romans to settle dynastic conflicts During his reign, Ptolemy XII attempted to secure his own fate, Pompey accepted the riches but refused the invitation. After paying a bribe of six thousand talents to Julius Caesar and Pompey, in 58 BC, Ptolemy XII failed to comment on the Roman conquest of Cyprus, a territory ruled by his brother, thereby inciting the Egyptian population to start a rebellion. Egyptians were already aggravated by taxes and a substantial increase in the cost of living. Ptolemy XII fled to Rome, possibly with his daughter Cleopatra VII and his daughter Berenice IV became his successor. She ruled as coregent with her sister Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, a year after Ptolemy XIIs exile, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena died and Berenice ruled alone over Alexandria from 57 to 56BC
Ptolemy XII Auletes
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Ptolemy XII smashing his enemies with a royal mace. Relief from the first pylon in the temple at Edfu
Ptolemy XII Auletes
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The first pylon at Edfu Temple was decorated by Ptolemy XII in 57 BC with figures of himself smiting the enemy.
158.
Cleopatra
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Cleopatra VII Philopator, known to history simply as Cleopatra, was the last active ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt, briefly survived as pharaoh by her son Caesarion. After her reign, Egypt became a province of the recently established Roman Empire, Cleopatra was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Greek family of Macedonian origin that ruled Egypt after Alexander the Greats death during the Hellenistic period. By contrast, Cleopatra did learn to speak Egyptian and represented herself as the reincarnation of the Egyptian goddess Isis, as queen, she consummated a liaison with Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated Caesarion, her son with Caesar, to co-ruler in name, after Caesars assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesars legal heir Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios, Antony committed suicide after losing the Battle of Actium to Octavians forces, and Cleopatra followed suit. According to tradition, she killed herself by means of an asp bite on August 12,30 BC and she was outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, but he was soon killed on Octavians orders. Egypt then became the Roman province of Aegyptus, Cleopatras father Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the Greats general Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lagus, both of Macedon. Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterwards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed that Berenice IV poisoned her so that she could assume sole rulership, regardless of the cause, she ruled until Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided by Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was imprisoned and executed afterwards, her head allegedly being sent to the royal court on the decree of her father. Cleopatra now became joint regent and deputy to her father at age 14, Ptolemy XII died in March 51 BC. His will made 18-year-old Cleopatra and her 10-year-old brother Ptolemy XIII joint monarchs, the first three years of their reign were difficult due to economic failures, famine, deficient floods of the Nile, and political conflicts. Cleopatra was married to her brother, but she quickly made it clear that she had no intention of sharing power with him. In August 51 BC, relations broke down between Cleopatra and Ptolemy. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemys name from official documents and her face appeared on coins. The Gabiniani killed the sons of the Roman governor of Syria Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus when they came to ask the Gabiniani to assist their father against the Parthians, Cleopatra handed the murderers over to Bibulus in chains, whereupon the Gabiniani became bitter enemies of the queen. This conflict was one of the causes of Cleopatras fall from power shortly afterward. The sole reign of Cleopatra was finally ended by a cabal of courtiers led by the eunuch Pothinus, in connection with half-Greek general Achillas, circa 48 BC, Cleopatras younger brother Ptolemy XIII became sole ruler
Cleopatra
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Bust believed to be of Cleopatra VII, Altes Museum, Berlin
Cleopatra
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Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 B.C., 71.12, Brooklyn Museum
Cleopatra
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Cleopatra and Caesar (1866). Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme
Cleopatra
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Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera
159.
Caesarion
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Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, better known by the nicknames Caesarion and Ptolemy Caesar, was the last Pharaoh of Egypt. He was the member of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. It is unknown whether Octavians order was carried out successfully and he was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only biological son of Julius Caesar, after whom he was named. Caesarion was born in Egypt on June 23,47 BC and his mother Cleopatra insisted that he was the son of Julius Caesar. Caesarion was said to have inherited Caesars looks and manner, Caesars supporter Gaius Oppius wrote a pamphlet which attempted to prove that Caesar could not have fathered Caesarion. Nevertheless, Caesar may have allowed Caesarion to use his name, the matter became contentious when Caesars adopted son Octavian came into conflict with Cleopatra. Caesarion spent two of his infant years, from 46 to 44 BC, in Rome, where he, Cleopatra hoped that her son would eventually succeed his father as the head of the Roman Republic as well as of Egypt. After Caesars assassination on March 15,44 BC, Cleopatra, Caesarion was named co-ruler by his mother on September 2,44 BC at the age of three, although he was pharaoh in name only, with Cleopatra keeping actual authority all to herself. Cleopatra compared her relationship to her son with the Egyptian goddess Isis, during the tense period leading up to the final conflict between Mark Antony and Octavian, the two of them initially shared control of the Republic in a triumvirate with Lepidus. Lepidus was forced into retirement by Octavian in 36 BC, Octavian and Mark Antony were then left in control of the Western and Eastern provinces respectively. There is no record of Caesarion between 44 BC until the Donations of Antioch in 36 BC. Two years later he appears at the Donations of Alexandria. In 34 BC, Antony granted further lands and titles to Caesarion. Caesarion was proclaimed to be a god, a son of god and this grandiose title was unprecedented in the management of Roman client-king relationships and could be seen as threatening the greatness of the Roman people. Antony also declared Caesarion to be Caesars true son and heir and this declaration was a direct threat to Octavian. These proclamations partly caused the breach in Antonys relations with Octavian. After the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and she may have intended to go into exile, perhaps with Antony, who may have hoped that he would be allowed to retire as Lepidus had. Caesarion reappears in the record in 30 BC, when Octavian invaded Egypt
Caesarion
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Caesarion, from the "Unravel the Mystery" Cleopatra exhibit
Caesarion
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A relief of Cleopatra VII and Caesarion at the temple of Dendera, Egypt
160.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
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The Eighteenth, Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties of Ancient Egypt collectively mark the New Kingdom. The latter two dynasties constitute an era known as the Ramesside period, the Twentieth Dynasty is considered to be the last one of the New Kingdom of Egypt, and was followed by the Third Intermediate Period. The Pharaohs of the 20th dynasty ruled for approximately 120 years, the dates and names in the table are mostly taken from Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton, Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill,2006. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes, more information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website. Pharaoh Setnakhte was likely already middle aged when he took the throne after Queen Twosret and he ruled for only around 4 years when he was succeeded by his son Ramesses III. Egypt was threatened by the Sea Peoples during this time period, the king is also known for a harem conspiracy in which Queen Tiye attempted to assassinate the king and put her son Pentawere on the throne. The coup was not successful in the end, the king may have died from the attempt on his life, but it was his legitimate heir Ramesses IV who succeeded him to the throne. After this a succession of kings named Ramesses take the throne, the period of these rulers is notable for the beginning of the systematic robbing of the royal tombs. Many surviving administrative documents from this period are records of investigations and punishment for crimes, especially in the reigns of Ramses IX. As happened under the earlier Nineteenth Dynasty, this group struggled under the effects of the bickering between the heirs of Ramesses III, for instance, three different sons of Ramesses III are known to have assumed power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI and Ramesses VIII respectively. Smendes would eventually found the Twenty-First dynasty at Tanis, the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt was the last of the New Kingdom of Egypt. The familial relationships are unclear, especially towards the end of the dynasty, pharaoh is a historical novel by Bolesław Prus, set in Egypt at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, which adds two fictional rulers, Ramesses XII and Ramesses XIII. It has been adapted into a film of the same title
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
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Ramesses III, was the son of Sethnakht. During his reign, he fought off the invasions of the Sea Peoples in Egypt and tolerated their settlement in Canaan. A conspiracy was hatched to kill him, but it failed. He was later murdered. His mummy, long an inspiration for the scary Hollywood films, showed his throat was slit.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
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Ramesses IV was the fifth son of Ramesses III. He assumed the throne after his four older brothers had died.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
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Ramesses VI was an uncle of Ramesses V. He usurped his predecessors throne and later his tomb, KV9.
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
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Ramesses VII was the son of Ramesses VI During his reign, prices of grain soared to the highest levels. His mummy has never been found but cups bearing his name were found in the royal cache at Deir el-Bahri. He was buried in KV1. Above is a scene from KV1, open since antiquity.
161.
Ptolemaic family tree
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Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 to 30 BC. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt, Ptolemy, one of the seven somatophylakes who served as Alexander the Greats generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexanders death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself Ptolemy I, later known as Sōter Saviour, the Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemys family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC, all the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens regnant, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII and her apparent suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. Dates in brackets represent the dates of the Ptolemaic pharaohs. They frequently ruled jointly with their wives, who were also their sisters. Of these, one of the last and most famous was Cleopatra, several systems exist for numbering the later rulers, the one used here is the one most widely used by modern scholars. Arsinoe IV, in opposition to Cleopatra Ptolemy Keraunos - eldest son of Ptolemy I Soter, Ptolemy Apion - son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Ptolemy Philadelphus - son of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy of Mauretania - son of King Juba II of Numidia and Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony. Contemporaries describe a number of the Ptolemaic dynasty members as extremely obese, whilst sculptures and coins reveal prominent eyes, familial Graves disease could explain the swollen necks and eye prominence, although this is unlikely to occur in the presence of morbid obesity. A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt, the development of their political relations 273-80 B. C. J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs, Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305-30 BC. Livius. org, Ptolemies — by Jona Lendering
Ptolemaic family tree
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Eagle of Zeus
Ptolemaic family tree
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Bust of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt (305 BC–282 BC) and founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty
Ptolemaic family tree
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A bust depicting King Ptolemy II Philadelphus 309–246 BCE
Media related to Shabaka at Wikimedia Commons
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