1.
Corfe Castle
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Corfe Castle is a fortification standing above the village of the same name on the Isle of Purbeck in the English county of Dorset. Built by William the Conqueror, the dates back to the 11th century. The first phase was one of the earliest castles in England to be built at least partly using stone when the majority were built with earth, Corfe Castle underwent major structural changes in the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1572, Corfe Castle left the Crowns control when Elizabeth I sold it to Sir Christopher Hatton, Sir John Bankes bought the castle in 1635, and was the owner during the English Civil War. His wife, Lady Mary Bankes, led the defence of the castle when it was besieged by Parliamentarian forces. The first siege, in 1643, was unsuccessful, but by 1645 Corfe was one of the last remaining royalist strongholds in southern England, in March that year Corfe Castle was demolished on Parliaments orders. Owned by the National Trust, the castle is open to the public and it is protected as a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument. Corfe Castle was built on a hill in a gap in a long line of chalk hills. The name Corfe derives from the Old English ceorfan, meaning a cutting, referring to the gap, the construction of the medieval castle means that little is known about previous activity on the hill. However, there are postholes belonging to a Saxon hall on the site, the hall may be where Edward the Martyr was assassinated in 978. A castle was founded at Corfe on Englands south coast soon after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the royal forest of Purbeck, where William the Conqueror enjoyed hunting, was established in the area. Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 such castles in England, sitting as it does on a hill top, Corfe Castle is one of the classic images of a medieval castle. However, despite popular imagination, occupying the highest point in the landscape was not the position of a medieval castle. In England, a minority are located on hilltops, but most are in valleys, unusually for castles built in the 11th century, Corfe was partially constructed from stone indicating it was of particularly high status. A stone wall was built around the top, creating an inner ward or enclosure. There were two enclosures, one to the west, and one that extended south, in contrast to the inner bailey. At the time, the vast majority of castles in England were built using earth and timber, there are 48 castles directly mentioned in the Domesday Book, although not all those in existence at the time were recorded. In the early 12th century, Henry I began the construction of a keep at Corfe
Corfe Castle
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Ruins of Corfe Castle from the outer bailey
Corfe Castle
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Corfe's keep (left) dates from the early 12th century.
Corfe Castle
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The south-west gatehouse, which allowed access from the outer bailey to the west bailey, dates from the mid 13th century.
Corfe Castle
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Lady Mary Bankes defended the castle during two sieges in the English Civil War.
2.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
English Civil War
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The victory of the Parliamentarian New Model Army over the Royalist Army at the Battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645 marked the decisive turning point in the English Civil War.
English Civil War
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Charles I, painted by Van Dyck
English Civil War
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Henrietta Maria, painted by Peter Lely, 1660
English Civil War
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Session of the Long Parliament
3.
Fortification
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Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
Fortification
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Krak des Chevaliers is one of the best-preserved Crusader castles.
Fortification
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Bourtange star fort, restored to 1750 situation, Groningen (province), Netherlands.
Fortification
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The well preserved Bulgarian medieval fort Baba Vida.
Fortification
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Fortifications on the Iraq-Iran Border, viewed from the ISS, 2014
4.
Wars of Scottish Independence
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The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. The First War began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, the Second War began with the English-supported invasion by Edward Balliol and the Disinherited in 1332, and ended in 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. The wars were part of a crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most defining times in its history. At the end of wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent state. The wars were important for reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in medieval warfare. King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286, leaving his three-year-old granddaughter Margaret as his heir. In 1290, the Guardians of Scotland signed the Treaty of Birgham agreeing to the marriage of the Maid of Norway and Edward of Caernarvon, the son of Edward I, who was Margarets great-uncle. However, Margaret, travelling to her new kingdom, died shortly after landing on the Orkney Islands around 26 September 1290, with her death, there were 13 rivals for succession. The two leading competitors for the Scottish crown were Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale and John Balliol, Edward agreed to meet the guardians at Norham in 1291. Before the process got underway Edward insisted that he be recognised as Lord Paramount of Scotland, when they refused, he gave the claimants three weeks to agree to his terms, knowing that by then his armies would have arrived and the Scots would have no choice. Edwards ploy worked, and the claimants to the crown were forced to acknowledge Edward as their Lord Paramount and accept his arbitration. Their decision was influenced in part by the fact that most of the claimants had large estates in England and, therefore, however, many involved were churchmen such as Bishop Wishart for whom such mitigation cannot be claimed. Two days later, in Upsettlington, the Guardians of the Realm, all Scots were also required to pay homage to Edward I, either in person or at one of the designated centres by 27 July 1291. There were thirteen meetings from May to August 1291 at Berwick, on 3 August, Edward asked Balliol and Bruce to choose 40 arbiters each, while he chose 24, to decide the case. On 12 August, he signed a writ that required the collection of all documents that concern the competitors rights or his own title to the superiority of Scotland. Balliol was named king by a majority on 17 November 1292, on 26 December, at Newcastle upon Tyne, King John swore homage to Edward I for the Kingdom of Scotland. Edward soon made it clear that he regarded the country as a vassal state, Balliol, undermined by members of the Bruce faction, struggled to resist, and the Scots resented Edwards demands. In 1294, Edward summoned John Balliol to appear before him, on his return to Scotland, John held a meeting with his council and after a few days of heated debate, plans were made to defy the orders of Edward I
Wars of Scottish Independence
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Edward I and Edward, Prince of Wales
Wars of Scottish Independence
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The dethroned King John, whom a Scottish chronicler dubbed 'toom tabard' ('empty coat')
Wars of Scottish Independence
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Notable figures from the first War of Independence as depicted by the Victorian artist William Hole
Wars of Scottish Independence
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Bannockburn Monument plaque
5.
Adulterine castle
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Adulterine castles were fortifications built in England during the 12th century without royal approval, particularly during the civil war of the Anarchy between 1139 and 1154. Similarly, Stephen built a new chain of castles at Burwell, Lidgate, Rampton, Caxton. Many of these castles were termed adulterine, meaning unauthorised, because no formal permission was given for their construction, traditionally the King retained the right to approve new castle construction, but in the chaos of the war this was no longer the case. The term adulterine has been challenged in late 20th-century and 21st century scholarship, the later practice of the licence to crenellate Slighting Castles in Great Britain and Ireland Bibliography
Adulterine castle
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The remains of the adulterine Wakefield Castle
6.
Robert the Bruce
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Robert I, popularly known as Robert the Bruce, was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329. Robert was one of the most famous warriors of his generation and he fought successfully during his reign to regain Scotlands place as an independent country and is today revered in Scotland as a national hero. As Earl of Carrick, Robert the Bruce supported his familys claim to the Scottish throne, after submitting to Edward I in 1302 and returning to the kings peace, Robert inherited his familys claim to the Scottish throne upon his fathers death. In February 1306, Robert the Bruce killed Comyn following an argument, Bruce moved quickly to seize the throne and was crowned king of Scots on 25 March 1306. Bruce defeated his other Scots enemies, destroying their strongholds and devastating their lands, despite Bannockburn and the capture of the final English stronghold at Berwick in 1318, Edward II refused to renounce his claim to the overlordship of Scotland. In 1320, the Scottish nobility submitted the Declaration of Arbroath to Pope John XXII, declaring Robert as their rightful monarch and asserting Scotlands status as an independent kingdom. In 1324, the Pope recognised Robert I as king of an independent Scotland, and in 1326, Robert I died in June 1329. His body is buried in Dunfermline Abbey, while his heart was interred in Melrose Abbey. Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale, the first of the Bruce, or de Brus, line arrived in Scotland with David I in 1124 and was given the lands of Annandale in Dumfries and Galloway. His mother was by all accounts a formidable woman who, legend would have it, from his mother, he inherited the Earldom of Carrick, and through his father, a royal lineage that would give him a claim to the Scottish throne. The Bruces also held estates in Aberdeenshire, County Antrim, County Durham, Essex, Middlesex. Although Robert the Bruces date of birth is known, his place of birth is less certain, although it is most likely to have been Turnberry Castle in Ayrshire, very little is known of his youth. Annandale was thoroughly feudalised and the form of Northern Middle English that would develop into the Scots language was spoken throughout the region. Robert the Bruce would most probably have become trilingual at an early age and he would have been schooled to speak, read and possibly write in the Anglo-Norman language of his Scots-Norman peers and his fathers family. He would also have both the Gaelic language of his Carrick birthplace and his mothers family, and the early Scots language. As the heir to an estate and a pious layman, Robert would also have been given working knowledge of Latin. This would have afforded Robert and his brothers access to education in the law, politics, scripture, saints Lives, philosophy, history and chivalric instruction. That Robert took personal pleasure in such learning and leisure is suggested in a number of ways, as king, Robert certainly commissioned verse to commemorate Bannockburn and his subjects military deeds
Robert the Bruce
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Victorian depiction of Bruce
Robert the Bruce
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Statue of Robert the Bruce at the Bannockburn battle field
Robert the Bruce
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Drawing of Robert the Bruce and Isabella of Mar, from 1562
Robert the Bruce
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The killing of Comyn in the Greyfriars church in Dumfries, as imagined by Felix Philippoteaux, a 19th-century illustrator.
7.
Levant
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The Levant is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean. The term Levant entered English in the late 15th century from French and it derives from the Italian Levante, meaning rising, implying the rising of the sun in the east. As such, it is equivalent to the Arabic term Mashriq. Eventually the term was restricted to the Muslim countries of Syria-Palestine, in 1581, England set up the Levant Company to monopolize commerce with the Ottoman Empire. The name Levant States was used to refer to the French mandate over Syria and this is probably the reason why the term Levant has come to be used synonymously with Syria-Palestine. Some scholars misunderstood the term thinking that it derives from the name of Lebanon, today the term is typically used in conjunction with prehistoric or ancient historical references. It does not include Anatolia, the Caucasus Mountains, or any part of the Arabian Peninsula proper, the Sinai Peninsula is sometimes included. The Levant has been described as the crossroads of western Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and northeast Africa, the populations of the Levant share not only the geographic position, but cuisine, some customs, and a very long history. They are often referred to as Levantines, the term Levant, which appeared in English in 1497, originally meant the East in general or Mediterranean lands east of Italy. It is borrowed from the French levant rising, referring to the rising of the sun in the east, the phrase is ultimately from the Latin word levare, meaning lift, raise. Similar etymologies are found in Greek Ἀνατολή, in Germanic Morgenland, in Italian, in Hungarian Kelet, in Spanish and Catalan Levante and Llevant, most notably, Orient and its Latin source oriens meaning east, is literally rising, deriving from Latin orior rise. The notion of the Levant has undergone a process of historical evolution in usage, meaning. While the term Levantine originally referred to the European residents of the eastern Mediterranean region, it came to refer to regional native. The English Levant Company was founded in 1581 to trade with the Ottoman Empire, at this time, the Far East was known as the Upper Levant. In early 19th-century travel writing, the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman empire, in 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture. The French mandate of Syria and Lebanon was called the Levant states, today, Levant is the term typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the history of the region. Scholars have adopted the term Levant to identify the region due to it being a wider, yet relevant, archaeologists seeking a neutral orientation that is neither biblical nor national have used terms such as Levantine archaeology and archaeology of the Southern Levant. Two academic journals were launched, Journal of Levantine Studies, published by the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute and The Levantine Review
Levant
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The Levantine Sea, the eastern portion of the Mediterranean.
Levant
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Countries of the Levant in the broad, historic meaning (equivalent to the eastern Mediterranean)
Levant
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French medal commemorating the war in Cilicia, which was initially part of the French mandate.
Levant
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Satellite view of part of the Levant including Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and southern Syria.
8.
Mamluk
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Mamluk is an Arabic designation for slaves. The term is most commonly used to refer to Muslim slave soldiers and these were mostly enslaved Turkic peoples, Egyptian Copts, Circassians, Abkhazians, and Georgians. Many Mamluks were also of Balkan origin, over time, the mamluks became a powerful military knightly caste in various societies that were controlled by Muslim rulers. Particularly in Egypt, but also in the Levant, Mesopotamia, in some cases, they attained the rank of sultan, while in others they held regional power as emirs or beys. Most notably, mamluk factions seized the sultanate centered on Egypt and Syria, the Mamluk Sultanate famously defeated the Ilkhanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut. They had earlier fought the western European Christian Crusaders in 1154-1169 and 1213-1221, effectively driving them out of Egypt, in 1302 the mamluks formally expelled the last Crusaders from the Levant, ending the era of the Crusades. While mamluks were purchased as property, their status was above ordinary slaves, in a sense they were like enslaved mercenaries. In the Middle Ages, the Mamlukes took up the practice of furusiyya chivalry although Mamluk knights were slaves until their service ended, the Arabic term for a knight was fāris, The faris and the notion of furusiyya originated in pre-Muslim Persian brotherhoods. Within the Muslim world, the fursān became prized as ideal warriors and they were also trained in wrestling, and their martial skills were honed first on foot as piéton and then perfected when as mounted warriors. They were popularly used as heavy knightly cavalry by a number of different Islamic kingdoms and empires, including the Ayyubid dynasty, the origins of the mamluk system are disputed. Historians agree that a military caste such as the mamluks appeared to develop in Islamic societies beginning with the ninth-century Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. When in the century has not been determined. Up until the 1990s, it was believed that the earliest mamluks were known as ghilman and were bought by the Abbasid caliphs. By the end of the 9th century, such warrior slaves had become the dominant element in the military, conflict between these ghilman and the population of Baghdad prompted the caliph al-Mutasim to move his capital to the city of Samarra, but this did not succeed in calming tensions. The caliph al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by some of these slave-soldiers in 861, adult slaves and freemen both served as warriros. The mamluk system developed later, after the return of the caliphate to Baghdad in the 870s and it included the systematic training of young slaves in military and martial skills. The Mamluk system is considered to have been an experiment of al-Muwaffaq. This recent interpretation seems to have been accepted, after the fragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, known as either mamluks or ghilman, were used throughout the Islamic world as the basis of military power
Mamluk
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A Mamluk nobleman from Aleppo
Mamluk
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An Egyptian Mamluk warrior in full armor and armed with lance, shield, sabre and pistols
Mamluk
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Mamluk lancers, early 16th century (etching by Daniel Hopfer)
Mamluk
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Ottoman Mamluk heavy cavalry armour, circa 1550
9.
Treaty of Edinburgh
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The rule of Mary of Guise in Scotland was supported by French troops. Scottish Protestants challenged her rule in the Reformation Crisis, during the ensuing Siege of Leith, French troops fortified the port and town of Leith against an English and Scottish Protestant force. The English army was invited into Scotland by the Treaty of Berwick made by the Lords of the Congregation, remains of an artillery fort involved in the siege were found, in 2006, in Edinburghs Pilrig Park, and two gun emplacements can be seen on Leith Links. The treaty was concluded on 6 July 1560 just short of a month after the death of Mary of Guise, the fortifications at Leith, Inchkeith and Dunbar Castle were duly removed, and the French garrisons left Scotland. Other conditions discussed involved the joint use of English and French heraldry by Mary, the representatives were Jean de Monluc, Bishop of Valence, and Charles de la Rochefoucault, Sieur de Randan, for France, with William Cecil and Nicholas Wotton, Dean of Canterbury and York. The French delegation was also permitted to meet and console the bereaved ladies-in-waiting of Mary of Guises court, the cessation of hostilities during the negotiation was marked by two cannon shots from Edinburgh Castle at 7 oclock in the evening of Monday 17 June. It was agreed between France and England that all their land and naval forces would withdraw from Scotland, Mary and Francis II of France should not use the arms and signs of England and Ireland in their heraldry. Mary and Francis would fulfill the representations made by the nobility, the terms of this treaty are occasionally confused with the acts of the Reformation Parliament of 1560 which met in August, and sought to establish the Protestant church in Scotland. However the treaty was not ratified by Mary I, the monarch at the time. Even so, it had the effect of the withdrawal of French troops from Scotland at the time. She also did not ratify the treaty because it officially declared Elizabeth the monarch of England, the Gowrie Regime attempted to ratify the treaty in April 1583. List of treaties Text of Treaty from Haynes, Salisbury-Hatfield Mss, rymer, Thomas, ed. Foedera, conventiones, literae et cujuscunque generis acta publica inter reges Angliae et alios. Texts of the Treaty, pp.581 French commission, pp. 591–3 Order for the demolition of Leith, pp. 593–7 Latin treaty, bain, J. ed. Calendar of the State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots 1547–1603
Treaty of Edinburgh
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Royal arms of Mary, Queen of Scots, France & England
10.
Dunbar Castle
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Dunbar Castle is the remnants of one of the strongest fortresses in Scotland, situated in a prominent position overlooking the harbour of the town of Dunbar, in East Lothian. The Votadini or Gododdin, are thought to have been the first to defend this site, by the 7th century, Dunbar Castle was a central defensive position of the Kings of Bernicia, an Anglian kingdom that took over from the British Kingdom of Bryneich. During the Early Middle Ages, Dunbar Castle was held by an Ealdorman owing homage to either the Kings at Bamburgh Castle, in 678 Saint Wilfrid was imprisoned at Dunbar, following his expulsion from his see of York by Ecgfrith of Northumbria. Later, Dunbar was said to have been burnt by Kenneth MacAlpin, certainly he is on record in possession of the castle. Sir Walter Scott argued that Cospatric or Gospatrick was a contraction of Comes Patricius, in any case, King Malcolm III is recorded as bestowing the manor of Dunbar &c. on the expatriated Earl of Northumberland. The body of buildings measured in excess of one hundred and sixty five feet from east to west, the interior of the citadel measures fifty four feet by sixty within the walls. Five of the gun-ports remain, which are called the arrow-holes and they measure four feet at the mouth and only sixteen inches at the other end. The buildings are arched and extend eight feet from the outer walls, about the middle of the fortress, part of a wall remains, through which there is a gateway, surmounted with armorial bearings. Ths gate seems to have led to the principal apartments, the shield is adorned with a helmet, carrying a crest, a horses head bridled. On the right are the Arms of the Bruces, and on the left those of the Isle of Man, the castle towers had communication with the sea, and dip low in many places. North-east from the front of the castle is a natural cavern, chiefly of black stone. This spot is supposed to have formed part of the dungeon where prisoners were confined, such as Gavin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld and it was long said the castle was invulnerable, possibly because of the many sieges it sustained. The castle was built with a red stone similar to found in the quarries near Garvald. Large masses of walls, which have fallen beneath the weight of time, in the north-west part of the ruins is an apartment about twelve feet square, and nearly inaccessible, which tradition states was the apartment of Mary, Queen of Scots. The Castle remained the stronghold of the Earls of Dunbar until the forfeiture of George, Earl of March, in 1457 and it was restored by James IV later in the century. The castle came under the control of the Duke of Albany and it may have been designed by Antoine dArces, Sieur de la Bastie who was placed in charge of the castle in December 1514. Albany organised further repairs and amendments in July 1527, an Italian drawing for a fortification of this period by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, marked as an opinion for il Duca DAlbania, has been associated with Dunbar. The castle was burnt by the Earl of Shrewsbury on a raid during the Rough wooing in 1548
Dunbar Castle
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Dunbar harbour and castle ruins
Dunbar Castle
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19th-century engraving of the castle
11.
Siege of Leith
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The Siege of Leith ended a twelve-year encampment of French troops at Leith, the port near Edinburgh, Scotland. The French troops arrived by invitation in 1548 and left in 1560 after an English force arrived to attempt to assist in removing them from Scotland. The town was not taken by force and the French troops finally left peacefully under the terms of a treaty signed by Scotland, England, Scotland and France had long been allies under the Auld Alliance, first established in the 13th century. However, during the 16th century, divisions appeared between a faction at Court and Protestant reformers. The Protestants saw the French as a Catholic influence and, when conflict broke out between the two factions, called on English Protestants for assistance in expelling the French from Scotland. In 1542, King James V of Scotland died, leaving only a daughter who was proclaimed Mary. James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, was appointed Regent and agreed to the demand of King Henry VIII of England that the infant Queen should marry his son Edward. This policy was reversed, however, through the influence of Marys mother Mary of Guise and Cardinal Beaton. He then successfully negotiated a marriage between the young Mary and François, Dauphin of France. The English King Henry VIII, angered by the Scots reneging on the agreement, made war on Scotland in 1544–1549. Three years later, following another English invasion and victory at Pinkie Cleugh in 1547, Leith was of prime strategic importance because of its vital role as Edinburghs port, handling its foreign trade and essential supplies. The English arrived in Leith on 11 September 1547 and camped on Leith Links, the military engineer Richard Lee scouted around the town on 12 September looking to see if it could be made defensible. On 14 September the English began digging a trench on the south-east side of Leith near the Firth of Forth, William Patten wrote that the work was done as much for exercise as for defence, since they stayed only five days. The infant Queen Mary was removed to France the following month, from 1548 onwards work began fortifying the port of Leith initially with a bulwark at the Kirkgate and at the chapel by the harbour, perhaps designed by the Italian Migliorino Ubaldini. Strozzi directed the 300 Scottish workmen from a chair carried by four men because he had shot in the leg at Haddington. In 1554, Mary of Guise, the Catholic French widow of James V, was appointed Regent in place of the Earl of Arran, Guise continued the pro-French policy, appointing Frenchmen to key positions. Meanwhile, the Protestant Scots became increasingly restless, particularly after the marriage of Mary and they raised 12,000 troops in an attempt to oust the French from Scotland. Arran changed sides at this point, joining the Lords of the Congregation, meanwhile, Henri II of France was accidentally killed in a jousting tournament and Marys husband became King of France on 10 July 1559
Siege of Leith
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Map of the Siege of Leith dated 7 May 1560 from Petworth House
Siege of Leith
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James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, Regent of Scotland from 1542 to 1554
Siege of Leith
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Mary of Guise, Regent of Scotland from 1554 to 1560
Siege of Leith
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Head of the statue of John Knox, New College, Edinburgh
12.
Eyemouth
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Eyemouth is a small town and civil parish in Berwickshire, in the Scottish Borders area of Scotland. It is 2 miles east of the main north-south A1 road and it has a population of about 3,420 people. Eyemouth is very nearly due east of Glasgow, in fact Eyemouths latitude is 55. 8691°N, whilst Glasgows is 55. 8642°N, so Eyemouth is about 600 yards further north. The towns name comes from its location at the mouth of the Eye Water, the Berwickshire coastline consists of high cliffs over deep clear water with sandy coves and picturesque harbours. A fishing port, Eyemouth holds a yearly Herring Queen Festival, notable buildings in the town include Gunsgreen House and a cemetery watch-house built to stand guard against the Resurrectionists. Many of the features of a fishing village are preserved in the narrow streets and vennels, giving shelter from the sea. Eyemouth is not far from the villages of Ayton, Reston, St. Abbs, Coldingham. The coast offers opportunities for birdwatching, walking, fishing and diving, accommodation includes several hotels, B&Bs and a holiday park. The geology of the area evidence of folding that led James Hutton to announce that the surface of the earth had changed dramatically over the ages. Fort Point, Eyemouth, was the site of the first Trace Italienne style fortification in Britain, building commenced in 1547 by Sir Richard Lee and it cost £1,906. It was demolished under the Treaty of Boulogne in 1550, rebuilt again six years later by dOisel it held some 500 French troops. It was demolished again under the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559, traces of the ramparts are still to be seen. All landowners within the barony held their properties either by hereditary feu or by a term-renewable, occasionally hereditary, at the beginning of the 17th century Gunsgreen estate was possessed by Alexander Lauder of Gunsgreen, a great-great-grandson of Sir Robert Lauder of The Bass. Netherbyres was for at least 250 years held by the Craw family, george Craw of Netherbyre was deceased by July 1614 when his son William came into possession of that property and Reidhall, with the walk mill extending to 12 husbandlands. A later William Craw, who had a passion for mathematics, built the first modern harbour at Eyemouth and, in 1715, the walled garden. The Netherbyres House we see today was commenced about 1835 for Captain Sir Samuel Brown, R. N. who had the patent and monopoly for the supply of anchor chain to the Royal Navy. He later went on to design and patent chain suspension piers and bridges, including the Union Bridge over the River Tweed, including victims from other coastal towns, a total of 189 men lost their lives. This is commemorated in the Tapestry housed in the Museum, the population of Eyemouth is in keeping with the outward appearance of the place
Eyemouth
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Eyemouth Harbour
Eyemouth
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Netherbyres House
Eyemouth
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The Bronze statue of William Spears.
Eyemouth
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Eyemouth Museum, housed in the Auld Kirk
13.
Inchkeith
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Inchkeith is an island in the Firth of Forth, Scotland, administratively part of the Kinghorn parish of the county of Fife. Inchkeith has, by some accounts, been inhabited for almost 1,800 years, Inchkeith is approximately half the size of the Isle of May at the mouth of the Firth, but is higher. Although most of the island is of volcanic origin, the geology is surprisingly varied. As well as the rock, there are also some sections of sandstone, shale, coal. The shale contains a number of fossils. There are several springs on the island, the island has the lowest average rainfall in Scotland at 550 millimetres annually. The island has an abundance of springs, as noted by James Grant, James Boswell noted two wells on the island during his visit, and speculated as to the former existence of a third within the Castle. The name Inchkeith may derive from the medieval Scottish Gaelic Innse Coit, the latter element coit, in Old Welsh coet, is from the Proto-Celtic *cēto-, wood. Since Gaelic had all but disappeared as a language spoken natively in southern Fife by the century, there is no continuous Gaelic tradition for the name. Such a rocky and exposed island can however never have supported many trees so it would be reasonable that the derivation may be otherwise. Early associations between Saint Adomnán and the island may indicate that the element is derived from the name of his contemporary and associate Coeddi. Almost nothing is known about the history of Inchkeith. In the days when people were compelled to cross the Firth of Forth by boat as opposed to bridge, the island was a great deal less isolated, like nearby Inchcolm and the Isle of May, Inchkeith was attacked repeatedly by English raiders in the 14th century. In 1497, the island was used as a refuge for victims of the Grandgore. The grandgor was recognised in the 1497 Minutes of the Town Council of Edinborough This contagious sickness callit the Grandgor and they were told to board a ship at Leith and once there, there to remain till God provide for their health. It is probable that they all died, in 1589, history repeated itself, and the island was used to quarantine the passengers of a plague ridden ship. More plague sufferers came here from the mainland in 1609, in 1799, again, Russian sailors who died of an infectious disease were buried here. During the reign of King James IV in the Renaissance, Inchkeith was the site of an extraordinary experiment, according to these accounts, the infants did not speak
Inchkeith
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Inchkeith from Portobello, Edinburgh.
Inchkeith
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Inchkeith from Kinghorn, Fife
Inchkeith
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Dioptic lens designed by David A Stevenson for the Inchkeith Lighthouse. It was in use from 1889 until automation was introduced in 1985.
14.
Kenilworth Castle
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Kenilworth Castle is located in the town of the same name in Warwickshire, England. Kenilworth has also played an important historical role, Kenilworth was also the scene of the removal of Edward II from the English throne, the French insult to Henry V in 1414, and the Earl of Leicesters lavish reception of Elizabeth I in 1575. The castle was built several centuries. Founded in the 1120s around a powerful Norman great tower, the castle was enlarged by King John at the beginning of the 13th century. Huge water defences were created by damming the streams. John of Gaunt spent lavishly in the late 14th century, turning the castle into a palace fortress designed in the latest perpendicular style. The Earl of Leicester then expanded the castle again, constructing new Tudor buildings. Kenilworth was partly destroyed by Parliamentary forces in 1649 to prevent it being used as a military stronghold, ruined, only two of its buildings remain habitable today. The castle became a tourist destination from the 18th century onwards, English Heritage has managed the castle since 1984. The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument, the castle is built almost entirely from local new red sandstone. To the south-east of the castle lie the Brays, a corruption of the French word braie. Only earthworks and fragments of masonry remain of what was an extensive 13th-century barbican structure including a stone wall, the area now forms part of the car park for the castle. Beyond the Brays are the ruins of the Gallery Tower, a second gatehouse remodelled in the 15th century, the Gallery Tower originally guarded the 152-metre long, narrow walled-causeway that still runs from the Brays to the main castle. This causeway was called the Tiltyard, as it was used for tilting, or jousting, the Tiltyard causeway acted both as a dam and as part of the barbican defences. To the east of the Tiltyard is an area of marshy ground, originally flooded and called the Lower Pool. The Great Mere is now drained and forms a meadow, but would originally have been a lake covering around 100 acres. The outer bailey of Kenilworth Castle is usually entered through Mortimers Tower, today a modest ruin but originally a Norman stone gatehouse, the north side of the outer bailey wall was almost entirely destroyed during the slighting. The 12th-century great tower occupies the knoll itself and forms the north-east corner of the bailey, ruined during the slighting, the great tower is notable for its huge corner turrets, essentially hugely exaggerated Norman pilaster buttresses
Kenilworth Castle
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Kenilworth Castle, viewed from the Tiltyard
Kenilworth Castle
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Wenceslaus Hollar 's 1649 plan of Kenilworth Castle
Kenilworth Castle
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John of Gaunt's great hall, showing the vertical lines characteristic of the perpendicular style
Kenilworth Castle
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The architectural symmetry of the Strong Tower on the left, the great hall and the Saintlowe Tower on the right, viewed from the left-hand court
15.
Pontefract Castle
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Pontefract Castle is a castle in the town of Pontefract, in the City of Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England. King Richard II is thought to have died there and it was the site of a series of famous sieges during the 17th-century English Civil War. There is, however, evidence of occupation of the site. Initially the castle was a structure which was replaced with stone over time. The Domesday Survey of 1086 recorded Ilberts Castle which probably referred to Pontefract Castle, robert de Lacy failed to support King Henry I during his power struggle with his brother, and the King confiscated the castle from the family during the 12th century. Roger de Lacy paid King Richard I3,000 marks for the Honour of Pontefract and his successor, King John gave Lacy the castle in 1199, the year he ascended the throne. Roger died in 1213 and was succeeded by his eldest son, however, the King took possession of Castle Donington and Pontefract Castle. The de Lacys lived in the castle until the early 14th century and it was under the tenure of the de Lacys that the magnificent multilobate donjon was built. In 1311 the castle passed by marriage to the estates of the House of Lancaster. Thomas, Earl of Lancaster was beheaded outside the castle walls six days after his defeat at the Battle of Boroughbridge and this resulted in the earl becoming a martyr with his tomb at Pontefract Priory becoming a shrine. It next went to Henry, Duke of Lancaster and subsequently to John of Gaunt and he made the castle his personal residence, spending vast amounts of money improving it. The castle at Pontefract was among such properties under threat which roused Bolingbroke to return to England to claim his rights to the Duchy of Lancaster and the properties of his father. The King, being in Ireland at the time, was in no position to oppose Bolingbroke who deposed Richard, King Richard II was probably murdered within the castle, in the Gascogne Tower. William Shakespeares play Richard III mentions this incident, Pomfret, Pomfret, O thou bloody prison, Fatal and ominous to noble peers. Within the guilty closure of thy walls Richard the second here was hackd to death, And, for more slander to thy dismal seat, lord Darcy was executed for this alleged surrender, which the king viewed as an act of treason. Mary, Queen of Scots was lodged at the castle on 28 January 1569, Pontefract Castle was noted by Oliver Cromwell, leader of the Parliamentarians, as one of the strongest inland garrisons in the kingdom. Apparently the slighting of the castle at the conclusion of the Second English Civil War had the support of the surrounding population. They were grateful to destroy the castle and thus stop the fighting in their area, in the view of the locals, the castle was a magnet for trouble
Pontefract Castle
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Painting of Pontefract Castle in the early 17th century by Alexander Keirincx
Pontefract Castle
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Model reconstructing Pontefract Castle
Pontefract Castle
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The ruins of Pontefract Castle's keep
Pontefract Castle
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The ruins of St Clement's Chapel within the castle
16.
William Cullen, Baron Cullen of Whitekirk
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William Douglas Cullen, Baron Cullen of Whitekirk, KT PC FRSE FREng is a former senior member of the Scottish judiciary. William Douglas Cullen was educated at the High School of Dundee and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1960 and was Standing Junior Counsel to Her Majestys Customs and Excise from 1970 to 1973. He was appointed Queens Counsel in 1973 and served as an Advocate Depute from 1978 to 1981, Lord Cullen was a Chairman of the Medical Appeal Tribunals from 1977 until his appointment as a judge in 1986. He was appointed a Senator of the College of Justice, a judge of the High Court of Justiciary and Court of Session, as Lord Cullen. From 1988 to 1990 he conducted the Public Inquiry into the Piper Alpha disaster, in October 1999 he was appointed to chair the Ladbroke Grove Rail Inquiry. He was Lord Justice Clerk and President of the Second Division of the Inner House from 1997 to 2001, on 15 July 2005, Lord Cullen announced his intention to retire in November 2005. In 2003, Cullen was created a peer, as Baron Cullen of Whitekirk. He sits as a member of the House of Lords. On 25 June 2005, he was elected President of the Saltire Society, replacing The Right Honourable The Lord Sutherland of Houndwood, on 30 November 2007 it was announced that Lord Cullen would be appointed a Knight of the Thistle. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II at a ceremony in Edinburgh on 2 July 2008, on 4 September 2009 he was also formally installed as chancellor of Abertay University in Dundee. Lord Cullen reads the verdict in the Lockerbie appeal,14 March 2002
William Cullen, Baron Cullen of Whitekirk
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The Sovereign
17.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code
18.
Open access
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Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access and free of many restrictions on use. These additional usage rights are granted through the use of various specific Creative Commons licenses. There are multiple ways authors can provide access to their work. One way is to publish it and then self-archive it in a repository where it can be accessed for free, such as their institutional repository and this is known as green open access. Some publishers require delays, or an embargo, on when an output in a repository may be made open access. Several initiatives provide an alternative to the American and English language dominance of existing publication indexing systems, including Index Copernicus, SciELO and Redalyc. A second way authors can make their work open access is by publishing it in such a way that makes their research output immediately available from the publisher. This is known as open access, and within the sciences this often takes the form of publishing an article in either an open access journal. Pure open access journals do not charge fees, and may have one of a variety of business models. Many, however, do charge an article processing fee, widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s and early 2000s fueled the open access movement, and prompted both the green open access way and the creation of open access journals. Conventional non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, some non-open access journals provide open access after an embargo period of 6–12 months or longer. The Budapest statement defined open access as follows, There are many degrees, despite these statements emerging in the 2000s, the idea and practise of providing free online access to journal articles began at least a decade before the term open access was formally coined. Computer scientists had been self-archiving in anonymous ftp archives since the 1970s, the Subversive Proposal to generalize the practice was posted in 1994. Gratis OA refers to online access, and libre OA refers to free online access plus some additional re-use rights. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions had corresponded only to libre OA, the re-use rights of libre OA are often specified by various specific Creative Commons licenses, these almost all require attribution of authorship to the original authors. Open access itself began to be sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet, the momentum was further increased by a growing movement for academic journal publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA. Electronic publishing created new benefits as compared to paper publishing but beyond that, rather than applying traditional notions of copyright to academic publications, they could be libre or free to build upon. The intended audience of research articles is usually other researchers, Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to
Open access
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authors may use form language like this to request an open access license when submitting their work to a publisher
Open access
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Open access logo, originally designed by Public Library of Science. Whilst no official open access logo exists, organisations are free to select the logo style that best supports their visual language. Other logos are also in use (see Signalling OA-ness).
19.
Slighting
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Slighting is the deliberate destruction, partial or complete, of a fortification without opposition, to render it unusable as a fortress. In England during the Middle Ages, adulterine castles, if captured by the king, during the Wars of Scottish Independence, King Robert the Bruce adopted a strategy of slighting Scottish castles to prevent them being occupied by the English. A strategy of slighting castles in the Levant was also adopted by the Mamluks in their wars with the Crusaders and these included the recent fortifications at Dunbar Castle, Leith and Eyemouth. On the island of Inchkeith a token garrison of 60 French soldiers were allowed to remain for a time, Inchkeith and Dunbar were finally slighted in 1567. During the English Civil War many castles and fortified houses were slighted by the Parliamentarians to stop them being used by the Royalists, most of the destruction was in Wales, the Midlands, and Yorkshire e. g. Pontefract Castle. The coastal fortifications were spared by the Commonwealth, as they might have been useful for hindering a Royalist or foreign invasion, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, Rheinfels Castle was started in 1245 by Diether V, Count of Katzenelnbogen. By the late 17th century it was a fortress complex and it was the only Rhineland fortress to hold out against the French in the War of the Palatine Succession. During the French Revolutionary Wars, the bank of the Rhine was annexed by the French Republic. Under the orders of the French Revolutionary government, Burg Rheinfels was slighted in 1797, in the 19th century many of the obsolete fortifications were slighted in order to provide more space in the area for growing cities. This process of eliminating urban fortifications is specifically referred to as defortification, the resulting slag bricks, clinker, boulders, etc. served as building material for construction. The slighting was carried out by the removal of walls and ramparts. Most of the time, the land on which the fortifications stood was used as parks, the term boulevard is an Old French word meaning fortification. Walking the River Rhine Trail, Germany, perry, David R. Blackburn, Mark A. S. Castle Park, Dunbar, two years on a fortified headland. Monograph, Society of Antiquaries of Scot land, discovering Fortifications, from the Tudors to the Cold War. Goode, Dominic, ed. Fortified Places, Edinburgh, the Walls of Edinburgh, A short guide. A general history of Scotland from the earliest accounts to the present time, understanding the Castle Ruins of England and Wales, How to Interpret the History and Meaning of Masonry and Earthworks. The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, the Yorkshire Countryside, a landscape history
Slighting
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Corfe Castle was partially demolished (slighted) during the English Civil War so that its defences could not be reused.
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