1.
Australian English
–
Australian English is a major variety of the English language, used throughout Australia. Although English has no status in the Constitution, Australian English is the countrys de facto official language and is the first language of the majority of the population. Australian English began to diverge from British English after the founding of the Colony of New South Wales in 1788 and was recognised as being different from British English by 1820. It arose from the intermingling of early settlers from a variety of mutually intelligible dialectal regions of the British Isles. Australian English differs from other varieties of English in vocabulary, accent, pronunciation, register, grammar, the earliest form of Australian English was first spoken by the children of the colonists born into the colony of New South Wales. This first generation of children created a new dialect that was to become the language of the nation, the Australian-born children in the new colony were exposed to a wide range of dialects from all over the British Isles, in particular from Ireland and South East England. The native-born children of the created the new dialect from the speech they heard around them. Even when new settlers arrived, this new dialect was strong enough to blunt other patterns of speech, a quarter of the convicts were Irish. Many had been arrested in Ireland, and some in Great Britain, many, if not most, of the Irish spoke Irish and either no English at all, or spoke it poorly and rarely. There were other significant populations of convicts from non-English speaking part of Britain, such as the Scottish Highlands, anthony Burgess writes that Australian English may be thought of as a kind of fossilised Cockney of the Dickensian era. According to linguist Bruce Moore, the input of the various sounds that went into constructing the Australian accent was from south-east England. Some elements of Aboriginal languages have adopted by Australian English—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as kangaroo, boomerang, budgerigar, wallaby, other examples are cooee and hard yakka. The former is used as a call, for attracting attention. Cooee is also a distance, if hes within cooee. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Jagera/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region, also of Aboriginal origin is the word bung, from the Sydney pidgin English, meaning dead, with some extension to broken or useless. Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The best-known example is the capital, Canberra, named after a local word meaning meeting place
Australian English
–
English is the primary language spoken throughout Australia.
Australian English
–
The
Australian gold rushes saw many external influences on the language.
Australian English
–
Bush poets such as
Banjo Paterson captured the Australian vocabulary of the 19th century in their
bush ballads.
2.
South Asia
–
Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land by West Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, the current territories of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka form the countries of South Asia. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation is an economic cooperation organisation in the region which was established in 1985, South Asia covers about 5.1 million km², which is 11. 51% of the Asian continent or 3. 4% of the worlds land surface area. The population of South Asia is about 1.749 billion or about one fourth of the worlds population, overall, it accounts for about 39. 49% of Asias population and is home to a vast array of peoples. The area of South Asia and its extent is not clear cut as systemic. Aside from the region of South Asia, formerly part of the British Empire, there is a high degree of variation as to which other countries are included in South Asia. Modern definitions of South Asia are consistent in including Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar is included by some scholars in South Asia, but in Southeast Asia by others. Some do not include Afghanistan, others question whether Afghanistan should be considered a part of South Asia or the Middle East, the mountain countries of Nepal and Bhutan, and the island countries of Sri Lanka and Maldives are generally included as well. Myanmar is often added, and by various deviating definitions based on often substantially different reasons, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the common concept of South Asia is largely inherited from the administrative boundaries of the British Raj, with several exceptions. The Aden Colony, British Somaliland and Singapore, though administered at various times under the Raj, have not been proposed as any part of South Asia. Additionally Burma was administered as part of the Raj until 1937, the 562 princely states that were protected by but not directly ruled by the Raj became administrative parts of South Asia upon joining Union of India or Dominion of Pakistan. China and Myanmar have also applied for the status of members of SAARC. This bloc of countries include two independent countries that were not part of the British Raj – Nepal, and Bhutan, Afghanistan was a British protectorate from 1878 until 1919, after the Afghans lost to the British in the Second Anglo-Afghan war. The United Nations Statistics Divisions scheme of sub-regions include all eight members of the SAARC as part of Southern Asia, population Information Network includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as part of South Asia. Maldives, in view of its characteristics, was admitted as a member Pacific POPIN subregional network only in principle, the Hirschman–Herfindahl index of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific for the region includes only the original seven signatories of SAARC. The British Indian Ocean Territory is connected to the region by a publication of Janes for security considerations, the inclusion of Myanmar in South Asia is without consensus, with many considering it a part of southeast Asia and others including it within South Asia. Afghanistan was of importance to the British colonial empire, especially after the Second Anglo-Afghan War over 1878–1880, Afghanistan remained a British protectorate until 1919, when a treaty with Vladimir Lenin included the granting of independence to Afghanistan. Following Indias partition, Afghanistan has generally included in South Asia
South Asia
–
While South Asia had never been a coherent
geopolitical region, it has a distinct geographical identity
South Asia
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South Asia
South Asia
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Ethno-linguistic families of South Asia.
3.
Southern Europe
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Southern Europe is the southern region of the European continent. Most definitions of Southern Europe, also known as Mediterranean Europe, include the countries of the Iberian peninsula, different methods can be used to define Southern Europe, including its political, economic, and cultural attributes. Southern Europe can also be defined by its natural features — its geography, climate, geographically, Southern Europe is the southern half of the landmass of Europe. This definition is relative, with no clear limits and those areas of Mediterranean climate present similar vegetations and landscapes throughout, including dry hills, small plains, pine forests and olive trees. Cooler climates can be found in parts of Southern European countries, for example within the mountain ranges of Spain. Additionally, the north coast of Spain experiences a wetter Atlantic climate, Southern Europes flora is that of the Mediterranean Region, one of the phytochoria recognized by Armen Takhtajan. The period known as classical antiquity began with the rise of the city-states of Ancient Greece, Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of Alexander the Great, spreading throughout Asia. The Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin in a vast empire based on Roman law and it promoted trade, tolerance, and Greek culture. By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire based in Rome, during the Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire survived, though modern historians refer to this state as the Byzantine Empire. In Western Europe, Germanic peoples moved into positions of power in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms, the period known as the Crusades, a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the Levant back into Christian rule, began. Several Crusader states were founded in the eastern Mediterranean, the Crusaders would have a profound impact on many parts of Europe. Their Sack of Constantinople in 1204 brought an end to the Byzantine Empire. Though it would later be re-established, it would never recover its former glory, the Crusaders would establish trade routes that would develop into the Silk Road and open the way for the merchant republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers. The Reconquista, a movement, worked to reconquer Iberia for Christendom. The Late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe, the epidemic known as the Black Death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted. Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period, in the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire, a Turkish state originating in Anatolia, encroached steadily on former Byzantine lands, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. An unprecedented series of wars and political revolutions took place around Europe. Observers at the time, and many historians since, have argued that wars caused the revolutions, galileo Galilei, invented the telescope and the thermometer which allowed him to observe and describe the solar system
Southern Europe
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Geographic features of countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea
4.
North Africa
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North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of Africa. The United Nationss definition of Northern Africa is, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, the countries of Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Libya are often collectively referred to as the Maghreb, which is the Arabic word for sunset. Egypt lies to the northeast and encompasses part of West Asia, while Sudan is situated on the edge of the Sahel, Egypt is a transcontinental country because of the Sinai Peninsula, which geographically lies in Western Asia. North Africa also includes a number of Spanish possessions, the Canary Islands and Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean northwest of the African mainland are included in considerations of the region. From 3500 BC, following the abrupt desertification of the Sahara due to changes in the Earths orbit. The Islamic influence in the area is significant, and North Africa is a major part of the Muslim world. Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration. The Atlas Mountains extend across much of Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia, are part of the mountain system that also runs through much of Southern Europe. They recede to the south and east, becoming a steppe landscape before meeting the Sahara desert, the sediments of the Sahara overlie an ancient plateau of crystalline rock, some of which is more than four billion years old. Sheltered valleys in the Atlas Mountains, the Nile Valley and Delta, a wide variety of valuable crops including cereals, rice and cotton, and woods such as cedar and cork, are grown. Typical Mediterranean crops, such as olives, figs, dates and citrus fruits, the Nile Valley is particularly fertile, and most of the population in Egypt and Sudan live close to the river. Elsewhere, irrigation is essential to improve yields on the desert margins. The inhabitants of Saharan Africa are generally divided in a manner corresponding to the principal geographic regions of North Africa, the Maghreb, the Nile valley. The edge of the Sahel, to the south of Egypt has mainly been inhabited by Nubians, Ancient Egyptians record extensive contact in their Western desert with people that appear to have been Berber or proto-Berber, as well as Nubians from the south. They have contributed to the Arabized Berber populations, the official language or one of the official languages in all of the countries in North Africa is Arabic. The people of the Maghreb and the Sahara regions speak Berber languages and several varieties of Arabic, the Arabic and Berber languages are distantly related, both being members of the Afroasiatic language family. The Tuareg Berber languages are more conservative than those of the coastal cities. Over the years, Berbers have been influenced by contact with cultures, Greeks, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Europeans
North Africa
–
Market of
Biskra in Algeria, 1899
North Africa
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Northern Africa (UN subregion)
North Africa
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The
kasbah of
Aït Benhaddou in Morocco
North Africa
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The first
Roman emperor native to North Africa was
Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya.
5.
Golliwogg
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The golliwog, golliwogg or golly is a black fictional character created by Florence Kate Upton that appears in childrens books in the late 19th century usually depicted as a type of rag doll. It was reproduced, both by commercial and hobby toy-makers as a toy called the golliwog, and had great popularity in the UK. The doll is characterised by black skin, eyes rimmed in white, clown lips, though home-made golliwogs were sometimes female, the golliwog was generally male. For this reason, in the period following World War II, the image of the doll has become the subject of controversy. Its depiction of people has been accused of being racist, along with pickaninnies, minstrels, mammy figures. The golliwog has been described as the least known of the major anti-Black caricatures in the United States, in recent years, changing political attitudes with regard to race have reduced the popularity and sales of golliwogs as toys. Manufacturers who have used golliwogs as a motif have either withdrawn them as an icon, in particular, the association of the golliwog with the pejorative term wog has resulted in use of alternative names such as golly and golly doll. Florence Kate Upton was born in 1873 in Flushing, New York, following the death of her father, she moved back to England with her mother and sisters when she was fourteen. There she spent several years drawing and developing her artistic skills, to afford tuition to art school, she illustrated a childrens book entitled The Adventures of Two Dutch Dolls and a Golliwogg. A product of the minstrel tradition, the Golliwogg had jet black skin, bright red lips. He wore red trousers, a shirt with a collar, red bow-tie. Uptons book and its sequels were extremely successful in England. Upton did not trademark her character, and its name, spelt golliwog, became the name for dolls. Uptons Golliwogg was jovial, friendly and gallant, but some later golliwogs were sinister or menacing characters, the golliwog contributed enormously to the spread of blackface iconography in Europe. It also made its way back across the Atlantic in the form of literature, dolls, childrens china and other toys, ladies perfume. British jam manufacturer James Robertson & Sons used a golliwog called Golly as its mascot from 1910, Robertsons started producing promotional Golly badges in the 1920s, which could be obtained in exchange for tokens gained from their products. In 1983, the products were boycotted by the Greater London Council as offensive. The company used to give away Golly badges and small plaster figures playing musical instruments or sports, the badge collection scheme was withdrawn in 2001. Some say he is so attractive an advertisement for a black face that his presence makes it harder to teach the young to wash
Golliwogg
–
Golliwogs for sale in 2008 in the
United Kingdom
Golliwogg
–
Florence Kate Upton's Golliwogg in formal
minstrel attire in The Adventures of Two Dutch Dolls and a Golliwogg in 1895.
Golliwogg
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A 1920s golliwog perfume bottle
6.
Blackface
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Ahmedu Augustine Obiabo known by his stage name Blackface Naija or just Blackface is a Nigerian dancehall, ragga and reggae singer and songwriter. He is best known as co-writer of African Queen with 2face Idibia, Blackface was a founding member of the Nigerian band Plantashun Boyz that he formed in 2000 with Tuface and musician Chibuzor Oji. Blackface and Tuface had met in 1996 when they were studying at the Institute of Management Technology in Enugu, Faze joined a brief while later. The band released two successful albums Body and Soul in 2000 and Sold Out in 2003, the band broke up in 2004, to be briefly reunited in 2007 for just one more album Plan B. Although he kept sustainable relations with Faze, his rift with Tuface widened, after the Plantashun Boiz split up in 2004, Blackface led a solo musical career. He released the hip hop album Ghetto Child in May 2004 collaborating with a number of artists, the album contains Hard Life featuring Alabai as the first single. He also recorded an album for his crew D Tribunal called What We Are. After Ghetto Child, he released Evergreen, Jungle Fever, Me, Musiq and I, Dancehall Business, in 2013, he made a collaborative album 200 with Maine Eazz. Blackface was married with Dayo for eight years and has two children, Caroline and Alex, the couple agreed to separate pending divorce procedures
Blackface
7.
Minstrel show
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The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American form of entertainment developed in the post-Civil War 19th century. Each show consisted of skits, variety acts, dancing. The shows were performed by people in make-up or blackface for the purpose of playing the role of black people. There were also some African-American performers and all-black minstrel groups that formed and toured, Minstrel shows lampooned black people as dim-witted, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious and happy-go-lucky. Minstrel shows emerged as brief burlesques and comic entractes in the early 1830s and were developed into full-fledged form in the next decade, by 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national artform, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience. By the turn of the 20th century, the show enjoyed but a shadow of its former popularity. The form survived as professional entertainment until about 1910, amateur performances continued until the 1960s in high schools, the genre has had a lasting legacy and influence and was featured in a television series as recently as the late 1970s. Generally, as the civil rights movement progressed and gained acceptance, the typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs, the second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled stump speech. The final act consisted of a slapstick musical plantation skit or a send-up of a popular play, Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated, spirituals entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy. Blackface minstrelsy was the first theatrical form that was distinctly American, during the 1830s and 1840s at the height of its popularity, it was at the epicenter of the American music industry. For several decades it provided the means through which American whites viewed black people, on the one hand, it had strong racist aspects, on the other, it afforded white Americans a singular and broad awareness of what some whites considered significant aspects of black culture in America. Although the minstrel shows were popular, being consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group. Although white theatrical portrayals of black characters date back to as early as 1604, by the late 18th century, blackface characters began appearing on the American stage, usually as servant types whose roles did little more than provide some element of comic relief. Eventually, similar performers appeared in entractes in New York theaters and other such as taverns. Author Constance Rourke even claimed that Forrests impression was so good he could fool blacks when he mingled with them in the streets, Thomas Dartmouth Rices successful song-and-dance number, Jump Jim Crow, brought blackface performance to a new level of prominence in the early 1830s
Minstrel show
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Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843
Minstrel show
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Thomas D. Rice from sheet music cover of "Sich a Getting Up Stairs", 1830s
Minstrel show
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Sheet music cover for "Dandy Jim from Caroline", featuring
Dan Emmett (center) and the other
Virginia Minstrels, c. 1844
Minstrel show
–
Poster for
Haverly's United Mastodon Minstrels
8.
Olive skin
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Olive skin is a human skin color spectrum. It is often associated with pigmentation in the Type IV to Type V range of the Fitzpatrick scale and it generally refers to light or moderate brown, brownish, or tannish skin, and it is often described as having yellowish, greenish, or golden undertones. However, lighter olive skin on the end of the Type IV coloration range may be less brownish. Lighter olive skin nonetheless tans more easily than does fair skin, Type IV coloration is frequent among populations from the Mediterranean, as well as parts of Asia and Latin America. It corresponds with moderate brown, typical Mediterranean skin tones and this skin tone rarely burns and tans easily. Type V coloration is frequent among populations from the Middle East, parts of the Mediterranean, parts of Africa, Latin America, and it corresponds with darker brown, Middle Eastern skin tones. This skin tone is minimally reactive to ultraviolet radiation, rarely or very rarely burns, human skin color Brown Bronze Pardo Mediterranean race
Olive skin
9.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
Indian subcontinent
–
Indian subcontinent
10.
Asia
–
Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres, about 30% of Earths total land area and 8. 7% of the Earths total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its large size and population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, the western boundary with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains, China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 A. D. The accidental discovery of America by Columbus in search for India demonstrates this deep fascination, the Silk Road became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hitherland while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties, the boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia, the border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peters death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia, the Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg, the latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century, the border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the border between Asia and the loosely defined region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the possessions of the various empires there. Lewis and Wigen assert, The narrowing of Southeast Asia to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process, Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe. It does not exactly correspond to the borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them
Asia
–
Two-point equidistant projection of Asia and surrounding landmasses.
Asia
–
Asia
Asia
–
The racial diversity of Asia's peoples,
Nordisk familjebok (1904)
Asia
–
Ptolemy's Asia
11.
East Indies
–
The East Indies or Indies are the lands of South and Southeast Asia. In a more restricted sense, the Indies can be used to refer to the islands of Southeast Asia, the name Indies is derived from the river Indus and is used to connote parts of Asia that came under Indian cultural influence. The East Indies may also include the former French-held Indochina, former British territories Brunei and Singapore and it does not, however, include the former Dutch New Guinea western New Guinea, which is geographically considered to be part of Melanesia. In colonial times they were just natives, however, the peoples of the East Indies comprise a wide variety of cultural diversity, and the inhabitants do not consider themselves as belonging to a single ethnic group. The major languages in this area draw from a variety of language families, and should not be confused with the term Indic. The extensive East Indies are subdivided into two sections, archaically called Hither India and Further India, the first is the former British India, the second is Southeast Asia. Historically, the king of Abyssinia was identified with Prester John of the Indies, exploration of these regions by European powers first began in the late 15th century and early 16th century led by the Portuguese explorers. The Portuguese described the region they discovered as the Indies. Eventually, the region would be broken up into a series of Indies, the East Indies, which was also called Old Indies or Great Indies, consisting of India, and the West Indies, also called New Indies or Little Indies, consisting of the Americas. The New World was initially thought to be the easternmost part of the Indies by explorer Christopher Columbus, later, to avoid confusion, the New World came to be called the West Indies, while the original Indies came to be called the East Indies. Greater India History of the Americas Indian Spanish West Indies
East Indies
–
An 1801 map of the East Indies.
12.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
First World War
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
First World War
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
First World War
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
First World War
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
13.
Labour Party (UK)
–
The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Labour later served in the coalition from 1940 to 1945. Labour was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan. The Labour Party was last in government from 1997 to 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, beginning with a majority of 179. Having won 232 seats in the 2015 general election, the party is the Official Opposition in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance. In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party, the first Lib–Lab candidate to stand was George Odger in the Southwark by-election of 1870. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time, among these were the Independent Labour Party, the intellectual and largely middle-class Fabian Society, the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and the Scottish Labour Party. In the 1895 general election, the Independent Labour Party put up 28 candidates, Keir Hardie, the leader of the party, believed that to obtain success in parliamentary elections, it would be necessary to join with other left-wing groups. Hardies roots as a lay preacher contributed to an ethos in the party led to the comment by 1950s General Secretary Morgan Phillips that Socialism in Britain owed more to Methodism than Marx. The motion was passed at all stages by the TUC, the meeting was attended by a broad spectrum of working-class and left-wing organisations—trades unions represented about one third of the membership of the TUC delegates. This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee, meant to coordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trade unions and it had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 Khaki election came too soon for the new party to campaign effectively, only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful, Keir Hardie in Merthyr Tydfil and Richard Bell in Derby. Support for the LRC was boosted by the 1901 Taff Vale Case, the judgement effectively made strikes illegal since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions. In their first meeting after the election the groups Members of Parliament decided to adopt the name The Labour Party formally, the Fabian Society provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party. One of the first acts of the new Liberal Government was to reverse the Taff Vale judgement, the Peoples History Museum in Manchester holds the minutes of the first Labour Party meeting in 1906 and has them on display in the Main Galleries. Also within the museum is the Labour History Archive and Study Centre, the governing Liberals were unwilling to repeal this judicial decision with primary legislation
Labour Party (UK)
–
Keir Hardie, one of the Labour Party's founders and its first leader
Labour Party (UK)
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Labour Party Plaque from Caroone House, 14 Farringdon Street
Labour Party (UK)
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Ramsay MacDonald: First Labour Prime Minister, 1924 and 1929–31
Labour Party (UK)
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Aneurin Bevan speaking in October 1952
14.
Dudley
–
Dudley is a large town in the West Midlands of England,6 miles south-east of Wolverhampton and 10.5 miles north-west of Birmingham. The town is the centre of the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley. The Metropolitan Borough, which includes the towns of Stourbridge and Halesowen, had a population of 312,900, Dudley is sometimes called the capital of the Black Country. Tourist attractions include Dudley Zoo, Dudley Castle, the Black Country Living Museum, working iron and mining for coal was in practice as early as the 13th century. The first mention of Dudleys status as a borough dates from the mid-13th century, an inquisition after his death further established the value and importance of the borough, with mentions to the towns growing coal industry. Following Dudleys death, the returned to the Sutton family. In 1605, conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot fled to Holbeche House in nearby Wall Heath and it is also from around this time that the oldest excavated condoms, found in the remains of Dudley Castle, were believed to have originated. Dudley had become an incredibly impoverished place during the 16th and 17th centuries, abraham Darby was descended from Dud Dudleys sister, Jane, and was the first person to produce iron commercially using coke instead of charcoal at his works in Coalbrookdale, Shropshire in 1709. Abraham Darby was born near Wrens Nest Hill near the town of Dudley, Dud Dudleys discovery, together with improvements to the local road network and the construction of the Dudley Canal, made Dudley into an important industrial and commercial centre. Dudleys population grew dramatically during the 18th and 19th centuries because of the increase in industry, with the main industries including coal, other industries included iron, steel, engineering, metallurgy, glass cutting, textiles and leatherworking. Following the Reform Act of 1832, Dudley returned one Member of Parliament, the town was re-incorporated as a Municipal Borough in 1865, later becoming a County Borough in 1889. Dudley Castle, which had fallen into ruin following a fire in 1750, was converted into a zoo in 1937 by the Earl of Dudley, a reported 250,000 people attempted to visit the site upon the first day of opening. In World War II, Dudley was bombed on several occasions, on 12 August 1941, four people were killed when another landmine was dropped in nearby Birch Crescent. These were the fatal air raids on Dudley. Most of this land had been held by the Lords of Dudley, in 1974, further reorganization led to the creation of the present-day metropolitan borough, which included the nearby towns of Stourbridge and Halesowen. The declining industry in Dudley has given rise to high unemployment, Dudley is the administrative centre of the Dudley Metropolitan Borough, and is governed by the Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council. The metropolitan borough, which includes the towns of Stourbridge, Halesowen. For many years the town formed part of an exclave of the county of Worcestershire, despite the more recent changes in county boundaries, the town and borough still remain part of the Anglican Diocese of Worcester
Dudley
–
From top left: Dudley Town Centre viewed from Castle Hill;
Dudley Priory;
Dudley Zoo; Dudley Market Place;
Dudley Castle; Statue of
William Ward, 1st Earl of Dudley.
Dudley
–
Dudley Castle
Dudley
–
1814 map showing Dudley as an exclave of
Worcestershire.
Dudley
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Dudley Art Deco Cinema, now a
Jehovah's Witness Kingdom Hall
15.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
Jews
–
Baruch Spinoza
Jews
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Map of
Canaan
Jews
–
David Ben-Gurion
Jews
–
George Gershwin
16.
Israelis
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Israelis are citizens or permanent residents of the State of Israel, a multiethnic society that is home to people of different ethnic backgrounds. The largest ethnic groups in Israel are Jews, followed by Arabs, among the Jewish population, hundreds of thousands of Jews born in Israel are descended from both Ashkenazi and Mizrahi Jews. More than 50% of the Jewish population is of at least partial Mizrahi descent, almost 10% of the general population of Israel is estimated to be living abroad. As of 2013, Israels population is 8 million, of which the Israeli civil government records 75. 3% as Jews,20. 7% as non-Jewish Arabs, Israels official census includes Israeli settlers in the occupied territories. 280,000 Israeli settlers live in settlements in the Judea and Samaria Area,190,000 in East Jerusalem, and 20,000 in the Golan Heights. Among Jews,70. 3% were born in Israel, mostly from the second or third generation of their family in the country, and the rest are Jewish immigrants. Of the Jewish immigrants,20. 5% were from Europe and the Americas, and 9. 2% were from Asia, Africa, nearly half of all Israeli Jews are descended from immigrants from the European Jewish diaspora. Approximately the same number are descended from immigrants from Arab countries, Iran, Turkey, over 200,000 are of Ethiopian and Indian-Jewish descent. Defined as non-Jews and non-Arabs, they make up about 3. 5% of Israelis, Israels two official languages are Hebrew and Arabic. Hebrew is the language of government and is spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority and by members of the Mizrahi Jewish community. English is studied in school and is spoken by the majority of the population as a second language, other languages spoken in Israel include Russian, Yiddish, Spanish, Ladino, Amharic, Armenian, Romanian, and French. In recent decades, between 650,000 and 1,300,000 Israelis have emigrated, a known in Hebrew as yerida. Emigrants have various reasons for leaving, but there is generally a combination of economic, los Angeles is home to the largest community of Israelis outside Israel. The main Israeli ethnic and religious groups are as follows, The CBS traces the paternal country of origin of Israeli Jews as of 2010 is as follows. A fraction of Palestinians remained within Israels borders following the 1948 Palestinian exodus and are the largest group of Arabic-speaking, the vast majority of the Arab citizens of Israel are Sunni Muslim, while 9% of them are Christian. As of 2013, the Arab population of Israel amounts to 1,658,000, the Arab citizens of Israel also include the Bedouin. In 1999,110,000 Bedouin lived in the Negev,50,000 in the Galilee and 10,000 in the region of Israel
Israelis
–
Israeli soldiers of both Sephardic and Ashkenazi descent
Israelis
Israelis
–
Sheikh
Amin Tarif, spiritual leader of the Israeli Druze, c. 1950
Israelis
–
Circassians in
Kfar Kama
17.
Eastern European
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Eastern Europe, also known as East Europe, is the eastern part of the European continent. There is no consensus on the area it covers, partly because the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural. There are almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region, a related United Nations paper adds that every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct. One definition describes Eastern Europe as an entity, the region lying in Europe with main characteristics consisting in Byzantine, Orthodox. Another definition was created during the Cold War and used more or less synonymously with the term Eastern Bloc, a similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe. Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegating, several definitions of Eastern Europe exist today, but they often lack precision or are extremely general. These definitions vary both across cultures and among experts, even scientists, recently becoming more and more imprecise. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the land border of the eastern edge of Europe. Eurovoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, provides entries for 23 EU languages, of these, those in italics are classified as Eastern Europe in this source. Other official web-pages of the European Union classify some of the countries as strictly Central European. The East–West Schism is the break of communion and theology between what are now the Eastern and Western churches which began in the 11th century and lasts until this very day and it divided Christianity in Europe, and consequently the world, into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity. Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches in the east, due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic, for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox, the fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the East–West division in Europe, but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media. The Baltic states have seats in the Nordic Council as observer states and they also are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight whereas Eastern European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group. Estonia Latvia Lithuania The Caucasus nations may be included in the definitions of Eastern Europe, the extent of their geographic or political affiliation with Europe varies by country and source. All three states are members of the European Unions Eastern Partnership program and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, on 12 January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future. Georgia — in modern geography, Georgia has been classified as part of Eastern Europe. Under the European Union’s geographic criteria, Georgia is viewed as part of Eastern Europe and is the only Caucasus country to be actively seeking EU membership and it is a member of Council of Europe and Eurocontrol
Eastern European
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Division between the Eastern and Western Churches
Eastern European
–
Geographic features of Eastern Europe
18.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
–
Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
–
A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
–
Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
19.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
Croatia
–
Branimir Inscription
Croatia
–
Flag
Croatia
–
Tanais Tablet B, name Khoroáthos highlighted
Croatia
–
The
walls of Dubrovnik helped to defend the city since
Middle Ages until the
1991–1992 siege.
20.
Greece
–
Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
Greece
–
Fresco displaying the Minoan ritual of "bull leaping", found in
Knossos,
Crete.
Greece
–
Flag
Greece
–
The
Lion Gate,
Mycenae
Greece
–
The
Parthenon on the
Acropolis of Athens is one of the best known symbols of
classical Greece.
21.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
22.
Lebanon
–
Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943
Lebanon
–
The
Fall of Tripoli to the Egyptian
Mamluks and destruction of the Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, 1289
Lebanon
–
Flag
Lebanon
–
Fakhreddine II Palace, 17th century
Lebanon
–
1862 map drawn by the French expedition of
Beaufort d'Hautpoul, later used as a template for the 1920 borders of
Greater Lebanon.
23.
Malta
–
Malta, officially known as the Republic of Malta, is a Southern European island country consisting of an archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. It lies 80 km south of Italy,284 km east of Tunisia, the country covers just over 316 km2, with a population of just under 450,000, making it one of the worlds smallest and most densely populated countries. The capital of Malta is Valletta, which at 0.8 km2, is the smallest national capital in the European Union, Malta has one national language, which is Maltese, and English as an official language. John, French and British, have ruled the islands, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to Malta in 1942 for the countrys bravery in the Second World War. The George Cross continues to appear on Maltas national flag, the country became a republic in 1974, and although no longer a Commonwealth realm, remains a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004, in 2008, Catholicism is the official religion in Malta. The origin of the term Malta is uncertain, and the modern-day variation derives from the Maltese language, the most common etymology is that the word Malta derives from the Greek word μέλι, meli, honey. The ancient Greeks called the island Μελίτη meaning honey-sweet, possibly due to Maltas unique production of honey, an endemic species of bee lives on the island. The Romans went on to call the island Melita, which can be considered either as a latinisation of the Greek Μελίτη or the adaptation of the Doric Greek pronunciation of the same word Μελίτα. Another conjecture suggests that the word Malta comes from the Phoenician word Maleth a haven or port in reference to Maltas many bays, few other etymological mentions appear in classical literature, with the term Malta appearing in its present form in the Antonine Itinerary. The extinction of the hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on Malta. Prehistoric farming settlements dating to the Early Neolithic period were discovered in areas and also in caves. The Sicani were the tribe known to have inhabited the island at this time and are generally regarded as being closely related to the Iberians. Pottery from the Għar Dalam phase is similar to found in Agrigento. A culture of megalithis temple builders then either supplanted or arose from this early period, the temples have distinctive architecture, typically a complex trefoil design, and were used from 4000 to 2500 BCE. Animal bones and a knife found behind an altar stone suggest that temple rituals included animal sacrifice. Tentative information suggests that the sacrifices were made to the goddess of fertility, the culture apparently disappeared from the Maltese Islands around 2500 BC. Archaeologists speculate that the builders fell victim to famine or disease
Malta
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Ġgantija megalithic temple complex
Malta
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Flag
Malta
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The temple complex of
Mnajdra
Malta
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Roman mosaic from
Rabat, Malta.
24.
Turkey
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
Turkey
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Some
henges at
Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 12,000 BC, predating those of
Stonehenge,
England by almost ten millennia.
Turkey
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Flag
Turkey
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The Lion Gate in
Hattusa, capital of the
Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
Turkey
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The
Library of Celsus in
Ephesus was built by the
Romans in 135 AD. The
Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king
Croesus of
Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
25.
White Anglo Saxon Protestant
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Scholars agree that the groups influence has waned since the end of World War II in 1945, with the growing influence of other ethnic groups. The term is used in Australia and Canada for similar elites. The term is used by sociologists to include all Americans of Northern European ancestry regardless of their class or power. People rarely call themselves WASPs, except humorously, the acronym is typically used by non-WASPs. Historically, Anglo-Saxon referred to the language of indigenous inhabitants of England before about 1150, since the 19th century it has been in common use in the English-speaking world, but not in Britain itself, to refer to Protestants of principally English descent. Anglo-Saxon carries Germanic connotations by its roots in the ancient territories of present-day Germany, Angeln, the former of which England and English is ultimately derived. The W and P were added in the 1950s to form a witty epithet with an undertone of waspishness and that is, they are wealthy, they are Anglo-Saxon in origin, and they are Protestants. To their Waspishness should be added the tendency to be located on the eastern seaboard or around San Francisco, to be school and Ivy League educated. The term was popularized by sociologist and University of Pennsylvania professor E. Digby Baltzell, himself a WASP, in his 1964 book The Protestant Establishment, Aristocracy and Caste in America. The concept of Anglo Saxon and especially Anglo Saxon Protestantism evolved in the late 19th century, historian Richard Kyle says, Protestantism had not yet split into two mutually hostile camps – the liberals and fundamentalists. Of great importance, evangelical Protestantism still dominated the cultural scene, American values bore the stamp of this Anglo-Saxon Protestant ascendancy. The political, cultural, religious, and intellectual leaders of the nation were largely of a Northern European Protestant stock, before WASP came into use in the 1960s the term Anglo Saxon filled some of the same purposes. Anglo-Saxons by 1900 was often used as a synonym for all people of English descent and sometimes more generally and it was often used in claims for the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race, much to the annoyance of outsiders. For example, Josiah Strong boasted in 1890, In 1700 this race numbered less than 6,000,000 souls. In 1800, Anglo-Saxons had increased to about 20,500,000, like the newer term WASP, the old term Anglo-Saxon was used derisively by writers hostile to an informal alliance between Britain and the U. S. The negative use was common among Irish Americans and writers in France. It also remains in use in Ireland as a term for the British or English, Irish-American humorist Finley Peter Dunne popularized the ridicule of Anglo Saxon, even calling President Theodore Roosevelt one. To be genuinely Irish is to challenge WASP dominance, argues California politician Tom Hayden, the depiction of the Irish in the films of John Ford was a counterpoint to WASP standards of rectitude
White Anglo Saxon Protestant
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Harvard College was a favorite choice; the student body was overwhelmingly WASP well into the 20th century.
White Anglo Saxon Protestant
–
View of
Manhattan 's
Upper East Side. Traditionally, the
Upper East Side has been dominated by WASP families.
26.
Simon Palomares
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Simon Palomares is a Spanish-Australian comedian and actor, best known for his character Ricky in Acropolis Now. Palomares studied drama and psychology at Deakin University and studied acting at the renowned Juan Carlos Corazza School in Madrid, recently he completed a post-graduate degree in arts and entertainment management at Deakin University. Palomares was one of the creators and stars of the Wogs Out of Work comedy stage show and he has performed comedy shows in the United States, Canada, Spain and Argentina where he performs stand-up in Spanish. More recently, Palomares has toured Australia in a cooking program. He performed 2007-2011 with fellow comedians George Kapiniaris, Joe Avati, in July 2011 Palomares was invited to the Just For Laughs Comedy Festival in Montreal by Paramount Comedy to record a Spanish comedy TV special for Canadian OMNI Channel. In 2011 he also produced a 13 episode series for C31 in Melbourne called Passion to Profession, most recently he has performed for the program Nuevos Comicos on Paramount Comedy and completed a documentary called KO HO NAS for Special Broadcasting Service shown in Australia on 11 November 2009. He wrote and directed a film, The Usual, which was acclaimed at the St Kilda Film Festival. In 2006, he created, co-hosted and commentated on The Foosy Show, in addition to his acting credits, he appeared as himself in an episode of the ABC series Smallest Room in the House, a series in which stand-up comedians told true stories of their upbringing. Palomares has directed episodes of Neighbours and was second unit director on Totally Full Frontal and he has also provided voices in the video games Rome, Total War and Rome, Total War - Barbarian Invasion. Ricky Martinez www. simonpalomares. com Simon Palomares at the Internet Movie Database Simon Palomares MySpace page
Simon Palomares
–
Simon Palomares
27.
The Wog Boy
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The Wog Boy is a 2000 Australian motion picture comedy starring Nick Giannopoulos, Vince Colosimo, Lucy Bell, Abi Tucker, Stephen Curry, Tony Nikolakopoulos and Derryn Hinch. Steve is a second-generation Greek Australian, Steve is unemployed, but manages to get by, helping out here and there. His pride and joy is his VF Valiant Pacer, whilst helping out a compensation-oriented neighbour, Steve has a minor car accident involving the Minister for Employment, vampily played by Geraldine Turner. Steve manages to turn this around to his advantage, and becomes famous as The Wog Boy, in the interim, he makes variable progress with Celia. As well as being a comedy, the film offers a subtle critique of capitalism, neoliberalism. The film talks about the issue of unemployment as experienced by people in the 1990s. The film also examines racial profiling, media stereotypes and hysteria and it does this by placing the protagonist Steve in a situation where he is asked to do promotional work for a government department. Here we see a series of conflicts where Steves straightforward ethnic background. Steve is seen driving a dark blue 1969 VF Valiant hardtop during the movie, during the film, it is said that the cars original engine was a 245-cubic-inch 6-cylinder hemi, which was later replaced with an 8-cylinder engine. The Australian Chrysler Valiant range of cars were often and sometimes referred to as Wog Chariots or The Greek Mercedes. A soundtrack was released, composed by Cezary Skubiszewski and it featured the single Breakin Theres No Stoppin Us by Ilanda which was used to promote the film. The track Get Tzatziki With It was also in the promotional campaign. It was written by John Von Ahlen, Jaime Jimenez and Nick Giannopoulos, pull Up to the Bumper - Deni Hines Breakin. Theres No Stopping Us - Ilanda & Joanne Vibe - Redzone Shine - Vanessa Amorosi Somebody Like You - Jimmy Christo Am I Sexy, the sequel was released in Australia on 20 May 2010. The Wog Boy grossed $11,449,799 at the box office in Australia, the Wog Boy at the Internet Movie Database The Wog Boy at the National Film and Sound Archive
The Wog Boy
–
Theatrical release poster
28.
Wog Boy 2: Kings of Mykonos
–
The Wog Boy 2, Kings of Mykonos is a 2010 Australian motion picture comedy sequel to the 2000 film The Wog Boy, starring Nick Giannopoulos, Vince Colosimo and Costas Kilias. It was released in Australia on 20 May 2010 and UK on 7 January 2011, the film starts off with the funeral of a man named Panos. A very rich and handsome young man called Mihalis thinks he inherits all Panos possessions, Steve watches his friend Tony the Yugoslav as he gets arrested in his fathers shop for theft and drugs, losing the shop and his Beloved 69 Valiant Pacer. Steve and his old friend Frank who has lost his wife, cousin Tzimis picks up the two friends from the airport and brings Steve up to speed with local customs and habits. Tzimis and his Spartan wife Voula are managing the tavern Steve has inherited, Steve finds out that to get his inheritance, he must pay 1.1 million euros in tax because he is not an immediate descendant of Panos. Steve does not have much money. The two friends settle in Panos home and discover Panos old car, a rare 1964 Pontiac Catalina, later Tony shows up, having managed to escape from the Australian authorities and calling himself Tony the Cretan, thinking that Crete is not a part of Greece. Two German environmentalists, Otto and Dieter, are after the goat Apollo claiming it is a rare species, Steve falls for Zoe, a beautiful down-to-earth singer who owns half of a local night club called the Seven Sins. The other half is owned by Mihalis who is engaged to Zoe, Frank gets into a nasty bet with Pierluigi, who is called the King of Mykonos because he had sex with 43 women in one month, a record that will never be broken as Tzimis says. The bet is to seduce Enza, a beautiful but distant. As the story progresses, it is revealed that no one is who it seems to be, Steve fails to find hard evidence to prove Panos is his father. Mihalis steps in and claims the inheritance for himself, declaring that he can pay up for taxes and he intends to sell the beach. Steve then enters a competition with Mihalis trying to take the inheritance. Tony gets the parts needed for Steve to repair the Pontiac, the two Germans interrupt the rally and reveal that they have discovered an ancient coin of great archaeological significance at Steves beach, but Apollo swallowed it. If the coin is retrieved and delivered to the authorities, the beach becomes an archaeological site, Mihalis and Steve abandon the race, search for and fight over the coin. At the last moment, Zoe steps in and delivers documents proving Panos was Steves biological father, the film has received generally negative reviews. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 22% of critics have given the film a review based on 9 reviews. On At the Movies film critics Margaret Pomeranz and David Stratton both gave the film a review, awarding it 2.5 and 2 stars out of five respectively
Wog Boy 2: Kings of Mykonos
–
Theatrical poster
29.
Eric Bana
–
Eric Banadinović, known professionally as Eric Bana, is an Australian actor and comedian. He began his career in the comedy series Full Frontal before gaining critical recognition in the biographical crime film Chopper. Bana also played Henry De Tamble in The Time Travelers Wife, in 2013, he played Lt. Cmdr. Erik S. Kristensen in the war film Lone Survivor and in the year he played police sergeant Ralph Sarchie in the horror film Deliver Us from Evil. An accomplished dramatic actor and comedian, he received Australias highest film and television awards for his performances in Chopper, Full Frontal and Romulus, My Father. Bana has performed across a spectrum of leading roles in a variety of low-budget and major studio films, ranging from romantic comedies. Bana was born in Melbourne, Victoria and his father, Ivan, was Croatian and worked as a logistics manager for Caterpillar, Inc. and his mother, Eleanor, was a hairdresser, originally from near Mannheim in Germany. He has one brother, Anthony. Bana grew up in Melbournes Tullamarine, an area on the northern edge of the city, near Melbournes international airport. In a cover story for the Mail on Sunday, he told author Antonella Gambotto-Burke that his family had suffered from racist taunts, wog is such a terrible word, he said. He has stated, I have always been proud of my origin, I have always been in the company of people of European origin. Showing acting skill early in life, Bana began doing impressions of family members at the age of six or seven, first mimicking his grandfathers walk, voice, in school, he mimicked his teachers as a means to get out of trouble. As a teen, he watched the Mel Gibson film Mad Max, however, he did not seriously consider a career in the performing arts until 1991 when he was persuaded to try comedy while working as a barman at Melbournes Castle Hotel. His stand-up gigs in inner-city pubs did not provide him enough income to support himself, however, so he continued his work as a barman. In 1993, Bana made his debut on Steve Vizards late night talk show. His performance gained the attention of producers from the comedy series, Full Frontal. During his four years on the show, Bana wrote much of his own material and his impressions of Columbo, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sylvester Stallone, and Tom Cruise made Bana popular with the shows audience. This success led him to record the comedy album Out of Bounds in 1994 and to host his own special, titled Eric
Eric Bana
–
Bana at the 2014 WonderCon
Eric Bana
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Bana as Australian criminal
Chopper Read in his breakthrough film role in
Chopper (2000)
Eric Bana
–
Bana at the premiere of
Lucky You in May 2007
Eric Bana
–
Star Trek premiere,
Sydney Opera House 2009
30.
Pizza (TV series)
–
Pizza was an Australian television series on the Australian television network SBS. The series has a feature length movie, Fat Pizza, released in 2003, and a best-of highlights video/DVD that featured previously unreleased footage. In addition to this, a show entitled Fat Pizza, starring several characters from the show. In 2014, the storyline of the series was combined with that of Housos to create the motion picture Fat Pizza vs. Housos, the film was shown in Australian cinemas from 27 November 2014. Through ironic and self-conscious references, Pizza involves themes of ethnicity and stereotypes, cars, sex, illicit drugs, the television program is noted for its frequent cameo appearances of numerous Australian celebrities of all varieties, including actors, comedians, professional athletes, and other public figures. The program is written and directed by Paul Fenech, who portrays the protagonist of the series, Pizza began in the early 1990s as Fenechs project, a black-and-white short film, entitled Pizza Man, in which he starred as the eponymous pizza man. In 1995, the film won third place in the Tropfest film festival. Pizza itself was first broadcast on the SBS network in 2000 and aired its fifth, the half-hour program was shown during the SBS Monday comedy slot, noted for its offbeat comedy shows including South Park, John Safran, Garth Marenghis Darkplace, Drawn Together, and Quads. As introduced by Pauly in the first episode of the show, in spite of this, the characters remain unfazed and unsurprised, and they persist in their dead-end, below-minimum-wage job, which pays A$3.00 per hour. Paul Fenech as Pauly Falzoni – main protagonist, pizza delivery man, boxer and his favourite derogatory comment for people is stooge, originating from a comment a teacher once made to him. Pauly has been one of Bobos longest-serving employees at Fat Pizza and has provided Bobo with some good ideas over the years, during the 2005 series of Pizza, Paulys parents, relatives, and Pauly were shown with a cousin named Luigi, who lives in Italy. In one episode, it is shown that Paulys dad was a Maltese spy for British Intelligence, Paulys ethnic background consists of Maltese, Italian, and Spanish roots. He makes an appearance in Housos telling his cousin Franky that their uncle Fred has died. Paul Nakad as Sleek the Elite – so named because he is slicker than slick, a rapper, ladies man. He was the main co-star in the first two series and the movie and he is a lady killer, hence the name Lebanese lover. In the third series it was revealed Sleek had been kidnapped by Islamic terrorists while holidaying in his homeland of Lebanon for rooting all their women, in several episodes, Sleek was portrayed as the closeted bisexual male. He was replaced by Rockys other cousin, Slick, who is killed off by Bobo in season three, episode one, tahir Bilgiç as Habib Halal Habib – meaning Friend in Arabic. Habib featured as a character in the earlier series of Pizza
Pizza (TV series)
–
Fat Pizza
31.
Yankee
–
The term Yankee and its contracted form Yank have several interrelated meanings, all referring to people from the United States. Its various senses depend on the scope of context, most broadly, Outside the United States, Yank is used informally to refer to any American, including Southerners. Within Southern American English, Yankee is a term used to refer to any and all Northerners. The speech dialect of Eastern New England is called Yankee or Yankee dialect, within New England itself, the term Yankee refers specifically to old-stock New Englanders of English descent. The informal British and Irish English Yank refers to Americans in general and it is especially popular among Britons and Australians and sometimes carries pejorative overtones. The Southern American English Yankee is typically uncontracted and at least mildly pejorative, the root of the term is uncertain. In 1758, British General James Wolfe made the earliest recorded use of the word Yankee to refer to people from what became the United States, later British use of the word often was derogatory, as in a cartoon of 1775 ridiculing Yankee soldiers. The meaning of Yankee has varied over time, in the 18th century, it referred to residents of New England descended from the original English settlers of the region. Mark Twain used the word in this sense the following century in his novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court, as early as the 1770s, British people applied the term to any person from what became the United States. In the 19th century, Americans in the southern United States employed the word in reference to Americans from the northern United States, though not to recent immigrants from Europe. Thus, a visitor to Richmond, Virginia commented in 1818, The enterprising people are mostly strangers, Scots, Irish, another theory surmises that the word is borrowed from the Wyandot pronunciation of the French langlais, sounded as Yan-gee. Linguists, however, do not support any Indian origins, the change from English to Yengees is very trifling. Sonneck noted that multiple American writers since 1775 had repeated this story as if it were fact, despite what he suggested were clear holes in it. First, he noted that it was proposed at the start of the American Revolution and would have been a welcome anti-English rhetoric. Second, it had never been the tradition of any Indian tribe to transfer their name to group of people. Third and most importantly, there had never been a tribe called the Yankoos, most linguists look to Dutch sources, noting the extensive interaction between the colonial Dutch in New Netherland and the colonial English in New England. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives its origin as around 1683, when it was applied insultingly to Dutch Americans by the English, however, it was at some point reappropriated by Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam who started using it against the English colonists of neighboring Connecticut. Linguist Jan de Vries notes that there was mention of a pirate named Dutch Yanky in the 17th century
Yankee
–
Loyalist newspaper cartoon from Boston ridicules "Yankie Doodles" militia who have encircled the British forces inside the city
32.
CIA
–
As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
CIA
–
John Brennan, the current
director of the Central Intelligence Agency
CIA
–
Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency
CIA
–
Aerial view of the Central Intelligence Agency headquarters,
Langley, Virginia
CIA
–
The 111 stars on the
CIA Memorial Wall in the original CIA headquarters, each representing a CIA officer killed in action.
33.
L. Ron Hubbard
–
Lafayette Ronald Hubbard, better known as L. Ron Hubbard and often referred to by his initials, LRH, was an American author and the founder of the Church of Scientology. In 2014, Hubbard was cited by the Smithsonian magazine as one of the 100 most significant Americans of all time, as one of the eleven religious figures on that list. After establishing a career as a writer, becoming best known for his fiction and fantasy stories. He subsequently developed his ideas into a set of doctrines and practices as part of a new religious movement that he called Scientology. The Churchs dissemination of materials led to Hubbard being listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the most translated and published author in the world. The Guinness World Record for the most audio books published for one author is also held by Hubbard, although many aspects of Hubbards life story are disputed, there is general agreement about its basic outline. Born in Tilden, Nebraska, he spent much of his childhood in Helena, Montana. He traveled in Asia and the South Pacific in the late 1920s after his father and he attended George Washington University in Washington, D. C. at the start of the 1930s, before dropping out and beginning his career as a prolific writer of pulp fiction stories. He served briefly in the United States Marine Corps Reserve and was an officer in the United States Navy during World War II and he was removed both times when his superiors found him incapable of command. The last few months of his service were spent in a hospital. After the war, Hubbard developed Dianetics, which he called the science of mental health. He founded Scientology in 1952 and oversaw the growth of the Church of Scientology into a worldwide organization. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, he spent much of his time at sea on his fleet of ships as Commodore of the Sea Organization. His expedition came to an end when Britain, Greece, Spain, Portugal, at one point, a court in Australia revoked the Churchs status as a religion, though it was later reinstated. Hubbard returned to the United States in 1975 and went into seclusion in the California desert, in 1978, a trial court in France convicted Hubbard of fraud in absentia. Others convictions from the trial were reversed on appeal. In 1983 L. Ron Hubbard was named as an unindicted co-conspirator in an international information infiltration and he spent the remaining years of his life on his ranch, the Whispering Wind, near Creston, California, where he died in 1986. A small group of Scientology officials and physician Dr. Eugene Denk attended to him before his death, in 1986, he died in a 1982 Blue Bird motor home, which was situated on his property, at age 74
L. Ron Hubbard
–
Hubbard in Los Angeles, 1950
L. Ron Hubbard
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Queen Anne High School, Seattle, which L. Ron Hubbard attended in 1926–1927
L. Ron Hubbard
–
Aerial view of Qingdao, China, taken in 1930, two years after Hubbard's visit
L. Ron Hubbard
–
Professor's Gate at George Washington University
34.
The Sydney Morning Herald
–
The Sydney Morning Herald is a daily compact newspaper published by Fairfax Media in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1831 as the Sydney Herald, the SMH is the oldest continuously published newspaper in Australia, the newspaper is published six days a week. It is available at outlets in Sydney, regional New South Wales, Canberra, the Sydney Morning Herald includes a variety of supplements, including the magazines Good Weekend, and Sunday Life. By February 2016, average circulation had fallen to 104,000, similarWeb rates the site as the fifth most visited news website in Australia and as the 42nd newspapers website globally, attracting more than 15 million visitors per month. In 1931 a Centenary Supplement was published, the original four-page weekly had a print run of 750. In 1840, the newspaper began to publish daily, in 1841, an Englishman named John Fairfax purchased the operation, renaming it The Sydney Morning Herald the following year. Fairfax, whose family were to control the newspaper for almost 150 years, based his editorial policies upon principles of candour, honesty and we have no wish to mislead, no interest to gratify by unsparing abuse or indiscriminate approbation. During the decade 1890, Donald Murray worked there, the SMH was late to the trend of printing news rather than just advertising on the front page, doing so from 15 April 1944. Of the countrys metropolitan dailies, only The West Australian was later in making the switch, in 1949, the newspaper launched a Sunday edition, The Sunday Herald. Four years later, this was merged with the newly acquired Sun newspaper to create The Sun-Herald, in 1995, the company launched the newspapers web edition smh. com. au. The site has grown to include interactive and multimedia features beyond the content in the print edition. Around the same time, the organisation moved from Jones Street to new offices at Darling Park and built a new printing press at Chullora, the SMH has since moved with other Sydney Fairfax divisions to a building at Darling Island. In May 2007, Fairfax Media announced it would be moving from a format to the smaller compact or tabloid-size, in the footsteps of The Times. Fairfax Media dumped these plans later in the year, however, in June 2012, Fairfax Media again announced it planned to shift both broadsheet newspapers to tabloid size, in March 2013. Fairfax also announced it would cut staff across the group by 1,900 over three years and erect paywalls around the papers websites. The subscription type is to be a model, limiting readers to a number of free stories per month, with a payment required for further access. In July 2013 it was announced that the SMHs news director, Darren Goodsir, would become Editor-in-Chief, on 22 February 2014, the final Saturday edition was produced in broadsheet format with this too converted to compact format on 1 March 2014. Ahead of the decommissioning of the plant at Chullora in June 2014
The Sydney Morning Herald
–
The front page of The Sydney Morning Herald on 30 March 2007.
The Sydney Morning Herald
–
The cover of the newspaper's first edition, on 18 April 1831
35.
Black people
–
As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, black is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as black, and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, in the United Kingdom, black was historically equivalent with person of color, a general term for non-European peoples. In South Africa and Latin America, mixed-race people are not classified as black. In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term black or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds. The Romans interacted with and later conquered parts of Mauretania, a state that covered modern Morocco, western Algeria. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard and he claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese woman, in response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish, due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more black women than men. They used more black female slaves in domestic service and agriculture than males, the men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage, leading to many mixed-race children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab masters child, she was considered as umm walad or mother of a child, the child was given rights of inheritance to the fathers property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was patrilineal, the children took their fathers social status at birth and were born free, some succeeded their fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a child of a slave, his mother was Fulani. Such tolerance for black persons, even when technically free, was not so common in Morocco, the long association of sub-Saharan peoples as slaves is shown in the term abd, it is still frequently used in the Arabic-speaking world as a term for black people. In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudans non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of deftly manipulat Arab solidarity to carry out policies of apartheid, American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. The Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid, many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid
Black people
–
Soldiers of the
Free Arabian Legion in Greece, September 1943
Black people
–
Algerian footballer
Yacine Brahimi
Black people
–
Moroccan Gnawa musician
Hassan Hakmoun
Black people
–
Nelson Mandela led the
ANC in the battle against South African Apartheid.
36.
Choc ice
–
In many countries, there are numerous versions of this dessert produced under different brand names. The first one was sold in the United States in 1922 and named after the Klondike River in Alaska, the equivalent in France for the term black outside and white inside is the Bounty, a chocolate bar consisting of coconut inside while the U. S
Choc ice
–
Choc ice
37.
Jim Crow laws
–
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
Jim Crow laws
–
Cover to an early edition of "
Jump Jim Crow " sheet music (c 1832)
Jim Crow laws
–
Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867
Jim Crow laws
–
Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in
Durham, North Carolina, 1940
Jim Crow laws
–
1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by
John T. McCutcheon. Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.
38.
Mammy archetype
–
A mammy, also spelled mammie, is a Southern United States archetype for a black woman who worked as a nanny and/or general housekeeper that, often in a white family, nursed the familys children. The word mammy originated as an alteration of mamma, meaning mother, one of the earliest fictionalized versions of the mammy figure was Aunt Chloe in Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin, which was first published in 1852. As the mammy figure progressed into the 20th century, the persona was sacrificed to the demands of the white majority, memoirs that describe the roles of mammies from the 1890s to the 1920s downplayed the mammys relationship with her family. The background of the Mammy figure was the history of slavery in the United States, African American female slaves were tasked with the duties of domestic workers in White American households. Their duties included preparing meals, cleaning homes, and nursing and rearing their owners children, out of these circumstances arose the image of the mammy. While originating in the period, the mammy figure rose to prominence during the Reconstruction Era. In the Southern United States, the played a role in historical revisionism efforts to reinterpret and legitimize their legacy of chattel slavery. The mammy image endured there to the 20th century, in 1923, the United Daughters of the Confederacy proposed the erection of a mammy statue on National Mall. The proposed statue would be dedicated to The Black Mammy of the South, the historicity of the mammy figure is questionable. Historical accounts point to the identity of most female domestic servants as teenagers and young adults, according to Black Feminist Thought by Patricia Hill Collins, the life expectancy of enslaved women was 33.6 years, meaning that few lived to an age to fit the mammy portrayal. In 1981, Andy Warhol included the mammy in his Myths series, alongside other mythological and folklore characters such as Santa Claus, Mickey Mouse, the romanticized mammy image survives in the popular imagination of the modern United States. Women portrayed as good caretakers, nurturing, selfless, strong, playing the supporting characters to white protagonists. She cites as examples Miranda Bailey, Mercedes Jones, and Ivy Wentz, Collins would describe the overall treatment of whites to blacks as othering. When people engage in othering it creates a binary in which the subject objectifies the other, the process of defining relationships as binaries creates an incredible amount of tension between different races, genders and other groups. Black women are subjected to controlling images like the mammy, which make it difficult for them to rise past oppressive structures in work, the oppression can take the form of race, class, gender and sexual orientation attacks. Additionally, minorities like black women have the highest infant mortality rate as well as out of wedlock. Lastly, they are more likely than White women to live in poverty, thus, inequality is a socially constructed phenomenon with biological factors like race and gender at the center. Baca Zinn and Thornton Dill argue that biological factors relevant because they are ranked and rewarded
Mammy archetype
–
"
Mammy's Cupboard ", 1940
novelty architecture restaurant in Adams County, Mississippi.
Mammy archetype
–
Mauma Mollie. She died in the 1850s at the home of the white Florida family she served. A family member described her as nursing "nearly all of the children in the family," and that they loved her as a "second mother."
Mammy archetype
–
Scrub Me Mama with a Boogie Beat title card
39.
Nigger
–
In the present-day English language, the word nigger is an ethnic slur, usually directed at black people. The word originated as a term referring to people with black skin, as a variation of the Spanish and Portuguese noun negro. It was often used derogatorily, and by the century, particularly in the United States, its usage became unambiguously pejorative. Accordingly, it began to disappear from popular culture, and its inclusion in classic works of literature has sparked controversy. In contemporary English, using the word nigger is considered extremely offensive, the variant nigga has to some extent been reclaimed by African Americans. The variants neger and negar derive from the Spanish and Portuguese word negro, etymologically, negro, noir, nègre, and nigger ultimately derive from nigrum, the stem of the Latin niger. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first English use to 1577, other early spellings attested include nigor and Nigre, the first spelling of nigger is in 1608. The second meaning, of a term of abuse or contempt from whites to blacks is first attested in print in 1775. Its use by people both as a neutral or favourable term and as a depreciatory term go back to 1831 and 1834 respectively. In the colonial America of 1619, John Rolfe used negars in describing the African slaves shipped to the Virginia colony, lexicographer Noah Webster, whose eponymous dictionary did much to solidify the distinctive spelling of American English, suggested the neger spelling in place of negro in 1806. The dialect spoken in the Southern United States changes the pronunciation of negro to nigra, during the fur trade of the early 1800s to the late 1840s in the Western United States, the word was spelled niggur, and is often recorded in literature of the time. George Fredrick Ruxton used it in his mountain man lexicon, without pejorative connotation, niggur was evidently similar to the modern use of dude or guy. It was not used as a term exclusively for blacks among mountain men during this period, as Indians, Mexicans, the noun slipped back and forth from derogatory to endearing. The term colored became a respectful alternative, in 1851 the Boston Vigilance Committee, an Abolitionist organization, posted warnings to the Colored People of Boston and vicinity. Writing in 1904, journalist Clifton Johnson documented the opprobrious character of the word nigger, by the turn of the century, colored had become sufficiently mainstream that it was chosen as the racial self-identifier for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. In 2008 Carla Sims, its communications director, said the term colored is not derogatory and its outdated and antiquated but not offensive. Nineteenth-century literature features usages of nigger without racist connotation, mark Twain, in the autobiographic book Life on the Mississippi, used the term within quotes, indicating reported speech, but used the term negro when writing in his own narrative persona. Joseph Conrad published a novella in Britain with the title The Nigger of the Narcissus, president Thomas Jefferson had used this word of his slaves in his Notes on the State of Virginia, but black had not been widely used until the later 20th century
Nigger
–
1885 illustration from
Mark Twain 's
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, captioned "Misto Bradish's nigger"
Nigger
–
Historical American cartoon titled "Why the nigger is not fit to vote", by
Thomas Nast, arguing that the reason Democrats objected to African-Americans having the vote, was that in the
1868 US presidential election African-Americans voted for the Republican candidates
Ulysses S. Grant and
Schuyler Colfax. "Seymour friends meet here" in the background is a reference to the Democratic Party candidate:
Horatio Seymour.
Nigger
–
Poster for "Nigger Hair" tobacco, later known as "Bigger Hair"
Nigger
–
Anti-abolitionist cartoon from the 1860 presidential campaign illustrating colloquial usage of "
Nigger in the woodpile "
40.
Pickaninny
–
Pickaninny is an American-slang term in English which refers to a racist and derogatory caricature of dark-skinned children of African descent. It is a word form, which may be derived from the Portuguese pequenino. In modern sensibility, the term implies a caricature which can be used in a derogatory, the deliberate use of the word in this context however suggests it already had black vernacular associations. In 1826 an Englishman named Thomas Young was tried at the Old Bailey in London on a charge of enslaving and selling four Gabonese women known as Nura, Piccaninni, Jumbo Jack and Prince Quarben. In the Southern United States, pickaninny was long used to refer to the children of African slaves or of dark-skinned African American citizens, the term was still in some use in the United States as late as the 1960s. The term piccaninny was used in colonial Australia for an Aboriginal child and is still in use in some Indigenous Kriol languages, in the Patois dialect of Jamaica, the word has been shortened to the form pickney, which is used to describe a child regardless of racial origin. The word piccaninny is used throughout the Pacific Melanesian countries as a term to describe children in general. Extensive use has made of this racial slur by the U. K. foreign secretary Boris Johnson. Its time for little Pickaninnies to go to sleep, samuel Footes 1755 nonsense prose includes, there were present the Picninnies, and the Joblillies, and the Garyulies, and the grand Panjandrum himself. In the 1931 film, The Front Page, one of the reporters played by Frank McHugh, the term is used twice in the scene. The word pickaninnies appears in the 1887 lyrics of Newfoundland folk song Kelligrews Soiree, There was boiled guineas, cold guineas, bullocks heads, Scott Joplin wrote the music for a lyric by Henry Jackson called I Am Thinking of My Pickanniny Days, written in 1902. In the novel Peter Pan by J. M. Barrie, the original version of the 1914 lullaby Hush-A-Bye, Ma Baby contains the line when I was a Pickaninny on ma Mammys knee. When it became the song of Missouri in 1949, the word pickaninny was replaced with little child. The term is used in the verse of the Jimmie Rodgers tune Peach Pickin Time in Georgia. When the picannies pick the cotton, Ill pick a wedding ring, Oh, look at the little pickaninny. She said and pointed to a child standing in the door of a shack. In the 1920s F. Scott Fitzgerald used the word pickaninnies to describe young black children playing in the street, throughout his 1935 travel book Journey Without Maps, British author Graham Greene uses piccaninny as a general term for African children. Orson Scott Cards historical fantasy series The Tales of Alvin Maker uses the term, such as in Seventh Son, Papooses learnt to hunt, also in 1935 the Shirley Temple film The Little Colonel features the grandfather Colonel barking piccaninny at two young children
Pickaninny
–
Reproduction of an old tin sign advertising Picaninny Freeze, a frozen treat.
41.
Rastus
–
Rastus is a pejorative term traditionally associated with African Americans in the United States. Rastus has been used as a generic, often derogatory, name for men at least since 1880. However, Rastus has never been popular as a black name. For example, the 1870 census reported only 42 individuals named Rastus in the United States, rastus—as a stereotypically happy black man, not as a particular person—became a familiar character in minstrel shows. White, a Chicago chef in chefs hat and jacket and his face has been featured on the box with only slight modifications until the present day. How Rastus Got His Turkey, Short film, Times Review, Rastus Among the Zulus, Short film, from The Internet Movie Database Rastus Runs Amuck, Short film, from The Internet Movie Database
Rastus
–
Rastus appearing in an advertisement for
Cream of Wheat, at some point between 1901 and 1925.
42.
Inuit
–
Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
Inuit
–
Traditional qamutik (sled),
Cape Dorset,
Nunavut
Inuit
–
Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
Inuit
–
Hudson's Bay Company Ships bartering with Inuit off the Upper Savage Islands,
Hudson Strait, 1819
Inuit
–
Inupiat in a kayak, Noatak, Alaska, c. 1929 (photo by
Edward S. Curtis)
43.
First Nations
–
The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
First Nations
First Nations
–
Squamish woman
First Nations
First Nations
–
Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
44.
Squaw
–
Some indigenous North Americans consider the term to be offensive. The words for woman in the various Algonquian languages derive from Proto-Algonquian *, in the daughter languages, the first consonant sound has variously changed to /s/, /x/, or been lost. The pronunciation squaw or skwa is found in the northerly Eastern Algonquian languages in New England, one of its earliest appearances in print is the squa sachim, or Massachusets queen in Mourts Relation, one of the first chronicles of the Plymouth colony. William Wood similarly defined Squaw - a woman in his list, A Small Nomenclature of the Indian Language, the Saint Francis Abenaki Chief Joseph Laurent illustrated the neutral usage of the term among Abenaki speakers to refer to both Native and non-Native women. As a suffix it means wife, as in Sôgmò, —skua, translated as A chief, other examples are Nôkskuasis – A young little girl. Kuibekiskua – A lady from Quebec, the Abenakis word for a queen, Kinjamesiskua, recorded as Kinjamesisqua by another Abenaki author, literally translates as King James wife. In 1940, the anthropologist Frank Speck noted the appearance of this morpheme in various terms in the Penobscot language, some authors, such as Jonathan Periam describing American Indian corn-growing practices of the early 19th century in Illinois, used the word repeatedly, and nonchalantly. Who have taken it from the whites, the adjective form of squaw has been widely applied to indigenous plants used by Native peoples as medicine specific to female complaints. Also squaw-bush, -carpet, -flower, -grass, -mint, -vine, the Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico lists several such plants that are still prized by both traditional herbalists and modern pharmaceutical companies. After the squaw have been named, Squawberry, squaw bush, in some 19th- and 20th-century texts squaw is used or perceived as derogatory. Most of these uses are not sexual, one author, for example, referred to the universal squaw - squat, angular, pig-eyed, ragged, wretched, and insect-haunted. Squaw also became a derogatory adjective used against some men, in squaw man, meaning either a man who does womans work or a man married to an Indian woman. In a western novel by Max Brand, a character asks a female character about her intentions. Like a squaw, she answered steadily, if you choose to use that word, perhaps in view of such uses as those above, one early-20th-century dictionary of American usage called squaw a contemptuous term. The children said that they felt humiliated almost every day by calling them squaws. In this case the term seems to have been applied to girls in the lower grades of the elementary school. Some but not all Native American condemnation of squaw results from claims that it comes from a word for the vagina, an early comment in which squaw appears to have a sexual meaning is from the Canadian writer Pauline Johnson, whose father was a Mohawk chief. She wrote about the character in An Algonquin Maiden by G. Mercer Adam and A. Ethelwyn Wetherald
Squaw
–
Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
Squaw
–
"'
Bourgeois ' W---r, and His Squaw" Drawing shows a white trapper and his Native American wife/partner. Further information states, " The Sketch exhibits a certain etiquette. The Squaw's station in travelling is at a considerable distance in the rear of her liege lord, and never at the side of him."
Squaw
–
Portrait of a young
Choctaw woman, 1850
45.
White Americans
–
White Americans are Americans who are considered or reported as White. The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those having origins in any of the peoples of Europe. Like all official U. S. racial categories, White has a not Hispanic or Latino and a Hispanic or Latino component, the term Caucasian is often used interchangeably with White, although the terms are not synonymous. Whites constitute the majority, with a total of about 246,660,710, non-Hispanic Whites totaled about 197,870,516, or 62. 06% of the U. S. population. Definitions of who is White have changed throughout the history of the United States, the term White American can encompass many different ethnic groups. Although the United States Census purports to reflect a social definition of race, the 2000 U. S. census states that racial categories generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country. They do not conform to any biological, anthropological or genetic criteria, the Census Bureau defines White people as follows, White refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East or North Africa. It includes people who indicated their race as White or reported entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese, Arab, Moroccan or Caucasian. In U. S. Hispanic and Latino Americans as a make up a racially diverse group. In cases where individuals do not self-identify, the U. S. census parameters for race give each national origin a racial value. Additionally, people who reported Muslim, Jewish, Zoroastrian, or Caucasian as their race in the Some other race section, the US Census considers the write-in response of Caucasian or Aryan to be a synonym for White in their ancestry code listing. In the contemporary United States, essentially anyone of European descent is considered White, the definition of White has changed significantly over the course of American history. Among Europeans those not considered White at some point in American history include Italians, Greeks, Spaniards, Irish, Swedes, Germans, Finns, Russians, early on in the United States, white generally referred to those of British ancestry or northern and northwestern European descent. David R. Roediger argues that the construction of the race in the United States was an effort to mentally distance slave owners from slaves. The process of officially being defined as white by law came about in court disputes over pursuit of citizenship. Scholars such as David Roediger, Paul Gilroy, and others have based some of their work on this notion, moreover, Whites tend to be disproportionately represented in powerful positions, controlling almost all political, economic, and cultural institutions. Whites made up 79. 8% or 75% of the American population in 2008 and this latter number is sometimes recorded as 77. 1% when it includes about 2% of the population who are identified as white in combination with one or more other races. The largest ethnic groups among White Americans were Germans, followed by Irish and English, White Americans are projected to remain the majority, though with their percentage decreasing to 72% of the total population by 2050
White Americans
–
President
Abraham Lincoln was descended from
Samuel Lincoln, and was of English and Welsh ancestry.
White Americans
–
The countries from which White Americans claim their ancestry.
White Americans
–
Actress
Raquel Welch of Spanish (via Bolivia) and English ancestry back to the
Mayflower.
White Americans
–
Three members of the Kennedy political dynasty,
John,
Robert and
Edward. All eight of their great-grandparents emigrated from
Ireland.
46.
Cheesehead
–
Cheesehead is a nickname which began as a slanderous term towards Dutch people, and later in the US became a general name for a person from Wisconsin. It is also the nickname for the fans of the Green Bay Packers NFL football franchise, world War II German soldiers were known to call the Dutch cheeseheads. The term cheesehead was also used in a manner in the 1969 novel Papillon to describe the jury that sentenced Papillon to life in prison. The current use of the term cheesehead as a word for Wisconsinites originated with Illinois football and baseball fans to refer to opposing Wisconsin sports fans. The term, however, was embraced by Wisconsinites and is now a point of pride. Deena Bruno first saw a cardboard cheesehead hat at a Milwaukee Brewers vs. Chicago White Sox game in Chicago in 1987 worn by fellow Milwaukeean Amerik Wojciechowski, ralph Bruno later made the first one out of foam while he was cutting up his mothers couch. It was made popular by center-fielder Rick Manning, who saw the hat while playing, Bruno started a business to sell the hats as novelties. The Cheesehead trademark is owned by Foamation, Inc. of St. Francis, Wisconsin and it has also been referred to as a Cheese Hat since it is legally a hat. In 2013, sports fans of Chicago replied to their rivals by wearing cheese graters
Cheesehead
–
A
Packers fan wearing a "cheesehead" hat
47.
Wisconsin
–
Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien
Wisconsin
–
Wisconsin in 1718,
Guillaume de L'Isle map, approximate state area highlighted.
Wisconsin
–
Flag
Wisconsin
–
Jean Nicolet, depicted in a 1910 painting by Frank Rohrbeck, was probably the first European to explore Wisconsin. The mural is located in the
Brown County Courthouse in Green Bay.
Wisconsin
–
The
Little White Schoolhouse in
Ripon, Wisconsin, held the nation's first meeting of the
Republican Party
48.
Cracker (pejorative)
–
Cracker, sometimes white cracker or cracka, is a usually derogatory and/or offensive term for white people, especially poor rural whites in the Southern United States. In reference to a native of Florida or Georgia, however, benjamin Franklin, in his memoirs, referred to a race of runnagates and crackers, equally wild and savage as the Indians who inhabit the desert woods and mountains. The term cracker could have derived from the Middle English cnac, craic, or crak and it is documented in Shakespeares King John, What cracker is this same that deafs our ears with this abundance of superfluous breath. In the above instances, there is no reference to African American slavery and it has been suggested however, that white slave foremen in the antebellum South were called crackers owing to their practice of cracking the whip to drive and punish slaves. Whips were also cracked over pack animals, so cracker may have referred to whip cracking more generally, the whips used by some of these people are called crackers, from their having a piece of buckskin at the end. Hence the people who cracked the whips came to be thus named, Cracker has also been used as a proud or jocular self-description. With the huge influx of new residents from the North, cracker is used informally by some residents of Florida. However, the term cracker is seldom used self-referentially and remains a slur used to demean Caucasians. In 1947, the student body of Florida State University voted on the name of their athletic symbol, from a list of more than 100 choices, Seminoles was selected. The other finalists, in order of finish, were Statesmen, Rebels, Tarpons, Fighting Warriors, before the Milwaukee Braves baseball team moved to Atlanta, the Atlanta minor league baseball team was known as the Atlanta Crackers. The team existed under this name from 1901 until 1965 and they were members of the Southern Association from their inception until 1961, and members of the International League from 1961 until they were moved to Richmond, Virginia in 1965. Singer-songwriter Randy Newman, on his socio-politically themed album Good Old Boys uses the term cracker on the song Kingfish, the songs subject is Huey Long, populist Governor and then Senator for Louisiana. The term is used in Louisiana 1927 from the same album. Crackin Good Snacks has sold crackers similar to Ritz crackers under the name Georgia Crackers and they sometimes were packaged in a red tin with a picture of The Crescent, an antebellum plantation house in Valdosta, Georgia. The Florida Cracker Trail is a route which cuts across southern Florida, in his 1964 speech The Ballot or the Bullet, Malcolm X used the term cracker in reference to white people in a pejorative context. Theres no white man going to tell me anything about my rights, on November 29,1993, in a speech given at Kean College in New Jersey, Nation of Islam spokesman Khallid Abdul Muhammad called Pope John Paul II a no good cracker. In 2012, Michael Dunn shot and killed Jordan Davis in an argument over loud music coming from a car, Dunn claimed he had heard Something, something cracker, I should fucking kill that mother fucker, and saw the barrel of a shotgun. Zimmermans attorney then asked her if creepy ass cracker was an offensive term and that testimony and response brought about both media and public debate about the use of the word cracker
Cracker (pejorative)
–
"A pair of
Georgia crackers " as depicted by
James Wells Champney from The great South by
Edward King, 1873
Cracker (pejorative)
–
A "cracker cowboy" with his
Florida Cracker Horse and dog by
Frederick Remington, 1895
Cracker (pejorative)
–
Georgia Cracker label depicting a boy with peaches
49.
Gringo
–
A Gringo or Gringa is a term, mainly used in Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking countries, to refer to foreigners. In some Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America, gringo refers to someone from the United States, the word was originally used in Spain to denote any foreign, non-native speakers of Spanish. The dominant view among etymologists is that gringo is most likely a variant of griego ‘Greek’ speech, however, the word gringo originated in Spain long before there was a Spanish-speaking Mexico and at one time, the word in Spain was often used to refer specifically to the Irish. And according to a 1787 dictionary, it referred to someone who spoke Spanish poorly. It has also suggested that griego > gringo is phonetically unlikely. Instead it is claimed that gringo might derive from Caló, the language of the Romani people of Spain, as a variant of gringo ‘peregrine’, ‘wayfarer’, the gringo entry in the Nuevo diccionario francés-español, by Antonio de Capmany, records. Hablar en griego, en guirigay, en gringo. to speak in Greek, in gibberish, Gringo, griego, aplícase a lo que se dice o escribe sin entenderse. Gringo, Greek, applies to what is said or written without understanding it, moreover, besides “Hablar en gringo” when referring to someone whose language is difficult to understand, re-enforced the notion that alluding to the languages of other nations is a cliché. Furthermore, in the 1840s, Johann Jakob von Tschudi said that gringo was common Peruvian Spanish usage in Lima and it is probably derived from griego. The Germans say of anything incomprehensible, “That sounds like Spanish”, — and, in like manner, Gringo has been in use in the English language since the 19th century. There are several conjectures within folk etymology that purport to derive the origin of gringo from word coincidences, when the Mexican-American War began in 1846, several hundred recently immigrated Irish, German, and other Roman Catholic Americans who were sent by the U. S. This theory also has it that native Spanish speakers have difficulty pronouncing a second r in green grows, although in reality Spanish speakers have no difficulty to pronounce the particle gro. Shortly afterwards Mexico City newspapers like El Universal and Excelsior began to use the word gringos for Americans. Similarly in the Dominican Republic, the green, go folk etymology may refer to military commands uttered by U. S. during their occupation of the country from 1916 to 1924 and again from 1965 to 1966. Rafael Abal considered the word gringo to derive from English green horn and he claimed that in the United States, men from the west coast are called westman, while people from the east coast are called green horns. Because of the prominence of Irish Americans in the regiment, the song was Green Goes the Rushes. In Brazil, the word means simply foreigner, and has no connection to any physical characteristics or specific countries. Unlike most Hispanic American countries, in which gringo is never used to refer to other Latin Americans, most foreign footballers in the Brazilian Championship that came from other Latin American countries are nevertheless referred as gringos by the sport media and by sport fans
Gringo
–
A woman reads the
Gringo Gazette in
Cabo San Lucas,
Baja California Sur,
Mexico
50.
Haole
–
Haole is a term used in the state of Hawaii to refer to individuals who are not descendants of native Hawaiians and the other ethnicities that were brought in to work the plantations. The ethnic groups worked in the plantations include Puerto Ricans, Portuguese, Japanese, Filipino. The term haole is mostly used to refer to caucasians or white people, in the Hawaiian language, the term has been used historically and currently to refer to any foreigner or anything else introduced to the Hawaiian islands of foreign origin. The origins of the word predate the 1778 arrival of Captain James Cook and its use historically has ranged from descriptive to race invective. Haole first became associated with the children of European immigrants in the early 1820s and it unified the self-identity of these Hawaii-born children whose parents were as much culturally different as they were similar. It evolved further to racial meaning, replacing malihini in addressing people of Caucasian descent who move to Hawaii from the U. S. mainland by the 1860s, a 1906 phrase book sometimes translates it to English. The Hawaiian Dictionary by Pukui and Elbert gives no etymology of the word, the 1865 Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language, compiled by Lorrin Andrews, shows the pronunciation as ha-o-le. The implication is not only that foreigners are aloof and ignorant of local ways, st. Chad Piianaia, a Hawaiian educated in England, said the word haole implies thief or robber. Implies a thief, a robber, one not to be trusted, during the course of time, meanings of words change, and today, in a very general way, haole does not necessarily connote a negative thought. The word has come to refer to one of Nordic descent, Native Hawaiian Professor Fred Beckley said, The white people came to be known as ha-ole because after they said their prayers, they did not breathe three times as was customary in ancient Hawaii. There is a legend in Hawaii that the last day of school is called Kill Haole Day. On this day, local children beat up, bully and harass the haole or white children in their school, there is however little to no evidence or records of incidents involving Kill Haole Day or of non Native Hawaiian students being assaulted on specific days. Hawaii schools have responded by saying that they take the initiative to achieve tolerance, safety, compassion, the word Haole has been degradingly used in incidents of harassment and physical assaults by the Native Hawaiians on the white people living there. The Mainland Haole, The White Experience in Hawaiʻi, local Haole - A Contradiction in Terms. The dilemma of being white, born and raised in Hawaii, Haole Girl, Identity and White Privilege in Hawaiʻi. The Production of Haole and the Distortion of Indigeneity in the Rice Decision
Haole
–
Professor Fred Beckley
51.
Hillbilly
–
Hillbilly is a term for people who dwell in rural, mountainous areas in the United States, primarily in Appalachia and the Ozarks. Due to its strongly stereotypical connotations, the term can be offensive to those Americans of Appalachian or Ozark heritage, scholars argue this duality is reflective of the split ethnic identities in white America. The Appalachian Mountains were settled in the 18th century by settlers primarily from the Province of Ulster in Ireland, the settlers from Ulster were mainly Protestants who migrated to Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century from Scotland and Northern England. Many further migrated to the American colonies beginning in the 1730s, scholars argue that the term hillbilly originated from Scottish dialect. The term hill-folk referred to people that preferred isolation from the greater society and it is suggested that hill-folk and billie were combined when the Cameronians fled to the Highlands. Others have suggested the term originated in 17th century Ireland, during the Williamite War, some scholars disagree with this theory. … In America hillbilly was first attested only in 1898, which suggests a later, the term hillbilly spread in the years following the American Civil War. At this time, the country was developing both technologically and socially, but the Appalachian region was falling behind, before the war, Appalachia was not distinctively different from other rural areas of the country. Post-war, although the frontier pushed farther west, the region maintained frontier characteristics, Appalachians themselves were perceived as backward, quick to violence and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds such as that in the 1880s between the Hatfields and McCoys, the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late 19th to early 20th century. The classic hillbilly stereotype reached its current characterization during the years of the Great Depression when many left their homes to find work in other areas of the country. This movement North became known as the Hillbilly Highway, the movement brought these previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture. Poor white mountaineers became central characters in newspapers, pamphlets and eventually, authors at this time were inspired by historical figures such as Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone. The mountaineer image transferred over to the 20th century where the hillbilly stereotype emerged, pop culture has perpetuated the hillbilly stereotype. The misrepresentation of Appalachian people in the media has led to great cultural distortion of Appalachian beliefs, practices, scholarly works suggest that the media has exploited both the Appalachian region and people by classifying them as hillbillies. These generalizations do not match the cultural experiences of Appalachians, Appalachians, like many other groups, do not subscribe to a single identity. One of the associated with stereotyping is that it is profitable. When hillbilly became a widely used term, entrepreneurs saw a window for potential revenue and they recycled the image and brought it to life through various forms of media
Hillbilly
–
The
Hatfield clan in 1897.
Hillbilly
–
Migrant family from Arkansas playing hill-billy songs, 1939
52.
Newfie
–
Newfie is a colloquial term used in Canada for someone who is from Newfoundland, most often to refer to someone proud from that place. The word was first recorded in a 1942 dictionary of slang, however, at this time Newfie only referred to Newfoundland itself, a Newfoundlander was a Newfier. During the Second World War, sailors on convoy duty nicknamed St. Johns Newfiejohn, however, neither the second edition of the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, published in 2004, or the current edition of the Dictionary of Newfoundland English, published in 1998, make such a mention. In March 2006, an Edmonton police officer was disciplined for using the word Newphie to describe the apprehension of an individual under the Mental Health Act. In the 1970s, the Government of Alberta added the term Newfie to a list of words not allowed to be used on personalised licence plates, reasoning that it was an ethnic slur and hateful. In 2006, a man from Newfoundland argued that it was also a source of pride, and fought to have the word removed from the list, as of 2008, the ban has been lifted. Newfie Bullet, a nickname created by U. S. military personnel serving at bases in Newfoundland during the Second World War for a notoriously slow passenger train operated on the island. Newfie Screech, a type of rum bottled in Newfoundland. org
Newfie
–
June 2002 scene from an
outport (small fishing village) in Newfoundland
53.
Coolie
–
Coolie, during the 19th and early 20th century, was a term for an indentured servant indentured to a company, mainly from the South Asia or China. The origins of the word are uncertain but it is thought to have originated from the Tamil word for a payment for work, an alternative etymological explanation is that the word came from Hindustani word qulī, which itself could be from the Turkish word for slave, kul. The word was used in this sense for labourers from India, in 1727, Dr. Engelbert Kämpfer described coolies as dock labourers who would unload Dutch merchant ships at Nagasaki in Japan. The Chinese word 苦 力 means bitterly hard and is translated as bitter labour. Social and political pressure led to the abolition of the trade throughout the British Empire in 1807. Labour-intensive industries, such as cotton and sugar plantations, mines and railway construction, as a consequence, a large-scale slavery-like trade in Asian indentured labourers began in the 1820s to fill this vacuum. British companies were the first to experiment with this new form of cheap labour in 1807. The coolie trade was often compared to the slave trade. Although there are reports of ships for Asian coolies carrying women and children, the Chinese government also made efforts to secure the well-being of their nations workers, with representations being made to relevant governments around the world. The first shipment of Chinese labourers was to the British colony of Trinidad in 1806, the trade soon spread to other ports in Guangdong and demand became particularly strong in Peru for workers in the silver mines and the guano collecting industry. Australia began importing workers in 1848 and the United States began using them in 1865 on the First Transcontinental Railroad construction, the trade flourished from 1847 to 1854 without incident, until reports began to surface of the mistreatment of the workers in Cuba and Peru. As the British government had political and legal responsibility for many of the ports involved, including Amoy, however, the trade simply shifted to the more accommodating port in the Portuguese enclave of Macau. Many coolies were first deceived or kidnapped and then kept in barracoons or loading vessels in the ports of departure, in 1875, British commissioners estimated that approximately eighty percent of the workers had been abducted. Their voyages, which are called the Pacific Passage, were as inhumane. They were sold and were taken to work in plantations or mines with very bad living and working conditions, the duration of a contract was typically five to eight years, but many coolies did not live out their term of service because of the hard labour and mistreatment. Those who did live were often forced to remain in servitude beyond the contracted period, the coolies who worked on the sugar plantations in Cuba and in the guano beds of the Chincha Islands of Peru were treated brutally. Seventy-five percent of the Chinese coolies in Cuba died before fulfilling their contracts, more than two-thirds of the Chinese coolies who arrived in Peru between 1849 and 1874 died within the contract period. In 1860 it was calculated that of the 4000 coolies brought to the Chinchas since the trade began, because of these unbearable conditions, Chinese coolies often revolted against their Ko-Hung bosses and foreign company bosses at ports of departure, on ships, and in foreign lands
Coolie
–
Coolie labourer in
Zhenjiang, China, with bamboo pole to hoist and carry heavy loads.C. 1900
Coolie
–
Illustration of the
port of Amoy, where many Chinese labourers were shipped to foreign lands, by Edwin Joshua Dukes.
Coolie
–
Chinese immigrant workers building the
Transcontinental Railroad.
Coolie
–
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, a legal order approved by the
Spanish Crown to encourage foreign settlement of the colonies of
Cuba and
Puerto Rico.
54.
Jjokbari
–
Jjokbari is a Korean language ethnic slur which may refer to Japanese citizens or people of Japanese ancestry. According to one survey, it was Koreas second-most commonly used slur against Japanese people, ahead of wae-nom, jjok means a piece and bal means feet in Korean, and when combined it roughly translates to split feet or cloven hoof. This etymology refers to the fact that the Japanese wore geta, a traditional Japanese wooden sandal, unlike Korean-style straw shoes which completely cover the foot, Japanese-style straw shoes and wooden geta consist of only a sole and straps to bind it to the sole of the foot. This leaves the rest of the exposed, including the split between the toes. Koreans thought of Japanese shoes as compared to their own. Alternatively, jjokbari may came from the sound made by a person wearing geta when they are walking, a third theory explains that jjokbari could also mean pigs foot. This is from a comparison between the appearance of a pigs cloven hooves and the feet of a person wearing tabi or geta, the term has also been borrowed into Japanese language spoken by ethnic Koreans in Japan, where it is rendered Choppari. The Japanized pronunciation of this form, ban-choppari, is widely used by Koreans in Japan. Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea Anti-Japanese sentiment Zainichi Korean language Jap Xiao riben Guizi
Jjokbari
–
A
Korean language banner in 2005 reads: "
Dokdo! Don't worry. The ghost and jjokbari-catching
ROK Marines are here. — Local association of retired ROK Marines"
Jjokbari
–
A pair of Japanese traditional footwear,
geta. Geta separates thumb toe and the other four toes.
55.
Xiao Riben
–
Xiao riben is a derogatory Chinese slang term for the Japanese people or a person of Japanese descent. Literally translated, it means Japanese runts or little Japanese or Puny Japanese and it is often used with gui zi or ghost/devil, such as Xiao ri ben gui zi or little Japanese ghost. It is regarded as an ethnic slur, anti-Japanese demonstrators used the term xiao riben during the 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations. On September 18,2012, anti-Japanese demonstrators held a sign saying 1.3 billion Chinese stamp on the Japanese runts in front of the Japanese embassy in Beijing, in Taiwan, anti-Japanese demonstrators also held signs that used the phrase xiao riben. The slang term was used at the Singaporean drama The Little Nyonya on Dai Xiangyus character, Yamamoto Yousuke, but not as an offensive term
Xiao Riben
–
Anti-Japanese demonstrators hold a sign saying "[We] strongly condemn the Japanese!! (強烈譴責 小日本!!)" during the
2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations in Taiwan
Xiao Riben
–
On September 18, 2012, anti-Japanese demonstrators march with a banner saying "1.3 billion Chinese stamp on the Japanese runts" (13亿 中国人 踏平 小日本) in front of
Japanese embassy in
Beijing.
56.
Gujarati people
–
Gujarati people or Gujaratis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of India that traditionally speaks Gujarati, an Indo-Aryan language. Albeit with huge migration for economic reasons, most Gujaratis in India live in the state of Gujarat in Western India, Gujaratis also form a significant part of the populations in the small union territories of Daman and Diu, and Dadra Nagar Haveli, both being former Portuguese colonies. There are very large Gujarati immigrant communities in parts of India, most notably in Mumbai, Delhi, Calcutta, Madras, Bangalore and other metropolitan areas like Kollam. Diasporas and transnational networks in many of these date back to more than a century. In recent decades, larger numbers of Gujaratis have migrated to English speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Early European travelers like Ludovico di Varthema traveled to Gujarat and wrote on the people of Gujarat. He noted that Jainism had a presence in Gujarat and opined that Gujaratis were deprived of their kingdom by Mughals because of their kind heartedness. This led to religious interdependence, tolerance, assimilation and community cohesion ultimately becoming the hallmark of modern-day Gujarati society, the Gujarati people are predominantly Hindu. There are also significant populations of Muslims, Christians and Jains, and minor populations of Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, the major communities that Gujaratis belong to are Brahmins, Rajputs, Vaishyas, Patidars, Ahirs, Maldharis and Lohana. Today, Gujaratis can be found in all inhabited continents of the world, the countries with the largest Gujarati populations are Pakistan, United Kingdom, United States, Canada and many countries in Southern and East Africa. Globally, Gujaratis are estimated to comprise around 33% of the Indian diaspora worldwide, non Resident Gujaratis maintain active links with the homeland in the form of business, remittance, philanthropy, and through their political contribution to state governed domestic affairs. The second largest overseas diaspora of Gujaratis, after Pakistan, is in the UK, at a population of around 615,000 Gujaratis form almost half of the Indian community who live in the UK. Gujaratis first went to the UK in the 19th century with the establishment of the British Raj in India, prominent members of this community such as Shyamji Krishna Varma played a vital role in exerting political pressure upon colonial powers during the struggle for Indian Independence. Now this community is mostly the second and third generation descendants of immigrants from the former British colonies of East Africa, Portugal. Most of them despite being British Subjects had restricted access to Britain after successive Immigration acts of 1962,1968 and 1971. Most were, however, eventually admitted on the basis of a Quota voucher system or, in case of Uganda, as refugees after the order by the Ugandan ruler. Gujaratis in Britain are regarded as affluent middle-class peoples who have assimilated into the milieu of British society and they are celebrated for revolutionizing the corner shop, and energising the British economy which changed Britains antiquated retail laws forever. Demographically, Hindus form a majority along with a significant number of Jains and Muslims and they are predominantly settled in metropolitan areas like Greater London, East Midlands, West Midlands, Lancashire and Yorkshire. Cities with significant Gujarati populations include Leicester and London boroughs of Brent, Barnet, Harrow, both Hindus and Muslims have established caste or community associations, temples, and mosques to cater for the needs of their respective communities
Gujarati people
–
Jamsetji Tata
Gujarati people
Gujarati people
–
Sam Bahadur
Gujarati people
–
Priti Patel
57.
Ethnic groups in Europe
–
The ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. The total number of minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people. There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the ethnic group or nationality. There are eight peoples of Europe with more than 30 million members residing in Europe and these eight groups between themselves account for some 465 million or about 65% of European population, Russians, Germans, French, British, Italians, Spanish, Ukrainians, Poles. About 20–25 million residents are members of diasporas of non-European origin, the population of the European Union, with some five hundred million residents, accounts for two thirds of the European population. Of the total population of Europe of some 730 million, over 80% or some 600 million fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, viz. Slavic, Italic and Germanic, the largest groups that do not fall within these three are the Greeks and the Albanians. Beside the Indo-European languages there are two major language families on the European continent, Turkic languages and Uralic languages. The Semitic languages that dominate the coast of northern Africa as well as the Near East are preserved in Malta, abkhaz–Adyghean, Basque, Kartvelian, and Nakho-Dagestani are linguistic isolates with no known relation to each other or to any other languages inside or outside of Europe. The Basques are assumed to descend from the populations of the Atlantic Bronze Age directly, the Indo-European groups of Europe are assumed to have developed in situ by admixture of early Indo-European groups arriving in Europe by the Bronze Age. The Finnic peoples are mostly assumed to be descended from populations that had migrated to their homelands by about 3,000 years ago. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian and perhaps also Eteocretan, a pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty. Regarding the European Bronze Age, the only secure reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek, a Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic, and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages, iron Age populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus, Aegean, Greek tribes, Pelasgians/Tyrrhenians, and Anatolians. Armenian Highlands/Anatolia, Armenians Balkans, Illyrians, Dacians, and Thracians, Caucasus, Georgians Italian peninsula, Italic peoples, Etruscans, Adriatic Veneti, Ligurians and Greek colonies. Western/Central Europe, Celts, Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii, Iberian peninsula, Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula Basques and Phoenicians. Sardinia, ancient Sardinians, comprising the Corsi, Balares and Ilienses tribes, British Isles, Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland and Picts/Priteni. Northern Europe, Finnic peoples, Germanic peoples, iranian influence, Achaemenid control of Thrace and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes. The Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD70, the Bulgars, a semi-nomadic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs
Ethnic groups in Europe
–
Europa Polyglotta, Linguarum Genealogiam exhibens, una cum Literis, Scribendique modis, Omnium Gentium ("multilingual Europe, exhibiting a genealogy of tongues together with the letters and modes of writing of all peoples"), from
Synopsis Universae Philologiae (1741).
Ethnic groups in Europe
–
Overview map of the distribution of the major languages of Europe
Ethnic groups in Europe
–
Ethnographic map of Europe, The
Times Atlas (1896).
Ethnic groups in Europe
–
A
Sami family in northern Norway around 1900
58.
Farang
–
Farang is a generic Thai word for someone of European ancestry, no matter where they may come from. The Royal Institute Dictionary 1999, the dictionary of Thai words. Edmund Roberts, US envoy in 1833, defined the term as Frank, people of mixed sub-Saharan African-European descent were called farang dam to distinguish them from white people. This began during the Vietnam War, when the United States military maintained bases in Thailand, the practice continues in present-day Bangkok. Because the Frankish Empire ruled a part of Europe for centuries, all Europeans. Frangistan was a used by Muslims and Persians in particular, during the Middle Ages and later periods. According to Rashid al-din Fazl Allâh, farang comes from the Arabic word afranj, in Ethiopia faranj means white/European people. In either case, the word was pronounced paranki in Malayalam, parangiar in Tamil, entered Khmer as barang. From there the term spread into China as folangji, which was used to refer to the Portuguese and their breech-loading swivel guns when they first arrived in China. Farang is also the Thai word for the fruit, introduced by Portuguese traders over 400 years ago. Farang khi nok is a variety of guava, feijoa. Scruffy Westerners, especially backpackers, may also be called farang khi nok. This means bird-shit farang, as khi means waste and nok means bird, but, while khi nok may mean guano, it is also a species of fish, Diagramma pictum, varieties of food/produce that were introduced by Europeans are often called farang varieties. Hence, potatoes are man farang, whereas man alone can be any tuber, culantro is called phak chi farang, mak is Thai for arecanut, chewing mak together with betel leaves was a Thai tradition. In the Isan Lao dialect, the guava is called mak sida, thus bak sida, bak being a prefix when calling males, refers jokingly to a Westerner, by analogy to the Thai language where farang can mean both guava and Westerner. In the Maldives Faranji was the used to refer to foreigners of European origin. Until recently the lane next to the Bastion in the shore of Male was called Faranji Kalō Gōlhi. From Isfahan to Ayutthaya, Contacts between Iran and Siam in the 17th Century, with a foreword by Professor Ehsan Yarshater, Columbia University, New York
Farang
–
The tourist hub of Bangkok's
Khaosan Road is associated with farang.
Farang
–
Farang statue in
Wat Pho, Bangkok, Thailand
59.
Guizi
–
Guizi is a Chinese slang term for foreigners, and has a long history of being used as a racially deprecating insult. Historically, Chinese people had the image of its borders continuously breached by uncivilized tribes given to mayhem, within the southern parts of China, the term gweilo was used and remains popular today, especially in the Cantonese speaking region of Hong Kong. In northern parts of China, the term west ocean devil was used and it conveys a general bad and negative feeling and is a somewhat obsolete and archaic/old-fashioned term nowadays and other more modern terms have largely replaced gui for similarly negative meanings. However, the term can also be applied derogatorily to any foreign military which was an enemy to China. In Taiwan, anti-Japanese demonstrators hoisted signs with Guizi, get out during the 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations. Riben guizi or dongyang guizi - used to refer to Japanese, er guizi - used to refer to Korean soldiers who were a part of the Japanese army during the Sino-Japanese war in World War II. Yang guizi or xiyang guizi - used to refer to Westerners, the Sword March, the National Revolutionary Army marching cadence which popularized its use against the Japanese Ang mo Xiao Riben Jap Gaijin, a Japanese word for foreigners and not Japanese
Guizi
–
Anti-Japanese demonstrators in Taiwan hoist signs with " Guizi! Get out" (鬼子! 快滾) following an escalation in the
Senkaku Islands dispute in 2012".
Guizi
–
A
Boxer Rebellion pamphlet, circa 1899, that refers to foreigners as guizi (鬼子) or yang guizi (洋鬼子).
60.
Baltic Finns
–
In some cases the Kvens, Ingrians, Tornedalians and speakers of Meänkieli are also included separately rather than being a part of Finns proper. The bulk of the Baltic Finns are ethnic Finns and Estonians, Baltic Finns are also significant minority groups in neighbouring countries of Sweden, Norway and Russia. The Migration Theory has been called into question since 1980, based on genealogy, craniometry, the Settlement Continuity Theory asserts that at least the genetic ancestors of the Finno-Ugric peoples were among the earliest indigenous peoples of Europe. The origin of the people who lived in the Baltic Sea area during the Mesolithic Era continues to be debated by scientists, the members of this new Finno-Ugric-speaking ethnic group are regarded as the ancestors of modern Estonians. The Y-chromosomal data has revealed a common Finno-Ugric ancestry for the males of the neighboring Balts. According to the studies, Baltic males are most closely related to the Finno-Ugric-speaking Volga Finns such as the Mari, the results suggest that the territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have been settled by Finno-Ugric-speaking tribes since the early Mesolithic period. On the other hand, some linguists do not consider it likely that a Baltic-Finnic language form could have existed at such an early date, according to these views, the Finno-Ugric languages appeared in Finland and Baltic only during the Early Bronze Age, if not later. The Baltic Finns share a cultural heritage, the art of ancient rune singing in the Kalevala meter, estimated to be 2. The Veps are the only Baltic Finnish people with no significant corpus of Kalevala meter oral poetry, the poetic tradition has included epic poems, lyric poems and magic chants. J. R. R. Tolkien has highlighted the importance of Kalevala as a source for his legendarium, the region has been populated since the end of the last glacial era, about 10,000 BC. The earliest traces of settlement are connected with Suomusjärvi culture. The Early Mesolithic Pulli settlement is located by the Pärnu River and it has been dated to the beginning of the 9th millennium BC. The Kunda Culture received its name from the Lammasmäe settlement site in northern Estonia, bone and stone artefacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern Lithuania and southern Finland. Around 5300 BCE pottery and agriculture entered Finland, the earliest representatives belong to the Comb Ceramic Cultures, known for their distinctive decorating patterns. Some researchers have argued that a form of Uralic languages may have been spoken in Estonia. The beginning of the Bronze Age in Estonia is dated to approximately 1800 BC, the coastal regions of Finland were a part of the Nordic Bronze Culture, whereas in the inland regions the influences came from the bronze-using cultures of Northern Russia. The development of the borders between the Finnic peoples and the Balts was under way, the first fortified settlements, Asva and Ridala on the island of Saaremaa and Iru in the Northern Estonia, began to be built. The development of shipbuilding facilitated the spread of bronze, the Pre-Roman Iron Age began in about 500 BC and lasted until the middle of the 1st century
Baltic Finns
–
Baltic Finns in
The Races of Europe by
William Z. Ripley in 1899.
61.
Jerry (WWII)
–
There are many alternative terms for the people of Germany. In English the demonym is German, during the early Renaissance, German implied that the person spoke German as a native language. Until German unification, people living in what is now Germany were named for the region lived in, examples are Bavarians. Some other terms are humorous or pejorative slang, and used mainly by people from other countries, other terms are serious or tongue-in-cheek attempts to coin words as alternatives to the ambiguous standard terms. Initially, the word Dutch could refer to any Germanic-speaking area, language, or people, derived from the Proto-Germanic þiudiskaz, meaning belonging to or being part of the people. For example, The Chronography and History of the Whole World, Vol. II mentions the mathematician that the Dutch call Leibnitz, the phrase Pennsylvania Dutch is a corruption of the German word for German, Deutsch. To this day, descendants of German immigrants who resettled in Pennsylvania continue to refer to themselves as Pennsylvania Dutch or Pennsylvania German, some may or may not be members of the plain people found in southcentral-southeastern Pennsylvania, such as the Mennonites or the Amish. Today, aside from that exception, the word Dutch is only used to refer to the Dutch people or the Dutch language, Hun is a term used in reference to the pre-medieval Hunnic Empire of Attila. This term was used heavily during World War I and was seen on Allied war posters. The relevant part of the speech was, Kommt ihr vor den Feind, wer euch in die Hände fällt, sei euch verfallen. When you meet the enemy, he will be defeated and those who fall into your hands are forfeit to you. By coincidence, the Wehrmacht belt buckle bore the inscription Gott mit uns and this contributed to the popularization of Hun as British Army slang for German. British soldiers employed a variety of epithets for the Germans, Fritz, a German pet form of Friedrich, was popular in both World War I and World War II, with Jerry, short for German, but also modeled on the English name, favoured in the latter. The Americans and Canadians referred to Germans, especially German soldiers, as Heinies, for example, in the film 1941 the Slim Pickens character calls a German officer Mr Hynee Kraut. Heini is a common German colloquial term with a pejorative meaning similar to moron or idiot. Alongside Fritz, Hans, and Jerry, World War II era American servicemen sometimes called their German counterparts Hermann, hitlers second-in-command was Hermann Göring, so it was concluded that Hermann was a common name for Germans – indeed it is an ancient German name, popular until 1945. Additionally, the name was used to highlight the Germans alleged savagery, Jerry was a nickname given to Germans during the Second World War by soldiers and civilians of the Allied nations, in particular by the British. The nickname was created during World War I, but it did not find common use until World War II
Jerry (WWII)
–
Two leather Pickelhauben, or "casques à pointe" from the
Franco-Prussian War era.
62.
Fenian
–
The term Fenian is still used today, in Northern Ireland and less so in Scotland, where its original meaning has widened to include all supporters of anything Irish. It has also used as a demeaning term for Irish people of the Catholic faith. Fenianism, according to OMahony, is symbolised by two principles, firstly, that Ireland has a right to independence, and secondly. The term Fenianism was sometimes used by the establishment in the 1860s for any form of mobilisation among the Irish or those who expressed any Irish nationalist sentiments. They warned people about this threat to turn decent civilised society on its head such as that posed by trade unionism to the social order in the United Kingdom. James Stephens, one of the Men of 1848, had established himself in Paris and this would include the Phoenix National and Literary Society, with Jeremiah ODonovan among its more prominent members, had recently been formed at Skibbereen. Along with Thomas Clarke Luby, John OLeary and Charles Kickham he founded the Irish Republican Brotherhood on 17 March 1858 in Lombard Street, the Fenian Rising in 1867 proved to be a doomed rebellion, poorly organised and with minimal public support. The Fenian Brotherhood, the Irish Republican Brotherhoods US branch, was founded by John OMahony and Michael Doheny, in the face of nativist suspicion, it quickly established an independent existence, although it still worked to gain Irish American support for armed rebellion in Ireland. Initially, OMahony ran operations in the US, sending funds to Stephens, the US chapter of the movement was also sometimes referred to as the IRB. After the failed invasion of Canada, it was replaced by Clan na Gael, in Canada, Fenian is used to designate a group of Irish radicals, a. k. a. the American branch of the Fenian Brotherhood in the 1860s. They made several attempts to invade parts of the British colonies of New Brunswick and Canada. The ultimate goal of the Fenian raids was to hold Canada hostage, because of the invasion attempts, support and/or collaboration for the Fenians in Canada became very rare even among the Irish. Francis Bernard McNamee, the man who started the Fenian movement in Montreal, was a case in point, in public, he proclaimed his loyalty to the queen and called for an Irish militia company to defend Canada against the Fenians. The Fenians in England and the Empire were a threat to political stability. In the late 1860s the IRB control centre was in Lancashire, in 1868 the Supreme Council of the IRB, the provisional government of the Irish Republic, was restructured. The four Irish provinces, Connacht, Leinster, Ulster and Munster, Scotland, the north of England, later four honorary members were co-opted. The Council elected three members to the executive, the President was chairman, the Treasurer managed recruitment and finance and the Secretary was director of operations. There were IRB Circles in every city in England
Fenian
–
Supplement given with the Weekly Freeman of October 1883
Fenian
–
John O'Mahony
Fenian
–
James Stephens
Fenian
–
Fenian convicts escape from Fremantle in the 1876
Catalpa rescue.
63.
Irish Republicans
–
Irish republicanism is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion and it launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed, a second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel OConnell, primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemens Land, some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, in the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The execution of the Risings leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, the elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army, who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic and this led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. That same year, the movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings, the failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials and Provisionals at the beginning of 1970. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets. This began to change with a speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them
Irish Republicans
–
The
Battle of Killala marked the end of
the rising
Irish Republicans
–
Wolfe Tone circa 1794. Tone is considered by many as the father of Irish Republicanism
Irish Republicans
–
Michael Dwyer
Irish Republicans
–
Depiction of
Robert Emmet 's trial
64.
Irish Travellers
–
Irish Travellers also called pavees or pejoratively referred to as tinkers, pikeys, and gypsies, are a traditionally itinerant ethnic group who maintain a set of traditions. Although predominantly English speaking, some also use Shelta and other similar cants and they live mostly in Ireland as well as having large numbers in the United Kingdom and in the United States. Traveller rights groups have pushed for ethnic status from the Irish government. Travellers refer to themselves as Minkiers or Pavees, or in Irish as an Lucht Siúil, Travellers are often referred to by the terms tinkers, gipsies/gypsies, itinerants, or, pejoratively, knackers in Ireland. The term gypsy first appeared in record in the 16th century to refer to the continental Romani people in England and Scotland, other derogatory names for itinerant groups have been used to refer to Travellers including the word pikey. The 2006 census in the Republic of Ireland reported the number of Irish Travellers as 22,369, a further 1,700 to 2,000 were estimated to live in Northern Ireland. From the 2006 Irish census it was determined that 20,975 dwell in areas and 1,460 were living in rural areas. With an overall population of just 0. 5% some areas were found to have a proportion, with Travellers constituting 7. 71% of the population in Tuam. There were found to be 9,301 Travellers in the 0–14 age range, comprising 41. 5% of the Traveller population, children of age range 0–17 comprised 48. 7% of the Traveller population. Following the findings of the All Ireland Traveller Health Study, the figure for Northern Ireland was revised to 3,905, in 2011, for the first time, the census category Irish Traveller was introduced as part of the broader Gypsy/Traveller section. The London Boroughs of Harrow and Brent contain significant Irish Traveller populations, in addition to those on various official sites there are a number who are settled in Local Authority Housing. These are mostly women who wish their children to have a chance at a good education and they and the children may or may not travel in the summer but remain in close contact with the wider Traveller community. There are also a number of Irish Traveller communities in the Home Counties, there are no official population figures regarding Irish Travellers in the United States as the US census does not recognise them as an ethnic group. While some sources estimate their population in the US to be 10,000, the Georgia Travelers camp is made up of about eight hundred families, the Mississippi Travelers, about three hundred families, and the Texas Travelers, under fifty families. The largest and most affluent population of about 2,500 lives in Murphy Village, outside of the town of North Augusta, Travellers in the US are said to speak English and Shelta, a form of Cant. The Cant spoken in the US is similar to the Cant spoken in Ireland and they typically work in asphalting, spray painting, laying linoleum, or as itinerant workers to earn their living. This would favour the second, endogenous, hypothesis of Traveller origins, the historical origins of Irish Travellers as a group has been a subject of academic and popular debate. Research is complicated by the fact that the group has no records of their own
Irish Travellers
–
Irish Travellers in 1954
Irish Travellers
–
Irish Travellers in 1946
65.
Irish Catholic
–
Irish Catholics are people who are Catholic and Irish. Divisions between Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants played a role in the history of Ireland from the 16th to the 20th century, especially the Home Rule Crisis. While religion broadly marks the delineation of these divisions, the contentions were primarily political, in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 Catholics and Presbyterians, who were not part of the established Church of Ireland, found common cause. Irish Catholics are found in countries around the world, especially in the English-speaking world. Emigration following the Famine in the late 1840s saw the population drop from over 8 million to just over 4 million, today, Irish Catholics are very well established in the United States and are part of mainstream American society. Endnotes Library of Congress The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America, describes the book ISBN 0-8132-0896-3 St. Colman Mac Duagh On Irish Catholics of Australia
Irish Catholic
–
Celtic cross
66.
Guido (slang)
–
Guido /ˈɡwiːdoʊ/ is a slang term, often derogatory, for a working-class urban Italian American. Originally, it was used as a term for Italian Americans in general. More recently, it has come to refer to Italian Americans who conduct themselves in a macho manner. The time period in which it obtained the meaning is not clear. The term is not currently used in Italy, the word guido is derived from either the proper name Guido or the verb guidare. Fishermen of Italian descent were often called Guidos in medieval times. The term is used in areas associated with large Italian-American populations, such as New York City, Ohio, Connecticut, Philadelphia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island. In other areas, terms such as Mario and Gino have a similar to guido. Although some Italians self-identify as guidos, the term is considered derogatory or an ethnic slur. MTV caused controversy in 2009 when they used the term in promotions for the reality television show Jersey Shore and this spurred objections from Italian-American organizations such as Unico National, NIAF, the Order Sons of Italy in America, and the Internet watchdog organization ItalianAware. Slicked-back hair and pompadours, blowouts, tapers, poofs, quiffs, fades, List of ethnic slurs List of ethnic slurs by ethnicity Jersey Shore Goombah Wog Wop Guappo Dago Guinea Greaser
Guido (slang)
–
Self-proclaimed guido
Michael Sorrentino from
Jersey Shore, wearing typical clothing associated with the subculture: gold chain, black
leather jacket, and
quiff.
67.
Southern Italy
–
It generally coincides with the administrative regions of Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, Sicily, and Sardinia. Some also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio within the Mezzogiorno, Southern Italy carries a unique legacy of culture. It features many major tourist attractions, such as the Palace of Caserta, there are also many ancient Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as Sybaris, which were founded several centuries before the start of the Roman Republic. These same subdivisions are at the bottom of the Italian First level NUTS of the European Union, the term Mezzogiorno first came into use in the 18th century and is an Italian rendition of meridies. The term was popularised by Giuseppe Garibaldi and it eventually came into vogue after the Italian unification. In a similar manner, Southern France is colloquially known as le Midi, Southern Italy forms the lower part of the Italian boot, containing the ankle, the toe, the arch, and the heel, along with the island of Sicily. Separating the heel and the boot is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto and it is an arm of the Ionian Sea. The island of Sardinia, right below the French island of Corsica, on the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan Gulf and on the south of the Sorrentine Peninsula runs the Amalfi Coast, off the tip of the peninsula is the isle of Capri. The climate is mainly Mediterranean, except at the highest elevations and the eastern stretches in Apulia, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria. The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, a name from the Greek that it has maintained for millennia. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia, and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area. The region is very active and highly seismic, the 1980 Irpinia earthquake killed 2,914 people, injured more than 10,000. Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and they included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. The Romans called the area of Sicily and the foot of Italy, Magna Graecia, the ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions. With this colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, an original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like Neapolis, Syracuse, Acragas, other cities in Magna Graecia included Tarentum, Epizephyrian Locri, Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Syessa, Bari, and others. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BCE, from then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between Greece, Lombardy, and the Islamic Caliphate
Southern Italy
–
Satellite image of Southern Italy
Southern Italy
–
Greek temple of Hera,
Selinunte,
Sicily.
Southern Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by
Frederick II between 1240 and 1250 in
Andria,
Apulia.
Southern Italy
–
Castel Nuovo,
Naples: initiated by the
Anjou, it was heavily altered as it served as
Spanish headquarters until the 18th century.
68.
Vlachs
–
Vlachs were initially identified and described during the 11th century by George Kedrenos. According to one theory, the Vlachs originated from Latinized Dacians. Nearly all Central and Southeastern European countries have sizable native Vlach minorities, as it is currently the case in Hungary, in Ukraine, in Serbia, in Croatia, in other countries, the Vlachs have assimilated in the local Slavic population. The term Vlach was also used for shepherds, like in mountains of Herzegovina region of Bosnia. Nowadays, Eastern Romance-speaking communities number around 24.19 million people, the word Vlach is of Germanic origin, an early loanword into Proto-Slavic from Germanic *Walhaz and used by ancient Germanic peoples for their Romance-speaking and Celtic neighbours. *Walhaz was evidently borrowed from the name of a Celtic tribe, known to the Romans as Volcae in the writings of Julius Caesar and to the Greeks as Ouólkai in texts by Strabo, Vlach is thus of the same origin as European ethnic names including the Welsh and Walloons. The word passed to the Slavs and from them to other peoples, such as the Hungarians and Byzantines, the Polish word for Italian has the same origin, as does the Slovenian, vaguely-derogatory lah. The Italian-speaking region south of the South Tyrol, now Trentino in Italy, was known as Welschtirol in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a 586 Byzantine chronicle of an incursion against the Avars in the eastern Balkans may have one of the earliest references to Vlachs. In the account, when carried by a mule slipped the muleteer shouted, Torna, torna. Byzantine historians used the Germanic Vlachs for Latin speakers, particularly Romanians, traveller Benjamin of Tudela of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population. According to 10th century Arab chronicler Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks, Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon, described a 1066 Roman revolt in northern Greece. Between the 12th and 14th centuries they were ruled by the Kingdom of Hungary, the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars in 1166. In the 13th century, the Asen royal family were the founders and rulers of the Vlach-Bulgarian kingdom, in 1213 an army of Romans, Transylvanian Saxons, and Pechenegs, led by Ioachim of Sibiu, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin. After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania, at the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon de Kéza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns. Archaeological discoveries indicate that Transylvania was gradually settled by the Magyars, shortly after the fall of the Olt region, a church was built at the Cârța Monastery and Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley began to settle in the Orthodox region. In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, the Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum. In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River, a town, Baia, was documented in 1300 as settled by the Transylvanian Saxons. The Eastern Romance peoples refers to the Eastern Romance-speaking peoples, primarily the nations of Romanians and Moldovans and these two peoples had before Soviet rule been regarded part of one and the same, Romanian people
Vlachs
–
Writ issued on 14 October 1465 by Wallachian voivode
Radu cel Frumos from his residence in
Bucharest
Vlachs
–
Map of the Balkans, with significant populations of Vlachs (or Romanians) highlighted
Vlachs
–
The
Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions
Vlachs
–
Vlach (Romanian) branches and their territories
69.
Khokhol
–
It is commonly used as a pejorative term for ethnic Ukrainians. Russians commonly use the word khokhol as a slur for Ukrainians. The term is frequently derogatory or condescending, an equivalent of the Ukrainian term katsap, historically, Ukrainians used the term khokhol amongst themselves as a form of ethnic self-identification, in order to visibly separate themselves from Russians. The Ukrainian name for type of haircut is oseledets or chub. There are several Ukrainian surnames derived from this word, in the Cossacks times the haircut carried an honorary meaning identifying one as being a true Cossack. That tradition is depicted in motion pictures such as Propala Hramota that is based on works of Nikolai Gogol. The khokhol/oseledets is a feature in the stereotypical image of a Ukrainian Cossack
Khokhol
–
The Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan of Turkey (1880-91). Painted by
Ilya Repin.
70.
Macedonians (ethnic group)
–
The Macedonians, also known as Macedonian Slavs or Slavic Macedonians, are a South Slavic ethnic group native to the region of Macedonia. They speak the Macedonian language, a South Slavic language, about two thirds of all ethnic Macedonians live in the Republic of Macedonia and there are also communities in a number of other countries. The origins of Macedonians are varied and rich, in antiquity, much of central-northern Macedonia was inhabited by Paionians who expanded from the lower Strymon basin. The Pelagonian plain was inhabited by the Pelagones, an ancient Greek tribe of Upper Macedonia, Roman conquest brought with it a significant Romanization of the region. During the Dominate period, barbarian federates were at times settled on Macedonian soil, in contrast to frontier provinces, Macedonia continued to be a flourishing Christian, Roman province in Late Antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Traditional historiography has equated these changes with the commencement of raids and invasions of Sclaveni and Antes from Wallachia, the exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined. What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to Bulgaria, northern Macedonia remained Roman in its cultural outlook into the 7th century, yet at the same time, sources attest numerous Slavic tribes in the environs of Thessaloniki and further afield, including the Berziti in Pelagonia. Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, the settlement of Kuvers Pannonian Bulgars- a mix of Roman Christians, Bulgars and Avars- populated the Keramissian plain around Bitola in the late 7th century. Later pockets of settlers included Magyars in the 9th century, Armenians in the 10th-12th centuries, Cumans in the 11th-13th centuries, subsequently, the literary and ecclesiastical centres in Ohrid, not only became a second cultural capital of medieval Bulgaria, but soon eclipsed those in Preslav. Many aspects which now define Macedonian culture are a culmination of the so-called Byzantine commonwealth which consisted of Medieval Byzantine, Cultural, ecclesiastical and political developments of Slav Orthodox Culture occurred in Macedonia itself. Anthropologically, Macedonians possess genetic lineages postulated to represent Balkan prehistoric and historic demographic processes, such lineages are also typically found in other South Slavs, especially Bulgarians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, but also to the Greeks and Romanians. The large majority of Macedonians identify as Orthodox Christians, who speak a South Slavic language, the concept of a Macedonian ethnicity, distinct from their Orthodox Balkan neighbours, is seen to be a comparatively newly emergent one. The earliest manifestation of a Macedonian identity emerged in the late 19th century, however, modern researchers recognize that all nations are modern constructs. Even ethnic groups with long recorded history are characterized by marked discontinuity with the ancient past, heather Rae summarizes that Macedonian identity is no more or less artificial than any other identity. It merely has a more recent ethnogenesis – one that can more easily be traced through the recent historical record. During the formative Middle Ages, there was no distinct ethno-political Macedonian identity, references to Macedonians were varied, from geographical to administrative one. The Byzantine historians categorized the numerous Slavic tribal unions on the early Medieval Balkans as Sclavinias, in the ninth century, Theophanes the Confessor reported that the emperor Constantine V captured the Macedonian Sklavinias in the year 758-759. The modern Macedonian historians have described it as kind of primary ethno-political entity
Macedonians (ethnic group)
–
1st row:
Gjorgji Pulevski,
Krste Misirkov,
Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš,
Metodija Andonov-Čento,
Lazar Koliševski
Macedonians (ethnic group)
–
Macedonian cultural event in Berlin, Germany
Macedonians (ethnic group)
–
Architecture in
Ohrid.
Macedonians (ethnic group)
–
Macedonian girls in traditional folk costumes.
71.
Bulgarians
–
Bulgarians are a South Slavic ethnic group who are native to Bulgaria and its neighboring regions. Bulgarian citizenship shall further be acquirable through naturalization, the population of Bulgaria descend from peoples with different origins and numbers. They became assimilated by the Slavic settlers in the First Bulgarian Empire, from the indigenous Thracian people certain cultural and ethnic elements were taken. Other pre-Slavic Indo-European peoples, including Dacians, Celts, Goths, Romans, Greeks, the Thracian language has been described as a southern Baltic language. Some pre-Slavic linguistic and cultural traces might have preserved in modern Bulgarians. Medieval historians claimed that the Triballi are the largest tribe and that subsequently changed their name to Bulgarians or Serbs. Others claimed that the Paeonians are Bulgarians, others claimed that the Moesi, according to archeological evidence from the late periods of Roman rule, the Romans did not decrease the number of Thracians significantly in major cities. The latter gradually inflicting total linguistic replacement of Thracian if the Thracians had not already been Romanized or Hellenized and they continued coming to the Balkans in many waves, but also leaving, most notably Justinian II settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor. The Byzantines grouped the numerous Slavic tribes into two groups, the Sklavenoi and Antes, some Bulgarian scholars suggest that the Antes became one of the ancestors of the modern Bulgarians. The control of the Bulgars in the west was indirect and in the hands of the Slavic chiefs, the Bulgars are first mentioned in the 4th century in the vicinity of the North Caucasian steppe. However, any connection between the Bulgars and postulated Asian counterparts rest on little more than speculative and contorted etymologies. The Bulgars are not thought to have numerous, becoming a ruling elite in the areas they controlled. Their archeological evidence is concentrated in northeast Bulgaria and in Macedonia, mixed Bulgar-Slavic settlements emerged according to archeological evidence. Omurtag was the last ruler with a Turkic name and during the reign of Boris the Slavonic language reached an official level, a substantional number of loan words of the Bulgar language remained in the Medieval Bulgarian Slavic language and fewer survived in the modern. During the Early Byzantine Era, the Roman provincials in Scythia Minor and Moesia Secunda were already engaged in economic, the major port towns in Pontic Bulgaria remained Byzantine Greek in their outlook. The establishment of a new state molded the various Slav, Bulgar, in different periods to the ethnogenesis of the local population contributed also different Indo-European and Turkic people, who settled or lived on the Balkans. The First Bulgarian Empire was founded in 681, after the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav at the eve of the 10th century
Bulgarians
Bulgarians
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Officers from Bulgarian hussar regiment in Russia (1776–1783)
Bulgarians
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Three Bulgarian women of
Thrace, of
Shopluk and of
Macedonia, painting by
Jan Mrkvička
72.
Jewish deicide
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Jewish deicide is a historic belief among some in Christianity that Jewish people as a whole were responsible for the death of Jesus. At the Second Vatican Council, the Roman Catholic Church under Pope Paul VI repudiated belief in collective Jewish guilt for the crucifixion of Jesus. It declared that the accusation could not be made against all the Jews, without distinction, then alive, I am innocent of this mans blood, he said. All the people answered, His blood is on us and on our children, the verse that reads, All the people answered, His blood is on us and on our children. Is also referred to as the curse, and has caused more Jewish suffering throughout history than any other passage in the New Testament. According to Jeremy Cohen, ven before the Gospels appeared, the apostle Paul portrayed the Jews as Christs killers and that condemnation, however, was soon to come. He was the first writer in the Lukan-Pauline tradition to raise unambiguously the calumny of deicide against Jews and this text blames the Jews for allowing King Herod and Caiaphas to execute Jesus, despite their calling as Gods people. It says you did not know, O Israel, that one was the firstborn of God. The author does not attribute blame to Pontius Pilate. At a time when Christians were widely persecuted, Melitos speech is believed to have been an appeal, not to punish Jews, st John Chrysostom made the charge of deicide the cornerstone of his theology. He was the first to use the term deicide and the first Christian preacher to apply the word deicide to the Jewish nation and he held that for this putative deicide, there was no expiation, pardon or indulgence possible. The first occurrence of the Latin word deicida occurs in a Latin sermon by Peter Chrysologus, in the Latin version he wrote, Iudaeos. Fecit esse deicidas, i. e. made the Jews deicides, many scholars read the story of the passion as an attempt to take the blame off Pilate and place it on the Jews, one which might have been at the time politically motivated. It is thought possible that Pilate ordered the crucifixion to avoid a riot, david Klinghoffer argues that to attribute blame to Jewish leaders for the death of Jesus is not ipso facto anti-Semitic, since Jewish writings conserve traditions compatible with this view. The Jesus Seminars Scholars Version translation note for John 18,31 adds, its illegal for us, The accuracy of this claim is doubtful. It is noted, for example, that Jewish authorities were responsible for the stoning of Saint Stephen in Acts 7,54, josephus however, notes that the execution of James happened while the newly appointed governor Albinus was but upon the road to assume his office. Also the Acts refers that the stoning happened in a lynch-like manner, and all the people answered and said, His blood on us, and on our children. This passage has no counterpart in the other Gospels and some see it as probably related to the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70 A. D
Jewish deicide
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Pilate Washes His Hands by
James Tissot -
Brooklyn Museum
73.
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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Stereotypes of Jews are generalized representations of Jews, often caricatured and of a prejudiced and antisemitic nature. Antisemitism continued throughout the centuries and reached a climax in the Third Reich during World War II, modern day Jews are still stereotyped as greedy, nit-picky, stingy misers and are often depicted in caricatures, comics, and propaganda posters counting money or collecting diamonds. Early films such as Cohens Advertising Scheme stereotyped Jews as scheming merchants, in caricatures and cartoons, it is often assumed that Jews have curly black hair, large hook-noses, thick lips, dark-colored beady eyes with drooping eyelids and wearing kippahs. Jews are commonly caricatured as having Jewish noses, large or aquiline, the purpose of the Jewish nose is its prevalence as one of the most defining features to characterize someone as a Jew. The widespread stereotype of depicting Jews with a large nose can be traced back to the 13th century, while the depiction of the hooked-nose originated in the 13th century, it had an uprooting in European imagery many centuries later. The earliest record of anti-Jewish caricature is a detailed doodle depicted in the margin of the Exchequer Receipt Roll in 1233. It shows three demented looking Jews inside a castle as well as a Jew in the middle of the castle with a large nose, Jews are also portrayed as swarthy and hirsute. There is a brown, edible fungus, Auricularia cornea. In Italy, red hair was associated with Italian Jews, and Judas was traditionally depicted as red-haired in Italian, writers from Shakespeare to Dickens would identify Jewish characters by giving them red hair. Jews have often stereotyped as greedy and miserly. This originates in the Middle Ages, when the Church forbade Christians to lend money while charging interest, Jews were legally restricted to occupations as usurers, usually to Christians, and thus many went into money-lending. This led to, through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Dickens later expressed regret for his portrayal of Fagin in the novel, and toned down references to his Jewishness. Furthermore, the character of Mr. Riah in his later novel Our Mutual Friend is a kindly Jewish creditor, lesser references in Arabian Nights, The Three Musketeers, and even Hans Brinker are examples of the prevalence of this negative perception. Some, such as Paul Volcker, suggest that the stereotype has decreased in prevalence in the United States, Jewish frugality, thriftiness, and greed are among the typical themes in jokes about Jews, even by Jews themselves. Martin Marger writes A set of distinct and consistent negative stereotypes, antisemitic canards such as the blood libel appeared in the 12th century and were associated with attacks and massacres against Jews. Jews were often depicted as satanic consorts, or as devils themselves, physically, Jews were portrayed as menacing, hirsute, with boils, warts and other deformities, and sometimes with horns, cloven hoofs and tails. Such imagery was used later in Nazi propaganda of the 1930s and 1940s. This propaganda leaned on Jewish stereotypes to explain the claim that the Jewish people belong to an inferior race, although Jews had not been particularly associated with moneylending in antiquity, a stereotype of them acting in this capacity was developed beginning in the 11th century
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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An 1873 caricature depicting the stereotypical physical features of a Jewish man
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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A German cartoon of 1851 implies ingrained dishonesty in Jews. Enlarge for caption.
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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A Jew Broker by Thomas Rowlandson, 1789
74.
Yid
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The word Yid is a slang Jewish ethnonym of Yiddish origin. Its usage may be controversial in modern English language and it is not usually considered offensive when pronounced /ˈjiːd/, the way Yiddish speakers say it, though some may deem the word offensive nonetheless. When pronounced /ˈjɪd/, some have perceived it as pejorative — and has used as a derogatory epithet by antisemites along with, and as an alternative to. Yid is used as a badge of pride by the supporters of Tottenham Hotspur F. C. both those who are Jewish and non-Jewish. Such usage is controversial, and in 2013 has been addressed by the UK Society for Black Lawyers, the term Yid has its origins in the Middle High German word Jüde. Leo Rosten provides the etymology, From the German, Jude. And Jude is a form of Yehuda, which was the name given to the Jewish Commonwealth in the period of the Second Temple. The earliest mention of the word Yid in print was in The Slang Dictionary published by John Camden Hotten in 1874, Hotten noted that The Jews use these terms very frequently. After World War II, most examples of the word Yid are found in the writing of Jewish authors and these occurrences are usually either attempts to accurately portray antisemitic speech, or self-deprecating Jewish humor. In his 1968 bestseller The Joys of Yiddish, Leo Rosten offers a number of anecdotes from the Borscht Belt to illustrate such usage, in Yiddish, a polite way to address a fellow Jew whose name one does not know is Reb Yid, meaning Sir. The Yiddish words yidish or yiddisher is a derived from the noun Yid. Some Jewish and non-Jewish fans of Tottenham Hotspur F. C. adopted Yid as a nickname and Yiddo, Yiddo. as a battle cry, while such usage remains controversial, for the overwhelming majority of Tottenham supporters, it is used with pride. Some Jewish Tottenham supporters use it with a consciousness of the club as a bastion against racism and antisemitism. Others use it simply because many of the fans and owners of the club are Jews, however, the name was first given to the supporters as an insult, due to the large Jewish following at the club. East-end Jews have mostly moved to the north and east London suburbs and Herts and Essex, nevertheless, it is not necessary to be Haredi to be Jewish, and Spurs still has a strong Jewish fanbase
Yid
–
A page from
Elia Levita 's
Yiddish -
Hebrew -
Latin -
German dictionary (16th century) contains a list of nations, including an entry for Jew:
Hebrew: יְהוּדִי
Yiddish: יוּד
German: Iud
Latin: Iudaeus
75.
Romani people
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The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies, which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity. Romani are dispersed, with their populations in Europe – especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain. Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas, there are an estimated one million Roma in the United States, and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era, in migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora, the Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large, many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two, those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani. French bohème, bohémien, from the Kingdom of Bohemia, whence they came, Rom means man or husband in the Romani, it has the variants dom and lom, related with the Sanskrit words dam-pati, dama, lom, lomaka loman, roman. Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma, Sanskrit सिनधु is a river or stream of water in general. In particular, it denotes the river Indus and the country around it, in the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning man of the Roma ethnic group or man, husband, with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni, however, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders. Romani is the adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as a name, while others do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a r, i. e. rrom. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/, the rr spelling is common in certain institutions, or used in certain countries, e. g. Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians. In the English language, Rom is a noun and an adjective, while Romani is also a noun, both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was initially spelled Rommany, then Romany, while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling, occasionally, the double r spelling mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades, as a term for the Romani people
Romani people
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Romani wagon pictured in 2009 in
Grandborough (Grandborough Fields Road is a popular spot for travelling people)
Romani people
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Romani flag created in 1933 and accepted by the 1971
World Romani Congress
Romani people
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Romani Wagon in
Germany in 1935
Romani people
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Debret, Jean-Baptiste (c. 1820), Interior of a gipsy's house in
Brazil.
76.
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Kanakas were workers from various Pacific Islands employed in British colonies, such as British Columbia, Fiji and Queensland in the 19th and early 20th centuries. They also worked in California and Chile, Kanaka, sometimes used as a derogatory name, originally referred only to native Hawaiians, called kānaka ʻōiwi or kānaka maoli in the Hawaiʻian language. Until 2009, several translations of the word Kanak were admitted, man, animal man. In its resolution n°5195, the Academy of the Polynesian languages Pa umotu specified a more faithful to the primal Polynesian language Mamaka Kaïo of origin. According to the Macquarie Dictionary, the word kanaka, which was widely used in Australia, is now regarded in Australian English as an offensive term for a Pacific Islander. In part, this is because most Kanakas in Australia were people from Melanesia, rather than Polynesia, most of the original labourers were recruited from the Solomon Islands and New Hebrides, though others were taken from the Loyalty Islands, Tonga, Samoa, Kiribati and Tuvalu. Some were kidnapped or otherwise induced into long-term indentured service, reflecting European prejudices of the time, the men were generally referred to as Kanakas. Islander descendants regard this term as a pejorative and insulting reminder of their ancestors exploitation at the hands of white planters, in Australia, South Sea Islanders were often unfree labour, of the specific form known as indentured labour. Some were exempted on various grounds, including marriage to Australians and these and others who escaped deportation remained in Australia and their descendants today form Australias largest Melano-Polynesian ethnic group. Many Australian South Sea Islanders are also of mixed ancestry, including Aboriginal, in consequence, Australian South Sea Islanders have faced similar forms of discrimination meted out to Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. In Canada, many Kanaka men married First Nations women, and their descendants can still be found in British Columbia and neighbouring parts of Canada, canadian Kanakas were all Hawaiian in origin. Nearly all were contractees of the Hudsons Bay Company although some had arrived in the area as ships hands or, in some cases, migrated north from California. Kanaka Creek, British Columbia was a community of mixed Hawaiian-First families established across the Fraser River from Fort Langley in the 1830s, Kanakas were active in both the California Gold Rush and in the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush and other rushes. Kanaka Bar, British Columbia gets its name from claims staked and worked by Kanakas who had been working for the fur company. One linguist holds that Canuck, a nickname for Canadians, is derived from the Hawaiian Kanaka, Kanakas, as Native Hawaiian workers employed in agriculture and ranching, were present in the mainland United States as early as 1834, but their migration peaked between 1900 and 1930. Most of their families present in the fields soon blended by intermarriage into the Chinese, Filipino, Native Hawaiians harvested sugar beets and picked apples at one point in the states of Washington and Oregon. They people have left a legacy in Oregon place names, such as Kanaka Flat in Jacksonville, there is also documentation of the presence of several hundred Native Hawaiian paniolos or cowboys across the Great Basin of the Western US. Kanakas were also mentioned in the book Two Years before the Mast by Richard Henry Dana who worked alongside him during his sea voyage from Boston to Cape Horn
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Loyalty Islanders employed as sailors on the New Caledonian coast.
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Kanaka labourers on a
Queensland sugar plantation, 1890s. Photographer unknown.
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Hawaiian family that settled in British Columbia, ca. 1890
77.
Pacific Islander
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Pacific Islander is a term used to refer to the peoples of the Pacific Islands. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Pacific islands consist of three regions, The islands scattered across a triangle covering the region of the Pacific Ocean. The triangle is bound by the Hawaiian Islands in the north, New Zealand in the west, the rest of Polynesia includes the Samoan islands, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue Island, Tokelau and Tuvalu, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, and Pitcairn Island. The islands of Kiribati, Nauru, the Marianas, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Palau, the Pacific islands may also refer to any of the other islands in the Pacific Ocean. Ethnolinguistically, those Pacific islanders who reside in Oceania are divided into two different ethnic classifications, Austronesian language peoples Austronesian peoples who speak the Oceanian languages, numbering about 2.3 million, who occupy Polynesia, Micronesia, and most of the smaller islands of Melanesia. The Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 was enacted to restrict entry of Pacific Islanders to Australia, in 2008 a Pacific Seasonal Worker Pilot Scheme was announced as a three-year pilot scheme. The scheme provides visas for workers from Kiribati, Tonga, Vanuatu, the pilot scheme includes one country each from Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia, countries which already send workers to New Zealand under its seasonal labour scheme. Australias pilot scheme also includes Papua New Guinea, in 20137.4 percent of the New Zealand population identified with one or more Pacific ethnic groups, although 62.3 percent of these were born in New Zealand. Those with a Samoan background make up the largest proportion, followed by Cook Islands Maori, Tongan, some smaller island populations such as Niue and Tokelau have the majority of their nationals living in New Zealand. To celebrate the diverse Pacific island cultures, the Auckland region hosts several Pacific island festivals and it includes people who indicate their race as Native Hawaiian, Guamanian or Chamorro, Samoan, and Other Pacific Islander or provide other detailed Pacific Islander responses. The term Pacific Islands American is used for ethnic Pacific islander residents in U. S. states, honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii Press. American History Unbound, Asians and Pacific Islanders, xiv,499 pp. Smelt, R. & Lin, Y. Cultures of the world, New Zealand, tarrytown, NY, Marshall Cavendish Benchmark Thomas, Nicholas, Islanders, The Pacific in the Age of Empire, Yale University Press,2010. Asian Pacific Americans in the U. S. Army Native Hawaiian Pacific Islander Association
Pacific Islander
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The three major
sub-regions of
Oceania.
78.
Xenophobia
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Xenophobia is the fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange. Xenophobia can also be exhibited in the form of an uncritical exaltation of another culture in which a culture is ascribed an unreal, stereotyped, the terms xenophobia and racism are sometimes confused and used interchangeably because people who share a national origin may also belong to the same race. Due to this, xenophobia is usually distinguished by opposition to foreign culture, Xenophobia is a political term and not a recognized medical phobia. Dictionary definitions of xenophobia include, deep-rooted fear towards foreigners, the word comes from the Ancient Greek words ξένος, meaning strange, foreigner, and φόβος, meaning fear. In other words, xenophobia arises when people feel that their entitlement to benefit from the government is being subverted by other peoples rights, in 2014, the state of Penang held a referendum that bans foreigners from cooking local cuisines. A well-known local chef, Redzuawan Ismail, criticised this law, Xenophobia in South Africa has been present in both the apartheid and post–apartheid eras. Hostility between the British and Boers exacerbated by the Second Boer War led to rebellion by poor Afrikaners who looted British-owned shops, the Township Franchise Ordinance of 1924 was intended to deprive Indians of municipal franchise. In 1994 and 1995, gangs of armed youth destroyed the homes of foreign nationals living in Johannesburg, in 2008, a widely documented spate of xenophobic attacks occurred in Johannesburg. It is estimated that tens of thousands of migrants were displaced, property, the death toll after the attack stood at 56. In 2015, another widely documented series of attacks occurred in South Africa. This followed remarks by Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu stating that the migrants should pack their bags, as of 20 April 2015,7 people had died and more than 2000 foreigners had been displaced. The 2005 Cronulla riots resulted from strained relationsbetween white and Lebanese Australians, media related to Xenophobia at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Xenophobia at Wikiquote
Xenophobia
–
US
political cartoon:
Uncle Sam kicks out the
Chinaman, referring to the
Chinese Exclusion Act. Image published in 19th century.
79.
Gaijin
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Gaijin is a Japanese word for foreigners and non-Japanese. The word is composed of two kanji, gai and jin, similarly composed words that refer to foreign things include gaikoku and gaisha. The word can refer to nationality, race, or ethnicity, some feel the word has come to have a negative or pejorative connotation, while other observers maintain it is neutral or even positive. Gaikokujin is a neutral and somewhat more formal term widely used in the Japanese government. The word gaijin can be traced in writing to the 13th-century Heike Monogatari, 外人もなき所に兵具をとゝのへ Assembling arms where there are no gaijin Here, gaijin refers to outsiders and potential enemies. Another early reference is in Renri Hishō by Nijō Yoshimoto, where it is used to refer to a Japanese person who is a stranger, Here, gaijin also means an outsider or unfamiliar person. The word gaikokujin is composed of gaikoku and jin, the Meiji government introduced and popularized the term, which came to replace ijin, ikokujin and ihōjin. As the Empire of Japan extended to Korea and to Taiwan, while other terms fell out of use after World War II, gaikokujin remained the official term for non-Japanese people. Some hold that the modern gaijin is a contraction of gaikokujin, while all forms of the word mean foreigner or outsider, in practice gaikokujin and gaijin are commonly used to refer to racially non-Japanese groups, principally Caucasians. However the term is sometimes applied to ethnic Japanese born. Gaijin is also used within Japanese events such as baseball. Japanese speakers commonly refer to people as gaijin even while they are overseas. Also, people of Japanese descent native to other countries might also call non-descendants gaijin, historically, some usage of the word gaijin referred respectfully to the prestige and wealth of Caucasians or the power of western businesses. This interpretation of the term as positive or neutral in tone continues for some, however, though the term may be used without negative intent by many Japanese speakers, it is seen as derogatory by some and reflective of exclusionary attitudes. While the term itself has no meaning, it emphasizes the exclusiveness of Japanese attitude and has therefore picked up pejorative connotations that many Westerners resent. Mayumi Itoh Now that gaijin has become politically incorrect, it is common to refer to non-Japanese as gaikokujin. The uncontroversial, if slightly formal gaikokujin, is used instead. Gaijin appears frequently in Western literature and pop culture and it forms the title of such novels as Marc Oldens Gaijin, James Melvilles Go gently, gaijin, James Kirkups Gaijin on the Ginza and James Clavells Gai-Jin, as well as a song by Nick Lowe
Gaijin
–
Foreigners in Japan in 2000 by citizenship.
80.
Goy
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Goy is the standard Hebrew biblical term for a nation. The term nation did not have the political connotations it entails today. Long before Roman times it had acquired the meaning of someone who is not Jewish. It is also used to refer to individuals from religious or ethnic groups. However, many people do not see the term goy as any more or less offensive than the term gentile, however, to avoid any perceived offensive connotations, writers may use the better-known English terms gentile or non-Jew. The word goy means nation in Biblical Hebrew, in the Torah, goy and its variants appear over 550 times in reference to Israelites and to Gentile nations. The first recorded usage of goy occurs in Genesis 10,5, the first mention in relation to the Israelites comes in Genesis 12,2, when God promises Abraham that his descendants will form a goy gadol. In Exodus 19,6, the Jewish people are referred to as a goy kadosh, while the books of the Hebrew Bible often use goy to describe the Israelites, the later Jewish writings tend to apply the term to other nations. Some Bible translations leave the word Goyim untranslated and treat it as the name of a country in Genesis 14,1. Bible commentaries suggest that the term may refer to Gutium, in all other cases in the Bible, goyim is the plural of goy and means nations. The rabbinic literature conceives of the nations of the world as numbering seventy, each with a distinct language, chaim ibn Attar maintains that this is the symbolism behind the Menorah, The seven candles of the Menorah correspond to the worlds nations, which number seventy. This alludes to the fact that they all shine opposite the western, maimonides defines plain goy in his Mishneh Torah as a worshipper of idolatry, as he explains, Whenever we say plainly goy, we mean a worshipper of idolatry. In modern Hebrew and Yiddish the word goy is the term for a gentile. In English, the use of the word goy can be controversial and it is sometimes used pejoratively to refer to a non-Jew, but many see it as no more insulting than the term gentile. The term shabbos goy refers to a non-Jew who performs duties that Jewish law forbids a Jew from performing on the Sabbath
Goy
–
A page from
Elia Levita 's
Yiddish -
Hebrew -
Latin -
German dictionary (16th century) contains a list of nations, including word goy (גוי) translated to Latin as ethnicus
