1.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
Middle East
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The Temple Mount in Jerusalem
Middle East
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Map of the Middle East (green).
Middle East
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The Kaaba, located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Middle East
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Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are prostrating during prayer in a mosque.
2.
South Asia
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Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land by West Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, the current territories of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka form the countries of South Asia. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation is an economic cooperation organisation in the region which was established in 1985, South Asia covers about 5.1 million km², which is 11. 51% of the Asian continent or 3. 4% of the worlds land surface area. The population of South Asia is about 1.749 billion or about one fourth of the worlds population, overall, it accounts for about 39. 49% of Asias population and is home to a vast array of peoples. The area of South Asia and its extent is not clear cut as systemic. Aside from the region of South Asia, formerly part of the British Empire, there is a high degree of variation as to which other countries are included in South Asia. Modern definitions of South Asia are consistent in including Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar is included by some scholars in South Asia, but in Southeast Asia by others. Some do not include Afghanistan, others question whether Afghanistan should be considered a part of South Asia or the Middle East, the mountain countries of Nepal and Bhutan, and the island countries of Sri Lanka and Maldives are generally included as well. Myanmar is often added, and by various deviating definitions based on often substantially different reasons, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the common concept of South Asia is largely inherited from the administrative boundaries of the British Raj, with several exceptions. The Aden Colony, British Somaliland and Singapore, though administered at various times under the Raj, have not been proposed as any part of South Asia. Additionally Burma was administered as part of the Raj until 1937, the 562 princely states that were protected by but not directly ruled by the Raj became administrative parts of South Asia upon joining Union of India or Dominion of Pakistan. China and Myanmar have also applied for the status of members of SAARC. This bloc of countries include two independent countries that were not part of the British Raj – Nepal, and Bhutan, Afghanistan was a British protectorate from 1878 until 1919, after the Afghans lost to the British in the Second Anglo-Afghan war. The United Nations Statistics Divisions scheme of sub-regions include all eight members of the SAARC as part of Southern Asia, population Information Network includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as part of South Asia. Maldives, in view of its characteristics, was admitted as a member Pacific POPIN subregional network only in principle, the Hirschman–Herfindahl index of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific for the region includes only the original seven signatories of SAARC. The British Indian Ocean Territory is connected to the region by a publication of Janes for security considerations, the inclusion of Myanmar in South Asia is without consensus, with many considering it a part of southeast Asia and others including it within South Asia. Afghanistan was of importance to the British colonial empire, especially after the Second Anglo-Afghan War over 1878–1880, Afghanistan remained a British protectorate until 1919, when a treaty with Vladimir Lenin included the granting of independence to Afghanistan. Following Indias partition, Afghanistan has generally included in South Asia
South Asia
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While South Asia had never been a coherent geopolitical region, it has a distinct geographical identity
South Asia
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South Asia
South Asia
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Ethno-linguistic families of South Asia.
3.
Levant
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The Levant is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean. The term Levant entered English in the late 15th century from French and it derives from the Italian Levante, meaning rising, implying the rising of the sun in the east. As such, it is equivalent to the Arabic term Mashriq. Eventually the term was restricted to the Muslim countries of Syria-Palestine, in 1581, England set up the Levant Company to monopolize commerce with the Ottoman Empire. The name Levant States was used to refer to the French mandate over Syria and this is probably the reason why the term Levant has come to be used synonymously with Syria-Palestine. Some scholars misunderstood the term thinking that it derives from the name of Lebanon, today the term is typically used in conjunction with prehistoric or ancient historical references. It does not include Anatolia, the Caucasus Mountains, or any part of the Arabian Peninsula proper, the Sinai Peninsula is sometimes included. The Levant has been described as the crossroads of western Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and northeast Africa, the populations of the Levant share not only the geographic position, but cuisine, some customs, and a very long history. They are often referred to as Levantines, the term Levant, which appeared in English in 1497, originally meant the East in general or Mediterranean lands east of Italy. It is borrowed from the French levant rising, referring to the rising of the sun in the east, the phrase is ultimately from the Latin word levare, meaning lift, raise. Similar etymologies are found in Greek Ἀνατολή, in Germanic Morgenland, in Italian, in Hungarian Kelet, in Spanish and Catalan Levante and Llevant, most notably, Orient and its Latin source oriens meaning east, is literally rising, deriving from Latin orior rise. The notion of the Levant has undergone a process of historical evolution in usage, meaning. While the term Levantine originally referred to the European residents of the eastern Mediterranean region, it came to refer to regional native. The English Levant Company was founded in 1581 to trade with the Ottoman Empire, at this time, the Far East was known as the Upper Levant. In early 19th-century travel writing, the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman empire, in 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture. The French mandate of Syria and Lebanon was called the Levant states, today, Levant is the term typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the history of the region. Scholars have adopted the term Levant to identify the region due to it being a wider, yet relevant, archaeologists seeking a neutral orientation that is neither biblical nor national have used terms such as Levantine archaeology and archaeology of the Southern Levant. Two academic journals were launched, Journal of Levantine Studies, published by the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute and The Levantine Review
Levant
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The Levantine Sea, the eastern portion of the Mediterranean.
Levant
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Countries of the Levant in the broad, historic meaning (equivalent to the eastern Mediterranean)
Levant
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French medal commemorating the war in Cilicia, which was initially part of the French mandate.
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Satellite view of part of the Levant including Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and southern Syria.
4.
Blackface
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Ahmedu Augustine Obiabo known by his stage name Blackface Naija or just Blackface is a Nigerian dancehall, ragga and reggae singer and songwriter. He is best known as co-writer of African Queen with 2face Idibia, Blackface was a founding member of the Nigerian band Plantashun Boyz that he formed in 2000 with Tuface and musician Chibuzor Oji. Blackface and Tuface had met in 1996 when they were studying at the Institute of Management Technology in Enugu, Faze joined a brief while later. The band released two successful albums Body and Soul in 2000 and Sold Out in 2003, the band broke up in 2004, to be briefly reunited in 2007 for just one more album Plan B. Although he kept sustainable relations with Faze, his rift with Tuface widened, after the Plantashun Boiz split up in 2004, Blackface led a solo musical career. He released the hip hop album Ghetto Child in May 2004 collaborating with a number of artists, the album contains Hard Life featuring Alabai as the first single. He also recorded an album for his crew D Tribunal called What We Are. After Ghetto Child, he released Evergreen, Jungle Fever, Me, Musiq and I, Dancehall Business, in 2013, he made a collaborative album 200 with Maine Eazz. Blackface was married with Dayo for eight years and has two children, Caroline and Alex, the couple agreed to separate pending divorce procedures
Blackface
5.
Minstrel show
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The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American form of entertainment developed in the post-Civil War 19th century. Each show consisted of skits, variety acts, dancing. The shows were performed by people in make-up or blackface for the purpose of playing the role of black people. There were also some African-American performers and all-black minstrel groups that formed and toured, Minstrel shows lampooned black people as dim-witted, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious and happy-go-lucky. Minstrel shows emerged as brief burlesques and comic entractes in the early 1830s and were developed into full-fledged form in the next decade, by 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national artform, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience. By the turn of the 20th century, the show enjoyed but a shadow of its former popularity. The form survived as professional entertainment until about 1910, amateur performances continued until the 1960s in high schools, the genre has had a lasting legacy and influence and was featured in a television series as recently as the late 1970s. Generally, as the civil rights movement progressed and gained acceptance, the typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs, the second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled stump speech. The final act consisted of a slapstick musical plantation skit or a send-up of a popular play, Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated, spirituals entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy. Blackface minstrelsy was the first theatrical form that was distinctly American, during the 1830s and 1840s at the height of its popularity, it was at the epicenter of the American music industry. For several decades it provided the means through which American whites viewed black people, on the one hand, it had strong racist aspects, on the other, it afforded white Americans a singular and broad awareness of what some whites considered significant aspects of black culture in America. Although the minstrel shows were popular, being consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group. Although white theatrical portrayals of black characters date back to as early as 1604, by the late 18th century, blackface characters began appearing on the American stage, usually as servant types whose roles did little more than provide some element of comic relief. Eventually, similar performers appeared in entractes in New York theaters and other such as taverns. Author Constance Rourke even claimed that Forrests impression was so good he could fool blacks when he mingled with them in the streets, Thomas Dartmouth Rices successful song-and-dance number, Jump Jim Crow, brought blackface performance to a new level of prominence in the early 1830s
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Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843
Minstrel show
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Thomas D. Rice from sheet music cover of "Sich a Getting Up Stairs", 1830s
Minstrel show
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Sheet music cover for "Dandy Jim from Caroline", featuring Dan Emmett (center) and the other Virginia Minstrels, c. 1844
Minstrel show
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Poster for Haverly's United Mastodon Minstrels
6.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
Indian subcontinent
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Indian subcontinent
7.
Asia
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Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres, about 30% of Earths total land area and 8. 7% of the Earths total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its large size and population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, the western boundary with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains, China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 A. D. The accidental discovery of America by Columbus in search for India demonstrates this deep fascination, the Silk Road became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hitherland while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties, the boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia, the border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peters death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia, the Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg, the latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century, the border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the border between Asia and the loosely defined region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the possessions of the various empires there. Lewis and Wigen assert, The narrowing of Southeast Asia to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process, Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe. It does not exactly correspond to the borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them
Asia
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Two-point equidistant projection of Asia and surrounding landmasses.
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Asia
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The racial diversity of Asia's peoples, Nordisk familjebok (1904)
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Ptolemy's Asia
8.
Labour Party (UK)
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The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Labour later served in the coalition from 1940 to 1945. Labour was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan. The Labour Party was last in government from 1997 to 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, beginning with a majority of 179. Having won 232 seats in the 2015 general election, the party is the Official Opposition in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance. In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party, the first Lib–Lab candidate to stand was George Odger in the Southwark by-election of 1870. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time, among these were the Independent Labour Party, the intellectual and largely middle-class Fabian Society, the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and the Scottish Labour Party. In the 1895 general election, the Independent Labour Party put up 28 candidates, Keir Hardie, the leader of the party, believed that to obtain success in parliamentary elections, it would be necessary to join with other left-wing groups. Hardies roots as a lay preacher contributed to an ethos in the party led to the comment by 1950s General Secretary Morgan Phillips that Socialism in Britain owed more to Methodism than Marx. The motion was passed at all stages by the TUC, the meeting was attended by a broad spectrum of working-class and left-wing organisations—trades unions represented about one third of the membership of the TUC delegates. This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee, meant to coordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trade unions and it had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 Khaki election came too soon for the new party to campaign effectively, only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful, Keir Hardie in Merthyr Tydfil and Richard Bell in Derby. Support for the LRC was boosted by the 1901 Taff Vale Case, the judgement effectively made strikes illegal since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions. In their first meeting after the election the groups Members of Parliament decided to adopt the name The Labour Party formally, the Fabian Society provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party. One of the first acts of the new Liberal Government was to reverse the Taff Vale judgement, the Peoples History Museum in Manchester holds the minutes of the first Labour Party meeting in 1906 and has them on display in the Main Galleries. Also within the museum is the Labour History Archive and Study Centre, the governing Liberals were unwilling to repeal this judicial decision with primary legislation
Labour Party (UK)
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Keir Hardie, one of the Labour Party's founders and its first leader
Labour Party (UK)
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Labour Party Plaque from Caroone House, 14 Farringdon Street
Labour Party (UK)
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Ramsay MacDonald: First Labour Prime Minister, 1924 and 1929–31
Labour Party (UK)
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Aneurin Bevan speaking in October 1952
9.
Dudley
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Dudley is a large town in the West Midlands of England,6 miles south-east of Wolverhampton and 10.5 miles north-west of Birmingham. The town is the centre of the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley. The Metropolitan Borough, which includes the towns of Stourbridge and Halesowen, had a population of 312,900, Dudley is sometimes called the capital of the Black Country. Tourist attractions include Dudley Zoo, Dudley Castle, the Black Country Living Museum, working iron and mining for coal was in practice as early as the 13th century. The first mention of Dudleys status as a borough dates from the mid-13th century, an inquisition after his death further established the value and importance of the borough, with mentions to the towns growing coal industry. Following Dudleys death, the returned to the Sutton family. In 1605, conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot fled to Holbeche House in nearby Wall Heath and it is also from around this time that the oldest excavated condoms, found in the remains of Dudley Castle, were believed to have originated. Dudley had become an incredibly impoverished place during the 16th and 17th centuries, abraham Darby was descended from Dud Dudleys sister, Jane, and was the first person to produce iron commercially using coke instead of charcoal at his works in Coalbrookdale, Shropshire in 1709. Abraham Darby was born near Wrens Nest Hill near the town of Dudley, Dud Dudleys discovery, together with improvements to the local road network and the construction of the Dudley Canal, made Dudley into an important industrial and commercial centre. Dudleys population grew dramatically during the 18th and 19th centuries because of the increase in industry, with the main industries including coal, other industries included iron, steel, engineering, metallurgy, glass cutting, textiles and leatherworking. Following the Reform Act of 1832, Dudley returned one Member of Parliament, the town was re-incorporated as a Municipal Borough in 1865, later becoming a County Borough in 1889. Dudley Castle, which had fallen into ruin following a fire in 1750, was converted into a zoo in 1937 by the Earl of Dudley, a reported 250,000 people attempted to visit the site upon the first day of opening. In World War II, Dudley was bombed on several occasions, on 12 August 1941, four people were killed when another landmine was dropped in nearby Birch Crescent. These were the fatal air raids on Dudley. Most of this land had been held by the Lords of Dudley, in 1974, further reorganization led to the creation of the present-day metropolitan borough, which included the nearby towns of Stourbridge and Halesowen. The declining industry in Dudley has given rise to high unemployment, Dudley is the administrative centre of the Dudley Metropolitan Borough, and is governed by the Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council. The metropolitan borough, which includes the towns of Stourbridge, Halesowen. For many years the town formed part of an exclave of the county of Worcestershire, despite the more recent changes in county boundaries, the town and borough still remain part of the Anglican Diocese of Worcester
Dudley
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From top left: Dudley Town Centre viewed from Castle Hill; Dudley Priory; Dudley Zoo; Dudley Market Place; Dudley Castle; Statue of William Ward, 1st Earl of Dudley.
Dudley
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Dudley Castle
Dudley
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1814 map showing Dudley as an exclave of Worcestershire.
Dudley
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Dudley Art Deco Cinema, now a Jehovah's Witness Kingdom Hall
10.
British Jews
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British Jews are British people of who are ethnically and/or religiously Jewish. The UK is home to the second largest Jewish population in Europe, the number of identifying Jews in England and Wales has risen slightly over the past decade, indicating a stability which contrasts with the usual impression of relentless diaspora decline. The growth is due to the rapid growth of the Charedi community. The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles recounts the journey of the Apostle Paul to Britain during the 1st Century AD, two hundred years later the Jews were no longer welcome. When,15 years later, Edward found that many of these provisions were ignored and they emigrated to countries such as Poland which protected them by law. A small English community persisted in hiding despite the expulsion, Jews were not banned from Scotland, which until 1707 was an independent kingdom. Gradually Jews eased back into England, first visiting for trade, then staying longer periods, benjamin Disraeli, of Jewish birth although he joined the Church of England, served in government for three decades, twice as prime minister. In 2006, the Jewish community celebrated the 350th anniversary of the resettlement in England, according to the 2011 census,263,346 people answered “Jewish” to the voluntary question on religion, compared with 259,927 in the previous count of 2001. However, this figure is considered an undercount. By comparison, the Jewish Virtual Library estimated a Jewish population of 291,000 in 2012, the 2001 Census included a religion question for the first time in its history,266,740 people listed their religion as Jewish. However, the subject of who is a Jew is complex, the religion question appeared in the 2011 Census, but there was still no explicit option for Jewish in the ethnic-group question. The Board of Deputies had encouraged all Jews to indicate they were Jewish, from 1990 to 2006, the Jewish population showed a decrease from 340,000 Jews to 270,000. According to the 1996 Jewish Policy Review, nearly one in two are marrying people who do not share their faith, from 2005 to 2008, the Jewish population increased from 275,000 to 280,000, attributed largely to the high birth rates of Haredi Jews. Research by the University of Manchester in 2007 showed that 75 percent of British Jewish births were to the Haredi community, ultra-Orthodox women have an average of 6.9 children, and secular Jewish women 1.65. About two-thirds of the UKs Jews live in Greater London or contiguous parts of South Hertfordshire, substantial communities outside the London area include Greater Manchester, home to some 30,000 Jews, and Leeds, although the Leeds Jewish community became smaller in the late 20th century. Other substantial communities include Gateshead, Glasgow and Liverpool, as well as former industrial cities. Barnet and Hertsmere councils in the London borders polled as the first and second most Jewish local authorities in England, with Jews composing one in five, the British Jewish population has a substantially older profile than that of the general population. In England and Wales, the age of male Jews is 41.2, while the figure for all males is 36.1, Jewish females have a median age of 44.3
British Jews
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David Ricardo • Benjamin Disraeli • Nathan Rothschild Herbert Samuel • Karl Popper Alicia Markova • Yehudi Menuhin • David Bohm Lucian Freud • Peter Sellers • Amy Winehouse
British Jews
11.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
Jews
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Baruch Spinoza
Jews
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Map of Canaan
Jews
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David Ben-Gurion
Jews
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George Gershwin
12.
Eastern European
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Eastern Europe, also known as East Europe, is the eastern part of the European continent. There is no consensus on the area it covers, partly because the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural. There are almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region, a related United Nations paper adds that every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct. One definition describes Eastern Europe as an entity, the region lying in Europe with main characteristics consisting in Byzantine, Orthodox. Another definition was created during the Cold War and used more or less synonymously with the term Eastern Bloc, a similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe. Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegating, several definitions of Eastern Europe exist today, but they often lack precision or are extremely general. These definitions vary both across cultures and among experts, even scientists, recently becoming more and more imprecise. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the land border of the eastern edge of Europe. Eurovoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, provides entries for 23 EU languages, of these, those in italics are classified as Eastern Europe in this source. Other official web-pages of the European Union classify some of the countries as strictly Central European. The East–West Schism is the break of communion and theology between what are now the Eastern and Western churches which began in the 11th century and lasts until this very day and it divided Christianity in Europe, and consequently the world, into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity. Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches in the east, due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic, for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox, the fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the East–West division in Europe, but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media. The Baltic states have seats in the Nordic Council as observer states and they also are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight whereas Eastern European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group. Estonia Latvia Lithuania The Caucasus nations may be included in the definitions of Eastern Europe, the extent of their geographic or political affiliation with Europe varies by country and source. All three states are members of the European Unions Eastern Partnership program and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, on 12 January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future. Georgia — in modern geography, Georgia has been classified as part of Eastern Europe. Under the European Union’s geographic criteria, Georgia is viewed as part of Eastern Europe and is the only Caucasus country to be actively seeking EU membership and it is a member of Council of Europe and Eurocontrol
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Division between the Eastern and Western Churches
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Geographic features of Eastern Europe
13.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
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Branimir Inscription
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Tanais Tablet B, name Khoroáthos highlighted
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The walls of Dubrovnik helped to defend the city since Middle Ages until the 1991–1992 siege.
14.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
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Fresco displaying the Minoan ritual of "bull leaping", found in Knossos, Crete.
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The Lion Gate, Mycenae
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The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is one of the best known symbols of classical Greece.
15.
Republic of Macedonia
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Macedonia, officially the Republic of Macedonia, is a country in the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. It is one of the states of the former Yugoslavia. A landlocked country, the Republic of Macedonia has borders with Kosovo to the northwest, Serbia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, the countrys geography is defined primarily by mountains, valleys, and rivers. The capital and largest city, Skopje, is home to roughly a quarter of the nations 2.06 million inhabitants, the majority of the residents are ethnic Macedonians, a South Slavic people. Albanians form a significant minority at around 25 percent, followed by Turks, Romani, Serbs, Macedonias history dates back to antiquity, beginning with the kingdom of Paeonia, a Thracian polity. In the late sixth century BCE the area was incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Romans conquered the region in the second century BCE and made it part of the much larger province of Macedonia. Macedonia remained part of the Byzantine Empire, and was raided and settled by Slavic peoples beginning in the sixth century CE. Following centuries of contention between the Bulgarian and Byzantine empires, it came under Ottoman dominion from the 14th century. Between the late 19th and early 20th century, a distinct Macedonian identity emerged, although following the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913, Macedonia remained a constituent socialist republic within Yugoslavia until its peaceful secession in 1991. Macedonia is a member of the UN and of the Council of Europe, since 2005 it has also been a candidate for joining the European Union and has applied for NATO membership. Although one of the poorest countries in Europe, Macedonia has made significant progress in developing an open, the countrys name derives from the Greek Μακεδονία, a kingdom named after the ancient Macedonians. The name is believed to have meant either highlanders or the tall ones. However, Robert S. P. Beekes supports that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology, the Republic of Macedonia roughly corresponds to the ancient kingdom of Paeonia, which was located immediately north of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia. In the late 6th century BC, the Achaemenid Persians under Darius the Great conquered the Paeonians, following the loss in the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the Persians eventually withdrew from their European territories, including from what is today the Republic of Macedonia. In 356 BC Philip II of Macedon absorbed the regions of Upper Macedonia, the Romans established the Province of Macedonia in 146 BC. Roman expansion brought the Scupi area under Roman rule in the time of Domitian, and it fell within the Province of Moesia. Whilst Greek remained the dominant language in the part of the Roman empire. Slavic peoples settled in the Balkan region including Macedonia by the late 6th century AD, during the 580s, Byzantine literature attests to the Slavs raiding Byzantine territories in the region of Macedonia, later aided by Bulgars. Historical records document that in c.680 a group of Bulgars, Slavs and Byzantines led by a Bulgar called Kuber settled in the region of the Keramisian plain, presians reign apparently coincides with the extension of Bulgarian control over the Slavic tribes in and around Macedonia
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Heraclea Lyncestis, a city founded by Philip II of Macedon in the 4th century BC: ruins of the Byzantine "Small Basilica"
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Nikola Karev, president of the short-lived Kruševo Republic during the Ilinden Uprising
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Avtonomna Makedonia periodical, Belgrade, 1905
16.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
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Clay figure from Vinča culture, 4000–4500 BC, British Museum
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Felix Romuliana, UNESCO World Heritage Site
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Temnić inscription, is one of the oldest records of Old Church Slavonic Cyrillic script from the territory of Serbia.
17.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
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Lady of Elche
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Altamira Cave paintings, in Cantabria.
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Celtic castro in A Guarda, Galicia.
18.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
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Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 12,000 BC, predating those of Stonehenge, England by almost ten millennia.
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The Lion Gate in Hattusa, capital of the Hittite Empire. The city's history dates back to the 6th millennium BC.
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The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 135 AD. The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
19.
Anglo-Australian
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In the 2011 census,7.2 million or 36. 1% of respondents identified as English or a combination including English, such as English-Australian. The census also documented 911,592 residents of Australia as being born in England, English Australians have more often come from the South than the North of England. English immigrants have been the largest group to migrate to Australia since the establishment of New South Wales as the first penal colony in 1788, Sydney was founded by the British government as a penal colony. Visitors described the English character of Sydney for at least the first 50 years after 1788, first-generation colonial Sydney residents were predominantly English. 160,000 convicts came to Australia between 1788 and 1850, between 1788 and 1840,80,000 English convicts were transported to New South Wales, with the greatest numbers coming between 1825 and 1835. The New South Wales Census of 1846 accounted for 57,349 born in England,47,547 born in Ireland, until 1859,2.2 million of the free settlers who immigrated were British. Many more English people immigrated to Victoria by the rush of the 1850s. By 1854 there were 97,943 England-born people in Victoria, Immigration policies and assistance schemes helped maintain high levels of immigration from England. Of the 1 million immigrants who arrived between 1860 and 1900, just over half came from England, when transportation ended, convicts made up 40 percent of Australias English-speaking population. Between 1840 and 1870 there were more Irish than English assisted migrants which did not change until the 1870s, at least 75 per cent of all overseas-born people in Australia during the nineteenth century were from the British Isles. The proportion who had born in England or Wales remained quite stable from 1861 to 1911. Australians born in England or of English ancestry made up more than 50 percent of the population at the time of Federation, from 1922 the Empire Settlement Act assisted thousands of migrants from England. After World War II, even as immigration from other countries expanded dramatically, arthur Calwell, Minister for Immigration, wanted nine out of ten new immigrants to be UK-born. The majority of England-born migrants received assisted passages until the scheme was abolished in 1982, in 2006 the English were still the largest group of overseas-born in Victoria, with over 3% of Victorians born in England. Among the notable English-born were politicians such as Henry Parkes, and Joseph Cook, in retailing and media, John Norton, Anthony Hordern and John Fairfax. Surges of English immigration in the 1880s, between 1910 and 1914, again in the 1920s and, most of all, in the 1950s and 1960s, in 1978 Australians born in England or Australians of predominantly English ancestry made up over 45 per cent of the population. English ancestry was reported by 6.6 million people in 1986, with over 200 years of English settlement, however, Australian society continues to be influenced by its strong English heritage. English migrants and English Australians were by far the single most influential group in colonial Australia
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Alfred Deakin
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Edmund Barton
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Joseph Cook
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Earle Page
20.
Anglo-Celtic Australian
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Anglo-Celtic Australians are Australians whose ancestors originate wholly or partially in the countries of the British Isles. The British Government initiated European settlement of the Australian continent by establishing a settlement at Sydney Cove in 1788. Between then and 1852, about 100,000 convicts were transported to eastern Australia, Scotland and Wales contributed relatively few convicts. The convicts were augmented by free settlers, including large numbers who arrived during the gold-rush in the 1850s, as late as 1861, people born in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland outnumbered even the Australia-born population. The number of settlers in Australia who were born in the United Kingdom peaked at 825,000 in 1891, from which point the proportion of British among all immigrants to Australia steadily declined. Among the leading ancestries, increases in Australian, Irish, and German ancestries and decreases in English, Scottish and these reporting shifts at least partly resulted from changes in the design of the census question, in particular the introduction of a tick box format in 2001. Until 1859,2.2 million of the settlers who immigrated were British. Those born in the United Kingdom were the largest foreign group throughout the 20th century, however, their share of the total immigrant population is in decline. Those from the United Kingdom comprised 58 per cent of the total population in 1901. An even greater decline has occurred for those born in Ireland, in 1901, those born in Ireland comprised 22 per cent of all immigrants, while in 1996 the Ireland-born represented just 1 per cent of the immigrant population. While those born in England have formed the largest component of the British immigrant population, Australia has also received significant numbers of immigrants from Ireland, Scotland, up until the First World War the Irish were, in their own right, the second largest immigrant population. The most dramatic increase in the British immigrant population occurred between 1961 and 1971, the number of British-born people living in Australia exceeded one million at the 1971 Census and has remained above one million to this day. The United Kingdom-born population in Australia reached a peak of 1,107,119 in 1991, but at the 1996 Census, this figure had declined to 1,072,514, a decrease of 3 per cent. The latest Census in 2011 recorded 1,101,082 United Kingdom-born people in Australia, the 2011 distribution by state and territory showed New South Wales had the largest number with 274,821 followed by Western Australia, Queensland and Victoria. Anglo-Celtic is not a category in the Australian census, at the 2006 Census of Australia respondents could nominate up to two ancestries. The United Kingdom remains the source of immigrants to Australia. In 2005–0622,143 persons born in the United Kingdom settled in Australia, at the 2006 Census 1,038,165 persons identified themselves as having been born in the United Kingdom, while 50,251 identified themselves as Irish born. The Anglo-Celtic element in the population is expected to drop to 62 percent by 2025, between 1987 and 1999, the Anglo-Celtic component of Australias population declined from 75 per cent to 70 per cent
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Australian Census 2011 demographic map – Australia by SLA – BCP field 1078 English Total Responses
21.
Simon Palomares
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Simon Palomares is a Spanish-Australian comedian and actor, best known for his character Ricky in Acropolis Now. Palomares studied drama and psychology at Deakin University and studied acting at the renowned Juan Carlos Corazza School in Madrid, recently he completed a post-graduate degree in arts and entertainment management at Deakin University. Palomares was one of the creators and stars of the Wogs Out of Work comedy stage show and he has performed comedy shows in the United States, Canada, Spain and Argentina where he performs stand-up in Spanish. More recently, Palomares has toured Australia in a cooking program. He performed 2007-2011 with fellow comedians George Kapiniaris, Joe Avati, in July 2011 Palomares was invited to the Just For Laughs Comedy Festival in Montreal by Paramount Comedy to record a Spanish comedy TV special for Canadian OMNI Channel. In 2011 he also produced a 13 episode series for C31 in Melbourne called Passion to Profession, most recently he has performed for the program Nuevos Comicos on Paramount Comedy and completed a documentary called KO HO NAS for Special Broadcasting Service shown in Australia on 11 November 2009. He wrote and directed a film, The Usual, which was acclaimed at the St Kilda Film Festival. In 2006, he created, co-hosted and commentated on The Foosy Show, in addition to his acting credits, he appeared as himself in an episode of the ABC series Smallest Room in the House, a series in which stand-up comedians told true stories of their upbringing. Palomares has directed episodes of Neighbours and was second unit director on Totally Full Frontal and he has also provided voices in the video games Rome, Total War and Rome, Total War - Barbarian Invasion. Ricky Martinez www. simonpalomares. com Simon Palomares at the Internet Movie Database Simon Palomares MySpace page
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Simon Palomares
22.
The Wog Boy
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The Wog Boy is a 2000 Australian motion picture comedy starring Nick Giannopoulos, Vince Colosimo, Lucy Bell, Abi Tucker, Stephen Curry, Tony Nikolakopoulos and Derryn Hinch. Steve is a second-generation Greek Australian, Steve is unemployed, but manages to get by, helping out here and there. His pride and joy is his VF Valiant Pacer, whilst helping out a compensation-oriented neighbour, Steve has a minor car accident involving the Minister for Employment, vampily played by Geraldine Turner. Steve manages to turn this around to his advantage, and becomes famous as The Wog Boy, in the interim, he makes variable progress with Celia. As well as being a comedy, the film offers a subtle critique of capitalism, neoliberalism. The film talks about the issue of unemployment as experienced by people in the 1990s. The film also examines racial profiling, media stereotypes and hysteria and it does this by placing the protagonist Steve in a situation where he is asked to do promotional work for a government department. Here we see a series of conflicts where Steves straightforward ethnic background. Steve is seen driving a dark blue 1969 VF Valiant hardtop during the movie, during the film, it is said that the cars original engine was a 245-cubic-inch 6-cylinder hemi, which was later replaced with an 8-cylinder engine. The Australian Chrysler Valiant range of cars were often and sometimes referred to as Wog Chariots or The Greek Mercedes. A soundtrack was released, composed by Cezary Skubiszewski and it featured the single Breakin Theres No Stoppin Us by Ilanda which was used to promote the film. The track Get Tzatziki With It was also in the promotional campaign. It was written by John Von Ahlen, Jaime Jimenez and Nick Giannopoulos, pull Up to the Bumper - Deni Hines Breakin. Theres No Stopping Us - Ilanda & Joanne Vibe - Redzone Shine - Vanessa Amorosi Somebody Like You - Jimmy Christo Am I Sexy, the sequel was released in Australia on 20 May 2010. The Wog Boy grossed $11,449,799 at the box office in Australia, the Wog Boy at the Internet Movie Database The Wog Boy at the National Film and Sound Archive
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Theatrical release poster
23.
Eric Bana
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Eric Banadinović, known professionally as Eric Bana, is an Australian actor and comedian. He began his career in the comedy series Full Frontal before gaining critical recognition in the biographical crime film Chopper. Bana also played Henry De Tamble in The Time Travelers Wife, in 2013, he played Lt. Cmdr. Erik S. Kristensen in the war film Lone Survivor and in the year he played police sergeant Ralph Sarchie in the horror film Deliver Us from Evil. An accomplished dramatic actor and comedian, he received Australias highest film and television awards for his performances in Chopper, Full Frontal and Romulus, My Father. Bana has performed across a spectrum of leading roles in a variety of low-budget and major studio films, ranging from romantic comedies. Bana was born in Melbourne, Victoria and his father, Ivan, was Croatian and worked as a logistics manager for Caterpillar, Inc. and his mother, Eleanor, was a hairdresser, originally from near Mannheim in Germany. He has one brother, Anthony. Bana grew up in Melbournes Tullamarine, an area on the northern edge of the city, near Melbournes international airport. In a cover story for the Mail on Sunday, he told author Antonella Gambotto-Burke that his family had suffered from racist taunts, wog is such a terrible word, he said. He has stated, I have always been proud of my origin, I have always been in the company of people of European origin. Showing acting skill early in life, Bana began doing impressions of family members at the age of six or seven, first mimicking his grandfathers walk, voice, in school, he mimicked his teachers as a means to get out of trouble. As a teen, he watched the Mel Gibson film Mad Max, however, he did not seriously consider a career in the performing arts until 1991 when he was persuaded to try comedy while working as a barman at Melbournes Castle Hotel. His stand-up gigs in inner-city pubs did not provide him enough income to support himself, however, so he continued his work as a barman. In 1993, Bana made his debut on Steve Vizards late night talk show. His performance gained the attention of producers from the comedy series, Full Frontal. During his four years on the show, Bana wrote much of his own material and his impressions of Columbo, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sylvester Stallone, and Tom Cruise made Bana popular with the shows audience. This success led him to record the comedy album Out of Bounds in 1994 and to host his own special, titled Eric
Eric Bana
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Bana at the 2014 WonderCon
Eric Bana
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Bana as Australian criminal Chopper Read in his breakthrough film role in Chopper (2000)
Eric Bana
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Bana at the premiere of Lucky You in May 2007
Eric Bana
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Star Trek premiere, Sydney Opera House 2009
24.
Mary Coustas
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Mary Coustas is an Australian actress, comedian and television personality. Originally from Melbourne, Coustas often performs as the character Effie and she completed a Bachelor of Arts at Deakin University in Melbourne, majoring in performing arts and sub-majoring in journalism. Coustas won the Logie Award for Most Popular Comedy Personality in 1993, Coustas initial claim to fame was in the comedy stage show Wogs Out of Work alongside Nick Giannopoulos, George Kapiniaris and Simon Palomares. Coustas appeared on the television sitcom Acropolis Now, from 1989 until 1992. Since then she has appeared as Effie in other television shows, Effie also appeared in the interview show Effie, Just Quietly in 2001 and hosted her own peculiar, short-lived talk show called Greeks On The Roof in 2003. Coustas played straight roles in two police series, Skirts in 1990 and Wildside in 1998. Other roles include Grass Roots, The Secret Life of Us and her voice-over work includes The Magic Pudding, Hercules Returns and Always Greener. She also appeared as a guest on comedy game show Talkin bout Your Generation in 2012, in 1992 Effie released a novelty single, a duet with another fictional character, Garry McDonalds Norman Gunston. The recording was their version of Andrew Lloyd Webbers Amigos Para Siempre, coustass book Effies Guide to Being Up Yourself was published in 2003. In her 2013 memoir All I know, a memoir of love, loss and life, Coustas looked back over her career, Coustas was born in the Melbourne suburb of Collingwood. Coustas married George Betsis in 2005, in August 2013, Coustas and her husband announced in an interview with 60 Minutes that she was 22 weeks pregnant and expecting their second child in early December 2013. Their daughter Jamie was born on 28 November 2013, mary Coustas at the Internet Movie Database
Mary Coustas
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Coustas at the Killing Them Softly Australian Premiere in September 2012
25.
Pizza (TV series)
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Pizza was an Australian television series on the Australian television network SBS. The series has a feature length movie, Fat Pizza, released in 2003, and a best-of highlights video/DVD that featured previously unreleased footage. In addition to this, a show entitled Fat Pizza, starring several characters from the show. In 2014, the storyline of the series was combined with that of Housos to create the motion picture Fat Pizza vs. Housos, the film was shown in Australian cinemas from 27 November 2014. Through ironic and self-conscious references, Pizza involves themes of ethnicity and stereotypes, cars, sex, illicit drugs, the television program is noted for its frequent cameo appearances of numerous Australian celebrities of all varieties, including actors, comedians, professional athletes, and other public figures. The program is written and directed by Paul Fenech, who portrays the protagonist of the series, Pizza began in the early 1990s as Fenechs project, a black-and-white short film, entitled Pizza Man, in which he starred as the eponymous pizza man. In 1995, the film won third place in the Tropfest film festival. Pizza itself was first broadcast on the SBS network in 2000 and aired its fifth, the half-hour program was shown during the SBS Monday comedy slot, noted for its offbeat comedy shows including South Park, John Safran, Garth Marenghis Darkplace, Drawn Together, and Quads. As introduced by Pauly in the first episode of the show, in spite of this, the characters remain unfazed and unsurprised, and they persist in their dead-end, below-minimum-wage job, which pays A$3.00 per hour. Paul Fenech as Pauly Falzoni – main protagonist, pizza delivery man, boxer and his favourite derogatory comment for people is stooge, originating from a comment a teacher once made to him. Pauly has been one of Bobos longest-serving employees at Fat Pizza and has provided Bobo with some good ideas over the years, during the 2005 series of Pizza, Paulys parents, relatives, and Pauly were shown with a cousin named Luigi, who lives in Italy. In one episode, it is shown that Paulys dad was a Maltese spy for British Intelligence, Paulys ethnic background consists of Maltese, Italian, and Spanish roots. He makes an appearance in Housos telling his cousin Franky that their uncle Fred has died. Paul Nakad as Sleek the Elite – so named because he is slicker than slick, a rapper, ladies man. He was the main co-star in the first two series and the movie and he is a lady killer, hence the name Lebanese lover. In the third series it was revealed Sleek had been kidnapped by Islamic terrorists while holidaying in his homeland of Lebanon for rooting all their women, in several episodes, Sleek was portrayed as the closeted bisexual male. He was replaced by Rockys other cousin, Slick, who is killed off by Bobo in season three, episode one, tahir Bilgiç as Habib Halal Habib – meaning Friend in Arabic. Habib featured as a character in the earlier series of Pizza
Pizza (TV series)
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Fat Pizza
26.
Australian culture
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The British colonisation of Australia began in 1788, and waves of multi-ethnic migration followed. Australian culture has diverged significantly since British settlement, Aboriginal people are believed to have arrived as early as 60,000 years ago, and evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia dates back at least 30,000 years. Several states and territories had their origins as colonies, with the first British convicts arriving at Sydney Cove in 1788. Stories of outlaws like the bushranger Ned Kelly have endured in Australian music, cinema, the Australian gold rushes from the 1850s brought wealth as well as new social tensions to Australia, including the miners Eureka Stockade rebellion. The colonies established elected parliaments and rights for workers and women before most other Western nations, after the second war,6.5 million migrants from 200 nations brought immense new diversity, and Australians grew increasingly aware of their proximity to Asia. Over time, the food, lifestyle and cultural practices of immigrants have been absorbed into mainstream Australian culture. The oldest surviving cultural traditions in Australia—and some of the oldest surviving cultural traditions on earth—are those of Australias Aboriginal and their ancestors have inhabited Australia for between 40,000 and 60,000 years, living a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In 2006, the Indigenous population was estimated at 517,000 people, the arrival of the first British settlers at what is now Sydney in 1788 introduced Western civilisation to the Australian continent. The British Empire expanded across the continent and established six colonies. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, during the period, Smallpox, measles, influenza. The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, William Wentworth established Australias first political party in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. From the 1850s, the set about writing constitutions which produced democratically advanced parliaments as Constitutional Monarchies with Queen Victoria as the head of state. Womens suffrage in Australia was achieved from the 1890s, women became eligible to vote in South Australia in 1895. This was the first legislation in the world permitting women to stand for office and, in 1897. Though constantly evolving, the key foundations for elected parliamentary government have maintained a continuity in Australia from the 1850s into the 21st century. Games like cricket and rugby were imported from Britain at this time and with a variant of football, Australian Rules Football. The Commonwealth of Australia was founded in 1901, after a series of referenda conducted in the British colonies of Australasia, Australia remains a constitutional monarchy in which the largely ceremonial and procedural duties of the monarch are performed by a Governor General selected by the Australian government. Australia fought at Britains side from the outset of World War One and World War Two, the post-World War II immigration program saw the policy dismantled by successive governments, permitting large numbers of Southern European, and later Asian and Middle Eastern migrants to arrive
Australian culture
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A Luritja man demonstrating method of attack with boomerang under cover of shield (1920)
Australian culture
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Governor Arthur Phillip hoists the British flag over the new colony at Sydney in 1788
Australian culture
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South Australian suffragette Catherine Helen Spence (1825–1910). The Australian colonies established democratic parliaments from the 1850s and began to grant women the vote in the 1890s.
27.
CIA
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
CIA
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John Brennan, the current director of the Central Intelligence Agency
CIA
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Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency
CIA
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Aerial view of the Central Intelligence Agency headquarters, Langley, Virginia
CIA
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The 111 stars on the CIA Memorial Wall in the original CIA headquarters, each representing a CIA officer killed in action.
28.
Scientology
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Scientology is a body of religious beliefs and practices created in 1954 by American author L. Ron Hubbard. Hubbard initially developed a program of ideas called Dianetics, which was distributed through the Dianetics Foundation, the foundation soon entered bankruptcy and Hubbard lost the rights to his seminal publication Dianetics, The Modern Science of Mental Health in 1952. He then recharacterized the subject as a religion and renamed it Scientology, retaining the terminology, doctrines, the E-meter, and the practice of auditing. Within a year, he regained the rights to Dianetics and retained both subjects under the umbrella of the Church of Scientology. ”Hubbard writes, “thus, Scientology means knowing about knowing, or science of knowledge. ”Hubbards groups have encountered considerable opposition and controversy. In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners brought proceedings against Hubbards Dianetics Foundation on the charge of teaching medicine without a license, Hubbards followers engaged in a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the U. S. government. Hubbard-inspired organizations and their classification are often a point of contention, Germany classifies Scientology groups as an anti-constitutional sect. In France, Scientology groups have been classified as a cult by some parliamentary reports. L. Ron Hubbard was the child of Harry Ross Hubbard, a United States Navy officer. Hubbard spent three semesters at George Washington University but was placed on probation in September 1931 and he failed to return for the fall 1932 semester. In July 1941, Hubbard was commissioned as a Lieutenant in the U. S. Naval Reserve, on May 18,1943, the subchaser left Portland. That night, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire 35 depth charges and his ship sustained minor damage and three crew were injured. Having run out of charges and with the presence of a submarine still unconfirmed by other ships. The navy report concludes that there was no submarine in the area, a decade later, Hubbard claimed he had sunk a Japanese submarine in his Scientology lectures. On June 28,1941, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire on the Coronado Islands, Hubbard apparently did not realize that the islands belonged to US-allied Mexico, nor that he had taken his vessel into Mexican territorial waters. He was reprimanded and removed from command on July 7, after reassignment to a naval facility in Monterey, California, Hubbard became depressed and fell ill. Reporting stomach pains in April 1945, he spent the remainder of the war as a patient in Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland, according to his later teachings, during this time Hubbard made scientific breakthroughs by use of endocrine experiments. On October 15,1947, Hubbard wrote a letter to the Veterans Administration formally requesting psychiatric treatment, within a few years, Hubbard would condemn psychiatry as evil, which would grow into a major theme in Scientology. In April 1938, Hubbard reportedly reacted to a used in a dental procedure
Scientology
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L. Ron Hubbard in 1950
Scientology
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The Scientology symbol is composed of the letter S, which stands for Scientology, and the ARC and KRC triangles, two important concepts in Scientology.
Scientology
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The Founding Church of Scientology in Washington D.C.
Scientology
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A Scientologist introduces the E-meter to a potential student
29.
Black people
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As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, black is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as black, and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, in the United Kingdom, black was historically equivalent with person of color, a general term for non-European peoples. In South Africa and Latin America, mixed-race people are not classified as black. In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term black or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds. The Romans interacted with and later conquered parts of Mauretania, a state that covered modern Morocco, western Algeria. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard and he claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese woman, in response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish, due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more black women than men. They used more black female slaves in domestic service and agriculture than males, the men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage, leading to many mixed-race children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab masters child, she was considered as umm walad or mother of a child, the child was given rights of inheritance to the fathers property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was patrilineal, the children took their fathers social status at birth and were born free, some succeeded their fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a child of a slave, his mother was Fulani. Such tolerance for black persons, even when technically free, was not so common in Morocco, the long association of sub-Saharan peoples as slaves is shown in the term abd, it is still frequently used in the Arabic-speaking world as a term for black people. In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudans non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of deftly manipulat Arab solidarity to carry out policies of apartheid, American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. The Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid, many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid
Black people
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Soldiers of the Free Arabian Legion in Greece, September 1943
Black people
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Algerian footballer Yacine Brahimi
Black people
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Moroccan Gnawa musician Hassan Hakmoun
Black people
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Nelson Mandela led the ANC in the battle against South African Apartheid.
30.
Boerehaat
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Boerehaat is an Afrikaans word that means ethnic hatred of Boers, or Afrikaners as they became known after the Second Boer War. The related term Boerehater has been used to describe a person who hates, prejudices or criticises Boers, accusations of Boerehaat have subsequently been made by Afrikaner nationalists to exploit historical British prejudice against the Boers for political gain. They have applied the term Boerehater to anyone who criticised them or opposed their interests, including English-speaking white South Africans, dissident Afrikaners, Boerehaat is an Afrikaans word meaning hatred of the Boers, or Afrikaners as they became known after the Second Boer War. The related term Boerehater has been used to describe a person who hates, prejudices or criticises the Boers, the disdain of the British people for the Boers was recorded as early as the 18th century. British critic of imperialism John A, animosity between the British and the Boers intensified in the run-up to the Second Boer War fought from 1899 to 1902, and continued thereafter. We do hate them down here like poison, the rascally dirty varmints, they must be exterminated, the country swarms with them and their dirty compatriots the German Jew. Approximately 27,000 Boer women and children died in British concentration camps, resulting in a legacy of bitterness towards the British. During the apartheid era, the Afrikaners dominated in number of voters, politics and civil service, the Afrikaners separated themselves from the rest of the population, both black people and English-speaking whites. In 1971 sociologist Heribert Adam writes the historical friction between the English and Afrikaans-speaking populace is gradually being replaced by class contradictions within the two groups, historical friction was revived and exploited by the ruling National Party for political gain however. The National Party, under the leadership of B. J. Vorster, the Nationalists also used the term to censure members of the Progressive Federal Party opposition party formed in 1977. White dissidents were also associated with the rooi gevaar, South African poet and writer Guy Butler was called a Boerehater by Afrikaners for his promotion of English-language literature and his opposition to Afrikaner nationalism and the National Party. English-speaking film critics were more lenient towards Afrikaans-language films lest they be accused of Boerehaat, according to film critic Barry Ronge, The cries of boerehaat come from the industry itself when they feel they are not getting support. In 1995 ANC politician Zola Skweyiya was accused of Boerehaat by Die Burger for disrespecting the Afrikaans official language in Parliament, in 1998 Jaap Marais, Afrikaner nationalist leader of the right-wing Herstigte Nasionale Party, described the post-apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission as an exercise in Boerehaat. Civil rights organisation AfriForum accused Malema of inciting violence against white South Africans, judge Colin Lamont ruled that Malemas singing of the song in a post-apartheid South Africa was derogatory, dehumanising and hurtful to the Afrikaner minority group. Lamont said People must develop new customs and rejoice in a society by giving up old practices which are hurtful to members who live in that society with them. Freedom Front Plus leader Pieter Mulder described his remarks as primitive scare tactics and racist and polarising
Boerehaat
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1880 political cartoon by W. H. Schröder in The Lantern depicting a Boer petitioning Britain for continued independence. The personification of annexation is associated with prosperity, independence with anarchy and bankruptcy.
31.
Cocolo
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Cocolo is a term used in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean to refer to non-Hispanic African descendants, or darker-skinned people in general. The term originated in the Dominican Republic, and was used to refer to the Anglophone and Francophone Caribbean descendants. It can also be used to refer to those who identify with the Afro-Latino culture and music, such as Palos, salsa, the term is often used with pride to refer to oneself, yet can be taken as an insult when others use it. The immigration of Kokolous began with the rise and development of the industry in the Dominican Republic. The main Dominican ports were in the North Band so that a majority of these immigrants came from the Guinea, East Africa Bahamas. Many also came from Saint Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Antigua, Anguilla, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Tortola, St. Croix, St. Thomas, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. The first immigrants of the Turks began arriving in Puerto Plata after the Dominican War of Restoration, there were carpenters, blacksmiths and schoolteachers who emigrated due to the economic crisis in the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos. Many also came as stevedores boats line Clyde Steamship Company, which dominated trade for many years, since the Dominican Republic was a predominantly Hispanic Roman Catholic nation, the Cocolos thus needed to establish their own religious, social, and community centers. These were of various sects and were founded in La Romana, Puerto Plata. West Indian immigrants and their descendants also introduced some sports of British origin, namely cricket, in order to cultivate a following, the Cocolos created various sports groups in San Pedro de Macorís. Over time the descendants of those West Indian immigrants began to abandon the practice of cricket, in the United States, particularly in the north-east, the term has been used by Dominican migrants from the Cibao region to refer to African-Americans. The word also migrated to Puerto Rico, where it was used to refer to the more African influenced segments in the countrys population. In the Puerto Rico of the late 1970s and early 1980s, afro-Dominican Culture of the Dominican Republic History of the Dominican Republic Cocolo Dance Drama Tradition More than Merengue, Keeping a Christmas Tradition Alive in the Dominican Republic
Cocolo
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Leones of Santo Domingo vs Cocolos of San Pedro de Macorís
Cocolo
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Dominican Republic's provinces with significant Cocolo populations
32.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
Jim Crow laws
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Cover to an early edition of " Jump Jim Crow " sheet music (c 1832)
Jim Crow laws
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Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867
Jim Crow laws
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Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in Durham, North Carolina, 1940
Jim Crow laws
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1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by John T. McCutcheon. Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.
33.
Pickaninny
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Pickaninny is an American-slang term in English which refers to a racist and derogatory caricature of dark-skinned children of African descent. It is a word form, which may be derived from the Portuguese pequenino. In modern sensibility, the term implies a caricature which can be used in a derogatory, the deliberate use of the word in this context however suggests it already had black vernacular associations. In 1826 an Englishman named Thomas Young was tried at the Old Bailey in London on a charge of enslaving and selling four Gabonese women known as Nura, Piccaninni, Jumbo Jack and Prince Quarben. In the Southern United States, pickaninny was long used to refer to the children of African slaves or of dark-skinned African American citizens, the term was still in some use in the United States as late as the 1960s. The term piccaninny was used in colonial Australia for an Aboriginal child and is still in use in some Indigenous Kriol languages, in the Patois dialect of Jamaica, the word has been shortened to the form pickney, which is used to describe a child regardless of racial origin. The word piccaninny is used throughout the Pacific Melanesian countries as a term to describe children in general. Extensive use has made of this racial slur by the U. K. foreign secretary Boris Johnson. Its time for little Pickaninnies to go to sleep, samuel Footes 1755 nonsense prose includes, there were present the Picninnies, and the Joblillies, and the Garyulies, and the grand Panjandrum himself. In the 1931 film, The Front Page, one of the reporters played by Frank McHugh, the term is used twice in the scene. The word pickaninnies appears in the 1887 lyrics of Newfoundland folk song Kelligrews Soiree, There was boiled guineas, cold guineas, bullocks heads, Scott Joplin wrote the music for a lyric by Henry Jackson called I Am Thinking of My Pickanniny Days, written in 1902. In the novel Peter Pan by J. M. Barrie, the original version of the 1914 lullaby Hush-A-Bye, Ma Baby contains the line when I was a Pickaninny on ma Mammys knee. When it became the song of Missouri in 1949, the word pickaninny was replaced with little child. The term is used in the verse of the Jimmie Rodgers tune Peach Pickin Time in Georgia. When the picannies pick the cotton, Ill pick a wedding ring, Oh, look at the little pickaninny. She said and pointed to a child standing in the door of a shack. In the 1920s F. Scott Fitzgerald used the word pickaninnies to describe young black children playing in the street, throughout his 1935 travel book Journey Without Maps, British author Graham Greene uses piccaninny as a general term for African children. Orson Scott Cards historical fantasy series The Tales of Alvin Maker uses the term, such as in Seventh Son, Papooses learnt to hunt, also in 1935 the Shirley Temple film The Little Colonel features the grandfather Colonel barking piccaninny at two young children
Pickaninny
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Reproduction of an old tin sign advertising Picaninny Freeze, a frozen treat.
34.
Uncle Tom
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Uncle Tom is the title character of Harriet Beecher Stowes 1852 novel, Uncle Toms Cabin. The term Uncle Tom is also used as an epithet for an excessively subservient person. The use of the epithet is the result of works derived from the original novel. Stowe reversed the gender conventions of slave narratives by juxtaposing Uncle Toms passivity against the daring of three African American women who escape from slavery, the novel was both influential and commercially successful, published as a serial from 1851 to 1852 and as a book from 1852 onward. An estimated 500,000 copies had sold worldwide by 1853, frederick Douglass praised the novel as a flash to light a million camp fires in front of the embattled hosts of slavery. It triumphantly exemplifies the nature, tendency, and results of Christian non-resistance, talk not of peacefully submitting to chains and stripes—it is base servility. Talk not of servants being obedient to their masters—let the blood of tyrants flow, how is this to be explained or reconciled. Is there one law of submission and non-resistance for the Black man, when it is the whites who are trodden in the dust, does Christ justify them in taking up arms to vindicate their rights. And when it is the blacks who are treated, does Christ require them to be patient, harmless, long-suffering. To Baldwin, Stowe was closer to a pamphleteer than a novelist and her vision was fatally marred by polemics. Stowe had stated that her sons had wept when she first read them the scene of Uncle Toms death, the same law authorized a $1000 fine and six months imprisonment for anyone who knowingly harbored or assisted a fugitive slave. These terms infuriated Stowe, so the novel was written, read, Stowe drew inspiration for the Uncle Tom character from several sources. Henson was enslaved at birth in 1789 and he became a Christian at age eighteen and took up preaching. A sudden illness in one of his companions forced their return to Kentucky, Stowe read the first edition of Hensons narrative and later confirmed that she had incorporated elements from it into Uncle Toms Cabin. Kentucky and New Orleans figure in both Hensons narrative and the settings, and some other story elements are similar. In the public imagination, however, Henson became synonymous with Uncle Tom, the term Uncle Tom is used as a derogatory epithet for an excessively subservient person, particularly when that person perceives their own lower-class status based on race. It is similarly used to describe a person who betrays their own group by participating in its oppression. These works lampooned and distorted the portrayal of Uncle Tom with politically loaded overtones, American copyright law before 1856 did not give novel authors any control over derivative stage adaptations, so Stowe neither approved the adaptations nor profited from them
Uncle Tom
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Detail of an illustration from the first book edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin. Depicts Uncle Tom as young and muscular
35.
Hispanic
–
The term Hispanic broadly refers to the people, nations, and cultures that have a historical link to Spain. It commonly applies to countries once colonized by the Spanish Empire in the Americas and Asia, particularly the countries of Latin America and the Philippines. It could be argued that the term should apply to all Spanish-speaking cultures or countries and it is difficult to label a nation or culture with one term, such as Hispanic, as the ethnicities, customs, traditions, and art forms vary greatly by country and region. The Spanish language and Spanish culture are the main traditions, the term Hispanic derives from Latin Hispanicus, the adjectival derivation of Latin Hispania and Hispanus/Hispanos, ultimately probably of Celtiberian origin. In English the word is attested from the 16th century, the words Spain, Spanish, and Spaniard are of the same etymology as Hispanus, ultimately. Hispanus was the Latin name given to a person from Hispania during Roman rule, in English, the term Hispano-Roman is sometimes used. The Hispano-Romans were composed of people from different indigenous tribes. A number of men, such as Trajan, Hadrian. Hispano-Roman is used to refer to the culture and people of Hispania, Hispanic is used to refer to modern Spain, to the Spanish language, and to the Spanish-speaking nations of the world and particularly the Americas. Spanish is used to refer to the people, nationality, culture, language, Spaniard is used to refer to the people of Spain. Hispania was the Roman name for the territory of the Iberian Peninsula. Initially, this territory was divided into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, in 27 B. C, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Hispania Baetica and Hispania Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. This division of Hispania explains the usage of the singular and plural forms used to refer to the peninsula and this revival of the old Roman concept in the Middle Ages appears to have originated in Provençal, and was first documented at the end of the 11th century. In the Council of Constance, the four kingdoms shared one vote, the word Lusitanian, relates to Lusitania or Portugal, also in reference to the Lusitanians, possibly one of the first Indo-European tribes to settle in Europe. From this tribes name had derived the name of the Roman province of Lusitania, the terms Spain and the Spains were not interchangeable. Spain was a territory, home to several kingdoms, with separate governments, laws, languages, religions, and customs. Spain was not an entity until much later, and when referring to the Middle Ages. The term The Spains referred specifically to a collective of juridico-political units, first the Christian kingdoms, although colloquially and literally the expression King of Spain or King of the Spains was already widespread, it did not refer to a unified nation-state
Hispanic
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Pope Francis
Hispanic
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De español y torna atrás, tente en el aire Spanish colonial casta painting, Juan Patricio Morlete Ruiz (Mexico, 1713-1781)
Hispanic
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Pablo Picasso
Hispanic
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Shakira
36.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Quechua women in Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Pai Tavytera Indians in Amambay Department, Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Paleo-Indians hunting a glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
37.
Cholo
–
Its use has migrated from the initial negative ethnic designation as originated by Hispanic criollos in the 16th century. In sociological literature, it is one of castas, and refers to Mexican American gangsters, the precise usage of cholo has varied widely in different times and places. In modern American usage, it most often applies to the low-rider sub-culture manner of dress, the terms use is first recorded in a Peruvian book published in 1609 and 1616, the Comentarios Reales de los Incas by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. He writes The child of a Black male and an Indian female, or of an Indian male and Black female, they call mulato, the children of these they call cholo. Cholo is a word from the Windward Islands, it means dog, not of the variety, but of very disreputable origin. In Colonial Mexico, the terms cholo and coyote co-existed, indicating mixed Mestizo, other terms were used to denote other ratios of smaller or greater Spanish-to-Amerindian ancestry. During the War of the Pacific Peruvians were contemptuously referred to as cholos by Chilean officers, an article in the Los Angeles Express of April 2,1907, headlined Cleaning Up the Filthy Cholo Courts Has Begun in Earnest, uses the terms cholos and Mexicans interchangeably. In 1571, Fray Alonso de Molina, in his Nahuatl vocabulary, defined the word xolo as slave, servant, or waiter. The Porrúa Dictionary defines cholo, as used in the Americas, as a civilized Native American or a half-breed or mestizo of a European father and Native American mother. The word has historically been used along the borderland as a term to mean lower class Mexican migrants. Despite, or because of, its history of denigrating semantics. During the 1930s and 40s, Cholos and Chicanos were known as pachucos and were associated with the zoot suit, the press at the time accused the Cholos in the US of gang membership and petty criminality, leading to the Zoot Suit Riots. Continuing until the early 1970s, the typical cholo and chicano hairstyle was a variant of the pompadour, piled high on the head, Cholos are known for starching and pressing their pants and shirts, and often wear military-style webbed belts. Cholos in the 1990s and 2000s frequently have their hair buzzed very short, though some continue to have the more traditional slicked-back hair, footwear originally included Stacy Adams dress shoes, and biscuits. Modern cholos tend to wear shoes, such as Converse, Nike Cortez, Vans, Fila, Adidas Stan Smith, slip-on house shoes. Popular Cholo brands include Dickies, Ben Davis, Joker, Lowrider, in South Texas, cholos are sometimes referred to as chucs or chukes. This term is short for pachucos, tejano cholos typically make heavy use of starch on their pants but so do traditional Tejanos. This designation may also be associated with black ink tattoos, commonly involving calligraphy, a cholo might also stereotypically own a lowrider
Cholo
–
An example of "cula de Castas" which classified people by their ancestry, admixture, and degree of admixture. Within this representation of Cholos during the Latin American colonial period one can read "De mestizo e india, sale coiote" (from Mestizo and Amerindian, begotten a Coyote).
Cholo
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Typical dress of a chola cuencana
38.
Inuit
–
Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
Inuit
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Traditional qamutik (sled), Cape Dorset, Nunavut
Inuit
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Aboriginal peoples in Canada
Inuit
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Hudson's Bay Company Ships bartering with Inuit off the Upper Savage Islands, Hudson Strait, 1819
Inuit
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Inupiat in a kayak, Noatak, Alaska, c. 1929 (photo by Edward S. Curtis)
39.
Haole
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Haole is a term used in the state of Hawaii to refer to individuals who are not descendants of native Hawaiians and the other ethnicities that were brought in to work the plantations. The ethnic groups worked in the plantations include Puerto Ricans, Portuguese, Japanese, Filipino. The term haole is mostly used to refer to caucasians or white people, in the Hawaiian language, the term has been used historically and currently to refer to any foreigner or anything else introduced to the Hawaiian islands of foreign origin. The origins of the word predate the 1778 arrival of Captain James Cook and its use historically has ranged from descriptive to race invective. Haole first became associated with the children of European immigrants in the early 1820s and it unified the self-identity of these Hawaii-born children whose parents were as much culturally different as they were similar. It evolved further to racial meaning, replacing malihini in addressing people of Caucasian descent who move to Hawaii from the U. S. mainland by the 1860s, a 1906 phrase book sometimes translates it to English. The Hawaiian Dictionary by Pukui and Elbert gives no etymology of the word, the 1865 Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language, compiled by Lorrin Andrews, shows the pronunciation as ha-o-le. The implication is not only that foreigners are aloof and ignorant of local ways, st. Chad Piianaia, a Hawaiian educated in England, said the word haole implies thief or robber. Implies a thief, a robber, one not to be trusted, during the course of time, meanings of words change, and today, in a very general way, haole does not necessarily connote a negative thought. The word has come to refer to one of Nordic descent, Native Hawaiian Professor Fred Beckley said, The white people came to be known as ha-ole because after they said their prayers, they did not breathe three times as was customary in ancient Hawaii. There is a legend in Hawaii that the last day of school is called Kill Haole Day. On this day, local children beat up, bully and harass the haole or white children in their school, there is however little to no evidence or records of incidents involving Kill Haole Day or of non Native Hawaiian students being assaulted on specific days. Hawaii schools have responded by saying that they take the initiative to achieve tolerance, safety, compassion, the word Haole has been degradingly used in incidents of harassment and physical assaults by the Native Hawaiians on the white people living there. The Mainland Haole, The White Experience in Hawaiʻi, local Haole - A Contradiction in Terms. The dilemma of being white, born and raised in Hawaii, Haole Girl, Identity and White Privilege in Hawaiʻi. The Production of Haole and the Distortion of Indigeneity in the Rice Decision
Haole
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Professor Fred Beckley
40.
Hillbilly
–
Hillbilly is a term for people who dwell in rural, mountainous areas in the United States, primarily in Appalachia and the Ozarks. Due to its strongly stereotypical connotations, the term can be offensive to those Americans of Appalachian or Ozark heritage, scholars argue this duality is reflective of the split ethnic identities in white America. The Appalachian Mountains were settled in the 18th century by settlers primarily from the Province of Ulster in Ireland, the settlers from Ulster were mainly Protestants who migrated to Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century from Scotland and Northern England. Many further migrated to the American colonies beginning in the 1730s, scholars argue that the term hillbilly originated from Scottish dialect. The term hill-folk referred to people that preferred isolation from the greater society and it is suggested that hill-folk and billie were combined when the Cameronians fled to the Highlands. Others have suggested the term originated in 17th century Ireland, during the Williamite War, some scholars disagree with this theory. … In America hillbilly was first attested only in 1898, which suggests a later, the term hillbilly spread in the years following the American Civil War. At this time, the country was developing both technologically and socially, but the Appalachian region was falling behind, before the war, Appalachia was not distinctively different from other rural areas of the country. Post-war, although the frontier pushed farther west, the region maintained frontier characteristics, Appalachians themselves were perceived as backward, quick to violence and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds such as that in the 1880s between the Hatfields and McCoys, the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late 19th to early 20th century. The classic hillbilly stereotype reached its current characterization during the years of the Great Depression when many left their homes to find work in other areas of the country. This movement North became known as the Hillbilly Highway, the movement brought these previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture. Poor white mountaineers became central characters in newspapers, pamphlets and eventually, authors at this time were inspired by historical figures such as Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone. The mountaineer image transferred over to the 20th century where the hillbilly stereotype emerged, pop culture has perpetuated the hillbilly stereotype. The misrepresentation of Appalachian people in the media has led to great cultural distortion of Appalachian beliefs, practices, scholarly works suggest that the media has exploited both the Appalachian region and people by classifying them as hillbillies. These generalizations do not match the cultural experiences of Appalachians, Appalachians, like many other groups, do not subscribe to a single identity. One of the associated with stereotyping is that it is profitable. When hillbilly became a widely used term, entrepreneurs saw a window for potential revenue and they recycled the image and brought it to life through various forms of media
Hillbilly
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The Hatfield clan in 1897.
Hillbilly
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Migrant family from Arkansas playing hill-billy songs, 1939
41.
Redneck
–
The term redneck is a derogatory term chiefly used for a rural poor white person of the Southern United States. Its usage is similar in meaning to cracker, hillbilly, by the 1970s, the term had become offensive slang, and its meaning had expanded to mean bigoted, loutish, and opposed to modern ways. By 1975, say Chapman and Kipfer, the term had expanded in meaning beyond the poor Southerner to refer to a bigoted and conventional person, a loutish ultra-conservative. For example, in 1960 John Barlow Martin felt that Senator John F. Kennedy should not enter the Indiana Democratic presidential primary because the state was redneck conservative country. Indiana, he told Kennedy, was a state suspicious of foreign entanglements, conservative in fiscal policy, William Safire says it is often used to attack white Southern conservatives. The term is used broadly to degrade working class and rural whites that are perceived by urban progressives to be insufficiently liberal. At the same time, some white Southerners have reclaimed the word, using it with pride, the term characterized farmers having a red neck caused by sunburn from hours working in the fields. By 1900, rednecks was in use to designate the political factions inside the Democratic Party comprising poor white farmers in the South. The same group was often called the wool hat boys. Vardaman—chiefly poor white farmers—began to describe themselves proudly as rednecks, even to the point of wearing red neckerchiefs to political rallies, the term redneck in the early 20th century was occasionally used in reference to American coal miner union members who wore red bandannas for solidarity. The sense of a union man dates at least to the 1910s and was popular during the 1920s and 1930s in the coal-producing regions of West Virginia, Kentucky. It was also used by union strikers to describe poor white strikebreakers, writers Edward Abbey and Dave Foreman also use redneck as a political call to mobilize poor rural white Southerners. In Defense of the Redneck was an essay by Ed Abbey. Bumper sticker was Rednecks for Wilderness, murray Bookchin, an urban leftist and social ecologist, objected strongly to Earth First. s use of the term as at the very least, insensitive. But many members of the Southern community have embraced the term as a self-identifier. Johnny Russell was nominated for a Grammy Award in 1973 for his recording of Rednecks, White Socks and Blue Ribbon Beer, comedian Jeff Foxworthys 1993 comedy album You Might Be a Redneck If. cajoled listeners to evaluate their own behavior in the context of stereotypical redneck behavior. In Scotland in the 1640s, the Covenanters rejected rule by bishops, eventually, the term began to mean simply Presbyterian, especially in communities along the Scottish border. Because of the number of Scottish immigrants in the pre-revolutionary American South
Redneck
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Poor white sharecroppers in Alabama in 1936
Redneck
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Coal miners in soda fountain, Kentucky, 1946
42.
Newfoundland
–
Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
Newfoundland
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Churchill Falls in Labrador
Newfoundland
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Flag
Newfoundland
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The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct. It is represented in museum, historical and archeological records.
Newfoundland
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L'Anse aux Meadows on Newfoundland, site of a Norse colony
43.
Chink
–
Chink is an English-language ethnic slur usually referring to a person of Chinese ethnicity. The word is also sometimes used against people of East Asian appearance. Use of the term is considered offensive and has garnered a great deal of media attention. A number of dictionaries have provided different suggestions as to the origin of chink. Some of these suggestions are that it originated from the Chinese courtesy ching-ching, or that it evolved from the word China, or that it was an alteration of Qing, as in the Qing Dynasty. Another possible etymology is that chink evolved from the Indo-Iranian word for China, Chinks first usage is recorded from about 1880 but chinky had first appeared in print, as far as can be ascertained, in 1878. Chinky is still used in Britain as a nickname for Chinese food, around the turn of the 20th century, Chinese immigration was perceived as a threat to the living standards of whites in North America and other similar nations. However, a persistent labour shortage on the west coast meant that Chinese workers were still needed there, alaskan fish canneries were so short of workers, too, that appeals were submitted to Congress to amend the Exclusion Act. Usage of the continued, such as with the story The Chink. Griffith altered the story to be more sensitive and renamed it to Broken Blossoms. Although chink refers to those appearing to be of Chinese descent, during the Korean War and Vietnam War, the word was frequently used to refer to Korean and Vietnamese soldiers, with numerous examples of news reports attesting to this. In addition, literature and film about the Vietnam war also contain examples of usage of chink, including the 1986 film Platoon. Chink has been compared in degree of offensiveness to terms such as nigger, similar to the controversial reappropriation of the word nigger, the word chink has sometimes been used in a positive manner. For example, Leehom Wang, a Taiwanese American musician, named his Asian hip-hop fusion genre chinked-out in order to neutralize the term, eventually Wang hopes the term will become cool. As in other English-speaking countries, Chinese people are sometimes belittled in Australia, assaults on Chinese miners and racially motivated riots and public disturbances were not infrequent occurrences in Australias mining districts in the second half of the 19th century. In the popular Sydney Bulletin magazine in 1887, one wrote, No nigger, no chink, no lascar, no kanaka. Eventually, since-repealed federal government legislation was passed to restrict non-white immigration, in India, the ethnic slur chinki is frequently directed against people with Mongoloid features in general, including people from North-East India and Nepal, who are often mistaken as Chinese. The Ministry further warned that they would very seriously review any failure of the police to enforce this interpretation of the Act
Chink
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The Iron Chink, a machine that guts and cleans salmon for canning, alongside a Chinese fishplant worker, was marketed as a replacement for fish-butchers, who were primarily Chinese immigrants
44.
Coolie
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Coolie, during the 19th and early 20th century, was a term for an indentured servant indentured to a company, mainly from the South Asia or China. The origins of the word are uncertain but it is thought to have originated from the Tamil word for a payment for work, an alternative etymological explanation is that the word came from Hindustani word qulī, which itself could be from the Turkish word for slave, kul. The word was used in this sense for labourers from India, in 1727, Dr. Engelbert Kämpfer described coolies as dock labourers who would unload Dutch merchant ships at Nagasaki in Japan. The Chinese word 苦 力 means bitterly hard and is translated as bitter labour. Social and political pressure led to the abolition of the trade throughout the British Empire in 1807. Labour-intensive industries, such as cotton and sugar plantations, mines and railway construction, as a consequence, a large-scale slavery-like trade in Asian indentured labourers began in the 1820s to fill this vacuum. British companies were the first to experiment with this new form of cheap labour in 1807. The coolie trade was often compared to the slave trade. Although there are reports of ships for Asian coolies carrying women and children, the Chinese government also made efforts to secure the well-being of their nations workers, with representations being made to relevant governments around the world. The first shipment of Chinese labourers was to the British colony of Trinidad in 1806, the trade soon spread to other ports in Guangdong and demand became particularly strong in Peru for workers in the silver mines and the guano collecting industry. Australia began importing workers in 1848 and the United States began using them in 1865 on the First Transcontinental Railroad construction, the trade flourished from 1847 to 1854 without incident, until reports began to surface of the mistreatment of the workers in Cuba and Peru. As the British government had political and legal responsibility for many of the ports involved, including Amoy, however, the trade simply shifted to the more accommodating port in the Portuguese enclave of Macau. Many coolies were first deceived or kidnapped and then kept in barracoons or loading vessels in the ports of departure, in 1875, British commissioners estimated that approximately eighty percent of the workers had been abducted. Their voyages, which are called the Pacific Passage, were as inhumane. They were sold and were taken to work in plantations or mines with very bad living and working conditions, the duration of a contract was typically five to eight years, but many coolies did not live out their term of service because of the hard labour and mistreatment. Those who did live were often forced to remain in servitude beyond the contracted period, the coolies who worked on the sugar plantations in Cuba and in the guano beds of the Chincha Islands of Peru were treated brutally. Seventy-five percent of the Chinese coolies in Cuba died before fulfilling their contracts, more than two-thirds of the Chinese coolies who arrived in Peru between 1849 and 1874 died within the contract period. In 1860 it was calculated that of the 4000 coolies brought to the Chinchas since the trade began, because of these unbearable conditions, Chinese coolies often revolted against their Ko-Hung bosses and foreign company bosses at ports of departure, on ships, and in foreign lands
Coolie
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Coolie labourer in Zhenjiang, China, with bamboo pole to hoist and carry heavy loads.C. 1900
Coolie
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Illustration of the port of Amoy, where many Chinese labourers were shipped to foreign lands, by Edwin Joshua Dukes.
Coolie
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Chinese immigrant workers building the Transcontinental Railroad.
Coolie
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Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, a legal order approved by the Spanish Crown to encourage foreign settlement of the colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico.
45.
Shina (word)
–
Shina is a largely archaic Japanese name for China. The word was originally used neutrally in both Chinese and Japanese, but came to be perceived as derogatory by the Chinese during the course of the Sino-Japanese Wars. As a result, it fell into disuse following the Second World War, was replaced by chūgoku, the Sanskrit word Cina, for China, was transcribed into various forms including 支那, 芝那, 脂那 and 至那. Thus, the term Shina was initially created in Chinese as a transliteration of Cina and this term was in turn brought to Japan with the spread of Chinese Buddhism. Traditional etymology holds that the Sanskrit name derives from the Qin state or dynasty which ruled China in 221–206 BC. Thus, the Sanskrit name for Qin came back to China in a different form, just as Qin would be at the root of Middle Persian Čīn, and Latin Sina. In fact, before the Republican era, the term Shina was one of the names proposed as a generalized, basically neutral Western-influenced equivalent for China. Chinese revolutionaries, such as Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren, and Liang Qichao, used the term extensively, the term transcended politics, as it were, by avoiding reference to a particular dynasty or having to call China the country of the Qing. The Latin term for China was Sinae, plural of Sina, then he began to use this word for China regardless of dynasty. Since the Meiji Era, Shina had been used as the translation of the Western term China. For instance, Sinology was translated into Shinagaku, the First Sino-Japanese War caused the view that it had a negative nuance to gradually spread among the Chinese. Nevertheless, the continued to be more-or-less neutral. A Buddhist school called Zhīnà Nèixuéyuàn was established as late as in 1922 in Nanjing, in the meantime, Shina was used as commonly in Japanese as China in English. Derogatory nuances were expressed by adding extra adjectives, esp. pp. 76–79
Shina (word)
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A 1900 Japan Post 5-sen stamp with "Shina".
Shina (word)
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A Japanese illustration of 1914 depicting the nations as animals – with Russia as a bear smoking a pipe, "支那 China" as a pig consulting a barometer, India an elephant, Britain a carp, Germany a boar, etc.
Shina (word)
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A 1937 Japanese map of "Shina".
Shina (word)
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Asahi Shimbun reporting on the Shanghai incident of August 14, 1937, referring to the Republic of China as "Shina tyranny".
46.
Jjokbari
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Jjokbari is a Korean language ethnic slur which may refer to Japanese citizens or people of Japanese ancestry. According to one survey, it was Koreas second-most commonly used slur against Japanese people, ahead of wae-nom, jjok means a piece and bal means feet in Korean, and when combined it roughly translates to split feet or cloven hoof. This etymology refers to the fact that the Japanese wore geta, a traditional Japanese wooden sandal, unlike Korean-style straw shoes which completely cover the foot, Japanese-style straw shoes and wooden geta consist of only a sole and straps to bind it to the sole of the foot. This leaves the rest of the exposed, including the split between the toes. Koreans thought of Japanese shoes as compared to their own. Alternatively, jjokbari may came from the sound made by a person wearing geta when they are walking, a third theory explains that jjokbari could also mean pigs foot. This is from a comparison between the appearance of a pigs cloven hooves and the feet of a person wearing tabi or geta, the term has also been borrowed into Japanese language spoken by ethnic Koreans in Japan, where it is rendered Choppari. The Japanized pronunciation of this form, ban-choppari, is widely used by Koreans in Japan. Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea Anti-Japanese sentiment Zainichi Korean language Jap Xiao riben Guizi
Jjokbari
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A Korean language banner in 2005 reads: " Dokdo! Don't worry. The ghost and jjokbari-catching ROK Marines are here. — Local association of retired ROK Marines"
Jjokbari
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A pair of Japanese traditional footwear, geta. Geta separates thumb toe and the other four toes.
47.
Xiao Riben
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Xiao riben is a derogatory Chinese slang term for the Japanese people or a person of Japanese descent. Literally translated, it means Japanese runts or little Japanese or Puny Japanese and it is often used with gui zi or ghost/devil, such as Xiao ri ben gui zi or little Japanese ghost. It is regarded as an ethnic slur, anti-Japanese demonstrators used the term xiao riben during the 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations. On September 18,2012, anti-Japanese demonstrators held a sign saying 1.3 billion Chinese stamp on the Japanese runts in front of the Japanese embassy in Beijing, in Taiwan, anti-Japanese demonstrators also held signs that used the phrase xiao riben. The slang term was used at the Singaporean drama The Little Nyonya on Dai Xiangyus character, Yamamoto Yousuke, but not as an offensive term
Xiao Riben
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Anti-Japanese demonstrators hold a sign saying "[We] strongly condemn the Japanese!! (強烈譴責 小日本!!)" during the 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations in Taiwan
Xiao Riben
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On September 18, 2012, anti-Japanese demonstrators march with a banner saying "1.3 billion Chinese stamp on the Japanese runts" (13亿 中国人 踏平 小日本) in front of Japanese embassy in Beijing.
48.
Biharis
–
The Biharis is a demonym given to the people who live in the Indian state of Bihar and the adjoining regions of Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and the Terai region of Nepal. Bihari people can be separated into three ethnic groups, Bhojpuris, Maithils and Magahis with other smaller groups also being present. The main languages spoken are Bhojpuri, Maithili, Magahi, Angika, Bajjika, besides the state of Bihar, Biharis can be found throughout Purvanchal, North India, West Bengal, Assam, Maharashtra, and in the neighbouring countries of Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh. During the partition of India in 1947, many Bihari Muslims migrated to East Bengal, Bihari people are also well represented in Pakistans Muhajir people as a result of the partition of India, as well as the recent relocation of some Bihari refugees from Bangladesh to Pakistan. Mythological stories claim that Bihar was the place where Manu resided after the great flood, a king of the Yadus nicknamed Mahabali ruled over this last in ancient times. Mahabali had many wives and so Maharishi Dirghatamas with the permission of his king impregnated Mahabalis chief queen Sudeshna, queen Sudeshna bore five children or Kshetrajas, one of them was King Anga, which is modern-day Bihar. According to the historian Asim Maitra, the history of Magadha from the earliest times to the dawn of the Buddhist era is not well known. The Vedas display open hostility and disgust towards Magadha because it was a stronghold of the non-Aryans. Before the discovery of the ruins of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, modern Bihar is a combination of two great ancient kingdoms, Magadha and Mithila. From Magadha arose two traditions, Jainism and Buddhism, the first Indian empires, the Nanda Empire, and the Maurya Empire, originated from Magadha, with their capital at Pataliputra in 325 BCE. Mithila is known for its traditions, education and culture. Four of the schools of Indian philosophy - Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā. Vidyapati and his work shaped the language and culture of the entirety of eastern India, comprising Bengal, Assam, Odisha and it is believed that Mithila became the power centre of India in the later Vedic Period under the rule of Janaks. Sita, the daughter of one of the Janaks of Mithila is mentioned as the consort of Lord Rama in the Hindu epic Ramayana, the Maurya emperor Ashoka is believed to be one of the greatest rulers in the history of India and the world. According to indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham, The age in which true history appeared in India was one of intellectual and spiritual ferment. It produced not only philosophers and ascetics, but also merchant princes, Bihar remained an important place of power, culture and education during the next one thousand years. The Gupta Empire, which originated from Magadha in 240, is referred to as the Golden Age of India in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours, historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside the Han and China and the Roman Empire as a model of a classical civilisation
Biharis
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Coin of Samudragupta
Biharis
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Bihar, the state in northern India where majority of Bihari People live
49.
Bengali Hindus
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Bengali Hindus are ethnic Bengali adherents of Hinduism, and are native to the Bengal region of the Indian Subcontinent. Bengali Hindus speak Bengali, which belongs to the Indo-Aryan language family and adhere to the Shakta and Vaishnava traditions of their native religion, Hinduism. Bengali Hindus also form a majority of 60% in the Indian state of Tripura, due to migrations from East Pakistan. There are significant numbers of Bengali-speaking Hindus in many states of India, including Assam, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Jharkhand, Odisha, and the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Around the 8th century, the Bengali language branched off from Magadhi Prakrit, during the Sena period the Bengali culture developed into a distinct culture within the Hindu civilization. Bengali Hindus were at the forefront of the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th century, the Bengal region was noted for its participation in struggle for the independence from the British rule. At the time of independence of India in 1947, the province of Bengal was partitioned between India and East Pakistan, part of the Muslim-majority state of Pakistan, millions of Bengali Hindus migrated from East Bengal and settled in West Bengal and other states of India. The migration continued in waves through the fifties and sixties, especially during the 1950 East Pakistan genocide, in 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War, an estimated 2.4 million Bengali Hindus were massacred by the Pakistani army. Estimats for the number of people killed by Pakistan Army range from 300,000 to 3,000,000. The Hindus are a group, native to the Indian subcontinent, speaking a broad range of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages and adhering to the native belief systems. The word Hindu is popularly believed to be a Persian exonym for the native to the Indian subcontinent. The word is derived from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name for the river Indus, the Hindus are constituted into various ethno-linguistic subgroups, which in spite of being culturally diverse, share a common bond of unity. The word Bengali is an English exonym for the native Bengali word bangali, according to Harivamsa, Bali, the king of the asuras had five sons from his wife Sudeshna through sage Dirghatama. The five sons namely Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Pundra, the Bengali Hindu people belong to the broader Hindu people of India. In India, they tend to themselves as Bengalis while in Bangladesh they tend to identify themselves as Hindus. In the global context, the terms Indian Bengali and Bangladeshi Hindu are respectively used, in India, Bengali generally refers to Bengali Hindus, excluding a significant number of Bengali Muslims who are also ethnically Bengalis. The Bengali Hindus constitute of numerous endogamous castes, which are further subdivided into endogamous subgroups. The caste system evolved over centuries and became more and more complex with time, in the medieval period, several castes were boycotted by the ruling classes from time to time and this isolation continued till the 19th century
Bengali Hindus
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Dancing Ganesha sculpture from North Bengal, 11th century AD, Asian Art Museum of Berlin (Dahlem)
Bengali Hindus
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The Bengali Hindu Swastika
Bengali Hindus
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Swami Vivekananda was a leading figure of the Renaissance who promoted India and Hinduism to the world
Bengali Hindus
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Savitri-Satyavan story on Kalighat Painting, 3rd quarter of the 19th century.
50.
Farang
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Farang is a generic Thai word for someone of European ancestry, no matter where they may come from. The Royal Institute Dictionary 1999, the dictionary of Thai words. Edmund Roberts, US envoy in 1833, defined the term as Frank, people of mixed sub-Saharan African-European descent were called farang dam to distinguish them from white people. This began during the Vietnam War, when the United States military maintained bases in Thailand, the practice continues in present-day Bangkok. Because the Frankish Empire ruled a part of Europe for centuries, all Europeans. Frangistan was a used by Muslims and Persians in particular, during the Middle Ages and later periods. According to Rashid al-din Fazl Allâh, farang comes from the Arabic word afranj, in Ethiopia faranj means white/European people. In either case, the word was pronounced paranki in Malayalam, parangiar in Tamil, entered Khmer as barang. From there the term spread into China as folangji, which was used to refer to the Portuguese and their breech-loading swivel guns when they first arrived in China. Farang is also the Thai word for the fruit, introduced by Portuguese traders over 400 years ago. Farang khi nok is a variety of guava, feijoa. Scruffy Westerners, especially backpackers, may also be called farang khi nok. This means bird-shit farang, as khi means waste and nok means bird, but, while khi nok may mean guano, it is also a species of fish, Diagramma pictum, varieties of food/produce that were introduced by Europeans are often called farang varieties. Hence, potatoes are man farang, whereas man alone can be any tuber, culantro is called phak chi farang, mak is Thai for arecanut, chewing mak together with betel leaves was a Thai tradition. In the Isan Lao dialect, the guava is called mak sida, thus bak sida, bak being a prefix when calling males, refers jokingly to a Westerner, by analogy to the Thai language where farang can mean both guava and Westerner. In the Maldives Faranji was the used to refer to foreigners of European origin. Until recently the lane next to the Bastion in the shore of Male was called Faranji Kalō Gōlhi. From Isfahan to Ayutthaya, Contacts between Iran and Siam in the 17th Century, with a foreword by Professor Ehsan Yarshater, Columbia University, New York
Farang
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The tourist hub of Bangkok's Khaosan Road is associated with farang.
Farang
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Farang statue in Wat Pho, Bangkok, Thailand
51.
Albanians
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Albanians are an ethnic group, native to Albania, Kosovo and neighboring countries. The term is used to refer to the citizens of the Republic of Albania. Ethnic Albanians speak the Albanian language and more than half of ethnic Albanians live in Albania, a large Albanian population lives in the Republic of Macedonia and Italy, with smaller Albanian populations located in Serbia and Montenegro. The majority of Albanians are nominally Muslims, and a minority are nominally Christians, during the 17th and 18th century Albanians in large numbers converted to Islam, often to escape higher taxes levied on Christian subjects. As Muslims, some Albanians attained important political and military positions within the Ottoman Empire, Albania gained its independence in 1912 and between 1945–1992, Albanians lived under a repressive communist regime. Between the 11th and 18th centuries, sizable numbers of Albanians migrated from the area of contemporary Albania to escape either various socio-political difficulties and/or the Ottoman conquest. Another population, who became the Arbëreshë settled in southern Italy and form the oldest continuous Albanian diaspora producing influential, smaller populations dating to migrations during the 18th century are located on Croatias Dalmatian coast and scattered communities across southern Ukraine. The Albanian diaspora also exists in a number of other countries, one of these is located in Turkey. Due to the Ottoman legacy, smaller populations of Albanians also exist in Egypt, in Western countries, a large and influential Albanian population exists in the United States formed from continuous emigration dating back to the 19th century. The Albanians and their country Albania have been identified by many ethnonyms, from these ethnonyms, names for Albanians were also derived in other languages that were or still are in use. The term for a people located in the area of contemporary Albania is first encountered in the works of Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates. He referred to them as Albanoi having taken part in a revolt against the Byzantine Empire in 1043 and these references have been disputed as to whether they refer to Albanians in an ethnic sense. A later reference to Albanians from the same Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed. In later Byzantine usage, the terms Arbanitai and Albanoi with a range of variants were used interchangeably, the first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century. The ethnonym Albanian has been hypothesized to be connected to and stem from the Albanoi, linguists believe that the alb part in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, of which other words such as alps is derived from. Through the root word alban and its rhotacized equivalents arban, albar, and arbar, the Albanian language was referred to as Arbnisht and Arbërisht. Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym, one, derived from the etymology from the Albanian word for eagle, in Albanian folk etymology, this word denotes a bird totem, dating from the times of Skanderbeg as displayed on the Albanian flag. The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb to speak from the Latin excipere, in this instance the Albanian endonym like Slav and others would originally have been a term connoting those who speak
Albanians
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Albanian warrior costume in 1913
Albanians
Albanians
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Albanians in Europe.
Albanians
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Et'hem Bey Mosque in Tirana
52.
Baltic Finns
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In some cases the Kvens, Ingrians, Tornedalians and speakers of Meänkieli are also included separately rather than being a part of Finns proper. The bulk of the Baltic Finns are ethnic Finns and Estonians, Baltic Finns are also significant minority groups in neighbouring countries of Sweden, Norway and Russia. The Migration Theory has been called into question since 1980, based on genealogy, craniometry, the Settlement Continuity Theory asserts that at least the genetic ancestors of the Finno-Ugric peoples were among the earliest indigenous peoples of Europe. The origin of the people who lived in the Baltic Sea area during the Mesolithic Era continues to be debated by scientists, the members of this new Finno-Ugric-speaking ethnic group are regarded as the ancestors of modern Estonians. The Y-chromosomal data has revealed a common Finno-Ugric ancestry for the males of the neighboring Balts. According to the studies, Baltic males are most closely related to the Finno-Ugric-speaking Volga Finns such as the Mari, the results suggest that the territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have been settled by Finno-Ugric-speaking tribes since the early Mesolithic period. On the other hand, some linguists do not consider it likely that a Baltic-Finnic language form could have existed at such an early date, according to these views, the Finno-Ugric languages appeared in Finland and Baltic only during the Early Bronze Age, if not later. The Baltic Finns share a cultural heritage, the art of ancient rune singing in the Kalevala meter, estimated to be 2. The Veps are the only Baltic Finnish people with no significant corpus of Kalevala meter oral poetry, the poetic tradition has included epic poems, lyric poems and magic chants. J. R. R. Tolkien has highlighted the importance of Kalevala as a source for his legendarium, the region has been populated since the end of the last glacial era, about 10,000 BC. The earliest traces of settlement are connected with Suomusjärvi culture. The Early Mesolithic Pulli settlement is located by the Pärnu River and it has been dated to the beginning of the 9th millennium BC. The Kunda Culture received its name from the Lammasmäe settlement site in northern Estonia, bone and stone artefacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern Lithuania and southern Finland. Around 5300 BCE pottery and agriculture entered Finland, the earliest representatives belong to the Comb Ceramic Cultures, known for their distinctive decorating patterns. Some researchers have argued that a form of Uralic languages may have been spoken in Estonia. The beginning of the Bronze Age in Estonia is dated to approximately 1800 BC, the coastal regions of Finland were a part of the Nordic Bronze Culture, whereas in the inland regions the influences came from the bronze-using cultures of Northern Russia. The development of the borders between the Finnic peoples and the Balts was under way, the first fortified settlements, Asva and Ridala on the island of Saaremaa and Iru in the Northern Estonia, began to be built. The development of shipbuilding facilitated the spread of bronze, the Pre-Roman Iron Age began in about 500 BC and lasted until the middle of the 1st century
Baltic Finns
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Baltic Finns in The Races of Europe by William Z. Ripley in 1899.
53.
Scottish Highlanders
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The Highlands are a historic region of Scotland. Culturally, the Highlands and the Lowlands diverged from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, the term is also used for the area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, although the exact boundaries are not clearly defined, particularly to the east. The Great Glen divides the Grampian Mountains to the southeast from the Northwest Highlands, the Scottish Gaelic name of A Ghàidhealtachd literally means the place of the Gaels and traditionally, from a Gaelic-speaking point of view, includes both the Western Isles and the Highlands. The area is sparsely populated, with many mountain ranges dominating the region. At 9.1 per km2 in 2012, the density in the Highlands and Islands is less than one seventh of Scotlands as a whole, comparable with that of Bolivia, Chad. The Highland Council is the body for much of the Highlands. However, the Highlands also includes parts of the areas of Aberdeenshire, Angus, Argyll and Bute, Moray, North Ayrshire, Perth & Kinross, Stirling. The Scottish highlands is the area in the British Isles to have the Taiga biome as it features concentrated populations of Scots pine forest. Between the 15th century and the 20th century, the area differed from most of the Lowlands in terms of language. In Scottish Gaelic, the region is known as the Gàidhealtachd, because it was traditionally the Gaelic-speaking part of Scotland, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably but have different meanings in their respective languages. Scottish English is the predominant language of the area today, though Highland English has been influenced by Gaelic speech to a significant extent, historically, the Highland line distinguished the two Scottish cultures. Most of this legislation was repealed by the end of the 18th century as the Jacobite threat subsided, there was soon a rehabilitation of Highland culture. Tartan was adopted for Highland regiments in the British Army, which poor Highlanders joined in large numbers in the era of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Tartan had largely abandoned by the ordinary people of the region, but in the 1820s, tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland. The international craze for tartan, and for idealising a romanticised Highlands, was set off by the Ossian cycle, individual clan tartans were largely designated in this period and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity. The period of the Napoleonic wars brought prosperity, optimism, the economy grew thanks to wages paid in industries such as kelping, fisheries, and weaving, as well as large-scale infrastructure spending such as the Caledonian Canal project. On the East Coast, farmlands were improved, and high prices for cattle brought money to the area, Service in the Army was also attractive to young men from the Highlands, who sent pay home and retired there with their army pensions. This prosperity ended after 1815, and long-term negative factors began to undermine the position of the poor tenant farmers, who typically rented a few acres
Scottish Highlanders
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Loch Long
Scottish Highlanders
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Lowland-Highland divide
Scottish Highlanders
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Inverness, the administrative centre and traditional capital of the Highlands
Scottish Highlanders
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Ben Nevis from the path to the CIC Hut alongside the Allt a' Mhuilinn
54.
Fenian
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The term Fenian is still used today, in Northern Ireland and less so in Scotland, where its original meaning has widened to include all supporters of anything Irish. It has also used as a demeaning term for Irish people of the Catholic faith. Fenianism, according to OMahony, is symbolised by two principles, firstly, that Ireland has a right to independence, and secondly. The term Fenianism was sometimes used by the establishment in the 1860s for any form of mobilisation among the Irish or those who expressed any Irish nationalist sentiments. They warned people about this threat to turn decent civilised society on its head such as that posed by trade unionism to the social order in the United Kingdom. James Stephens, one of the Men of 1848, had established himself in Paris and this would include the Phoenix National and Literary Society, with Jeremiah ODonovan among its more prominent members, had recently been formed at Skibbereen. Along with Thomas Clarke Luby, John OLeary and Charles Kickham he founded the Irish Republican Brotherhood on 17 March 1858 in Lombard Street, the Fenian Rising in 1867 proved to be a doomed rebellion, poorly organised and with minimal public support. The Fenian Brotherhood, the Irish Republican Brotherhoods US branch, was founded by John OMahony and Michael Doheny, in the face of nativist suspicion, it quickly established an independent existence, although it still worked to gain Irish American support for armed rebellion in Ireland. Initially, OMahony ran operations in the US, sending funds to Stephens, the US chapter of the movement was also sometimes referred to as the IRB. After the failed invasion of Canada, it was replaced by Clan na Gael, in Canada, Fenian is used to designate a group of Irish radicals, a. k. a. the American branch of the Fenian Brotherhood in the 1860s. They made several attempts to invade parts of the British colonies of New Brunswick and Canada. The ultimate goal of the Fenian raids was to hold Canada hostage, because of the invasion attempts, support and/or collaboration for the Fenians in Canada became very rare even among the Irish. Francis Bernard McNamee, the man who started the Fenian movement in Montreal, was a case in point, in public, he proclaimed his loyalty to the queen and called for an Irish militia company to defend Canada against the Fenians. The Fenians in England and the Empire were a threat to political stability. In the late 1860s the IRB control centre was in Lancashire, in 1868 the Supreme Council of the IRB, the provisional government of the Irish Republic, was restructured. The four Irish provinces, Connacht, Leinster, Ulster and Munster, Scotland, the north of England, later four honorary members were co-opted. The Council elected three members to the executive, the President was chairman, the Treasurer managed recruitment and finance and the Secretary was director of operations. There were IRB Circles in every city in England
Fenian
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Supplement given with the Weekly Freeman of October 1883
Fenian
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John O'Mahony
Fenian
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James Stephens
Fenian
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Fenian convicts escape from Fremantle in the 1876 Catalpa rescue.
55.
Tadhg
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Tadhg, is an Irish and Scottish Gaelic masculine name that was very common when the Gaelic languages predominated, to the extent that it is a synecdoche for Irish Gaelic man. The name signifies poet or philosopher and this was also the name of many Gaelic Irish kings from the 10th to the 16th centuries, particularly in Connacht and Munster. Tadhg is most common in south-west Ireland, particularly in County Cork, the name has enjoyed a surge in popularity recently, in 2005 it was the 69th most common name for baby boys and in 2010 the 40th, according to the Central Statistics Office in Ireland. In the form Taig the name is used as a term of abuse for an Irish Catholic. The commonly accepted meaning of Tadhg is poet or storyteller, the ultimate derivation is from the Celtic *tazgo-, who were poets in early Celtic society. In any case, the name element Tasgo-, Tasco-, or Taxo- is widely attested in Gaulish. When the whole of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, due to similarity in sound, Tadhg is often listed as an Irish equivalent of the Judeo-Christian names Thaddeus, Timothy or sometimes Thomas, but these names are not actually related. The name is also spelled Taḋg in the Irish uncial alphabet with an overdot over the d to indicate it is lenited, Tadhg has been popularly anglicized as Tighe and Teague. Alternative spellings are Tadgh, Taigh, Taidgh, the name is found once in an Old Norse Viking source spelled as Taðkr. Tadhg is also a synecdoche and was once so common as an Irish name that it became synonymous with the typical Irishman in the way that Paddy or Mick might be today. In 1698, John Dunton wrote an account of Ireland. Thereafter, the use of the term was frequent. However, there is evidence from this era of the name continued to be used as a source of pride for assertive Gaelic Irish people. Most probably a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish Teagues, extremist loyalists have also used in graffiti slogans such as Kill All Taigs and All Taigs Are Targets. Keanes 1965 play The Field, has a character named Tadhg McCabe, list of Irish-language given names Dictionary definition of Taig
Tadhg
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KAT (Kill All Taigs) and Ulster Defence Association graffiti in the loyalist Fountain area of Derry
56.
Irish Catholic
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Irish Catholics are people who are Catholic and Irish. Divisions between Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants played a role in the history of Ireland from the 16th to the 20th century, especially the Home Rule Crisis. While religion broadly marks the delineation of these divisions, the contentions were primarily political, in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 Catholics and Presbyterians, who were not part of the established Church of Ireland, found common cause. Irish Catholics are found in countries around the world, especially in the English-speaking world. Emigration following the Famine in the late 1840s saw the population drop from over 8 million to just over 4 million, today, Irish Catholics are very well established in the United States and are part of mainstream American society. Endnotes Library of Congress The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America, describes the book ISBN 0-8132-0896-3 St. Colman Mac Duagh On Irish Catholics of Australia
Irish Catholic
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Celtic cross
57.
Guido (slang)
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Guido /ˈɡwiːdoʊ/ is a slang term, often derogatory, for a working-class urban Italian American. Originally, it was used as a term for Italian Americans in general. More recently, it has come to refer to Italian Americans who conduct themselves in a macho manner. The time period in which it obtained the meaning is not clear. The term is not currently used in Italy, the word guido is derived from either the proper name Guido or the verb guidare. Fishermen of Italian descent were often called Guidos in medieval times. The term is used in areas associated with large Italian-American populations, such as New York City, Ohio, Connecticut, Philadelphia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island. In other areas, terms such as Mario and Gino have a similar to guido. Although some Italians self-identify as guidos, the term is considered derogatory or an ethnic slur. MTV caused controversy in 2009 when they used the term in promotions for the reality television show Jersey Shore and this spurred objections from Italian-American organizations such as Unico National, NIAF, the Order Sons of Italy in America, and the Internet watchdog organization ItalianAware. Slicked-back hair and pompadours, blowouts, tapers, poofs, quiffs, fades, List of ethnic slurs List of ethnic slurs by ethnicity Jersey Shore Goombah Wog Wop Guappo Dago Guinea Greaser
Guido (slang)
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Self-proclaimed guido Michael Sorrentino from Jersey Shore, wearing typical clothing associated with the subculture: gold chain, black leather jacket, and quiff.
58.
Southern Italy
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It generally coincides with the administrative regions of Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, Sicily, and Sardinia. Some also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio within the Mezzogiorno, Southern Italy carries a unique legacy of culture. It features many major tourist attractions, such as the Palace of Caserta, there are also many ancient Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as Sybaris, which were founded several centuries before the start of the Roman Republic. These same subdivisions are at the bottom of the Italian First level NUTS of the European Union, the term Mezzogiorno first came into use in the 18th century and is an Italian rendition of meridies. The term was popularised by Giuseppe Garibaldi and it eventually came into vogue after the Italian unification. In a similar manner, Southern France is colloquially known as le Midi, Southern Italy forms the lower part of the Italian boot, containing the ankle, the toe, the arch, and the heel, along with the island of Sicily. Separating the heel and the boot is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto and it is an arm of the Ionian Sea. The island of Sardinia, right below the French island of Corsica, on the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan Gulf and on the south of the Sorrentine Peninsula runs the Amalfi Coast, off the tip of the peninsula is the isle of Capri. The climate is mainly Mediterranean, except at the highest elevations and the eastern stretches in Apulia, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria. The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, a name from the Greek that it has maintained for millennia. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia, and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area. The region is very active and highly seismic, the 1980 Irpinia earthquake killed 2,914 people, injured more than 10,000. Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and they included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. The Romans called the area of Sicily and the foot of Italy, Magna Graecia, the ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions. With this colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, an original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like Neapolis, Syracuse, Acragas, other cities in Magna Graecia included Tarentum, Epizephyrian Locri, Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Syessa, Bari, and others. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BCE, from then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between Greece, Lombardy, and the Islamic Caliphate
Southern Italy
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Satellite image of Southern Italy
Southern Italy
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Greek temple of Hera, Selinunte, Sicily.
Southern Italy
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Castel del Monte, built by Frederick II between 1240 and 1250 in Andria, Apulia.
Southern Italy
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Castel Nuovo, Naples: initiated by the Anjou, it was heavily altered as it served as Spanish headquarters until the 18th century.
59.
Katsap
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Moskal is a historical designation used for the residents of the Grand Duchy of Moscow between the 12 and the 18 centuries. Today it has become an ethnic slur referring to the Russians living in Russia used in Ukraine, Belarus, the term is frequently derogatory or condescending, an equivalent of the Russian term Khokhol for Ukrainians. Another ethnic slur, katsap is insulting and means goatee beard, another version is that the word katsap comes from the Crimean kasab, because Muscovite soldiers carried large axes, which made them look like butchers. Initially, as early as the 12th century, moskal referred to the residents of Moscovia, with time, the word became an archaism in all the East Slavic languages, and survived only as a family name in each of those languages — see below. The negative connotation, however, came in around the late 18th-early 19th centuries in the form of an ethnic slur labelling all Russians. Because most of them, after serving in the Army, kept speaking in Russian beyond demobilization, moskal is a stock character of the traditional Ukrainian puppet theatre form, vertep. Moskaliki is a Ukrainian designation for small fish typically used as bait or as a casual snack and it also gave rise to a number of East Slavic family names. Anti-Russian sentiment in Ukraine Khokhol Citizenship of Russia / Search query in Russian-Ukrainian dictionaries
Katsap
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Text in Ukrainian on a white T-shirt: "Thank God I am not a moskal"
60.
Moskal
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Moskal is a historical designation used for the residents of the Grand Duchy of Moscow between the 12 and the 18 centuries. Today it has become an ethnic slur referring to the Russians living in Russia used in Ukraine, Belarus, the term is frequently derogatory or condescending, an equivalent of the Russian term Khokhol for Ukrainians. Another ethnic slur, katsap is insulting and means goatee beard, another version is that the word katsap comes from the Crimean kasab, because Muscovite soldiers carried large axes, which made them look like butchers. Initially, as early as the 12th century, moskal referred to the residents of Moscovia, with time, the word became an archaism in all the East Slavic languages, and survived only as a family name in each of those languages — see below. The negative connotation, however, came in around the late 18th-early 19th centuries in the form of an ethnic slur labelling all Russians. Because most of them, after serving in the Army, kept speaking in Russian beyond demobilization, moskal is a stock character of the traditional Ukrainian puppet theatre form, vertep. Moskaliki is a Ukrainian designation for small fish typically used as bait or as a casual snack and it also gave rise to a number of East Slavic family names. Anti-Russian sentiment in Ukraine Khokhol Citizenship of Russia / Search query in Russian-Ukrainian dictionaries
Moskal
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Text in Ukrainian on a white T-shirt: "Thank God I am not a moskal"
Moskal
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M. Fartukh, " Moskals destroy Kiev ", illustration from an 1934 history textbook referring to the destruction of Kiev in 1169)
61.
Vlachs
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Vlachs were initially identified and described during the 11th century by George Kedrenos. According to one theory, the Vlachs originated from Latinized Dacians. Nearly all Central and Southeastern European countries have sizable native Vlach minorities, as it is currently the case in Hungary, in Ukraine, in Serbia, in Croatia, in other countries, the Vlachs have assimilated in the local Slavic population. The term Vlach was also used for shepherds, like in mountains of Herzegovina region of Bosnia. Nowadays, Eastern Romance-speaking communities number around 24.19 million people, the word Vlach is of Germanic origin, an early loanword into Proto-Slavic from Germanic *Walhaz and used by ancient Germanic peoples for their Romance-speaking and Celtic neighbours. *Walhaz was evidently borrowed from the name of a Celtic tribe, known to the Romans as Volcae in the writings of Julius Caesar and to the Greeks as Ouólkai in texts by Strabo, Vlach is thus of the same origin as European ethnic names including the Welsh and Walloons. The word passed to the Slavs and from them to other peoples, such as the Hungarians and Byzantines, the Polish word for Italian has the same origin, as does the Slovenian, vaguely-derogatory lah. The Italian-speaking region south of the South Tyrol, now Trentino in Italy, was known as Welschtirol in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a 586 Byzantine chronicle of an incursion against the Avars in the eastern Balkans may have one of the earliest references to Vlachs. In the account, when carried by a mule slipped the muleteer shouted, Torna, torna. Byzantine historians used the Germanic Vlachs for Latin speakers, particularly Romanians, traveller Benjamin of Tudela of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population. According to 10th century Arab chronicler Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks, Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon, described a 1066 Roman revolt in northern Greece. Between the 12th and 14th centuries they were ruled by the Kingdom of Hungary, the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars in 1166. In the 13th century, the Asen royal family were the founders and rulers of the Vlach-Bulgarian kingdom, in 1213 an army of Romans, Transylvanian Saxons, and Pechenegs, led by Ioachim of Sibiu, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin. After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania, at the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon de Kéza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns. Archaeological discoveries indicate that Transylvania was gradually settled by the Magyars, shortly after the fall of the Olt region, a church was built at the Cârța Monastery and Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley began to settle in the Orthodox region. In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, the Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum. In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River, a town, Baia, was documented in 1300 as settled by the Transylvanian Saxons. The Eastern Romance peoples refers to the Eastern Romance-speaking peoples, primarily the nations of Romanians and Moldovans and these two peoples had before Soviet rule been regarded part of one and the same, Romanian people
Vlachs
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Writ issued on 14 October 1465 by Wallachian voivode Radu cel Frumos from his residence in Bucharest
Vlachs
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Map of the Balkans, with significant populations of Vlachs (or Romanians) highlighted
Vlachs
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The Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions
Vlachs
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Vlach (Romanian) branches and their territories
62.
Serbs
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The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group that formed in the Balkans. The majority of Serbs inhabit the state of Serbia, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. They form significant minorities in Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia, there is a large Serb diaspora in Western Europe, and outside Europe there are significant communities in North America and Australia. The Serbs share many traits with the rest of the peoples of Southeast Europe. They are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christians by religion, the Serbian language is official in Serbia, co-official in Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and is spoken by the majority in Montenegro. The modern identity of Serbs is rooted in Eastern Orthodoxy and traditions, in the 19th century, the Serbian national identity was manifested, with awareness of history and tradition, medieval heritage, cultural unity, despite living under different empires. When the Principality of Serbia gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, Orthodoxy became crucial in defining the national identity, instead of language which was shared by other South Slavs. The tradition of slava, the family saint feast day, is an important ethnic marker of Serb identity, the origin of the ethnonym is unclear. Serbia has among the tallest people in the world, after Montenegro and Netherlands, Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Up until the late 560s their activity was raiding, crossing from the Danube, the Danube and Sava frontier was overwhelmed by large-scale Slavic settlement in the late 6th and early 7th century. What is today central Serbia was an important geo-strategical province, through which the Via Militaris crossed and this area was frequently intruded by barbarians in the 5th and 6th centuries. The numerous Slavs mixed with and assimilated the descendants of the indigenous population, numerous small Serbian states were created, located in modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. With the decline of the Serbian state of Duklja in the late 11th century, Raška separated from it, prince Stefan Nemanja conquered the neighbouring territories of Kosovo, Duklja and Zachlumia. The Nemanjić dynasty ruled over Serbia until the 14th century, over the next 140 years, Serbia expanded its borders. Its cultural model remained Byzantine, despite political ambitions directed against the empire, the medieval power and influence of Serbia culminated in the reign of Stefan Dušan, who ruled the state from 1331 until his death in 1355. Ruling as Emperor from 1346, his territory included Macedonia, northern Greece, Montenegro, when Dušan died, his son Stephen Uroš V became Emperor. With the death of two important Serb leaders in the battle, and with the death of Stephen Uroš that same year, hrebeljanović was subsequently accepted as the titular leader of the Serbs because he was married to a member of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1389, the Serbs faced the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo on the plain of Kosovo Polje, both Lazar and Sultan Murad I were killed in the fighting
Serbs
Serbs
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The 1389 Battle of Kosovo is considered as one of the most influential events in the history of the Serbs.
Serbs
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Serbian Army during its retreat towards Albania; more than a million Serbs died during World War I.
Serbs
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Serbian civilians interned in Jasenovac concentration camp, 1942
63.
Dutch people
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The Dutch, occasionally referred to as Netherlanders—a term that is cognate to the Dutch word for Dutch people, Nederlanders—are a Germanic ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a culture and speak the Dutch language. The high degree of urbanization characteristic of Dutch society was attained at an early date. During the Republic the first series of large scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place, despite the small size of the Netherlands, the Dutch left behind a legacy in excess of their mere numbers. The traditional art and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of music, dances, architectural styles and clothing. Internationally, Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Gogh are held in high regard, the dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity, although in modern times the majority is no longer religious. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality, as with all ethnic groups the ethnogenesis of the Dutch has been a lengthy and complex process. The text below hence focuses on the history of the Dutch ethnic group, for Dutch national history, for Dutch colonial history, see the article on the Dutch Empire. Following the end of the period in the West around 500, with large federations settling the decaying Roman Empire. In the Low Countries, this began when the Franks, themselves a union of multiple smaller tribes. Eventually, in 358, the Salian Franks, one of the three main subdivisions among the Frankish alliance settled the areas Southern lands as foederati, Roman allies in charge of border defense. On a political level, the Frankish warlords abandoned tribalism and founded a number of kingdoms, however, the population make-up of the Frankish Empire, or even early Frankish kingdoms such as Neustria and Austrasia, was not dominated by Franks. Though the Frankish leaders controlled most of Western Europe, the Franks themselves were confined to the Northwestern part of the Empire, the current Dutch-French language border has remained virtually identical ever since, and could be seen as marking the furthest pale of gallicization among the Franks. The medieval cities of the Low Countries, which experienced major growth during the 11th and 12th century, were instrumental in breaking down the already relatively loose local form of feudalism, as they became increasingly powerful, they used their economical strength to influence the politics of their nobility. While the cities were of political importance, they also formed catalysts for medieval Dutch culture. The various city guilds as well as the necessity of water boards in the Dutch delta and it is also around this time, that ethnonyms such as Diets and Nederlands emerge. This process marked a new episode in the development of the Dutch ethnic group, as now political unity started to emerge, consolidating the strengthened cultural, despite their linguistic and cultural unity, and economic similarities, there was still little sense of political unity among the Dutch people. However, the centralist policies of Burgundy in the 14th and 15th centuries, at first violently opposed by the cities of the Low Countries, had a profound impact and changed this
Dutch people
Dutch people
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The conversion of the Frankish king Clovis to Christianity would have great significance in helping shape the identity of the future Dutch people.
Dutch people
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The Act of Abjuration, signed on July 26, 1581, was the formal declaration of independence of the Dutch Low Countries.
Dutch people
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A typical November scene in the Dutch town Middelburg, Netherlands
64.
Estonians
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Estonians are a Finnic ethnic group related to the Finns that mainly inhabit Estonia, a country located south of Finland and the Finnish Gulf. Their national language belongs to Finnic branch and is known as Estonian, Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, just after the Baltic ice lake had retreated from Estonia. Living in the area for more than 5,000 years would put the ancestors of Estonians among the oldest permanent inhabitants in Europe. On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that Fenno-Ugrian language arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians is Maarahvas. Eesti, the endonym of Estonia, is thought to be derived from the word Aestii. The Roman historian Tacitus in 98 AD was the first to mention the Aestii people, and early Scandinavians called the south of the Gulf of Finland Eistland. Proto-Estonians were also called Chuds in Old East Slavic chronicles, the Estonian language belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic family of languages, as does the Finnish language. The first known book in Estonian was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles, Estonians are genetically closest to their neighbouring Tver region Russians and Latvians. However, Estonians are still the nearest genetic relatives of Finns, although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the Estonian national awakening, some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development. By the 18th century the self-denomination eestlane spread among Estonians along with the older maarahvas, anton thor Helles translation of the Bible into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Kristjan Jaak Peterson and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, the ruling elites had remained predominantly German in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony, before the attempts at Russification in the 1880s, their view of Imperial Russia remained positive. Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries stemming from important cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Scandinavian and German rule, indeed, Estonians consider themselves Nordic rather than Baltic, in particular because of close ethnic and linguistic affinities with the Finns. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920, in sum,37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia. During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991 and this is at least partly due to the easy access to oscillating migration to Finland. Recognising the problems arising from low birth rate and high emigration, the country has launched various measures to both increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia
Estonians
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Marie Under
Estonians
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Estonian national costumes: 1. Kadrina 2. Mihkli 3. Seto 4. Paistu
Estonians
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Jaan Kross
Estonians
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Arvo Pärt
65.
Shi'ites
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
Shi'ites
Shi'ites
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The Investiture of Ali at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)
Shi'ites
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The Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala, Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.
66.
Falasha
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Most of these peoples have emigrated to Israel since the late 20th century. Beta Israel lived in northern and northwestern Ethiopia, in more than 500 small villages spread over a territory, alongside populations that were Muslim. The Beta Israel made renewed contacts with other Jewish communities in the later 20th century, after Halakhic and constitutional discussions, Israeli officials decided on March 14,1977, that the Israeli Law of Return applied to the Beta Israel. The Israeli and American governments mounted aliyah operations to transport the people to Israel and these activities included Operation Brothers in Sudan between 1979 and 1990, and in the 1990s from Addis Ababa. Throughout its history, the community has been referred to by numerous names and this name contrasts with Beta Kristiyan. It did not originally have negative connotations, and the community has since used Beta Israel as its official name, since the 1980s, it has also become the official name used in the scholarly and scientific literature to refer to the community. The term Esraelawi Israelites—which is related to the name Beta Israel—is also used by the community to refer to its members, the name Ayhud Jews is rarely used in the community, as the Christians had used it as a derogatory term. The community has begun to use it only since strengthening ties with other Jewish communities in the 20th century, the term Ibrawi Hebrew was used to refer to the Chawa in the community, in contrast to Barya slave. The term Oritawi Torah-true was used to refer to the community members, the major derogatory term Falasha landless, wanderers was given to the community by the Emperor Yeshaq I in the 15th century. Haymanot is the term of the Jewish religion in the community. Mäṣḥafä Kedus is the name for the religious literature, the language of the writings is Geez, which is also the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. It is the parent-language of modern Amharic and Tigrinya, the holiest book is the Orit which consists of the Octateuch, Five Books of Moses with Joshua, Judges and Ruth. The rest of the Bible has secondary importance, sources are lacking on whether the Book of Lamentations is excluded from the canon, or whether it forms part of the Book of Jeremiah as it does in the Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon. Deuterocanonical books that make up part of the canon are Sirach, Judith, Esdras 1 and 2, Meqabyan, Jubilees, Baruch 1 and 4, Tobit, Enoch, and the testaments of Abraham, Isaac. Zëna Ayhud and Fālasfā are two books that are not considered sacred but have had great influence, the synagogue is called masgid, also bet maqdas or ṣalot bet. Beta Israel kashrut law is based mainly on the books of Leviticus, Deuteronomy, permitted and forbidden animals and their signs appear on Leviticus 11, 3–8 and Deuteronomy 14, 4–8. Forbidden birds are listed on Leviticus 11, 13–23 and Deuteronomy 14, signs of permitted fish are written on Leviticus 11, 9–12 and Deuteronomy 14, 9–10. Insects and larvae are forbidden according to Leviticus 11, 41–42, waterfowl are forbidden according to Leviticus 11,46
Falasha
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A photo of 2 Israelis, Ethiopian Jew on the left
Falasha
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A niddah hut (Mergem Gogo) at the Jewish village of Ambober in northern Ethiopia, 1976.
Falasha
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Synagogue in the village of Wolleka in Ethiopia
Falasha
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Modern Synagogue in the city of Netivot in Israel
67.
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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Stereotypes of Jews are generalized representations of Jews, often caricatured and of a prejudiced and antisemitic nature. Antisemitism continued throughout the centuries and reached a climax in the Third Reich during World War II, modern day Jews are still stereotyped as greedy, nit-picky, stingy misers and are often depicted in caricatures, comics, and propaganda posters counting money or collecting diamonds. Early films such as Cohens Advertising Scheme stereotyped Jews as scheming merchants, in caricatures and cartoons, it is often assumed that Jews have curly black hair, large hook-noses, thick lips, dark-colored beady eyes with drooping eyelids and wearing kippahs. Jews are commonly caricatured as having Jewish noses, large or aquiline, the purpose of the Jewish nose is its prevalence as one of the most defining features to characterize someone as a Jew. The widespread stereotype of depicting Jews with a large nose can be traced back to the 13th century, while the depiction of the hooked-nose originated in the 13th century, it had an uprooting in European imagery many centuries later. The earliest record of anti-Jewish caricature is a detailed doodle depicted in the margin of the Exchequer Receipt Roll in 1233. It shows three demented looking Jews inside a castle as well as a Jew in the middle of the castle with a large nose, Jews are also portrayed as swarthy and hirsute. There is a brown, edible fungus, Auricularia cornea. In Italy, red hair was associated with Italian Jews, and Judas was traditionally depicted as red-haired in Italian, writers from Shakespeare to Dickens would identify Jewish characters by giving them red hair. Jews have often stereotyped as greedy and miserly. This originates in the Middle Ages, when the Church forbade Christians to lend money while charging interest, Jews were legally restricted to occupations as usurers, usually to Christians, and thus many went into money-lending. This led to, through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Dickens later expressed regret for his portrayal of Fagin in the novel, and toned down references to his Jewishness. Furthermore, the character of Mr. Riah in his later novel Our Mutual Friend is a kindly Jewish creditor, lesser references in Arabian Nights, The Three Musketeers, and even Hans Brinker are examples of the prevalence of this negative perception. Some, such as Paul Volcker, suggest that the stereotype has decreased in prevalence in the United States, Jewish frugality, thriftiness, and greed are among the typical themes in jokes about Jews, even by Jews themselves. Martin Marger writes A set of distinct and consistent negative stereotypes, antisemitic canards such as the blood libel appeared in the 12th century and were associated with attacks and massacres against Jews. Jews were often depicted as satanic consorts, or as devils themselves, physically, Jews were portrayed as menacing, hirsute, with boils, warts and other deformities, and sometimes with horns, cloven hoofs and tails. Such imagery was used later in Nazi propaganda of the 1930s and 1940s. This propaganda leaned on Jewish stereotypes to explain the claim that the Jewish people belong to an inferior race, although Jews had not been particularly associated with moneylending in antiquity, a stereotype of them acting in this capacity was developed beginning in the 11th century
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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An 1873 caricature depicting the stereotypical physical features of a Jewish man
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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A German cartoon of 1851 implies ingrained dishonesty in Jews. Enlarge for caption.
Jewish-American princess stereotype
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A Jew Broker by Thomas Rowlandson, 1789
68.
Kafir
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Kafir is an Arabic term meaning unbeliever, or disbeliever. The word is derived from the Arabic term kafir, which originally had the one without religion. Arab Traders adopted the term to refer to non-Muslim people, variations of the word were used in English, Dutch, and, later, in Afrikaans. In Portuguese, in French and in Spanish, the equivalent cafre was used and it is used as a derogatory term. Kafir is sometimes used interchangeably with mushrik, another type of religious wrongdoer mentioned frequently in the Quran, the practice of declaring another self-professed Muslim a kafir is known as takfir. The word kāfir is the active participle of the root K-F-R, as a pre-Islamic term it described farmers burying seeds in the ground. One of its applications in the Quran is also the meaning as farmer. Since farmers cover the seeds with soil while planting, the word implies a person who hides or covers. Ideologically, it implies a person who hides or covers the truth, poets personify the darkness of night as kâfir, perhaps as a survival of pre-Islamic religious or mythological usage. The noun for disbelief, blasphemy, impiety rather than the person who disbelieves, is kufr, the Hebrew words kipper and kofer share the same root as kafir כִּפֵּר, or K-F-R. Kipper has many meanings including, to deny, atone for, cover, purge, represent, the last two meanings involve kofer that mean ransom. Kipper and kofer are mostly likely used together in the Jewish faith to indicate Gods transfer of guilt from innocent parties using guilty parties as ransom, the practice of declaring another Muslim as a kafir is takfir. Kufr unbelief and shirk are used throughout the Quran and sometimes used interchangeably by Muslims, according to Salafist scholars, Kufr is the denial of the Truth, and shirk means devoting acts of worship to anything beside Allah or the worship of idols and other created beings. So a mushrik may worship other things while also acknowledging Allah, the distinction between those who believe in Islam and those who do not is an essential one in the Quran, the book of Islam. Kafir, and its plural kafirun, is used directly 134 times in Quran, its verbal noun kufr is used 37 times, and the verbal cognates of kafir are used about 250 times. By extension of the meaning of the root, to cover. The meaning of disbelief, which has come to be regarded as primary, in the Quranic discourse, the term typifies all things that are unacceptable and offensive to God. According to the E. J. Brills First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 4, the term first applied in the Quran to unbelieving Meccans, who endeavoured to refute and revile the Prophet
Kafir
Kafir
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The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country by Rev. Joseph Shooter
69.
Ashkenazi Jews
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The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews is Yiddish, with Hebrew used only as a sacred language until relatively recently. Throughout their time in Europe, Ashkenazim have made important contributions to philosophy, scholarship, literature, art, music. Ashkenazim originate from the Jews who settled along the Rhine River, in Western Germany, there they became a distinct diaspora community with a unique way of life that adapted traditions from Babylon, The Land of Israel, and the Western Mediterranean to their new environment. The Ashkenazi religious rite developed in such as Mainz, Worms. The eminent French Rishon Rabbi Shlomo Itzhaki would have a significant impact on the Jewish religion, in the late Middle Ages, the majority of the Ashkenazi population shifted steadily eastward, moving out of the Holy Roman Empire into the Pale of Settlement. The genocidal impact of the Holocaust devastated the Ashkenazim and their culture, immediately prior to the Holocaust, the number of Jews in the world stood at approximately 16.7 million. Statistical figures vary for the demography of Ashkenazi Jews, oscillating between 10 million and 11.2 million. Sergio DellaPergola in a calculation of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews. Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews worldwide, genetic studies on Ashkenazim—researching both their paternal and maternal lineages—suggest a significant proportion of Middle Eastern ancestry. Ashkenazi Jews are popularly contrasted with Sephardi Jews, who are descendants of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, there are some differences in how the two groups pronounce certain Hebrew letters, and in points of ritual. The name Ashkenazi derives from the figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, son of Khaphet, son of Noah. The name of Gomer has often been linked to the ethnonym Cimmerians, the intrusive n in the Biblical name is likely due to a scribal error confusing a waw ו with a nun נ. In Jeremiah 51,27, Ashkenaz figures as one of three kingdoms in the far north, the others being Minni and Ararat, perhaps corresponding to Urartu, called on by God to resist Babylon. Ashkenaz is linked to Scandza/Scanzia, viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes and his contemporary Saadia Gaon identified Ashkenaz with the Saquliba or Slavic territories, and such usage covered also the lands of tribes neighboring the Slavs, and Eastern and Central Europe. In modern times, Samuel Krauss identified the Biblical Ashkenaz with Khazaria, sometime in the early medieval period, the Jews of central and eastern Europe came to be called by this term. In conformity with the custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was denominated Sefarad, France was called Tsarefat, Rashi uses leshon Ashkenaz to describe German speech, and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred to the Crusaders as Ashkenazim. Given the close links between the Jewish communities of France and Germany following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to both the Jews of medieval Germany and France. Outside of their origins in ancient Israel, the history of Ashkenazim is shrouded in mystery, the most well-supported theory is the one that details a Jewish migration from Israel through what is now Italy and other parts of southern Europe
Ashkenazi Jews
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Vilna Gaon
Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi Jews
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Heinrich Heine
Ashkenazi Jews
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Marc Chagall
70.
Yid
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The word Yid is a slang Jewish ethnonym of Yiddish origin. Its usage may be controversial in modern English language and it is not usually considered offensive when pronounced /ˈjiːd/, the way Yiddish speakers say it, though some may deem the word offensive nonetheless. When pronounced /ˈjɪd/, some have perceived it as pejorative — and has used as a derogatory epithet by antisemites along with, and as an alternative to. Yid is used as a badge of pride by the supporters of Tottenham Hotspur F. C. both those who are Jewish and non-Jewish. Such usage is controversial, and in 2013 has been addressed by the UK Society for Black Lawyers, the term Yid has its origins in the Middle High German word Jüde. Leo Rosten provides the etymology, From the German, Jude. And Jude is a form of Yehuda, which was the name given to the Jewish Commonwealth in the period of the Second Temple. The earliest mention of the word Yid in print was in The Slang Dictionary published by John Camden Hotten in 1874, Hotten noted that The Jews use these terms very frequently. After World War II, most examples of the word Yid are found in the writing of Jewish authors and these occurrences are usually either attempts to accurately portray antisemitic speech, or self-deprecating Jewish humor. In his 1968 bestseller The Joys of Yiddish, Leo Rosten offers a number of anecdotes from the Borscht Belt to illustrate such usage, in Yiddish, a polite way to address a fellow Jew whose name one does not know is Reb Yid, meaning Sir. The Yiddish words yidish or yiddisher is a derived from the noun Yid. Some Jewish and non-Jewish fans of Tottenham Hotspur F. C. adopted Yid as a nickname and Yiddo, Yiddo. as a battle cry, while such usage remains controversial, for the overwhelming majority of Tottenham supporters, it is used with pride. Some Jewish Tottenham supporters use it with a consciousness of the club as a bastion against racism and antisemitism. Others use it simply because many of the fans and owners of the club are Jews, however, the name was first given to the supporters as an insult, due to the large Jewish following at the club. East-end Jews have mostly moved to the north and east London suburbs and Herts and Essex, nevertheless, it is not necessary to be Haredi to be Jewish, and Spurs still has a strong Jewish fanbase
Yid
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A page from Elia Levita 's Yiddish - Hebrew - Latin - German dictionary (16th century) contains a list of nations, including an entry for Jew: Hebrew: יְהוּדִי Yiddish: יוּד German: Iud Latin: Iudaeus
71.
Romani people
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The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies, which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity. Romani are dispersed, with their populations in Europe – especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain. Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas, there are an estimated one million Roma in the United States, and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era, in migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora, the Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large, many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two, those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani. French bohème, bohémien, from the Kingdom of Bohemia, whence they came, Rom means man or husband in the Romani, it has the variants dom and lom, related with the Sanskrit words dam-pati, dama, lom, lomaka loman, roman. Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma, Sanskrit सिनधु is a river or stream of water in general. In particular, it denotes the river Indus and the country around it, in the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning man of the Roma ethnic group or man, husband, with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni, however, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders. Romani is the adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as a name, while others do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a r, i. e. rrom. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/, the rr spelling is common in certain institutions, or used in certain countries, e. g. Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians. In the English language, Rom is a noun and an adjective, while Romani is also a noun, both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was initially spelled Rommany, then Romany, while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling, occasionally, the double r spelling mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades, as a term for the Romani people
Romani people
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Romani wagon pictured in 2009 in Grandborough (Grandborough Fields Road is a popular spot for travelling people)
Romani people
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Romani flag created in 1933 and accepted by the 1971 World Romani Congress
Romani people
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Romani Wagon in Germany in 1935
Romani people
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Debret, Jean-Baptiste (c. 1820), Interior of a gipsy's house in Brazil.
72.
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Kanakas were workers from various Pacific Islands employed in British colonies, such as British Columbia, Fiji and Queensland in the 19th and early 20th centuries. They also worked in California and Chile, Kanaka, sometimes used as a derogatory name, originally referred only to native Hawaiians, called kānaka ʻōiwi or kānaka maoli in the Hawaiʻian language. Until 2009, several translations of the word Kanak were admitted, man, animal man. In its resolution n°5195, the Academy of the Polynesian languages Pa umotu specified a more faithful to the primal Polynesian language Mamaka Kaïo of origin. According to the Macquarie Dictionary, the word kanaka, which was widely used in Australia, is now regarded in Australian English as an offensive term for a Pacific Islander. In part, this is because most Kanakas in Australia were people from Melanesia, rather than Polynesia, most of the original labourers were recruited from the Solomon Islands and New Hebrides, though others were taken from the Loyalty Islands, Tonga, Samoa, Kiribati and Tuvalu. Some were kidnapped or otherwise induced into long-term indentured service, reflecting European prejudices of the time, the men were generally referred to as Kanakas. Islander descendants regard this term as a pejorative and insulting reminder of their ancestors exploitation at the hands of white planters, in Australia, South Sea Islanders were often unfree labour, of the specific form known as indentured labour. Some were exempted on various grounds, including marriage to Australians and these and others who escaped deportation remained in Australia and their descendants today form Australias largest Melano-Polynesian ethnic group. Many Australian South Sea Islanders are also of mixed ancestry, including Aboriginal, in consequence, Australian South Sea Islanders have faced similar forms of discrimination meted out to Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. In Canada, many Kanaka men married First Nations women, and their descendants can still be found in British Columbia and neighbouring parts of Canada, canadian Kanakas were all Hawaiian in origin. Nearly all were contractees of the Hudsons Bay Company although some had arrived in the area as ships hands or, in some cases, migrated north from California. Kanaka Creek, British Columbia was a community of mixed Hawaiian-First families established across the Fraser River from Fort Langley in the 1830s, Kanakas were active in both the California Gold Rush and in the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush and other rushes. Kanaka Bar, British Columbia gets its name from claims staked and worked by Kanakas who had been working for the fur company. One linguist holds that Canuck, a nickname for Canadians, is derived from the Hawaiian Kanaka, Kanakas, as Native Hawaiian workers employed in agriculture and ranching, were present in the mainland United States as early as 1834, but their migration peaked between 1900 and 1930. Most of their families present in the fields soon blended by intermarriage into the Chinese, Filipino, Native Hawaiians harvested sugar beets and picked apples at one point in the states of Washington and Oregon. They people have left a legacy in Oregon place names, such as Kanaka Flat in Jacksonville, there is also documentation of the presence of several hundred Native Hawaiian paniolos or cowboys across the Great Basin of the Western US. Kanakas were also mentioned in the book Two Years before the Mast by Richard Henry Dana who worked alongside him during his sea voyage from Boston to Cape Horn
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Loyalty Islanders employed as sailors on the New Caledonian coast.
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Kanaka labourers on a Queensland sugar plantation, 1890s. Photographer unknown.
Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)
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Hawaiian family that settled in British Columbia, ca. 1890
73.
Pacific Islander
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Pacific Islander is a term used to refer to the peoples of the Pacific Islands. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Pacific islands consist of three regions, The islands scattered across a triangle covering the region of the Pacific Ocean. The triangle is bound by the Hawaiian Islands in the north, New Zealand in the west, the rest of Polynesia includes the Samoan islands, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue Island, Tokelau and Tuvalu, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, and Pitcairn Island. The islands of Kiribati, Nauru, the Marianas, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Palau, the Pacific islands may also refer to any of the other islands in the Pacific Ocean. Ethnolinguistically, those Pacific islanders who reside in Oceania are divided into two different ethnic classifications, Austronesian language peoples Austronesian peoples who speak the Oceanian languages, numbering about 2.3 million, who occupy Polynesia, Micronesia, and most of the smaller islands of Melanesia. The Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 was enacted to restrict entry of Pacific Islanders to Australia, in 2008 a Pacific Seasonal Worker Pilot Scheme was announced as a three-year pilot scheme. The scheme provides visas for workers from Kiribati, Tonga, Vanuatu, the pilot scheme includes one country each from Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia, countries which already send workers to New Zealand under its seasonal labour scheme. Australias pilot scheme also includes Papua New Guinea, in 20137.4 percent of the New Zealand population identified with one or more Pacific ethnic groups, although 62.3 percent of these were born in New Zealand. Those with a Samoan background make up the largest proportion, followed by Cook Islands Maori, Tongan, some smaller island populations such as Niue and Tokelau have the majority of their nationals living in New Zealand. To celebrate the diverse Pacific island cultures, the Auckland region hosts several Pacific island festivals and it includes people who indicate their race as Native Hawaiian, Guamanian or Chamorro, Samoan, and Other Pacific Islander or provide other detailed Pacific Islander responses. The term Pacific Islands American is used for ethnic Pacific islander residents in U. S. states, honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii Press. American History Unbound, Asians and Pacific Islanders, xiv,499 pp. Smelt, R. & Lin, Y. Cultures of the world, New Zealand, tarrytown, NY, Marshall Cavendish Benchmark Thomas, Nicholas, Islanders, The Pacific in the Age of Empire, Yale University Press,2010. Asian Pacific Americans in the U. S. Army Native Hawaiian Pacific Islander Association
Pacific Islander
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The three major sub-regions of Oceania.
74.
Polynesians
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli, Marquesans and New Zealand Māori, are a subset of the Austronesian peoples. They share the same origins as the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar. This is supported by genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, the origins of the Polynesian people are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. These are outlined well by Kayser et al, however, Soares et al. have argued for an older pre-Holocene Sundaland origin within Island Southeast Asia based on mitochondrial DNA. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. However, a study by Kayser et al. discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin. Another study by Friedlaender et al. also confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, the study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus the high frequencies of mtDNA B4a1a1 in the Polynesians are the result of drift, the Polynesian population experienced a population bottleneck and genetic drift. DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage that results in a mixed Asian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians. The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that the skulls lacks Australian or Papuan affinities, there is an estimated 2 million ethnic Polynesians and their descendants worldwide, majority of which live in Polynesia, United States, Australia and New Zealand
Polynesians
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Hawaiians
Polynesians
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The Polynesian spread of colonization in the Pacific
Polynesians
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Maori
Polynesians
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Polynesian warrior canoes
75.
Barbarian
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A barbarian is a human who is perceived to be either uncivilized or primitive. Alternatively, they may instead be admired and romanticised as noble savages, in idiomatic or figurative usage, a barbarian may also be an individual reference to a brutal, cruel, warlike, insensitive person. The term originates from the Greek, βάρβαρος, in ancient times, the Greeks used it mostly for people of different cultures, but there are examples where one Greek city or state would use the word to attack another. In the early period and sometimes later, Greeks used it for the Turks. Comparable notions are found in non-European civilizations, notably China and Japan, during the Roman Empire, the Romans used the word barbarian for many people, such as the Germanics, Celts, Gauls, Iberians, Thracians, Parthians and Sarmatians. The Ancient Greek name βάρβαρος, barbarian, was an antonym for πολίτης, the earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek
Barbarian
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19th Century portrayal of the Huns as barbarians.
Barbarian
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" Germanic warriors" as depicted in Philipp Clüver 's Germania Antiqua (1616)
Barbarian
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Slaves in chains, relief found at Smyrna (present day İzmir, Turkey), 200 AD
Barbarian
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The Dying Galatian, Capitoline Museums, Rome
76.
Fresh off the boat
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Within some ethnic Asian circles in the United States, the phrase is considered politically incorrect and derogatory. The term originates in the days of immigration, when people mostly migrated to other countries by ship. Fresh off the Boeing is sometimes used in the United States as a variation, especially amongst south, in some instances, an ethnic community may find it difficult to assimilate with their new culture. Although some try to assimilate, they may fail due to the very swift transition to the host continent, in the United Kingdom fresh off the boat are referred to as freshies or simply FOBs. And in the United States, they are referred to as F. O. B. or in some cases and this is usually a pejorative term. Fresh Off the Boat, A Memoir book by Eddie Huang Fresh Off the Boat of 2015 FOB by David Henry Hwang Culture shock Ellis Island Vietnamese boat people
Fresh off the boat
77.
Gaijin
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Gaijin is a Japanese word for foreigners and non-Japanese. The word is composed of two kanji, gai and jin, similarly composed words that refer to foreign things include gaikoku and gaisha. The word can refer to nationality, race, or ethnicity, some feel the word has come to have a negative or pejorative connotation, while other observers maintain it is neutral or even positive. Gaikokujin is a neutral and somewhat more formal term widely used in the Japanese government. The word gaijin can be traced in writing to the 13th-century Heike Monogatari, 外人もなき所に兵具をとゝのへ Assembling arms where there are no gaijin Here, gaijin refers to outsiders and potential enemies. Another early reference is in Renri Hishō by Nijō Yoshimoto, where it is used to refer to a Japanese person who is a stranger, Here, gaijin also means an outsider or unfamiliar person. The word gaikokujin is composed of gaikoku and jin, the Meiji government introduced and popularized the term, which came to replace ijin, ikokujin and ihōjin. As the Empire of Japan extended to Korea and to Taiwan, while other terms fell out of use after World War II, gaikokujin remained the official term for non-Japanese people. Some hold that the modern gaijin is a contraction of gaikokujin, while all forms of the word mean foreigner or outsider, in practice gaikokujin and gaijin are commonly used to refer to racially non-Japanese groups, principally Caucasians. However the term is sometimes applied to ethnic Japanese born. Gaijin is also used within Japanese events such as baseball. Japanese speakers commonly refer to people as gaijin even while they are overseas. Also, people of Japanese descent native to other countries might also call non-descendants gaijin, historically, some usage of the word gaijin referred respectfully to the prestige and wealth of Caucasians or the power of western businesses. This interpretation of the term as positive or neutral in tone continues for some, however, though the term may be used without negative intent by many Japanese speakers, it is seen as derogatory by some and reflective of exclusionary attitudes. While the term itself has no meaning, it emphasizes the exclusiveness of Japanese attitude and has therefore picked up pejorative connotations that many Westerners resent. Mayumi Itoh Now that gaijin has become politically incorrect, it is common to refer to non-Japanese as gaikokujin. The uncontroversial, if slightly formal gaikokujin, is used instead. Gaijin appears frequently in Western literature and pop culture and it forms the title of such novels as Marc Oldens Gaijin, James Melvilles Go gently, gaijin, James Kirkups Gaijin on the Ginza and James Clavells Gai-Jin, as well as a song by Nick Lowe
Gaijin
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Foreigners in Japan in 2000 by citizenship.
78.
Goy
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Goy is the standard Hebrew biblical term for a nation. The term nation did not have the political connotations it entails today. Long before Roman times it had acquired the meaning of someone who is not Jewish. It is also used to refer to individuals from religious or ethnic groups. However, many people do not see the term goy as any more or less offensive than the term gentile, however, to avoid any perceived offensive connotations, writers may use the better-known English terms gentile or non-Jew. The word goy means nation in Biblical Hebrew, in the Torah, goy and its variants appear over 550 times in reference to Israelites and to Gentile nations. The first recorded usage of goy occurs in Genesis 10,5, the first mention in relation to the Israelites comes in Genesis 12,2, when God promises Abraham that his descendants will form a goy gadol. In Exodus 19,6, the Jewish people are referred to as a goy kadosh, while the books of the Hebrew Bible often use goy to describe the Israelites, the later Jewish writings tend to apply the term to other nations. Some Bible translations leave the word Goyim untranslated and treat it as the name of a country in Genesis 14,1. Bible commentaries suggest that the term may refer to Gutium, in all other cases in the Bible, goyim is the plural of goy and means nations. The rabbinic literature conceives of the nations of the world as numbering seventy, each with a distinct language, chaim ibn Attar maintains that this is the symbolism behind the Menorah, The seven candles of the Menorah correspond to the worlds nations, which number seventy. This alludes to the fact that they all shine opposite the western, maimonides defines plain goy in his Mishneh Torah as a worshipper of idolatry, as he explains, Whenever we say plainly goy, we mean a worshipper of idolatry. In modern Hebrew and Yiddish the word goy is the term for a gentile. In English, the use of the word goy can be controversial and it is sometimes used pejoratively to refer to a non-Jew, but many see it as no more insulting than the term gentile. The term shabbos goy refers to a non-Jew who performs duties that Jewish law forbids a Jew from performing on the Sabbath
Goy
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A page from Elia Levita 's Yiddish - Hebrew - Latin - German dictionary (16th century) contains a list of nations, including word goy (גוי) translated to Latin as ethnicus
