1.
Light painting
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The technique is used for both scientific and artistic purposes, as well as in commercial photography. Light painting dates back to 1889 when Étienne-Jules Marey and Georges Demeny traced human motion in the first known light painting “Pathological Walk From in Front”, man Ray, in his 1935 series Space Writing, was the first known art photographer to use the technique. Photographer Barbara Morgan began making paintings in 1940. In 1949 Pablo Picasso was visited by Gjon Mili, a photographer and lighting innovator, immediately Picasso started making images in the air with a small flashlight in a dark room. This series of photos became known as Picassos light drawings and he produced a series Schwingungsfigur of complex linear meshes, often with moiré effects, using a point-source light on a pendulum. During the 1970s and 80s Eric Staller used this technology for numerous projects that were called Light Drawings. Light paintings up to 1976 are classified as light drawings, in 1977 Dean Chamberlain gave birth to light painting with his image Polyethylene Bags On Chaise Longue at The Rochester Institute of Technology. Dean Chamberlain was the first artist to dedicate his entire body of work to the light painting art form, the artist photographer Jacques Pugin made several series of images with the light drawing technique in 1979. Picasso and Milis images should be regarded as some of the first light drawings, now, with modern light painting, one uses more frequently choreography and performance to photograph and organize. Since the 1980s, Vicki DaSilva has been working exclusively in light painting, in 1980, Vicki DaSilva started making deliberate text light graffiti works, the first being Cash. She continued these light graffiti photographs throughout the 1980s and eventually started using 4 foot fluorescent bulbs hooked up to pulley systems to create sheets of light. In the early 2000s she began making work with 8 foot fluorescent lamps, holding the lamp vertically, Light painting requires a slow shutter speed, usually at least a second in duration. Light paintings can be created using a webcam, the painted image can already be seen while drawing by using a monitor or projector. Another technique is the projection of images on to irregular surfaces, a photograph or other fixed portrayal of the resulting image is then made. Kinetic light painting is achieved by moving the camera, and is the antithesis of traditional photography, at night, or in a dark room, the camera can be removed from the tripod and used like a paintbrush. An example is using the sky as the canvas, the camera as the brush. Putting energy into moving the camera by stroking lights, making patterns, a variety of light sources can be used, ranging from simple flashlights to dedicated devices like the Hosemaster, which uses a fiber optic light pen. Other sources of light including candles, matches, fireworks, lighter flints, glowsticks, the PixelStick offer users the ability to control their light source in order to create images from letters to pictures that they have imported
2.
Computer program
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A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function, and typically executes the programs instructions in a processing unit. A computer program is written by a computer programmer in a programming language. From the program in its form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code—a form consisting of instructions that the computer can directly execute. Alternatively, a program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter. A part of a program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A collection of programs, libraries and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as software or system software. The earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer, in 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be weaved and repeated by arranging the cards, in 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquards loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine. The names of the components of the device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled, the device would have had a store—memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. Numbers from the store would then have then transferred to the mill. It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards—one to direct the operation and the other for the input variables, however, after more than 17,000 pounds of the British governments money, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together. During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea, the memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine and this note is recognized by some historians as the worlds first written computer program. In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine—a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine and it is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move the back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm
3.
Programming language
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A programming language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of such as Jacquard looms. Thousands of different programming languages have created, mainly in the computer field. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form while other languages use forms of program specification such as the declarative form. The description of a language is usually split into the two components of syntax and semantics. Some languages are defined by a document while other languages have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm, some, but not all, authors restrict the term programming language to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. For example, PostScript programs are created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract. It is generally accepted that a specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer, consequently, abstractions Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing, all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined, XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect. Moreover, LaTeX, which is used for structuring documents. The term computer language is used interchangeably with programming language
4.
Syntax
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In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, specifically word order. The term syntax is used to refer to the study of such principles and processes. The goal of many syntacticians is to discover the syntactic rules common to all languages, in mathematics, syntax refers to the rules governing the behavior of mathematical systems, such as formal languages used in logic. The word syntax comes from Ancient Greek, σύνταξις coordination, which consists of σύν syn, together, and τάξις táxis, a basic feature of a languages syntax is the sequence in which the subject, verb, and object usually appear in sentences. Over 85% of languages usually place the subject first, either in the sequence SVO or the sequence SOV, the other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV, the last three of which are rare. In the West, the school of thought came to be known as traditional grammar began with the work of Dionysius Thrax. For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a known as grammaire générale. This system took as its premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought, the Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic. Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of Subject – Copula – Predicate, initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp. The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, there are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton, sees syntax as a branch of biology, other linguists take a more Platonistic view, since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system. Yet others consider syntax a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages, the hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind. The goal of grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language. This model could be used to all human language and to predict the grammaticality of any given utterance. This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky, most generative theories assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the form of a sentence and this complex category is notated as instead of V. NP\S is read as a category that searches to the left for an NP and outputs a sentence. The category of verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs to form a sentence
5.
Brian Kernighan
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Brian Wilson Kernighan is a Canadian computer scientist who worked at Bell Labs alongside Unix creators Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie and contributed to the development of Unix. He is also coauthor of the AWK and AMPL programming languages, the K of K&R C and the K in AWK both stand for Kernighan. Since 2000 Brian Kernighan has been a Professor at the Computer Science Department of Princeton University, born in Toronto, Kernighan attended the University of Toronto between 1960 and 1964, earning his Bachelors degree in engineering physics. He received his PhD in electrical engineering from Princeton University in 1969 for research supervised by Peter Weiner, Kernighan has held a professorship in the department of computer science at Princeton since 2000. Each fall he teaches a course called Computers in Our World, kernighans name became widely known through co-authorship of the first book on the C programming language with Dennis Ritchie. Kernighan affirmed that he had no part in the design of the C language and he authored many Unix programs, including ditroff. In collaboration with Shen Lin he devised well-known heuristics for two NP-complete optimization problems, graph partitioning and the travelling salesman problem, in a display of authorial equity, the former is usually called the Kernighan–Lin algorithm, while the latter is known as the Lin–Kernighan heuristic. Kernighan was the editor for Prentice Hall International. His Software Tools series spread the essence of C/Unix thinking with makeovers for BASIC, FORTRAN, and Pascal and he has said that if stranded on an island with only one programming language it would have to be C. Kernighan coined the term Unix and helped popularize Thompsons Unix philosophy, Kernighan is also known as a coiner of the expression What You See Is All You Get, which is a sarcastic variant of the original What You See Is What You Get. Kernighans term is used to indicate that WYSIWYG systems might throw away information in a document that could be useful in other contexts, kernighans original 1978 implementation of Hello, World. Was sold at The Algorithm Auction, the world’s first auction of computer algorithms, in 1996, Kernighan taught CS50 which is the Harvard University introductory course in Computer Science. His students on CS50 include David J. Malan who now runs the course, an Interview with Brian Kernighan — By Mihai Budiu, for PC Report Romania, August 2000 Transcript of an interview with Brian Kernighan. Archived from the original on 2009-04-28, archived from the original on 2009-05-28
6.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
7.
The C Programming Language (book)
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The book was central to the development and popularization of the C programming language and is still widely read and used today. The first edition of the book, published in 1978, was the first widely available book on the C programming language, C was created by Dennis Ritchie. Brian Kernighan wrote the first C tutorial, the authors came together to write the book in conjunction with the languages early development at AT&T Bell Labs. The version of C described in this book is referred to as K&R C. The second edition of the book has since translated into over 20 languages. In 2012 an eBook version of the edition was published in ePub, Mobi. ANSI C, first standardized in 1989, has undergone several revisions. However, no new edition of The C Programming Language has been issued to cover the more recent standards, BYTE stated in August 1983, is the definitive work on the C language. Dont read any further until you have this book, jerry Pournelle wrote in the magazine that year that the book is still the standard. He continued, You can learn the C language without getting Kernighan and Ritchie, youre also working too hard if you make it the only book on C that you buy. The C Programming Language has often cited as a model for technical writing, with reviewers describing it as having clear presentation. Examples generally consist of programs of the type one is likely to encounter in daily usage of the language. Its authors said, We have tried to retain the brevity of the first edition, C is not a big language, and it is not well served by a big book. We have improved the exposition of critical features, such as pointers and we have refined the original examples, and have added new examples in several chapters. For instance, the treatment of complicated declarations is augmented by programs that convert declarations into words, as before, all examples have been tested directly from the text, which is in machine-readable form. The book introduced the hello, world program, which just prints out the text hello, world, numerous texts since then have followed that convention for introducing a programming language. Before the advent of ANSI C, the first edition of the served as the de facto standard of the language for writers of C compilers. It is meant for easy comprehension by programmers, but not as a definition for compiler writers—that role properly belongs to the standard itself, appendix B is a summary of the facilities of the standard library
8.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
9.
Newline
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In computing, a newline, also known as a line ending, end of line, or line break, is a special character or sequence of characters signifying the end of a line of text and the start of a new line. The actual codes representing a newline vary across operating systems, which can be a problem when exchanging text files between systems with different newline representations, the concepts of line feed and carriage return are closely associated, and can be considered either separately or together. In the physical media of typewriters and printers, two axes of motion, down and across, are needed to create a new line on the page. Although the design of a machine must consider them separately, the logic of software can combine them together as one event. This is why a newline in character encoding can be defined as LF, some character sets provide a separate newline character code. EBCDIC, for example, provides an NL character code in addition to the CR, Unicode, in addition to providing the ASCII CR and LF control codes, also provides a next line control code, as well as control codes for line separator and paragraph separator markers. Two ways to view newlines, both of which are self-consistent, are that newlines either separate lines or that they terminate lines, if a newline is considered a separator, there will be no newline after the last line of a file. Some programs have problems processing the last line of a file if it is not terminated by a newline, on the other hand, programs that expect newline to be used as a separator will interpret a final newline as starting a new line. Conversely, if a newline is considered a terminator, all lines including the last are expected to be terminated by a newline. In many applications a separate character called manual line break exists for forcing line breaks inside a single paragraph. The glyph for the character for a hard return is usually a pilcrow. Some rare systems, such as QNX before version 4, used the ASCII RS character as the newline character, EBCDIC systems—mainly IBM mainframe systems, including z/OS and i5/OS —use NL as the character combining the functions of line-feed and carriage-return. The equivalent UNICODE character is called NEL, note that EBCDIC also has control characters called CR and LF, but the numerical value of LF differs from the one used by ASCII. Additionally, some EBCDIC variants also use NL but assign a different numeric code to the character, operating systems for the CDC6000 series defined a newline as two or more zero-valued six-bit characters at the end of a 60-bit word. Some configurations also defined a character as a colon character. ZX80 and ZX81, home computers from Sinclair Research Ltd, used a specific character set with code NEWLINE as the newline character. OpenVMS uses a file system, which stores text files as one record per line. In most file formats, no line terminators are actually stored, the records themselves could contain the same line terminator characters, which could either be considered a feature or a nuisance depending on the application
10.
ASCII
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ASCII, abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices, most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. ASCII was developed from telegraph code and its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6,1960, the first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting of lists, and added features for other than teleprinters. Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, for example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters,33 are non-printing control characters that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, of these, the IANA encourages use of the name US-ASCII for Internet uses of ASCII. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute and ultimately the American National Standards Institute, there was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting, the X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters, renaming some control characters and moving or removing others. ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3. 4-1967, then USAS X3. 4-1968, ANSI X3. 4-1977 and they proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems, like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols. This allows digital devices to communicate each other and to process, store. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters,10 numerical digits, ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a function, which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is reliable for data transmission. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code, the committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal
11.
Sun Microsystems
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Sun contributed significantly to the evolution of several key computing technologies, among them Unix, RISC processors, thin client computing, and virtualized computing. Sun was founded on February 24,1982, at its height, the Sun headquarters were in Santa Clara, California, on the former west campus of the Agnews Developmental Center. On January 27,2010, Oracle Corporation acquired Sun by for US$7.4 billion, other technologies include the Java platform, MySQL, and NFS. Sun was a proponent of open systems in general and Unix in particular, the initial design for what became Suns first Unix workstation, the Sun-1, was conceived by Andy Bechtolsheim when he was a graduate student at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California. Bechtolsheim originally designed the SUN workstation for the Stanford University Network communications project as a personal CAD workstation and it was designed around the Motorola 68000 processor with an advanced memory management unit to support the Unix operating system with virtual memory support. He built the first ones from spare parts obtained from Stanfords Department of Computer Science, on February 24,1982, Vinod Khosla, Andy Bechtolsheim, and Scott McNealy, all Stanford graduate students, founded Sun Microsystems. Bill Joy of Berkeley, a developer of the Berkeley Software Distribution. The Sun name is derived from the initials of the Stanford University Network, Sun was profitable from its first quarter in July 1982. By 1983 Sun was known for producing 68000-based systems with high-quality graphics that were the only computers other than DECs VAX to run 4. 2BSD and it licensed the computer design to other manufacturers, which typically used it to build Multibus-based systems running Unix from UniSoft. Suns initial public offering was in 1986 under the stock symbol SUNW, the symbol was changed in 2007 to JAVA, Sun stated that the brand awareness associated with its Java platform better represented the companys current strategy. Suns logo, which features four interleaved copies of the sun in the form of a rotationally symmetric ambigram, was designed by professor Vaughan Pratt. The initial version of the logo was orange and had the sides oriented horizontally and vertically, but it was rotated to stand on one corner and re-colored purple. In the dot-com bubble, Sun began making more money. It also began spending more, hiring workers and building itself out. Some of this was because of demand, but much was from web start-up companies anticipating business that would never happen. Sales in Suns important hardware division went into free-fall as customers closed shop, several quarters of steep losses led to executive departures, rounds of layoffs, and other cost cutting. In December 2001, the fell to the 1998, pre-bubble level of about $100. But it kept falling, faster than many other tech companies, a year later it had dipped below $10 but bounced back to $20
12.
Scalable Vector Graphics
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Scalable Vector Graphics is an XML-based vector image format for two-dimensional graphics with support for interactivity and animation. The SVG specification is a standard developed by the World Wide Web Consortium since 1999. SVG images and their behaviors are defined in XML text files and this means that they can be searched, indexed, scripted, and compressed. As XML files, SVG images can be created and edited with any text editor, All major modern web browsers—including Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, and Microsoft Edge—have SVG rendering support. SVG has been in development within the World Wide Web Consortium since 1999, the early SVG Working Group decided not to develop any of the commercial submissions, but to create a new markup language that was informed by but not really based on any of them. SVG allows three types of objects, vector graphic shapes such as paths and outlines consisting of straight lines and curves, bitmap images. Graphical objects can be grouped, styled, transformed and composited into previously rendered objects, the feature set includes nested transformations, clipping paths, alpha masks, filter effects and template objects. SVG drawings can be interactive and can include animation, defined in the SVG XML elements or via scripting that accesses the SVG Document Object Model, SVG uses CSS for styling and JavaScript for scripting. Text, including internationalization and localization, appearing in plain text within the SVG DOM enhances the accessibility of SVG graphics, the SVG specification was updated to version 1.1 in 2011. There are two Mobile SVG Profiles, SVG Tiny and SVG Basic, meant for mobile devices with reduced computational, Scalable Vector Graphics 2 became a W3C Candidate Recommendation on 15 September 2016. SVG2 incorporates several new features in addition to those of SVG1.1, though the SVG Specification primarily focuses on vector graphics markup language, its design includes the basic capabilities of a page description language like Adobes PDF. It contains provisions for rich graphics, and is compatible with CSS for styling purposes, SVG has the information needed to place each glyph and image in a chosen location on a printed page. A print-specialized subset of SVG is currently a W3C Working Draft, SVG drawings can be dynamic and interactive. Time-based modifications to the elements can be described in SMIL, or can be programmed in a scripting language, the W3C explicitly recommends SMIL as the standard for animation in SVG. A rich set of event handlers such as onmouseover and onclick can be assigned to any SVG graphical object, SVG images, being XML, contain many repeated fragments of text, so they are well suited for lossless data compression algorithms. When an SVG image has been compressed with the industry standard gzip algorithm, it is referred to as an SVGZ image, conforming SVG1.1 viewers will display compressed images. An SVGZ file is typically 20 to 50 percent of the original size, W3C provides SVGZ files to test for conformance. SVG1.0 became a W3C Recommendation on 4 September 2001, SVG1.1 became a W3C Recommendation on 14 January 2003
13.
Perl
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Perl is a family of high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming languages. The languages in this family include Perl 5 and Perl 6, though Perl is not officially an acronym, there are various backronyms in use, the best-known being Practical Extraction and Reporting Language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier, since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions. Perl 6, which began as a redesign of Perl 5 in 2000, both languages continue to be developed independently by different development teams and liberally borrow ideas from one another. The Perl languages borrow features from other programming languages including C, shell script, AWK and they provide powerful text processing facilities without the arbitrary data-length limits of many contemporary Unix commandline tools, facilitating easy manipulation of text files. Perl 5 gained widespread popularity in the late 1990s as a CGI scripting language, in due to its unsurpassed regular expression. In addition to CGI, Perl 5 is used for administration, network programming, finance, bioinformatics. It has been nicknamed the Swiss Army chainsaw of scripting languages because of its flexibility and power, in 1998, it was also referred to as the duct tape that holds the Internet together, in reference to both its ubiquitous use as a glue language and its perceived inelegance. Larry Wall began work on Perl in 1987, while working as a programmer at Unisys, the language expanded rapidly over the next few years. Perl 2, released in 1988, featured a regular expression engine. Perl 3, released in 1989, added support for data streams. Originally, the documentation for Perl was a single man page. In 1991, Programming Perl, known to many Perl programmers as the Camel Book because of its cover, was published and became the de facto reference for the language. At the same time, the Perl version number was bumped to 4, not to mark a change in the language. Perl 4 went through a series of releases, culminating in Perl 4.036 in 1993. At that point, Wall abandoned Perl 4 to begin work on Perl 5, initial design of Perl 5 continued into 1994. The perl5-porters mailing list was established in May 1994 to coordinate work on porting Perl 5 to different platforms and it remains the primary forum for development, maintenance, and porting of Perl 5. Perl 5.000 was released on October 17,1994 and it was a nearly complete rewrite of the interpreter, and it added many new features to the language, including objects, references, lexical variables, and modules
14.
Python (programming language)
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Python is a widely used high-level programming language for general-purpose programming, created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. The language provides constructs intended to enable writing clear programs on both a small and large scale and it has a large and comprehensive standard library. Python interpreters are available for operating systems, allowing Python code to run on a wide variety of systems. CPython, the implementation of Python, is open source software and has a community-based development model. CPython is managed by the non-profit Python Software Foundation, about the origin of Python, Van Rossum wrote in 1996, Over six years ago, in December 1989, I was looking for a hobby programming project that would keep me occupied during the week around Christmas. Would be closed, but I had a computer. I decided to write an interpreter for the new scripting language I had been thinking about lately, I chose Python as a working title for the project, being in a slightly irreverent mood. Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000 and had major new features, including a cycle-detecting garbage collector. With this release the development process was changed and became more transparent, Python 3.0, a major, backwards-incompatible release, was released on 3 December 2008 after a long period of testing. Many of its features have been backported to the backwards-compatible Python 2.6. x and 2.7. x version series. The End Of Life date for Python 2.7 was initially set at 2015, many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract and logic programming. Python uses dynamic typing and a mix of reference counting and a garbage collector for memory management. An important feature of Python is dynamic name resolution, which binds method, the design of Python offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. The language has map, reduce and filter functions, list comprehensions, dictionaries, and sets, the standard library has two modules that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML. Python can also be embedded in existing applications that need a programmable interface, while offering choice in coding methodology, the Python philosophy rejects exuberant syntax, such as in Perl, in favor of a sparser, less-cluttered grammar. As Alex Martelli put it, To describe something as clever is not considered a compliment in the Python culture. Pythons philosophy rejects the Perl there is more one way to do it approach to language design in favor of there should be one—and preferably only one—obvious way to do it. Pythons developers strive to avoid premature optimization, and moreover, reject patches to non-critical parts of CPython that would offer an increase in speed at the cost of clarity
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Ruby (programming language)
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Ruby is a dynamic, reflective, object-oriented, general-purpose programming language. It was designed and developed in the mid-1990s by Yukihiro Matz Matsumoto in Japan, according to its creator, Ruby was influenced by Perl, Smalltalk, Eiffel, Ada, and Lisp. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including functional, object-oriented, and it also has a dynamic type system and automatic memory management. Ruby was conceived on February 24,1993, I knew Perl, but I didnt like it really, because it had the smell of a toy language. The object-oriented language seemed very promising, but I didnt like it, because I didnt think it was a true object-oriented language — OO features appeared to be add-on to the language. As a language maniac and OO fan for 15 years, I really wanted a genuine object-oriented, I looked for but couldnt find one. The name Ruby originated during a chat session between Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka on February 24,1993, before any code had been written for the language. Initially two names were proposed, Coral and Ruby, Matsumoto chose the latter in a later e-mail to Ishitsuka. Matsumoto later noted a factor in choosing the name Ruby – it was the birthstone of one of his colleagues, the first public release of Ruby 0.95 was announced on Japanese domestic newsgroups on December 21,1995. Subsequently, three versions of Ruby were released in two days. The release coincided with the launch of the Japanese-language ruby-list mailing list, in the same year, Matsumoto was hired by netlab. jp to work on Ruby as a full-time developer. In 1998, the Ruby Application Archive was launched by Matsumoto, in 1999, the first English language mailing list ruby-talk began, which signaled a growing interest in the language outside Japan. In this same year, Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka wrote the first book on Ruby, The Object-oriented Scripting Language Ruby and it would be followed in the early 2000s by around 20 books on Ruby published in Japanese. By 2000, Ruby was more popular than Python in Japan, in September 2000, the first English language book Programming Ruby was printed, which was later freely released to the public, further widening the adoption of Ruby amongst English speakers. In early 2002, the English-language ruby-talk mailing list was receiving more messages than the Japanese-language ruby-list, Ruby 1.8 was initially released in August 2003, was stable for a long time, and was retired June 2013. Although deprecated, there is still based on it. Ruby 1.8 is only compatible with Ruby 1.9. Ruby 1.8 has been the subject of industry standards
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Assembly language
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Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture. In contrast, most high-level programming languages are generally portable across multiple architectures, Assembly language may also be called symbolic machine code. Assembly language is converted into machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler. The conversion process is referred to as assembly, or assembling the source code, Assembly time is the computational step where an assembler is run. Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine instruction or opcode, typically also each architectural register, flag, depending on the architecture, these elements may also be combined for specific instructions or addressing modes using offsets or other data as well as fixed addresses. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate development, to control the assembly process. A macro assembler includes a facility so that assembly language text can be represented by a name. A cross assembler is an assembler that is run on a computer or operating system of a different type from the system on which the code is to run. Cross-assembling facilitates the development of programs for systems that do not have the resources to support software development, a microassembler is a program that helps prepare a microprogram, called firmware, to control the low level operation of a computer. A meta-assembler is a used in some circles for a program that accepts the syntactic and semantic description of an assembly language. An assembler program creates object code by translating combinations of mnemonics and syntax for operations and this representation typically includes an operation code as well as other control bits and data. The assembler also calculates constant expressions and resolves symbolic names for memory locations, the use of symbolic references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications. Most assemblers also include facilities for performing textual substitution – e. g. to generate common short sequences of instructions as inline. Some assemblers may also be able to some simple types of instruction set-specific optimizations. One concrete example of this may be the ubiquitous x86 assemblers from various vendors, most of them are able to perform jump-instruction replacements in any number of passes, on request. Like early programming languages such as Fortran, Algol, Cobol and Lisp, assemblers have been available since the 1950s, however, assemblers came first as they are far simpler to write than compilers for high-level languages. There may be several assemblers with different syntax for a particular CPU or instruction set architecture, despite different appearances, different syntactic forms generally generate the same numeric machine code, see further below. A single assembler may also have different modes in order to support variations in syntactic forms as well as their exact semantic interpretations, there are two types of assemblers based on how many passes through the source are needed to produce the executable program
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PlayStation Portable homebrew
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PlayStation Portable homebrew refers to the process of using exploits and hacks to execute unsigned code on the PlayStation Portable. Soon after the PSP was released, hackers began to discover exploits in the PSP that could be used to run unsigned code on the device. Sony released version 1.51 of the PSP firmware in May 2005 to plug the holes that hackers were using to access to the device. On 15 June 2005 the hackers distributed the code of the PSP on the internet. BusinessWeek dubbed this the carrot-and-stick approach, in August 2005 Sony released version 2.0 of the firmware which included the web browser, file compatibility updates and other features. Hackers and other homebrew enthusiasts then encountered the first trojan for the PSP, users attempting to downgrade their PSP using this software instead found that it was rendered inoperable as this software deleted mandatory/important system files. Over the course of 2005 Sony released six different versions of the firmware and this reportedly caused more buzz in the community than any recent official offerings for the device. Dark AleX is a Spanish programmer who writes homebrew applications for the PlayStation Portable, Dark AleX, as well as other variations of the name, is a pseudonym under which he works. One of the drawbacks of downgrading the PSP is that new media may require the presence of a new firmware edition. Dark_Alex had released a Custom Firmware called Dark Alexs Open Edition firmware or Custom Firmware which opens the firmware, Sony quickly patched the firmware again, continuing the cat-and-mouse game with the hackers and users. In 2006 Sony released six updates to the firmware and in 2007 they released another six updates. In July 2007 Dark_AleX officially stopped his work on the PSP, some people even suggested that Dark_AleX was paid by Sony not to release any more custom firmware, but Sony denied this. Half Byte Loader is an open source project that aims at loading homebrew for PlayStation Portable handheld console through user-mode exploits. It does not provide any mechanism for loading official games or ISO images, HBL was built from scratch to be easily portable to any user-mode exploit. The project was created and started by m0skit0 and ab5000 and it is currently maintained by wololo. HBL was created initially for the Medal of Honor Heroes exploit, an alpha version was released as open source by m0skit0 and ab5000 on November 2009, which ran very simple homebrews. When the Patapon 2 demo exploit was found and leaked, wololo joined the project, the AdvancedPSP forums, which hosted the project, were shut down by the hosting and the project moved to wololo/talk forums. Wololo also created a new public SVN repository for HBL at Google Code, other PSP hackers such as Davee and neur0n joined in to help the development of this port
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List of hello world programs at Wikibooks
