1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
ParisTech
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ParisTech is a collegiate university located in Paris, France specialised in science and business. In 1999 its name was changed to ParisTech, in 2007, its status changed to a public establishment for scientific cooperation. It is headed by a President, assisted by a bureau and a secretary general, and administrated by a board of directors, assisted by a strategic orientation council. The board of directors gathers one representative of college or institute as well as researchers, faculty members. The member institutes of ParisTech are well-established publicly owned educational and research institutions, ParisTech is also a member of IDEA League, an alliance between universities in science and technology in Europe, as well as of the ATHENS Programme. A majority of them are there, close to one another, in a district bustling with student activity, however, some institutes also created additional sites on the outskirts of Paris, or in other parts of the country. In the course of time, some institutes had settled more towards the periphery, some years ago, the École nationale des ponts et chaussées eventually moved its educational and research facilities to more spacious campuses in greater Paris, in Marne-la-Vallée. SupOptique and part of ENSTA have relocated on the Palaiseau campus recently as will the ENSAE and it is the same for Arts et Métiers ParisTech, among its 8 campuses, only the main one is located in Paris. The other teaching and research centers are spread in the country to get closer to the fabric of each region. Moreover, different specializations are available in the campuses, such as Aerospace in Bordeaux, ParisTech offers a variety of courses, independently or in partnership with other institutions, in the core disciplines of science and technology at postgraduate level. Its main programmes are, the Ingénieur degree delivering a broad understanding of fundamental Engineering Science, the admission to the Ingénieur degree is widely known as being highly selective. Students are admitted through nationwide competitive examinations for students having completed two years of Classes Préparatoires in France or abroad, or by virtue of outstanding academic records, master of Science programmes, courses designed to provide an in-depth understanding in various fields of science ranging from Mathematics to Economics. Admission to ParisTech MSc programmes is open to students holding a Bachelor of Science or a Bachelor of Engineering from a French or international university, each college or institute has its own specific admissions requirements. Mastères spécialisés enable students which have completed a masters degree to develop their knowledge in a speciality to a high standard. An MBA ranked No.1 in the world for the mobility of its graduate students. Doctoral programmes, ParisTech laboratories play host to 2000 doctoral students, thesis enrolment is handled by the ParisTech institute or college to which the host laboratory is attached. Pastel, the catalog of more than 1500 PhD thesis signed by ParisTech students from 10 of the 11 ParisTech ecoles, poly-Media Documentation center, similar catalog of PhD theses from École Polytechnique, with free access online. ParisTech Review, the magazine of ParisTech that assesses how technological innovations will bring sweeping changes to business
3.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
4.
Doctorate
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
5.
Champs-sur-Marne
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Champs-sur-Marne is a commune in the eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 18.2 km from the center of Paris, the commune of Champs-sur-Marne is part of the Val Maubuée sector, one of the four sectors in the new town of Marne-la-Vallée. Originally called simply Champs, the name of the commune became officially Champs-sur-Marne on 9 April 1962, the inhabitants are often referred to as Campésiens. Champs-sur-Marne is twinned with Bradley Stoke in Bristol in the United Kingdom, Champs-sur-Marne is served by Noisy – Champs station on Paris RER line. As of 2016 the commune has ten preschools with 1,138 students combined, the commune has three junior high schools, Armand Lanoux, Jean Weiner, and Pablo Picasso, and there is an additional junior high school in a surrounding commune, Le Luzard in Noisiel. There are 1,799 junior high school students combined, the commune has one senior high school, Lycée René Descartes
6.
Paris School of Economics
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The Paris School of Economics is a French research institute in the field of economics. M. Sc. and Ph. D level programmes in fields of theoretical and applied economics, including macroeconomics, econometrics. The school is intended to participate in both the elaboration of sophisticated tools of analysis, and their application to policy at both the public and private level. It was founded in 2006 as a coalition of universities and grandes écoles to unify high-level research in economics across French academia, created in December 2006, the Paris School of Economics has the status of fondation reconnue d’utilité publique. This status allows PSE to draw on both public and private funding, PSE is one of the Fondation de Coopération Scientifique a new type of foundation created by the Government to develop centres of excellence in France. Scientific Research Foundations operate according to the rules as Public interest foundations. The Paris School of Economics is administered by a Board of Directors consisting of representatives of the public and private partners, researchers, the Scientific Council consists of international researchers, external to PSE, of whom at least 50% work abroad. The Scientific Council evaluates the quality of current and proposed teaching and research programmes. 3 Nobel Prizes laureates are members of the PSE Scientific Council, the creation of the Paris School of Economics is the final chapter of the long gradual process of bringing together and finally merging a number of different research units in Economics. This process started at the end of the 1980s, a number of different research centres joined DELTA at the Jourdan campus, the Laboratoire d’Économie Appliquée of INRA, the Laboratoire des Sciences Sociales of the ENS, CEPREMAP and finally CERAS. 2005, Four of the Economics research centres of the Jourdan campus merge to one single research centre. 2006, The research centres of the University of Paris 1 merge into one sole research centre, the Centre Maurice Halbwachs, which includes a number of different research centres in Sociology and Anthropology, moves onto the Jourdan campus. 2006, On December 21, a decree creates the Foundation of the Paris School of Economics, the school is inaugurated by the French Prime Minister, Dominique de Villepin. The director is Thomas Piketty and the President is Roger Guesnerie,2007, After three years devoted to the creation of PSE, Thomas Piketty chooses to return to research and resigns as Director in April. The new Director is François Bourguignon, former Chief Economist at the World Bank,2013, Pierre-Yves Geoffard is the named new PSE Director, right after François Bourguignon, Frabruary 1. 2015, September 3, Roger Guesnerie, professor at the Collège de France, jean-Pierre Danthine, former vice-president of the Swiss National Bank, replaces him at the head of the institution. 20 December 2016, PSE celebrates its 10-year Anniversary The foundation offers teaching through three Master programmes and a PhD programme, the graduate program Analysis and Policy in Economics offers high-level, research-oriented courses in theoretical and applied economics. Beginning in fall 2016, the ETE program is merged with the APE program and this program aims to prepare students to become experts in designing, analysing and evaluating public policies in both developed and developing countries
7.
Daniel-Charles Trudaine
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Daniel-Charles Trudaine was a French administrator and civil engineer. He was one of the developers of the present French road system. He is also known for the monumental Atlas de Trudaine, made under his direction, Trudaine was born in Paris, the son of Charles Trudaine, prévôt des marchands de Paris. Daniel-Charles was a conseiller in the Parlement of Paris, then intendant of the Auvergne from 1730 to 1734, in 1743, he was named an honorary member of the Académie des sciences. In the following year, he was director of the Assemblée des inspecteurs généraux des ponts et chaussées. He founded the École nationale des ponts et chaussées in 1747, with Jean-Rodolphe Perronet, engineer of the généralité of Alençon, as its head. As head of engineering for the French state, Trudaine demonstrated his brilliance, creating several thousand kilometres of royal routes linking Paris to Frances frontiers. Trudaine was also responsible for the planning and construction of the Place Royale in Reims and his son, Jean-Charles-Philibert Trudaine de Montigny, succeeded him in his official position. The Trudaine Atlas, created from 1745 to 1780, was the most accurate set of plans of roads. The scale of the maps show far more detail than is found on the maps made by César-François Cassini de Thury. The 62 bound volumes contain more than 3,000 plates prepared by the bureau of draftsmen. Map plates were augmented with designs for locks, bridges, Trudaine did not lived to complete his atlas for all of France, only the 22 regions governed by intendants were completed. However, more than half of France was covered by his work, today, Trudaines immense atlas remains one of the most significant achievements in the development of cartography. BibliOdyssey, Atlas de Trudaine, a variety of examples of plates from the atlas Atlas de Trudaine at ARCHIM, website of the French National Archives
8.
Ministry of Ecology
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The Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Marine Affairs is an agency of the Government of France, centred on a cabinet member who is often referred to as the Minister of Ecology. Since April 2014, the position is occupied by socialist Ségolène Royal, the ministry is headquartered in La Grande Arche in La Défense and also, in the Tour Pascal and Tour Sequoia, in Puteaux/ La Défense, near Paris. There is also a Delegate Minister for Transport, Sea and Fishing located in the same place and this position is currently occupied by Frédéric Cuvillier. From 1974 to 1977, the position was renamed Minister of Quality of Life, in 1978 this became Minister of the Environment and Way of Life. The current position title features the expression sustainable development, in due to the influence of the Green party. An Environmental Charter was included in the French Constitution in 2004 and this Ministry is responsible for State Environmental Policy, Transportation, Sea, and Housing Policy. The Ministry distributes funds to Research Agencies or Councils, in 2009, the Minister of Housing and City reported to the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development, Transport and Housing. This post became the Minister of Housing, in 2012, the minister was Cécile Duflot. In May 2012 the Ayrault government established the Le Ministère de lÉgalité des Territoires et du Logement managed by the ecologist Cécile Duflot, previously it was called the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Sea. It also had called the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and Town. It also once operated as the Ministry for Ecology, Sustainable Development, another occasion, it was the Ministry of Ecology and Sustainable Development. It also had been the Ministry of Country Planning and Environment, Ministry of Country Planning and Environment Ministry for Ecology, Sustainable Development and Spatial Planning
9.
Jean-Rodolphe Perronet
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Jean-Rodolphe Perronet was a French architect and structural engineer, known for his many stone arch bridges. His best known work is the Pont de la Concorde, Perronet was born in Suresnes, a suburb of Paris, the son of a Swiss Guardsman. At age 17 he entered the practice of Jean Beausire, first architect to the city of Paris. He was put in charge of the design and construction of Pariss grand sewer, embankment works, in 1735, he was named sous-ingénieur to Alençon and in 1736 entered the Corps des ponts et chaussées. In 1737, he became sous-ingénieur, then engineer to the généralité of Alençon, in 1747, Perronet was named director of the Bureau des dessinateurs du Roi, which had also just put Daniel-Charles Trudaine in charge of producing maps and plans for the kingdom. This first École des ponts et chaussées was based in the hôtel Libéral Bruant in Paris, Perronet was given the task of training bridge and road engineers and of overseeing their work in the généralités in which they worked. The Bureau became the Bureau des élèves des ponts et chaussées and its organiser, inspiration and teacher, Perronet was a true spiritual father to his students and used a new teaching method which seems very contemporary to modern eyes. During this time he became friends with the Swiss bridge-builder Charles Labelye and he was named premier ingénieur du roi in 1763 and became a member of the associate of the Académie des sciences in 1765. Besides his bridges, between 1747 and 1791,2500 km of roads were created or repaired under his direction and he also contributed the article Pompe à feu to the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. In 1772, Perronet was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris, aged 85 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788. He died on 27 February 1794 in Paris, aged 85, Perronet was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788. French sculptor Adrien Étienne Gaudez created a statue of Perronet that is erected at the northeast end of Puteaux Island on the Seine River near Paris. M. Guillot, Un destin helvétique, Jean-Rodophe Perronet et sa famille suresnoise in Les gardes suisses et leurs familles au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles en région parisienne, yvon Michel, Jean-Rodolphe Perronet in Monuments Historiques, Paris, April–June 1987, nos 150-151, p. 81-86. Premier inégénieur du Roi et directeur de l’École des ponts et chaussées, Paris, Biography Biography Jean-Rodolphe Perronet, article Pompe à feu in the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers Britannica
10.
Denis Diderot
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Denis Diderot was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne, and began his formal education at a Jesuit collège in Langres. His parents were Didier Diderot a cutler, maître coutelier, three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot, and finally their sister Angélique Diderot. According to Arthur McCandless Wilson, Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, in 1732 Denis Diderot earned the Master of Arts degree in philosophy. Then he entered the Collège dHarcourt of the University of Paris and he abandoned the idea of entering the clergy and decided instead to study at the Paris Law Faculty. His study of law was short-lived however and in 1734 Diderot decided to become a writer, because of his refusal to enter one of the learned professions, he was disowned by his father, and for the next ten years he lived a bohemian existence. In 1742 he befriended Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in 1743 he further alienated his father by marrying Antoinette Champion, a devout Roman Catholic. The match was considered due to Champions low social standing, poor education, fatherless status. She was about three years older than Diderot, the marriage in October 1743 produced one surviving child, a girl. Her name was Angélique, after both Diderots dead mother and sister, the death of his sister, a nun, from overwork in the convent may have affected Diderots opinion of religion. Babuti, Madeleine de Puisieux, Sophie Volland and Mme de Maux and his letters to Sophie Volland are known for their candor and are regarded to be among the literary treasures of the eighteenth century. Though his work was broad as well as rigorous, it did not bring Diderot riches, when the time came for him to provide a dowry for his daughter, he saw no alternative than to sell his library. When Empress Catherine II of Russia heard of his financial troubles she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library and she then requested that the philosopher retain the books in Paris until she required them, and act as her librarian with a yearly salary. Between October 1773 and March 1774, the sick Diderot spent a few months at the court in Saint Petersburg. Diderot died of thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia and this idea seems to have been shelved. In 1745, he published a translation of Shaftesburys Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit, in 1746, Diderot wrote his first original work, the Philosophical Thoughts. In this book, Diderot argued for a reconciliation of reason with feeling so as to establish harmony, according to Diderot, without feeling there would be a detrimental effect on virtue and no possibility of creating sublime work
11.
Jean le Rond d'Alembert
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Jean-Baptiste le Rond dAlembert was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759 he was also co-editor with Denis Diderot of the Encyclopédie, DAlemberts formula for obtaining solutions to the wave equation is named after him. The wave equation is referred to as dAlemberts equation. Born in Paris, dAlembert was the son of the writer Claudine Guérin de Tencin and the chevalier Louis-Camus Destouches. Destouches was abroad at the time of dAlemberts birth, days after birth his mother left him on the steps of the Saint-Jean-le-Rond de Paris church. According to custom, he was named after the saint of the church. DAlembert was placed in an orphanage for foundling children, but his father found him and placed him with the wife of a glazier, Madame Rousseau, Destouches secretly paid for the education of Jean le Rond, but did not want his paternity officially recognized. DAlembert first attended a private school, the chevalier Destouches left dAlembert an annuity of 1200 livres on his death in 1726. Under the influence of the Destouches family, at the age of twelve entered the Jansenist Collège des Quatre-Nations. Here he studied philosophy, law, and the arts, graduating as baccalauréat en arts in 1735, in his later life, DAlembert scorned the Cartesian principles he had been taught by the Jansenists, physical promotion, innate ideas and the vortices. The Jansenists steered DAlembert toward a career, attempting to deter him from pursuits such as poetry. Theology was, however, rather unsubstantial fodder for dAlembert and he entered law school for two years, and was nominated avocat in 1738. He was also interested in medicine and mathematics, Jean was first registered under the name Daremberg, but later changed it to dAlembert. The name dAlembert was proposed by Johann Heinrich Lambert for a moon of Venus. In July 1739 he made his first contribution to the field of mathematics, at the time Lanalyse démontrée was a standard work, which dAlembert himself had used to study the foundations of mathematics. DAlembert was also a Latin scholar of note and worked in the latter part of his life on a superb translation of Tacitus. In 1740, he submitted his second scientific work from the field of fluid mechanics Mémoire sur la réfraction des corps solides, in this work dAlembert theoretically explained refraction. In 1741, after failed attempts, dAlembert was elected into the Académie des Sciences
12.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
13.
Algebra
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Algebra is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols, as such, it includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra, the abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine, abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians. Elementary algebra differs from arithmetic in the use of abstractions, such as using letters to stand for numbers that are unknown or allowed to take on many values. For example, in x +2 =5 the letter x is unknown, in E = mc2, the letters E and m are variables, and the letter c is a constant, the speed of light in a vacuum. Algebra gives methods for solving equations and expressing formulas that are easier than the older method of writing everything out in words. The word algebra is used in certain specialized ways. A special kind of object in abstract algebra is called an algebra. A mathematician who does research in algebra is called an algebraist, the word algebra comes from the Arabic الجبر from the title of the book Ilm al-jabr wal-muḳābala by Persian mathematician and astronomer al-Khwarizmi. The word entered the English language during the century, from either Spanish, Italian. It originally referred to the procedure of setting broken or dislocated bones. The mathematical meaning was first recorded in the sixteenth century, the word algebra has several related meanings in mathematics, as a single word or with qualifiers. As a single word without an article, algebra names a broad part of mathematics, as a single word with an article or in plural, an algebra or algebras denotes a specific mathematical structure, whose precise definition depends on the author. Usually the structure has an addition, multiplication, and a scalar multiplication, when some authors use the term algebra, they make a subset of the following additional assumptions, associative, commutative, unital, and/or finite-dimensional. In universal algebra, the word refers to a generalization of the above concept. With a qualifier, there is the distinction, Without an article, it means a part of algebra, such as linear algebra, elementary algebra. With an article, it means an instance of some abstract structure, like a Lie algebra, sometimes both meanings exist for the same qualifier, as in the sentence, Commutative algebra is the study of commutative rings, which are commutative algebras over the integers
14.
Mechanics
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Mechanics is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle, during the early modern period, scientists such as Khayaam, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of, historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newtons laws of motion in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, both are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences, essential in this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them. Quantum mechanics is of a scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to the principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at the molecular, atomic. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a definition of such quantities as displacement, time, velocity, acceleration, mass. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a different point of view. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall and this acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass, for objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory, for everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion. In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Einsteins general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton, the differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although general relativity has not been integrated, the two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle which must be overcome in developing a theory of everything
15.
Hydraulics
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Hydraulics is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids or fluids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the version of pneumatics. Fluid mechanics provides the foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In fluid power, hydraulics are used for the generation, control, hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry, pumps. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the body within the heart. Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with surface flow, such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries. Its sub-field open channel flow studies the flow in open channels, the word hydraulics originates from the Greek word ὑδραυλικός which in turn originates from ὕδωρ and αὐλός. Early uses of water power date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, other early examples of water power include the Qanat system in ancient Persia and the Turpan water system in ancient Central Asia. The Greeks constructed sophisticated water and hydraulic power systems, an example is the construction by Eupalinos, under a public contract, of a watering channel for Samos, the Tunnel of Eupalinos. An early example of the usage of hydraulic wheel, probably the earliest in Europe, is the Perachora wheel, notable is the construction of the first hydraulic automata by Ctesibius and Hero of Alexandria. Hero describes a number of working machines using hydraulic power, such as the force pump, in ancient China there was Sunshu Ao, Ximen Bao, Du Shi, Zhang Heng, and Ma Jun, while medieval China had Su Song and Shen Kuo. Du Shi employed a waterwheel to power the bellows of a blast furnace producing cast iron, Zhang Heng was the first to employ hydraulics to provide motive power in rotating an armillary sphere for astronomical observation. In ancient Sri Lanka, hydraulics were used in the ancient kingdoms of Anuradhapura. The discovery of the principle of the tower, or valve pit. By the first century AD, several irrigation works had been completed. The coral on the rock at the site includes cisterns for collecting water. They were among the first to use of the siphon to carry water across valleys. They used lead widely in plumbing systems for domestic and public supply, hydraulic mining was used in the gold-fields of northern Spain, which was conquered by Augustus in 25 BC
16.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
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First French Empire
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The First French Empire, Note 1 was the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte of France and the dominant power in much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. Its name was a misnomer, as France already had colonies overseas and was short lived compared to the Colonial Empire, a series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars, extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. The plot included Bonapartes brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, on 9 November 1799 and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control. They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, the Consulate, he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. He thus became the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X, the Battle of Marengo inaugurated the political idea that was to continue its development until Napoleons Moscow campaign. Napoleon planned only to keep the Duchy of Milan for France, setting aside Austria, the Peace of Amiens, which cost him control of Egypt, was a temporary truce. He gradually extended his authority in Italy by annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa, Parma, Tuscany and Naples, then he laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims of the pope. Napoleon would have ruling elites from a fusion of the new bourgeoisie, on 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted unanimously, with exception of Carnot, in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of France. This action was confirmed by the Corps Législatif, a general plebiscite followed thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and 8,272 votes nay. On 2 August 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed Consul for life, pro-revolutionary sentiment swept through Germany aided by the Recess of 1803, which brought Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden to Frances side. The memories of imperial Rome were for a time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne. The Treaty of Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, did little other than create a more unified Germany to threaten France. On the other hand, Napoleons creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the occupation of Ancona, to create satellite states, Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The Bonapartes began to marry into old European monarchies, gaining sovereignty over many nations, in addition to the vassal titles, Napoleons closest relatives were also granted the title of French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France. Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power, Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace proposal and this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806. In this War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon destroyed the armies of Frederick William at Jena-Auerstedt, the Eylau and the Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick the Greats formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at Tilsit. The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and the French Empire and began an alliance between the two empires that held power of much of the rest of Europe, the two empires secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes
18.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
19.
Jean-Baptiste Biot
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Jean-Baptiste Biot was a French physicist, astronomer, and mathematician who established the reality of meteorites, made an early balloon flight, and studied the polarization of light. The mineral biotite was named in his honor, Jean-Baptiste Biot was born in Paris on 21 April 1774 the son of Joseph Biot, a treasury official. He was educated at Lyceum Louis-le-Grand and École Polytechnique in 1794, Biot served in the artillery before he was appointed professor of mathematics at Beauvais in 1797. He later went on to become a professor of physics at the Collège de France around 1800, in 1804 Biot was on board for the first scientific hot-air balloon ride with Gay-Lussac. They reached a height of 7016 metres, quite dangerous without supplementary oxygen, Biot was also a member of the Legion of Honor, he was elected chevalier in 1814 and commander in 1849. In addition, Biot received the Rumford Medal in 1840, awarded by the Royal Society in the field of thermal or optical properties of matter. In 1850 Jean-Baptiste Biot published in the Journal des savants a 7-page memoir from his recollections of the period of the late 1790s, Jean-Baptiste Biot had a single son, Édouard Constant Biot, an engineer and Sinologist, born in 1803. Edouard died in 1850 and it was thanks to the extraordinary efforts of his father that the second half of Edouards last book. It had been left in manuscript, unfinished, to this day, Biots translation remains the only translation into a Western language of this book. He died in Paris on 3 February 1862, Jean-Baptiste Biot made many contributions to the scientific community in his lifetime – most notably in optics, magnetism, and astronomy. The Biot–Savart law in magnetism is named after Biot and his colleague Félix Savart for their work in 1820, in 1803 Biot was sent by the Académie française to report back on 3000 meteorites that fell on L’aigle, France. He found that the meteorites, called stones at the time, were from outer space, with his report, Biot helped support Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladnis argument that meteorites were debris from space, which he had published in 1794. Prior to Biots thorough investigation of the meteorites that fell near lAigle, France in 1803, there were anecdotal tales of unusual rocks found on the ground after fireballs had been seen in the sky, but such stories were often dismissed as fantasy. Serious debate concerning the unusual rocks began in 1794 when German physicist Chladni published a book claiming that rocks had an extraterrestrial origin. Only after Biot was able to analyze the rocks at lAigle was it accepted that the fireballs seen in the sky were meteors falling through the atmosphere. Since Biots time, analysis of meteorites has resulted in measurements of the chemical composition of the solar system. The composition and position of meteors in the system have also given astronomers clues as to how the solar system formed. In 1812, Biot turned his attention to the study of optics, prior to the 19th century, light was believed to consist of discrete packets called corpuscles
20.
Augustin-Louis Cauchy
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Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy FRS FRSE was a French mathematician who made pioneering contributions to analysis. He was one of the first to state and prove theorems of calculus rigorously and he almost singlehandedly founded complex analysis and the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra. A profound mathematician, Cauchy had an influence over his contemporaries. His writings range widely in mathematics and mathematical physics, more concepts and theorems have been named for Cauchy than for any other mathematician. Cauchy was a writer, he wrote approximately eight hundred research articles. Cauchy was the son of Louis François Cauchy and Marie-Madeleine Desestre, Cauchy married Aloise de Bure in 1818. She was a relative of the publisher who published most of Cauchys works. By her he had two daughters, Marie Françoise Alicia and Marie Mathilde, Cauchys father was a high official in the Parisian Police of the New Régime. He lost his position because of the French Revolution that broke out one month before Augustin-Louis was born, the Cauchy family survived the revolution and the following Reign of Terror by escaping to Arcueil, where Cauchy received his first education, from his father. After the execution of Robespierre, it was safe for the family to return to Paris, there Louis-François Cauchy found himself a new bureaucratic job, and quickly moved up the ranks. When Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, Louis-François Cauchy was further promoted, the famous mathematician Lagrange was also a friend of the Cauchy family. On Lagranges advice, Augustin-Louis was enrolled in the École Centrale du Panthéon, most of the curriculum consisted of classical languages, the young and ambitious Cauchy, being a brilliant student, won many prizes in Latin and Humanities. In spite of successes, Augustin-Louis chose an engineering career. In 1805 he placed second out of 293 applicants on this exam, one of the main purposes of this school was to give future civil and military engineers a high-level scientific and mathematical education. The school functioned under military discipline, which caused the young, nevertheless, he finished the Polytechnique in 1807, at the age of 18, and went on to the École des Ponts et Chaussées. He graduated in engineering, with the highest honors. After finishing school in 1810, Cauchy accepted a job as an engineer in Cherbourg. Cauchys first two manuscripts were accepted, the one was rejected
21.
Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis
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Gustave de Coriolis was a French mathematician, mechanical engineer and scientist. He is best known for his work on the forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference. He was the first to coin the term work for the transfer of energy by a force acting through a distance, Coriolis was born in Paris in 1792. In 1829, Coriolis published a textbook, Calcul de lEffet des Machines, in this period, the correct expression for kinetic energy, ½mv2, and its relation to mechanical work, became established. During the following years, Coriolis worked to extend the notions of kinetic energy, the first of his papers, Sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines, was read to the Académie des Sciences. Three years later came the paper that would make his name famous, corioliss papers do not deal with the atmosphere or even the rotation of the Earth, but with the transfer of energy in rotating systems like waterwheels. Coriolis discussed the supplementary forces that are detected in a frame of reference. The second category contained the force that would bear his name. A detailed discussion may be found in Dugas, in 1835, he published a mathematical work on collisions of spheres, Théorie Mathématique des Effets du Jeu de Billard, considered a classic on the subject. Corioliss name began to appear in the literature at the end of the 19th century. Coriolis became professor of mechanics at the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in 1829, in 1838, he succeeded Dulong as Directeur des études in the École Polytechnique. He died in 1843 at the age of 51 in Paris and his name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. Persson, A.1998 How do we understand the Coriolis Force,79, 1373–1385.374 KB PDF document of the above article OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps, online and analyzed on BibNum Sur le bruit du tonnerre, online and analyzed on BibNum
22.
Jules Dupuit
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Arsène Jules Étienne Juvenel Dupuit was an Italian-born French civil engineer and economist. He was born in Fossano, Italy then under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte, at the age of ten he emigrated to France with his family where he studied in Versailles — winning a Physics prize at graduation. He then studied in the École Polytechnique as a civil engineer and he gradually took on more responsibility in various regional posts. He received a Légion dhonneur in 1843 for his work on the French road system and he also studied flood management in 1848 and supervised the construction of the Paris sewer system. Engineering questions led to his interest in economics, a subject in which he was self-taught and his 1844 article was concerned with deciding the optimum toll for a bridge. It was here that he introduced his curve of diminishing marginal utility, as the quantity of a good consumed rises, the marginal utility of the good declines for the user. So the lower the toll, the people who would use the bridge. Conversely as the quantity rises, the willingness of a person to pay for that good declines, thus, the concept of diminishing marginal utility should translate itself into a downward-sloping demand function. In this way he identified the demand curve as the marginal utility curve and this was the first time an economist had put forward a theory of demand derived from marginal utility. Although not the first time that the curve had been drawn. Dupuit, however, did not include a curve in his theory. This was later known as Marshalls consumer surplus, dupuits reputation as an economist does not rest on his advocacy of laissez-faire economics but on frequent contributions to periodicals. He also wrote on monopoly and price discrimination, Dupuit also considered the groundwater flow equation, which governs the flow of groundwater. He assumed that the equation could be simplified for analytical solutions by assuming that groundwater is hydrostatic and this assumption is regularly used today, and is known by hydrogeologists as the Dupuit assumption. Hager, W. H. Jules Dupuit—Eminent Hydraulic Engineer, journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Volume 130, Issue 9, pp. 843–848. Doi,10. 1061/0733-9429130,9 Dupuit, Arsène Jules Étienne Juvénal, De la mesure de l’utilité des travaux publics, Annales des ponts et chaussées, Second series,8. Translated by R. H. Barback as On the measurement of the utility of public works, International Economic Papers,1952,2, 83-110 reprinted in, Kenneth J. Arrow and Tibor Scitovsky, eds. Robert Ekelund and Robert F. Hébert, Secret Origins of Modern Microeconomics, Dupuit, biography of Jules Dupuit Robert Ekelund
23.
Augustin-Jean Fresnel
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Augustin-Jean Fresnel, was a French engineer and physicist who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally and he is perhaps best known as the inventor of the Fresnel lens, first adopted in lighthouses while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today. His Fresnel equations on waves and reflectivity also form the basis for many applications in computer graphics today — for instance, Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at Broglie. His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old, at thirteen he entered the École Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half the École Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the École des Ponts et Chaussées and he received only scant public recognition during his lifetime for his labours in the cause of optical science. Some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences until many years after his death, but as he wrote to Young in 1824, in himself that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory had been blunted. Fresnel has been described as a man with interest in religious questions, as a form of consolation, he took religion very seriously especially during his illness. He spent much of his life in Paris, and died of tuberculosis at Ville-dAvray and his is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. The writer Prosper Mérimée was his first cousin and he served as an engineer successively in the departments of Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Vilaine, but having supported the Bourbons in 1814 he lost his appointment on Napoleons return to power. He appears to have begun his research in optics around 1814, in 1815, on the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in Paris. In 1818 he wrote a memoir on diffraction, for which he received the prize of the Académie des Sciences at Paris the following year and he was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a Fresnel lens, as a substitute for mirrors in lighthouses. In 1819, he was nominated to be a commissioner of lighthouses, in 1823 he was unanimously elected a member of the academy. In 1825 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, in 1827, the time of his last illness, the Royal Society of London awarded him the Rumford Medal. In 1818 he published his Memoir on the Diffraction of Light, in 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show by mathematical methods that polarization could be explained if light was entirely transverse. He proposed the aether drag hypothesis to explain a lack of variation in astronomical observations. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with other a angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi on interference. This allowed him to account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory
24.
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
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Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac was a French chemist and physicist. Gay-Lussac was born at Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat in the department of Haute-Vienne. The father of Joseph Louis Gay, Anthony Gay, son of a doctor, was a lawyer and prosecutor, and worked as a judge in Noblat Bridge. Father of two sons and three daughters, he owned much of the Lussac village and usually added the name of this hamlet of the Haute-Vienne to his name, towards the year 1803, father and son finally adopted the name Gay-Lussac. During the Revolution, on behalf of the Law of Suspects and he received his early education at the hands of the Catholic Abbey of Bourdeix, though later in life became an atheist. In the care of the Abbot of Dumonteil he began his education in Paris, Gay-Lussac narrowly avoided conscription and by the time of entry to the École Polytechnique his father had been arrested. Three years later, Gay-Lussac transferred to the École des Ponts et Chaussées, in 1802, he was appointed demonstrator to A. F. Fourcroy at the École Polytechnique, where in he became professor of chemistry. From 1808 to 1832, he was professor of physics at the Sorbonne, in 1821, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute-Vienne in the chamber of deputies and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. Gay-Lussac married Geneviève-Marie-Joseph Rojot in 1809 and he had first met her when she worked as a linen drapers shop assistant and was studying a chemistry textbook under the counter. He fathered five children, of whom the eldest became assistant to Justus Liebig in Giessen, some publications by Jules are mistaken as his fathers today since they share the same first initial. Gay-Lussac died in Paris, and his grave is there at Père Lachaise Cemetery and his name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. 1802 – Gay-Lussac first formulated the law, Gay-Lussacs Law, stating if the mass. His work was preceded by that of Guillaume Amontons, who established the rough relation without the use of accurate thermometers. The law is written as p = k T, where k is a constant dependent on the mass and volume of the gas. 1804 – He and Jean-Baptiste Biot made a balloon ascent to a height of 7,016 metres in an early investigation of the Earths atmosphere. He wanted to collect samples of the air at different heights to record differences in temperature and moisture,1805 – Together with his friend and scientific collaborator Alexander von Humboldt, he discovered that the composition of the atmosphere does not change with decreasing pressure. They also discovered that water is formed by two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen,1808 – He was the co-discoverer of boron
25.
Claude-Louis Navier
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Claude-Louis Navier, was a French engineer and physicist who specialized in mechanics. The Navier–Stokes equations are named after him and George Gabriel Stokes, after the death of his father in 1793, Naviers mother left his education in the hands of his uncle Émiland Gauthey, an engineer with the Corps of Bridges and Roads. In 1802, Navier enrolled at the École polytechnique, and in 1804 continued his studies at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and he eventually succeeded his uncle as Inspecteur general at the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées. He directed the construction of bridges at Choisy, Asnières and Argenteuil in the Department of the Seine, in 1824, Navier was admitted into the French Academy of Science. Navier formulated the theory of elasticity in a mathematically usable form. Navier is therefore considered to be the founder of modern structural analysis. His major contribution however remains the Navier–Stokes equations, central to fluid mechanics and his name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Claude-Louis Navier, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews
26.
Louis Vicat
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He graduated from École Polytechnique 1804 and École des Ponts et Chaussées 1806. Vicat studied the setting of mortars and developed his own, the material was popular but was superseded by Portland cement. He also invented the Vicat needle that is still in use for determination of setting time of concretes and his son, Joseph Vicat, founded Vicat Cement, which is today a large international cement manufacturing company. He was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and his name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower, Vicat was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1855. Guy Coriono 250 ans de lÉcole des Ponts et Chaussées en cent portraits,222 pp. Presses de lÉcole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, ISBN 2-85978-271-0. 598 pp. Editions du Centre Pompidou, Paris, ISBN 2-85850-911-5
27.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
28.
Gaspard de Prony
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Gaspard Clair François Marie Riche de Prony was a French mathematician and engineer, who worked on hydraulics. He was born at Chamelet, Beaujolais, France and died in Asnières-sur-Seine and he was Engineer-in-Chief of the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées. In 1791, de Prony embarked on the task of producing logarithmic and trigonometric tables for the French Cadastre, the effort was sanctioned by the French National Assembly, which, after the French Revolution wanted to bring uniformity to the multiple measurements and standards used throughout the nation. In particular, his tables were intended for land surveys. The tables were vast, with values calculated to between fourteen and twenty-nine decimal places, inspired by Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations, de Prony divided up the labor into three levels, bragging that he could manufacture logarithms as easily as one manufactures pins. The first level consisted of five or six high-ranking mathematicians with sophisticated analytical skills and this group chose the analytical formulas most suited to evaluation by numerical methods, and specified the number of decimals and the numerical range the tables were to cover. They also prepared templates for the computers, and the first worked row of calculations. The third group consisted of sixty to eighty human computers and these had no more than a rudimentary knowledge of arithmetic and carried out the most laborious and repetitive part of the process. Many were out-of-work hairdressers, because, with the guillotining of the aristocracy, the hairdressing trade, at the bottom were about ninety computers who were not trained in mathematics, but who followed the instructions. Due to a lack of funding from inflation following the French revolution, the first excerpt of the table was published a century later. According to Prony, the project was to leave nothing to desire with respect to exactitude, monument to calculation ever executed or even conceived. In particular, these tables, which were designed for the division of circles and time. Moreover, there was no use for the full extent of de Pronys calculations accuracy. Hence, these became more of artifacts and monuments to Enlightenment rather than objects of practical use. By the turn of the 19th century, there was a shift in the meaning of calculation, the talented mathematicians and other intellectuals who produced creative and abstract ideas were regarded separately from those who were able to perform tedious and repetitive computations. Before the 19th century, calculation was regarded as a task for the academics, while afterwards and this shift in the interpretation of calculation was largely due to de Pronys calculation project during the French Revolution. This project was able to unite people from different walks of life as well as mathematical abilities. Prony was able to have artisans work along with mathematicians to perform the calculations, Prony noted a few interesting observations about this new dynamic
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Henri Becquerel
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Antoine Henri Becquerel was a French physicist, Nobel laureate, and the first person to discover evidence of radioactivity. For work in this field he, along with Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie, the SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel, is named after him. Roentgen discovered X-rays on November 8,1895, the press reported this on January 5,1896, shortly before Becquerel did his famous experiment. Thus radioactivity was discovered the year but within a year of the discovery of X-rays. Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which produced four generations of scientists, Becquerels grandfather, father. He studied engineering at the École Polytechnique and the École des Ponts et Chaussées, in 1890 he married Louise Désirée Lorieux. In 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the chair at the Muséum National dHistoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges, Becquerels earliest works centered on the subject of his doctoral thesis, the plane polarization of light, with the phenomenon of phosphorescence and absorption of light by crystals. Becquerels discovery of radioactivity is a famous example of serendipity. Becquerel had long interested in phosphorescence, the emission of light of one color following a bodys exposure to light of another color. His first experiments appeared to show this, one places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the opaque paper and reduce silver salts. But further experiments led him to doubt and then abandon this hypothesis, since the sun did not come out in the following days, I developed the photographic plates on the 1st of March, expecting to find the images very weak. Instead the silhouettes appeared with great intensity, however, the present experiments, without being contrary to this hypothesis, do not warrant this conclusion. I hope that the experiments which I am pursuing at the moment will be able to bring some clarification to this new class of phenomena. In 1903, Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre, by 1861, Niepce de Saint-Victor realized that uranium salts produce a radiation that is invisible to our eyes. Niepce de Saint-Victor knew Edmond Becquerel, Henri Becquerels father, in 1868, Edmond Becquerel published a book, La lumière, ses causes et ses effets
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Albert Caquot
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Albert Irénée Caquot was considered as the best living French engineer during half a century. He received the “Croix de guerre 1914–1918 ” and was Grand-croix of the Légion d’Honneur and he was a member of the French Academy of Sciences from 1934 till his death. In 1962, he was awarded the Wilhelm Exner Medal and his parents, Paul Auguste Ondrine Caquot and wife Marie Irma owned a family farm in Vouziers, in the Ardennes, near the Belgian border. His father taught him modernism, by installing at their place electricity, one year only after high school, at eighteen years old, he was admitted at the Ecole Polytechnique. Six years later, he graduated in the “Corps des Ponts et Chaussées”, from 1905 to 1912, he was a project manager in Troyes, and was pointed out for major civil work improvements he undertook with the city sewer system. This protected the city from the flood of the River Seine in 1910. In 1912, he joined a leading structural engineering firm where he applied his talent of structure designer. Albert Caquot conducted outstanding research that was applied in construction. His major contributions include, reinforced concrete design, and structural engineering in a broader sense, in 1930, he defined the intrinsic curve and explained why the elasticity theory was not sufficient any more for modern structures design. He stated the corresponding states theorem, in 1933, his publication on the stability of pulverulent and coherent material received an admiring report from the French Academy of Sciences, where he was elected life member in 1934. In 1948, with Jean Kérisel, his son-in-law and disciple and this principle has been broadly applied ever since for the design of ground engineering structures such as retaining walls, tunnels and foundation piles. The revival of cable-stayed bridges with reinforced concrete, which he envisioned with long spans, in 1967, he designed a conceptual double-deck bridge of this type with 810 m-wide spans and two 25 m-wide decks stages accommodating 8 lanes for cars,2 for rail and 2 for skytrain. In his late eighties, he developed a tidal power project to capture the tide energy in Mont St Michel bay. During the course of his life, he committed himself alternatively to structural and aeronautical engineering following the rhythm imposed by the First and he was visionary and ahead of his time. He led aeronautical innovations for forty years, as early as 1901, already visionary, he performed his military service in an airship unit of the French army. At the beginning of First World War, he was mobilised with the 40e Compagnie dAérostiers equipped with Drachen type airships as first lieutenant and he noticed the poor wind behavior of these sausage shaped captive balloons, which were ineffective except in calm conditions. The Caquot was able to hold in 90 km/h winds and remain horizontal, during three years, France manufactured Caquot dirigibles for all the allied forces, including English and United States armies. The United States also manufactured nearly a thousand Caquot R balloons in 1918-1919 and this balloon gave to France and its allies an advantage in military observation which significantly contributed to the allies’ supremacy in aviation and eventually to the final victory
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
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Aftermath of World War II
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Western Europe and Japan were rebuilt through the American Marshall Plan whereas Eastern Europe fell in the Soviet sphere of influence and rejected the plan. Europe was divided into a US-led Western Bloc and a Soviet-led Eastern Bloc, internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through the Non-Aligned Movement. As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the United Nations, members of the United Nations agreed to outlaw wars of aggression in an attempt to avoid a third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community and this effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war between Germany and France by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources. Also related to this was Israel gaining independence from its previous status as part of Mandatory Palestine in the immediately following the war. Independence for the nations of Sub-Saharan Africa came more slowly, the aftermath of World War II also saw the rise of the Peoples Republic of China, as the Chinese Communists emerged victorious from the Chinese Civil War in 1949. At the end of the war, millions of people were homeless, the European economy had collapsed, the Soviet Union, too, had been heavily affected. In response, in 1947, U. S. Secretary of State George Marshall devised the European Recovery Program, under the plan, during 1948–1952 the United States government allocated US$13 billion for the reconstruction of Western Europe. By the end of the war, the economy of the United Kingdom was exhausted, more than a quarter of its national wealth had been spent. Until the introduction in 1941 of Lend-Lease aid from the US, lend-lease came just before its reserves were exhausted. Britain put 55% of its labor force into war production. In spring 1945, the Labour Party withdrew from the coalition government. Following a landslide victory, Labour held more than 60% of the seats in the House of Commons, britains war debt was described by some in the American administration as a millstone round the neck of the British economy. Although there were suggestions for a conference to tackle the issue. The abrupt withdrawal of American Lend Lease support to Britain on 2 September 1945 dealt a blow to the plans of the new government. It was only with the completion of the Anglo-American loan by the United States to Great Britain on 15 July 1946 that some measure of stability was restored. Although the loan was agreed on terms, its conditions included what proved to be damaging fiscal conditions for Sterling. From 1946-1948, the UK introduced bread rationing which it never did during the war, the Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany
