1.
Spanish naming customs
–
Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a persons name consists of a name followed by two family names. The first surname is usually the fathers first surname, and the second the mothers first surname, in recent years, the order of the surnames can be reversed at birth if it is so decided by the parents. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name, a composite given name comprises two single names, for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families, traditionally, a persons first surname is the fathers first surname, and the second one is the mothers first surname. From 2013, if the parents of a child are unable to agree on order of surnames, the law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the y or e. For example, a name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename, a paternal surname. There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, for example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under Arbó, assuming that Sebastiá and Juan were both given names. However, Juan was actually his first surname, to resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names, one must consult the person involved, or legal documents. A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be addressed as José Antonio, José, Pepe, Antonio, or Toño Jose, Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín, Antoñito, Tonín or Nono. Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José, colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mothers family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, as these peoples paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names. It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as Zapatero, a practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words. Parents choose their childs name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name, common sources of names are the parents taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina, legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian and typical Spanish names
2.
President of Costa Rica
–
The President of Costa Rica is the head of state and head of government of Costa Rica. The President is currently elected in elections for a period of four years. Two Vice Presidents are elected in the ticket with the President. The President appoints the Council of Ministers, due to the abolition of the military of Costa Rica in 1948, the president is not a Commander-in-chief, unlike the norm in most other countries. From 1969 to 2005, the president was barred from seeking reelection, after the amendment banning reelection was overturned by the Supreme Court in 2005, an incumbent president became eligible to run again after waiting for at least eight years after leaving office. The following table contains a list of the chairmen, presidents. From 1824 to 1838 Costa Rica was a state within the Federal Republic of Central America, Liberal Conservative Liberal Conservative Military Republican PRN PLN PUN/PUSC PAC Living former Presidents Politics of Costa Rica List of political parties in Costa Rica History of Costa Rica
3.
Laura Chinchilla
–
Laura Chinchilla Miranda is a Costa Rican politician who was President of Costa Rica from 2010 to 2014. She was one of Óscar Arias Sánchezs two Vice-Presidents and his administrations Minister of Justice and she was the governing PLN candidate for President in the 2010 general election, where she won with 46. 76% of the vote on 7 February. She was the woman president of a Latin American country. She was sworn in as President of Costa Rica on May 8,2010 and she currently teaches at Georgetown University and is a member of the board of the Inter-American Dialogue. Chinchilla was born in Carmen Central, San José in 1959 and her father was Rafael Ángel Chinchilla Fallas and her mother was Emilce Miranda Castillo. She married Mario Alberto Madrigal Díaz on 23 January 1982 and divorced on 22 May 1985 and she had a son, José María Rico Chinchilla, in 1996 with José María Rico Cueto, a Spanish lawyer who also holds Canadian citizenship, Chinchilla married him on 26 March 2000. Chinchilla graduated from the University of Costa Rica and received her masters degree in policy from Georgetown University. Prior to entering politics, Chinchilla worked as an NGO consultant in Latin America and Africa, specializing in judicial reform and she went on to serve in the José María Figueres Olsen administration as vice-minister for public security and minister of public security. From 2002 to 2006, she served in the National Assembly as a deputy for the province of San José, Chinchilla was one of two vice-presidents elected under the second Arias administration. She resigned the vice-presidency in 2008 in order to prepare her run for the presidency in 2010, on 7 June 2009 she won the Partido Liberación Nacional primary with a 15% margin over her nearest rival, and was thus endorsed as the partys presidential candidate. Chinchilla led the Observation Mission deployed by the OAS to Mexico to observe the June 2015 federal election, Chinchilla will head the first Electoral Observation Mission that the OAS will deploy to the United States, observing the November 2016 elections. Chinchillas Partido Liberación Nacional is a member of the Socialist International, the British Foreign and Commonwealth minister with responsibility for Central America, Baroness Kinnock, applauded Chinchillas election as the first female President of Costa Rica. Laura Chinchillas political platform emphasized anti-crime legislation in response to Costa Ricas growing concerns over safety and she is also expected to give continuity to the current governments pro-free trade policies. She is considered a social conservative and she opposes gay marriage, but has stated publicly the need for a legal frame to provide fundamental rights to same-sex couples. She supports maintaining the countrys prohibition of abortion under most circumstances, during her tenure, improvements were made in security, and the homicide rate, originally 10 for every 100,000 inhabitants, dropped significantly. The WHO had the once high figure a “social pandemic” and it has fluctuated greatly in years prior, Education became one Chinchilla’s greatest priorities. She moved into action Article 78 of Costa Rica’s Constitution, The Strengthening Education Effort, during her tenure the actual figure reached 7. 2%, the highest of any country in the region. In October 2010, Nicaraguan forces occupied islands in the San Juan River delta, the land is claimed by the Nicaraguan and Costa Rican governments
4.
Luis Alberto Monge
–
Luis Alberto Monge Álvarez was the President of Costa Rica from 1982 to 1986. He also served as Costa Ricas first Ambassador to Israel from 1963 until 1966, Monge was born on December 29,1925, in Palmares, Alajuela Province, to Gerardo Monge Quesada and Elisa Álvarez Vargas. He married his first wife, Flora Rojas Alvarez, on March 9,1946 and he met his second wife, Doris Yankelewitz Berger, while both were attending a luncheon at the University of Costa Rica. At the time, Yankelewitz was a student while Monge was serving as Ambassador to Israel. Monge and Yankelewitz married at a ceremony in San José on November 25,1965, Monge and Yankelewitz later separated at the end of his presidency in 1986. The couple divorced in June 1988, before becoming President in 1982, Monge served as Costa Ricas first ambassador to Israel from 1963 to 1966 and was one of the founding members of the National Liberation Party in 1951. He was also named a deputy in the Legislative Assembly, at age 24, Monge inherited an impoverished and distraught nation. In dealing with the economic situation, he began austere programs on public spending, eliminated many government subsidies to various activities and promoted exports. He eliminated export and production taxes, Monge also reformed monetary law, and forced all foreign currencies to go through the national bank system. A lot of his efforts paid off, reducing inflation and unemployment, the U. S. imposed a commercial embargo against Nicaragua, facilitating the deepening of the rift between Costa Rica and its northern neighbor. Unwillingly, Costa Rica became too involved in the United States struggle to topple the Sandinistas and in an attempt to pull away, proclaimed Costa Rica as an active and he defined his actions as exercising sovereignty. On November 29,2016, Monge suffered a cardiorespiratory arrest at his home in Santa Ana and he was rushed to the San Juan de Dios hospital, where he was declared dead aged 90. Biography on the PLN website Biography by CIDOB Foundation
5.
Heredia, Costa Rica
–
Heredia is a city in the Heredia province of Costa Rica, of which it is the capital, it is 10 kilometers to the north of the countrys capital, San José. The city is home to one of the largest colleges in Costa Rica, the National University of Costa Rica, which accepts many international students. Prior to its founding, the area around Heredia was inhabited by the tribe that is known as the Huetares. In 1706 settlers from Cartago, set up a church at a place they called Alvirilla. Between 1716 and 1717 the settlers moved their village to the north, in 1736 Heredia was deemed sufficiently large to be granted its own parish, and the first incarnation of the Iglesia de la Inmaculada was built to serve as its parish church. In 1751, the Bishop of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, Monseñor Pedro Agustín Morel de Santa Cruz supervised the founding of the first school in Heredia and this school is now known as the Liceo de Heredia. During the 18th century the area around Heredia was developed, with the founding Barva, on October 31,1796, Padre Felix de Alvarado laid the foundation stone for the rebuilding of the Iglesia de la Inmaculada. The Municipality of Heredia was founded on 19 May 1812, and in 1824, Heredia was promoted to city by Juan Rafael Mora, the 1848 constitution made Heredia the capital of Heredia Province, promoted it to cantón, and assigned it seven parishes. For a brief period in the 1830s, Heredia served as the capital of Costa Rica, Heredia is located north of San José and it is part of the greater metropolitan area. Warm year-round, the temperatures are tempered by the amount of cover that affects the area. The rains are spread throughout the year, but the rainiest period is May to October, the climate is relatively mild throughout the year. The citys football club is Herediano, who have won the league title 23 times and they play their home games at the Estadio Eladio Rosabal Cordero. Marietta Richfield Ariel, an Israeli settlement in the West Bank Óscar Arias - winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987, alfredo González Flores - President of Costa Rica from 1914 to 1917. His home, the House of Culture-Alfredo Gonzales Flores, was declared a National Monument in November 1974, fernando Baudrit Solera - former Dean of the College of Law at the University of Costa Rica and public jurist. Iglesia de la Inmaculada Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad Media related to Heredia at Wikimedia Commons
6.
National Liberation Party (Costa Rica)
–
The National Liberation Party, nicknamed the verdiblancos, is a political party in Costa Rica. The party is a member of the Socialist International, after the Civil War the rebels were victorious and Figueres took power de facto. Figueres gave up power in favor of the elected president Otilio Ulate in 1949. This election was controversial as many parties were unable to participate, among others Calderon’s Republican Party. Figueres won easily over the other candidate with 60% of the votes. For the 1958 general election the PLN was split, as Jorge Rossi left the party after losing in the primaries and was basically an independent candidate thus splitting the Social Democrat vote. The PLN suffers it first defeat as oppositional candidate, liberal Mario Echandi, however, after this time PLN will be clearly Costa Rica’s dominant party in the political system as only when the opposition ran united were capable of winning. This was the case in the 1966 and 1978 election, the rest of the time PLN’s nominees tended to win easily, in 1986 then younger leader Óscar Arias won the party’s nomination facing the traditional leadership of the party, including Figueres. Arias won also the presidency and his role in the negotiation of a peace agreement to stop the Central American Wars earned him the Nobel Peace Prize. Some critics inside and outside the party pointed Arias’ administration as more neo-liberal than socialist, wasn’t until 1983 when the Unity Coalition merged into the Social Christian Unity Party that PLN had to confront what was basically a party of the same dimensions. Is after this time that Costa Rica enters a two-party system with PLN, in any case, after PUSC’ catastrophic debacle in 2005 due to a series of corruption scandals PAC became PLN’s main political rival. This was particularly notorious in the 2006 election with Óscar Arias looking for re-election, most Costa Ricans showed mixed feelings over Arias, some admiring him and some others very oppose to his figure. Arias won by a slight margin of some 22.000 votes after an exhaustive counting. In the same years parliamentary election, the party won 25 out of 57 seats, in the 2011 general election, Laura Chinchilla, the previous vice-president and the PLN candidate, won the election with an initial count of 47 percent. A newspaper poll in July 2011 showed a decline in party popularity, commentary on the poll pointed to an inherited fiscal crisis, border friction with Nicaragua, and natural disasters the previous November as contributing factors to public discontent. For the run-off election Araya resign his candidacy arguing that he had no money to run a campaign. Effectively in the second round Solís won with 78% of the votes and Araya gained only 28%
7.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
8.
Boston University
–
Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is nonsectarian, and is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. The university has more than 3,900 faculty members and nearly 33,000 students and it offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, BU is categorized as an R1, Doctoral University in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education, the University was ranked 39th among undergraduate programs at national universities, and 32nd among global universities by U. S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings. In 1876, BU professor Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in a BU lab, American Civil Rights Movement leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. received his PhD in Theology from BU in 1955. The Boston University Terriers compete in the NCAAs Division I, BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League, and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier. Boston University is well known for hockey, in which it has won five national championships. The University organized formal Centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969, on April 24–25,1839 a group of Methodist ministers and laymen at the Old Bromfield Street Church in Boston elected to establish a Methodist theological school. Set up in Newbury, Vermont, the school was named the Newbury Biblical Institute, in 1847, the Congregational Society in Concord, New Hampshire, invited the Institute to relocate to Concord and offered a disused Congregational church building with a capacity of 1200 people. Other citizens of Concord covered the remodeling costs, one stipulation of the invitation was that the Institute remain in Concord for at least 20 years. The charter issued by New Hampshire designated the school the Methodist General Biblical Institute, with the agreed twenty years coming to a close, the Trustees of the Concord Biblical Institute purchased 30 acres on Aspinwall Hill in Brookline, Massachusetts, as a possible relocation site. The institute moved in 1867 to 23 Pinkney Street in Boston, in 1869, three Trustees of the Boston Theological Institute obtained from the Massachusetts Legislature a charter for a university by name of Boston University. These three were successful Boston businessmen and Methodist laymen, with a history of involvement in educational enterprises and they were Isaac Rich, Lee Claflin, and Jacob Sleeper, for whom Boston Universitys three West Campus dormitories are named. Lee Claflins son, William, was then Governor of Massachusetts, on account of the religious opinions he may entertain, provided, nonetheless, that this section shall not apply to the theological department of said University. Every department of the new university was open to all on an equal footing regardless of sex, race. The Boston Theological Institute was absorbed into Boston University in 1871 as the BU School of Theology, in January 1872 Isaac Rich died, leaving the vast bulk of his estate to a trust that would go to Boston University after ten years of growth while the University was organized. Most of this bequest consisted of real estate throughout the core of the city of Boston and was appraised at more than $1.5 million, Kilgore describes this as the largest single donation to an American college or university to that time
9.
University of Costa Rica
–
The University of Costa Rica is a public university in the Republic of Costa Rica, in Central America. Its main campus, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio, is located in San Pedro Montes de Oca and it is the oldest, largest, and most prestigious institution of higher learning in Costa Rica, originally established as the Universidad de Santo Tomás in 1843. It is also the most important research university in the country, approximately 39,000 students attend UCR throughout the year. Within the Webometrics ranking, the UCR ranks at #774 worldwide, the first institution dedicated to higher education in Costa Rica was the University of Saint Thomas, which was established in 1843. The schools of law, agronomy, fine arts, and pharmacy continued to operate independently, in 1940, those four schools were re-united to establish the modern UCR, during the reformist administration of President Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia. The UCR remained the sole university until the Costa Rica Institute of Technology. Years later, in 1979, another public university opened, the Distance State University, today, Costa Rica has five public universities, and approximately fifty three small private ones, but the UCR remains the largest and most well funded institution. Costa Rican applicants to the UCR must take an admission test and this test is similar to the SAT in the United States. 800 is the highest possible score on the admission test and 442 is the score required for admission. Students who score 800 usually appear in the front pages of Costa Rican newspapers, undergraduate Admission is highly selective, having an acceptance rate of approximately 25%. In 2009, out of the 31.042 that completed the admission test, however, being admitted to the university doesnt assure admission to a chosen departmental program, or major. In 2007, only 60% of those admitted to the university got accepted into their chosen major. The remaining 40% have to take classes that may not work for their major, international applicants must revalidate their high school certificate and grades from their country of origin at the Ministry of Public Education in order to apply and take the admission test. Graduate school applicants must revalidate their undergraduate certificate also, the main campus is located on a 100 ha campus in San Pedro, San Jose. Other regional campuses are located throughout the country to reach rural Costa Ricans, the Golfito Campus officially opened in 2006. The main campus in San Pedro offers the most diverse course curricula of any other campus, in addition to hosting the Medical School, the University, while neutral on most aspects of Costa Rican life, defines itself as a secular and humanist institution. The university encourages social work and research activities and in order to graduate most students must work in the Trabajo Comunal Universitario, the University maintains a prestigious position in Costa Rican society and is the most often cited governmental institution in Costa Rican media. Opinions generated in scientific, ethical and economic matters strongly influence Costa Rican policies, Costa Rican law requires the Costa Rican Congress to request from the UCR for its opinion on whether a new law should be approved or not
10.
London School of Economics
–
The London School of Economics is a public research university located in London, England and a constituent college of the federal University of London. LSE is located in Westminster, central London, near the boundary between Covent Garden and Holborn, the area is historically known as Clare Market. The LSE has more than 10,000 students and 3,300 staff and it had a total income of £340.7 million in 2015/16, of which £30.3 million was from research grants. 155 nationalities are represented amongst LSEs student body and the school has the highest percentage of students of all British universities. Despite its name, the school is organised into 25 academic departments and institutes which conduct teaching and research across a range of legal studies, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the School had the highest proportion of world-leading research among research submitted of any British non-specialist university. The LSE is usually considered part of the triangle of highly research-intensive universities in southeast England. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. LSE has produced notable alumni in the fields of law, history, economics, philosophy, business, literature, media. Alumni and staff include 52 past or present heads of state or government and 20 members of the current British House of Commons. To 2016, 27% of all the Nobel Prizes in Economics have been awarded or jointly awarded to LSE alumni, current staff or former staff, LSE alumni and staff have also won 3 Nobel Peace Prizes, and 2 Nobel Prizes in Literature. Out of all European universities, LSE has educated the most billionaires according to a 2014 global census of U. S dollar billionaires, LSE graduates earn higher incomes on average than those of any other British university. The London School of Economics was founded in 1895 by Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Hutchinson, a lawyer and member of the Fabian Society, left the money in trust, to be put towards advancing its objects in any way they deem advisable. The five trustees were Sidney Webb, Edward Pease, Constance Hutchinson, William de Mattos, LSE records that the proposal to establish the school was conceived during a breakfast meeting on 4 August 1894, between the Webbs, Graham Wallas and George Bernard Shaw. The proposal was accepted by the trustees in February 1895 and LSE held its first classes in October of that year, in rooms at 9 John Street, Adelphi, in the City of Westminster. The School joined the federal University of London in 1900, and was recognised as a Faculty of Economics of the university, the University of London degrees of BSc and DSc were established in 1901, the first university degrees dedicated to the social sciences. Expanding rapidly over the years, the school moved initially to the nearby 10 Adelphi Terrace, then to Clare Market. The foundation stone of the Old Building, on Houghton Street, was laid by King George V in 1920, the 1930s economic debate between LSE and Cambridge is well known in academic circles. The dispute also concerned the question of the role
11.
University of Essex
–
The University of Essex is a public research university in Colchester, Essex, England. It was established in 1963 and received its Royal Charter in 1965, the universitys largest campus is located within Wivenhoe Park in the English county of Essex, less than a mile from the town of Wivenhoe and two miles from the town of Colchester. Apart from the Wivenhoe Park campus, there is a rapidly developing campus in Southend-on-Sea, the universitys motto, Thought the harder, heart the keener, is adapted from the Anglo-Saxon poem The Battle of Maldon. The university enjoys collaborative partnerships with a number of institutions across the eastern region and these are University Campus Suffolk, Colchester Institute, Kaplan Open Learning, South Essex College and Writtle College. The university exhibits an international character with 132 countries represented in its student body, the Research Excellence Framework in 2014 ranked Essex in the top 20 universities in the UK for the quality of its research and the top 5 for social science. The QS statistics ranked Essex the 5th most international university in the UK for staff, in July 1959, Essex County Council accepted a proposal from Alderman Leatherland that a university be established in the county. In July 1962, Albert Sloman, Gilmour Professor of Spanish and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Liverpool, was appointed as Vice-Chancellor, hon. R. A. Butler, was invited to be Chancellor, with Anthony Rowland-Jones appointed as Registrar. With its first staff appointed, a development plan for the university was published, within six months the Appeal Fund had exceeded its £1million target with The Queen Mother and Sir Winston Churchill among contributors, while work began on clearing the site for building work. Two months later the universitys Armorial Bearings were published, with the motto Thought the harder, in October 1964, the first 122 students arrived with 28 teaching staff in three schools, Comparative Studies, Physical Sciences and Social Studies. Work started on the first residential tower, Rayleigh, in December with The Queen approving the grant of Charter to take effect from 11 January 1965. 1965 brought 399 students enrolling for the start of the new year, the number of academic staff more than doubled to 61. The Physics building opened and the first six floors of Rayleigh tower were ready for occupation, the first female lecturer was appointed, Dorothy E. Smith in the Department of Sociology. In December, University Court met for the first time with around 500 members, six months later, work started on the Lecture Theatre Building, plus the Topping out of Keynes tower. In October 1966, the Hexagon Restaurant and General Store opened, the University of Essex was at the forefront of 1960s student unrest. At a time of worldwide protest against the Vietnam War, the student movement was taking off all over the world, in March 1968, a demonstration against a visit to the University by Enoch Powell received national publicity. Seven students were summoned to disciplinary hearings but student sit-ins prevented these hearings taking place, on Tuesday,7 May 1968, Dr Thomas Inch from Porton Down came to give a lecture at the university. In a carefully planned demonstration, an indictment was read out as Inch attempted to speak, University authorities called in police with dogs, probably for the first time in an English university. Students outnumbered police and managed to prevent arrests, on Friday,10 May, three students, Pete Archard, Raphael Halberstadt and David Triesman were suspended and ordered off the campus
12.
Costa Rica
–
It has a population of around 4.5 million, of whom nearly a quarter live in the metropolitan area of the capital and largest city, San José. Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by people before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, following a brief civil war, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army. Costa Rica is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. The country has consistently performed favourably in the Human Development Index, placing 69th in the world as of 2015 and its rapidly developing economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Costa Rica is known for its environmental policies, being the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. Costa Rica officially plans to become a country by 2021. In 2012, it became the first country in the Americas to ban recreational hunting, historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area. The oldest evidence of occupation in Costa Rica is associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots, for the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the livelihood in the territory is still unknown. The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE, shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found. The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been small compared to other nations. Costa Rica was described as the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America by a Spanish governor in 1719, for all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. Costa Rica became a democracy with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil, like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain
13.
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
14.
Economists for Peace and Security
–
Economists for Peace and Security is a United Nations-registered, New York-based NGO which links economists interested in peace and security issues. Inspired by International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, it was founded in 1989 as Economists Against the Arms Race and it adopted its present name in 2005. Stockbroker Robert J. Schwartz led its creation, since 1995 EPS has been registered with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and the United Nations Department of Public Information. Since 2006 the UK branch of EPS publishes a peer reviewed journal, in 1995 EPS was involved with criticism of the United States Navy in Vieques, Puerto Rico, producing several reports on the subject. Notable trustees of EPS include Kenneth Arrow and Lawrence Klein, Amartya Sen, Robert Reich, Economists Allied for Arms Reduction,2003, ISBN 0-9727838-0-6 Walter Isard, Charles H
15.
International Criminal Court
–
The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague in the Netherlands. The ICC has the jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity. The ICC began functioning on 1 July 2002, the date that the Rome Statute entered into force, the Rome Statute is a multilateral treaty which serves as the ICCs foundational and governing document. States which become party to the Rome Statute, for example by ratifying it, currently, there are 124 states which are party to the Rome Statute and therefore members of the ICC. However, Burundi has given notice that it will withdraw from the Rome Statute. The ICC has four organs, the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor. The President is the most senior judge chosen by his or her peers in the Judicial Division, the Office of the Prosecutor is headed by the Prosecutor who investigates crimes and initiates proceedings before the Judicial Division. The Registry is headed by the Registrar and is charged with managing all the functions of the ICC, including the headquarters, detention unit. The Office of the Prosecutor has opened ten official investigations and is conducting an additional nine preliminary examinations. The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it, following the Second World War, the allied powers established two ad hoc tribunals to prosecute axis power leaders accused of war crimes. The International Military Tribunal, which sat in Nuremberg, prosecuted German leaders while the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo prosecuted Japanese leaders. In 1948 the United Nations General Assembly first recognised the need for a permanent international court to deal with atrocities of the kind prosecuted after the Second World War. In his first book published in 1975, entitled Defining International Aggression, The Search for World Peace, following Trinidad and Tobagos proposal, the General Assembly tasked the ILC with once again drafting a statute for a permanent court. While work began on the draft, the United Nations Security Council established two ad hoc tribunals in the early 1990s, the creation of these tribunals further highlighted the need for a permanent international criminal court. To consider major substantive issues in the statute, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court. After considering the Committees report, the General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of the ICC to prepare a draft text. Finally the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome in June 1998, on 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the United States, following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 and the International Criminal Court was formally established
16.
Heredia Province
–
Heredia is a province of Costa Rica. It is located in the part of the country. As a result, the province covers areas as diverse as the agriculture rich Northern plains to the metropolitan areas like the city of Heredia located in the Central Valley. In addition, it boasts several major environmentally important areas such as the Braulio Carrillo National Park, to the north it borders Nicaragua, to the east is the province Limón, to the south the province San José, and to the west Alajuela. The capital is the city of Heredia, the province covers an area of 2,657 km². The province is home to a variety of environments, including forests, tropical dry forests. As of 1850, the province had a population of approximately 13,390, as of 2011, it has a population of 433,677. The province is subdivided into ten cantons and forty seven districts, canton, Heredia Barva Santo Domingo Santa Bárbara San Rafael San Isidro Belén Flores San Pablo Sarapiquí Heredia travel guide from Wikivoyage Map of Heredia, Costa Rica
17.
Ferdinand III of Castile
–
Ferdinand III, called the Saint, was King of Castile from 1217 and King of León from 1230 as well as King of Galicia from 1231. He was the son of Alfonso IX of León and Berenguela of Castile, through his second marriage he was also Count of Aumale. Ferdinand was canonized in 1671 by Pope Clement X and, in Spanish, he is known as Fernando el Santo, the exact date of Ferdinands birth is unclear. It has been proposed to have been as early as 1199 or even 1198, Ferdinand was born at the Monastery of Valparaíso. Ferdinand has other royal ancestors from his paternal grandmother Urraca of Portugal and his maternal grandmother Eleanor of England a daughter of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. From his birth to 1204 Ferdinand was designated heir to his fathers kingdom of Leon with the support of his mother and the kingdom of Castile despite the fact that he was Alfonso IXs second son. Alfonso IX already had a son and two daughters from his first marriage to Teresa of Portugal but at the time he never acknowledge his first son as his heir, however, the Castilians saw the elder Ferdinand as a potential rival and threat to Berengarias son. The marriage of Ferdinands parents was annulled by order of Pope Innocent III in 1204, Berengaria then took their children, including Ferdinand, to the court of her father, King Alfonso VIII of Castile. In 1217, her brother, Henry I, died and she succeeded him on the Castilian throne with Ferdinand as her heir. When Ferdinands father, Alfonso IX of León, died in 1230, his will delivered the kingdom to his older daughters Sancha and Dulce, but Ferdinand contested the will, and claimed the inheritance for himself. Ferdinand thus became the first sovereign of both kingdoms since the death of Alfonso VII in 1157, early in his reign, Ferdinand had to deal with a rebellion of the House of Lara. Since the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 halted the advance of the Almohads in Spain, a series of truces had kept Castile and the Almohad dominions of al-Andalus more-or-less at peace. However, a crisis of succession in the Almohad Caliphate after the death of Yusuf II in 1224 opened to Ferdinand III an opportunity for intervention, al-Adils rebellious cousin, Abdallah al-Bayyasi, appealed to Ferdinand III for military assistance against the usurper. In 1225, a Castilian army accompanied al-Bayyasi in a campaign, ravaging the regions of Jaén, vega de Granada and, in payment, al-Bayyasi gave Ferdinand the strategic frontier strongholds of Baños de la Encina, Salvatierra and Capilla. When al-Bayyasi was rejected and killed by an uprising in Cordoba shortly after. The crisis in the Almohad Caliphate, however, remained unresolved, in 1228, a new Almohad pretender, Abd al-Ala Idris I al-Mamun, decided to abandon Spain, and left with the last remnant of the Almohad forces for Morocco. Al-Andalus was left fragmented in the hands of local strongmen, only led by Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Hud al-Judhami. There were no great battle encounters - Ibn Huds makeshift Andalusian army was destroyed early on, the Christian armies romped through the south virtually unopposed in the field
.jpg)
.svg){kind=small}
