1.
Spanish naming customs
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Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a persons name consists of a name followed by two family names. The first surname is usually the fathers first surname, and the second the mothers first surname, in recent years, the order of the surnames can be reversed at birth if it is so decided by the parents. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name, a composite given name comprises two single names, for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families, traditionally, a persons first surname is the fathers first surname, and the second one is the mothers first surname. From 2013, if the parents of a child are unable to agree on order of surnames, the law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the y or e. For example, a name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename, a paternal surname. There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, for example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under Arbó, assuming that Sebastiá and Juan were both given names. However, Juan was actually his first surname, to resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names, one must consult the person involved, or legal documents. A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be addressed as José Antonio, José, Pepe, Antonio, or Toño Jose, Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín, Antoñito, Tonín or Nono. Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José, colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mothers family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, as these peoples paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names. It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as Zapatero, a practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words. Parents choose their childs name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name, common sources of names are the parents taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina, legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian and typical Spanish names
Spanish naming customs
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Spanish provincial surname concentrations: Percentage of population born with the ten most-common surnames for each province. (Source:
Instituto Nacional de Estadística 2006)
2.
List of Presidents of Costa Rica
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The President of Costa Rica is the head of state and head of government of Costa Rica. The President is currently elected in elections for a period of four years. Two Vice Presidents are elected in the ticket with the President. The President appoints the Council of Ministers, due to the abolition of the military of Costa Rica in 1948, the president is not a Commander-in-chief, unlike the norm in most other countries. From 1969 to 2005, the president was barred from seeking reelection, after the amendment banning reelection was overturned by the Supreme Court in 2005, an incumbent president became eligible to run again after waiting for at least eight years after leaving office. The following table contains a list of the chairmen, presidents. From 1824 to 1838 Costa Rica was a state within the Federal Republic of Central America, Liberal Conservative Liberal Conservative Military Republican PRN PLN PUN/PUSC PAC Living former Presidents Politics of Costa Rica List of political parties in Costa Rica History of Costa Rica
List of Presidents of Costa Rica
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Luis Monge Álvarez
List of Presidents of Costa Rica
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Coat of arms of Costa Rica
3.
Laura Chinchilla Miranda
–
Laura Chinchilla Miranda is a Costa Rican politician who was President of Costa Rica from 2010 to 2014. She was one of Óscar Arias Sánchezs two Vice-Presidents and his administrations Minister of Justice and she was the governing PLN candidate for President in the 2010 general election, where she won with 46. 76% of the vote on 7 February. She was the woman president of a Latin American country. She was sworn in as President of Costa Rica on May 8,2010 and she currently teaches at Georgetown University and is a member of the board of the Inter-American Dialogue. Chinchilla was born in Carmen Central, San José in 1959 and her father was Rafael Ángel Chinchilla Fallas and her mother was Emilce Miranda Castillo. She married Mario Alberto Madrigal Díaz on 23 January 1982 and divorced on 22 May 1985 and she had a son, José María Rico Chinchilla, in 1996 with José María Rico Cueto, a Spanish lawyer who also holds Canadian citizenship, Chinchilla married him on 26 March 2000. Chinchilla graduated from the University of Costa Rica and received her masters degree in policy from Georgetown University. Prior to entering politics, Chinchilla worked as an NGO consultant in Latin America and Africa, specializing in judicial reform and she went on to serve in the José María Figueres Olsen administration as vice-minister for public security and minister of public security. From 2002 to 2006, she served in the National Assembly as a deputy for the province of San José, Chinchilla was one of two vice-presidents elected under the second Arias administration. She resigned the vice-presidency in 2008 in order to prepare her run for the presidency in 2010, on 7 June 2009 she won the Partido Liberación Nacional primary with a 15% margin over her nearest rival, and was thus endorsed as the partys presidential candidate. Chinchilla led the Observation Mission deployed by the OAS to Mexico to observe the June 2015 federal election, Chinchilla will head the first Electoral Observation Mission that the OAS will deploy to the United States, observing the November 2016 elections. Chinchillas Partido Liberación Nacional is a member of the Socialist International, the British Foreign and Commonwealth minister with responsibility for Central America, Baroness Kinnock, applauded Chinchillas election as the first female President of Costa Rica. Laura Chinchillas political platform emphasized anti-crime legislation in response to Costa Ricas growing concerns over safety and she is also expected to give continuity to the current governments pro-free trade policies. She is considered a social conservative and she opposes gay marriage, but has stated publicly the need for a legal frame to provide fundamental rights to same-sex couples. She supports maintaining the countrys prohibition of abortion under most circumstances, during her tenure, improvements were made in security, and the homicide rate, originally 10 for every 100,000 inhabitants, dropped significantly. The WHO had the once high figure a “social pandemic” and it has fluctuated greatly in years prior, Education became one Chinchilla’s greatest priorities. She moved into action Article 78 of Costa Rica’s Constitution, The Strengthening Education Effort, during her tenure the actual figure reached 7. 2%, the highest of any country in the region. In October 2010, Nicaraguan forces occupied islands in the San Juan River delta, the land is claimed by the Nicaraguan and Costa Rican governments
Laura Chinchilla Miranda
–
Laura Chinchilla
4.
Laura Chinchilla
–
Laura Chinchilla Miranda is a Costa Rican politician who was President of Costa Rica from 2010 to 2014. She was one of Óscar Arias Sánchezs two Vice-Presidents and his administrations Minister of Justice and she was the governing PLN candidate for President in the 2010 general election, where she won with 46. 76% of the vote on 7 February. She was the woman president of a Latin American country. She was sworn in as President of Costa Rica on May 8,2010 and she currently teaches at Georgetown University and is a member of the board of the Inter-American Dialogue. Chinchilla was born in Carmen Central, San José in 1959 and her father was Rafael Ángel Chinchilla Fallas and her mother was Emilce Miranda Castillo. She married Mario Alberto Madrigal Díaz on 23 January 1982 and divorced on 22 May 1985 and she had a son, José María Rico Chinchilla, in 1996 with José María Rico Cueto, a Spanish lawyer who also holds Canadian citizenship, Chinchilla married him on 26 March 2000. Chinchilla graduated from the University of Costa Rica and received her masters degree in policy from Georgetown University. Prior to entering politics, Chinchilla worked as an NGO consultant in Latin America and Africa, specializing in judicial reform and she went on to serve in the José María Figueres Olsen administration as vice-minister for public security and minister of public security. From 2002 to 2006, she served in the National Assembly as a deputy for the province of San José, Chinchilla was one of two vice-presidents elected under the second Arias administration. She resigned the vice-presidency in 2008 in order to prepare her run for the presidency in 2010, on 7 June 2009 she won the Partido Liberación Nacional primary with a 15% margin over her nearest rival, and was thus endorsed as the partys presidential candidate. Chinchilla led the Observation Mission deployed by the OAS to Mexico to observe the June 2015 federal election, Chinchilla will head the first Electoral Observation Mission that the OAS will deploy to the United States, observing the November 2016 elections. Chinchillas Partido Liberación Nacional is a member of the Socialist International, the British Foreign and Commonwealth minister with responsibility for Central America, Baroness Kinnock, applauded Chinchillas election as the first female President of Costa Rica. Laura Chinchillas political platform emphasized anti-crime legislation in response to Costa Ricas growing concerns over safety and she is also expected to give continuity to the current governments pro-free trade policies. She is considered a social conservative and she opposes gay marriage, but has stated publicly the need for a legal frame to provide fundamental rights to same-sex couples. She supports maintaining the countrys prohibition of abortion under most circumstances, during her tenure, improvements were made in security, and the homicide rate, originally 10 for every 100,000 inhabitants, dropped significantly. The WHO had the once high figure a “social pandemic” and it has fluctuated greatly in years prior, Education became one Chinchilla’s greatest priorities. She moved into action Article 78 of Costa Rica’s Constitution, The Strengthening Education Effort, during her tenure the actual figure reached 7. 2%, the highest of any country in the region. In October 2010, Nicaraguan forces occupied islands in the San Juan River delta, the land is claimed by the Nicaraguan and Costa Rican governments
Laura Chinchilla
–
Laura Chinchilla
5.
Luis Alberto Monge
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Luis Alberto Monge Álvarez was the President of Costa Rica from 1982 to 1986. He also served as Costa Ricas first Ambassador to Israel from 1963 until 1966, Monge was born on December 29,1925, in Palmares, Alajuela Province, to Gerardo Monge Quesada and Elisa Álvarez Vargas. He married his first wife, Flora Rojas Alvarez, on March 9,1946 and he met his second wife, Doris Yankelewitz Berger, while both were attending a luncheon at the University of Costa Rica. At the time, Yankelewitz was a student while Monge was serving as Ambassador to Israel. Monge and Yankelewitz married at a ceremony in San José on November 25,1965, Monge and Yankelewitz later separated at the end of his presidency in 1986. The couple divorced in June 1988, before becoming President in 1982, Monge served as Costa Ricas first ambassador to Israel from 1963 to 1966 and was one of the founding members of the National Liberation Party in 1951. He was also named a deputy in the Legislative Assembly, at age 24, Monge inherited an impoverished and distraught nation. In dealing with the economic situation, he began austere programs on public spending, eliminated many government subsidies to various activities and promoted exports. He eliminated export and production taxes, Monge also reformed monetary law, and forced all foreign currencies to go through the national bank system. A lot of his efforts paid off, reducing inflation and unemployment, the U. S. imposed a commercial embargo against Nicaragua, facilitating the deepening of the rift between Costa Rica and its northern neighbor. Unwillingly, Costa Rica became too involved in the United States struggle to topple the Sandinistas and in an attempt to pull away, proclaimed Costa Rica as an active and he defined his actions as exercising sovereignty. On November 29,2016, Monge suffered a cardiorespiratory arrest at his home in Santa Ana and he was rushed to the San Juan de Dios hospital, where he was declared dead aged 90. Biography on the PLN website Biography by CIDOB Foundation
Luis Alberto Monge
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Luis Alberto Monge
6.
Heredia, Costa Rica
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Heredia is a city in the Heredia province of Costa Rica, of which it is the capital, it is 10 kilometers to the north of the countrys capital, San José. The city is home to one of the largest colleges in Costa Rica, the National University of Costa Rica, which accepts many international students. Prior to its founding, the area around Heredia was inhabited by the tribe that is known as the Huetares. In 1706 settlers from Cartago, set up a church at a place they called Alvirilla. Between 1716 and 1717 the settlers moved their village to the north, in 1736 Heredia was deemed sufficiently large to be granted its own parish, and the first incarnation of the Iglesia de la Inmaculada was built to serve as its parish church. In 1751, the Bishop of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, Monseñor Pedro Agustín Morel de Santa Cruz supervised the founding of the first school in Heredia and this school is now known as the Liceo de Heredia. During the 18th century the area around Heredia was developed, with the founding Barva, on October 31,1796, Padre Felix de Alvarado laid the foundation stone for the rebuilding of the Iglesia de la Inmaculada. The Municipality of Heredia was founded on 19 May 1812, and in 1824, Heredia was promoted to city by Juan Rafael Mora, the 1848 constitution made Heredia the capital of Heredia Province, promoted it to cantón, and assigned it seven parishes. For a brief period in the 1830s, Heredia served as the capital of Costa Rica, Heredia is located north of San José and it is part of the greater metropolitan area. Warm year-round, the temperatures are tempered by the amount of cover that affects the area. The rains are spread throughout the year, but the rainiest period is May to October, the climate is relatively mild throughout the year. The citys football club is Herediano, who have won the league title 23 times and they play their home games at the Estadio Eladio Rosabal Cordero. Marietta Richfield Ariel, an Israeli settlement in the West Bank Óscar Arias - winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987, alfredo González Flores - President of Costa Rica from 1914 to 1917. His home, the House of Culture-Alfredo Gonzales Flores, was declared a National Monument in November 1974, fernando Baudrit Solera - former Dean of the College of Law at the University of Costa Rica and public jurist. Iglesia de la Inmaculada Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad Media related to Heredia at Wikimedia Commons
Heredia, Costa Rica
Heredia, Costa Rica
Heredia, Costa Rica
Heredia, Costa Rica
7.
National Liberation Party (Costa Rica)
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The National Liberation Party, nicknamed the verdiblancos, is a political party in Costa Rica. The party is a member of the Socialist International, after the Civil War the rebels were victorious and Figueres took power de facto. Figueres gave up power in favor of the elected president Otilio Ulate in 1949. This election was controversial as many parties were unable to participate, among others Calderon’s Republican Party. Figueres won easily over the other candidate with 60% of the votes. For the 1958 general election the PLN was split, as Jorge Rossi left the party after losing in the primaries and was basically an independent candidate thus splitting the Social Democrat vote. The PLN suffers it first defeat as oppositional candidate, liberal Mario Echandi, however, after this time PLN will be clearly Costa Rica’s dominant party in the political system as only when the opposition ran united were capable of winning. This was the case in the 1966 and 1978 election, the rest of the time PLN’s nominees tended to win easily, in 1986 then younger leader Óscar Arias won the party’s nomination facing the traditional leadership of the party, including Figueres. Arias won also the presidency and his role in the negotiation of a peace agreement to stop the Central American Wars earned him the Nobel Peace Prize. Some critics inside and outside the party pointed Arias’ administration as more neo-liberal than socialist, wasn’t until 1983 when the Unity Coalition merged into the Social Christian Unity Party that PLN had to confront what was basically a party of the same dimensions. Is after this time that Costa Rica enters a two-party system with PLN, in any case, after PUSC’ catastrophic debacle in 2005 due to a series of corruption scandals PAC became PLN’s main political rival. This was particularly notorious in the 2006 election with Óscar Arias looking for re-election, most Costa Ricans showed mixed feelings over Arias, some admiring him and some others very oppose to his figure. Arias won by a slight margin of some 22.000 votes after an exhaustive counting. In the same years parliamentary election, the party won 25 out of 57 seats, in the 2011 general election, Laura Chinchilla, the previous vice-president and the PLN candidate, won the election with an initial count of 47 percent. A newspaper poll in July 2011 showed a decline in party popularity, commentary on the poll pointed to an inherited fiscal crisis, border friction with Nicaragua, and natural disasters the previous November as contributing factors to public discontent. For the run-off election Araya resign his candidacy arguing that he had no money to run a campaign. Effectively in the second round Solís won with 78% of the votes and Araya gained only 28%
National Liberation Party (Costa Rica)
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National Liberation Party Partido Liberación Nacional
8.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
Alma mater
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The Alma Mater statue by
Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the
University of Havana in
Cuba.
Alma mater
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John Legate's Alma Mater for Cambridge in 1600
Alma mater
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Alma Mater (1929, Lorado Taft),
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
9.
Boston University
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Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is nonsectarian, and is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. The university has more than 3,900 faculty members and nearly 33,000 students and it offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, BU is categorized as an R1, Doctoral University in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education, the University was ranked 39th among undergraduate programs at national universities, and 32nd among global universities by U. S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings. In 1876, BU professor Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in a BU lab, American Civil Rights Movement leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. received his PhD in Theology from BU in 1955. The Boston University Terriers compete in the NCAAs Division I, BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League, and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier. Boston University is well known for hockey, in which it has won five national championships. The University organized formal Centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969, on April 24–25,1839 a group of Methodist ministers and laymen at the Old Bromfield Street Church in Boston elected to establish a Methodist theological school. Set up in Newbury, Vermont, the school was named the Newbury Biblical Institute, in 1847, the Congregational Society in Concord, New Hampshire, invited the Institute to relocate to Concord and offered a disused Congregational church building with a capacity of 1200 people. Other citizens of Concord covered the remodeling costs, one stipulation of the invitation was that the Institute remain in Concord for at least 20 years. The charter issued by New Hampshire designated the school the Methodist General Biblical Institute, with the agreed twenty years coming to a close, the Trustees of the Concord Biblical Institute purchased 30 acres on Aspinwall Hill in Brookline, Massachusetts, as a possible relocation site. The institute moved in 1867 to 23 Pinkney Street in Boston, in 1869, three Trustees of the Boston Theological Institute obtained from the Massachusetts Legislature a charter for a university by name of Boston University. These three were successful Boston businessmen and Methodist laymen, with a history of involvement in educational enterprises and they were Isaac Rich, Lee Claflin, and Jacob Sleeper, for whom Boston Universitys three West Campus dormitories are named. Lee Claflins son, William, was then Governor of Massachusetts, on account of the religious opinions he may entertain, provided, nonetheless, that this section shall not apply to the theological department of said University. Every department of the new university was open to all on an equal footing regardless of sex, race. The Boston Theological Institute was absorbed into Boston University in 1871 as the BU School of Theology, in January 1872 Isaac Rich died, leaving the vast bulk of his estate to a trust that would go to Boston University after ten years of growth while the University was organized. Most of this bequest consisted of real estate throughout the core of the city of Boston and was appraised at more than $1.5 million, Kilgore describes this as the largest single donation to an American college or university to that time
Boston University
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688 Boylston Street, the early home of the College of Liberal Arts, the precursor to the College of Arts & Sciences
Boston University
Boston University
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Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone at Boston University
Boston University
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Helen Magill White, the first woman to receive a Ph.D. from an American university
10.
University of Costa Rica
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The University of Costa Rica is a public university in the Republic of Costa Rica, in Central America. Its main campus, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio, is located in San Pedro Montes de Oca and it is the oldest, largest, and most prestigious institution of higher learning in Costa Rica, originally established as the Universidad de Santo Tomás in 1843. It is also the most important research university in the country, approximately 39,000 students attend UCR throughout the year. Within the Webometrics ranking, the UCR ranks at #774 worldwide, the first institution dedicated to higher education in Costa Rica was the University of Saint Thomas, which was established in 1843. The schools of law, agronomy, fine arts, and pharmacy continued to operate independently, in 1940, those four schools were re-united to establish the modern UCR, during the reformist administration of President Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia. The UCR remained the sole university until the Costa Rica Institute of Technology. Years later, in 1979, another public university opened, the Distance State University, today, Costa Rica has five public universities, and approximately fifty three small private ones, but the UCR remains the largest and most well funded institution. Costa Rican applicants to the UCR must take an admission test and this test is similar to the SAT in the United States. 800 is the highest possible score on the admission test and 442 is the score required for admission. Students who score 800 usually appear in the front pages of Costa Rican newspapers, undergraduate Admission is highly selective, having an acceptance rate of approximately 25%. In 2009, out of the 31.042 that completed the admission test, however, being admitted to the university doesnt assure admission to a chosen departmental program, or major. In 2007, only 60% of those admitted to the university got accepted into their chosen major. The remaining 40% have to take classes that may not work for their major, international applicants must revalidate their high school certificate and grades from their country of origin at the Ministry of Public Education in order to apply and take the admission test. Graduate school applicants must revalidate their undergraduate certificate also, the main campus is located on a 100 ha campus in San Pedro, San Jose. Other regional campuses are located throughout the country to reach rural Costa Ricans, the Golfito Campus officially opened in 2006. The main campus in San Pedro offers the most diverse course curricula of any other campus, in addition to hosting the Medical School, the University, while neutral on most aspects of Costa Rican life, defines itself as a secular and humanist institution. The university encourages social work and research activities and in order to graduate most students must work in the Trabajo Comunal Universitario, the University maintains a prestigious position in Costa Rican society and is the most often cited governmental institution in Costa Rican media. Opinions generated in scientific, ethical and economic matters strongly influence Costa Rican policies, Costa Rican law requires the Costa Rican Congress to request from the UCR for its opinion on whether a new law should be approved or not
University of Costa Rica
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Carlos Monge Library, a library on the main campus in San Pedro.
University of Costa Rica
–
University of Costa Rica
University of Costa Rica
–
School of Engineering
11.
London School of Economics
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The London School of Economics is a public research university located in London, England and a constituent college of the federal University of London. LSE is located in Westminster, central London, near the boundary between Covent Garden and Holborn, the area is historically known as Clare Market. The LSE has more than 10,000 students and 3,300 staff and it had a total income of £340.7 million in 2015/16, of which £30.3 million was from research grants. 155 nationalities are represented amongst LSEs student body and the school has the highest percentage of students of all British universities. Despite its name, the school is organised into 25 academic departments and institutes which conduct teaching and research across a range of legal studies, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the School had the highest proportion of world-leading research among research submitted of any British non-specialist university. The LSE is usually considered part of the triangle of highly research-intensive universities in southeast England. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. LSE has produced notable alumni in the fields of law, history, economics, philosophy, business, literature, media. Alumni and staff include 52 past or present heads of state or government and 20 members of the current British House of Commons. To 2016, 27% of all the Nobel Prizes in Economics have been awarded or jointly awarded to LSE alumni, current staff or former staff, LSE alumni and staff have also won 3 Nobel Peace Prizes, and 2 Nobel Prizes in Literature. Out of all European universities, LSE has educated the most billionaires according to a 2014 global census of U. S dollar billionaires, LSE graduates earn higher incomes on average than those of any other British university. The London School of Economics was founded in 1895 by Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Hutchinson, a lawyer and member of the Fabian Society, left the money in trust, to be put towards advancing its objects in any way they deem advisable. The five trustees were Sidney Webb, Edward Pease, Constance Hutchinson, William de Mattos, LSE records that the proposal to establish the school was conceived during a breakfast meeting on 4 August 1894, between the Webbs, Graham Wallas and George Bernard Shaw. The proposal was accepted by the trustees in February 1895 and LSE held its first classes in October of that year, in rooms at 9 John Street, Adelphi, in the City of Westminster. The School joined the federal University of London in 1900, and was recognised as a Faculty of Economics of the university, the University of London degrees of BSc and DSc were established in 1901, the first university degrees dedicated to the social sciences. Expanding rapidly over the years, the school moved initially to the nearby 10 Adelphi Terrace, then to Clare Market. The foundation stone of the Old Building, on Houghton Street, was laid by King George V in 1920, the 1930s economic debate between LSE and Cambridge is well known in academic circles. The dispute also concerned the question of the role
London School of Economics
–
Beatrice and
Sidney Webb
London School of Economics
–
Coat of arms of the LSE
London School of Economics
–
Friedrich Hayek, who taught at LSE during the 1930s and 40s
London School of Economics
–
Stonework featuring the initials of LSE
12.
University of Essex
–
The University of Essex is a public research university in Colchester, Essex, England. It was established in 1963 and received its Royal Charter in 1965, the universitys largest campus is located within Wivenhoe Park in the English county of Essex, less than a mile from the town of Wivenhoe and two miles from the town of Colchester. Apart from the Wivenhoe Park campus, there is a rapidly developing campus in Southend-on-Sea, the universitys motto, Thought the harder, heart the keener, is adapted from the Anglo-Saxon poem The Battle of Maldon. The university enjoys collaborative partnerships with a number of institutions across the eastern region and these are University Campus Suffolk, Colchester Institute, Kaplan Open Learning, South Essex College and Writtle College. The university exhibits an international character with 132 countries represented in its student body, the Research Excellence Framework in 2014 ranked Essex in the top 20 universities in the UK for the quality of its research and the top 5 for social science. The QS statistics ranked Essex the 5th most international university in the UK for staff, in July 1959, Essex County Council accepted a proposal from Alderman Leatherland that a university be established in the county. In July 1962, Albert Sloman, Gilmour Professor of Spanish and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Liverpool, was appointed as Vice-Chancellor, hon. R. A. Butler, was invited to be Chancellor, with Anthony Rowland-Jones appointed as Registrar. With its first staff appointed, a development plan for the university was published, within six months the Appeal Fund had exceeded its £1million target with The Queen Mother and Sir Winston Churchill among contributors, while work began on clearing the site for building work. Two months later the universitys Armorial Bearings were published, with the motto Thought the harder, in October 1964, the first 122 students arrived with 28 teaching staff in three schools, Comparative Studies, Physical Sciences and Social Studies. Work started on the first residential tower, Rayleigh, in December with The Queen approving the grant of Charter to take effect from 11 January 1965. 1965 brought 399 students enrolling for the start of the new year, the number of academic staff more than doubled to 61. The Physics building opened and the first six floors of Rayleigh tower were ready for occupation, the first female lecturer was appointed, Dorothy E. Smith in the Department of Sociology. In December, University Court met for the first time with around 500 members, six months later, work started on the Lecture Theatre Building, plus the Topping out of Keynes tower. In October 1966, the Hexagon Restaurant and General Store opened, the University of Essex was at the forefront of 1960s student unrest. At a time of worldwide protest against the Vietnam War, the student movement was taking off all over the world, in March 1968, a demonstration against a visit to the University by Enoch Powell received national publicity. Seven students were summoned to disciplinary hearings but student sit-ins prevented these hearings taking place, on Tuesday,7 May 1968, Dr Thomas Inch from Porton Down came to give a lecture at the university. In a carefully planned demonstration, an indictment was read out as Inch attempted to speak, University authorities called in police with dogs, probably for the first time in an English university. Students outnumbered police and managed to prevent arrests, on Friday,10 May, three students, Pete Archard, Raphael Halberstadt and David Triesman were suspended and ordered off the campus
University of Essex
–
Square 5 seen from outside the library
University of Essex
–
University of Essex
University of Essex
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One of the lakes
University of Essex
–
The south student residence towers, Bertrand Russell (left) and Eddington (right)
13.
Costa Rica
–
It has a population of around 4.5 million, of whom nearly a quarter live in the metropolitan area of the capital and largest city, San José. Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by people before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, following a brief civil war, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army. Costa Rica is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. The country has consistently performed favourably in the Human Development Index, placing 69th in the world as of 2015 and its rapidly developing economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Costa Rica is known for its environmental policies, being the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. Costa Rica officially plans to become a country by 2021. In 2012, it became the first country in the Americas to ban recreational hunting, historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area. The oldest evidence of occupation in Costa Rica is associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots, for the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the livelihood in the territory is still unknown. The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE, shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found. The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been small compared to other nations. Costa Rica was described as the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America by a Spanish governor in 1719, for all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. Costa Rica became a democracy with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil, like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain
Costa Rica
–
A stone sphere created by the
Diquis culture at the
National Museum of Costa Rica.
The sphere is the icon of the country's cultural identity.
Costa Rica
–
Flag
Costa Rica
–
The
Ujarrás historical site in the Orosí Valley,
Cartago province. The church was built between 1686 and 1693.
Costa Rica
–
The 1849
national coat of arms was featured in the first postal stamp issued in 1862
14.
President of Costa Rica
–
The President of Costa Rica is the head of state and head of government of Costa Rica. The President is currently elected in elections for a period of four years. Two Vice Presidents are elected in the ticket with the President. The President appoints the Council of Ministers, due to the abolition of the military of Costa Rica in 1948, the president is not a Commander-in-chief, unlike the norm in most other countries. From 1969 to 2005, the president was barred from seeking reelection, after the amendment banning reelection was overturned by the Supreme Court in 2005, an incumbent president became eligible to run again after waiting for at least eight years after leaving office. The following table contains a list of the chairmen, presidents. From 1824 to 1838 Costa Rica was a state within the Federal Republic of Central America, Liberal Conservative Liberal Conservative Military Republican PRN PLN PUN/PUSC PAC Living former Presidents Politics of Costa Rica List of political parties in Costa Rica History of Costa Rica
President of Costa Rica
–
Luis Monge Álvarez
President of Costa Rica
–
Coat of arms of Costa Rica
15.
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Alfred Nobel
Nobel Peace Prize
–
Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Peace Prize
–
The
Norwegian Nobel Institute in
Oslo, Norway
Nobel Peace Prize
–
The
14th Dalai Lama and
Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize laureates
16.
Economists for Peace and Security
–
Economists for Peace and Security is a United Nations-registered, New York-based NGO which links economists interested in peace and security issues. Inspired by International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, it was founded in 1989 as Economists Against the Arms Race and it adopted its present name in 2005. Stockbroker Robert J. Schwartz led its creation, since 1995 EPS has been registered with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and the United Nations Department of Public Information. Since 2006 the UK branch of EPS publishes a peer reviewed journal, in 1995 EPS was involved with criticism of the United States Navy in Vieques, Puerto Rico, producing several reports on the subject. Notable trustees of EPS include Kenneth Arrow and Lawrence Klein, Amartya Sen, Robert Reich, Economists Allied for Arms Reduction,2003, ISBN 0-9727838-0-6 Walter Isard, Charles H
Economists for Peace and Security
–
v
17.
International Criminal Court
–
The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague in the Netherlands. The ICC has the jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity. The ICC began functioning on 1 July 2002, the date that the Rome Statute entered into force, the Rome Statute is a multilateral treaty which serves as the ICCs foundational and governing document. States which become party to the Rome Statute, for example by ratifying it, currently, there are 124 states which are party to the Rome Statute and therefore members of the ICC. However, Burundi has given notice that it will withdraw from the Rome Statute. The ICC has four organs, the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor. The President is the most senior judge chosen by his or her peers in the Judicial Division, the Office of the Prosecutor is headed by the Prosecutor who investigates crimes and initiates proceedings before the Judicial Division. The Registry is headed by the Registrar and is charged with managing all the functions of the ICC, including the headquarters, detention unit. The Office of the Prosecutor has opened ten official investigations and is conducting an additional nine preliminary examinations. The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it, following the Second World War, the allied powers established two ad hoc tribunals to prosecute axis power leaders accused of war crimes. The International Military Tribunal, which sat in Nuremberg, prosecuted German leaders while the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo prosecuted Japanese leaders. In 1948 the United Nations General Assembly first recognised the need for a permanent international court to deal with atrocities of the kind prosecuted after the Second World War. In his first book published in 1975, entitled Defining International Aggression, The Search for World Peace, following Trinidad and Tobagos proposal, the General Assembly tasked the ILC with once again drafting a statute for a permanent court. While work began on the draft, the United Nations Security Council established two ad hoc tribunals in the early 1990s, the creation of these tribunals further highlighted the need for a permanent international criminal court. To consider major substantive issues in the statute, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court. After considering the Committees report, the General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of the ICC to prepare a draft text. Finally the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome in June 1998, on 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the United States, following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 and the International Criminal Court was formally established
International Criminal Court
–
The current headquarters of the ICC in The Hague
International Criminal Court
–
Official logo
International Criminal Court
–
Song Sang-Hyun was President of the Court from 2009 to 2015
International Criminal Court
–
ICC prosecutors
Fatou Bensouda and
Luis Moreno Ocampo, with
Estonia's Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Urmas Paet, in 2012
18.
Heredia Province
–
Heredia is a province of Costa Rica. It is located in the part of the country. As a result, the province covers areas as diverse as the agriculture rich Northern plains to the metropolitan areas like the city of Heredia located in the Central Valley. In addition, it boasts several major environmentally important areas such as the Braulio Carrillo National Park, to the north it borders Nicaragua, to the east is the province Limón, to the south the province San José, and to the west Alajuela. The capital is the city of Heredia, the province covers an area of 2,657 km². The province is home to a variety of environments, including forests, tropical dry forests. As of 1850, the province had a population of approximately 13,390, as of 2011, it has a population of 433,677. The province is subdivided into ten cantons and forty seven districts, canton, Heredia Barva Santo Domingo Santa Bárbara San Rafael San Isidro Belén Flores San Pablo Sarapiquí Heredia travel guide from Wikivoyage Map of Heredia, Costa Rica
Heredia Province
–
Centre of Heredia.
Heredia Province
19.
Ferdinand III of Castile
–
Ferdinand III, called the Saint, was King of Castile from 1217 and King of León from 1230 as well as King of Galicia from 1231. He was the son of Alfonso IX of León and Berenguela of Castile, through his second marriage he was also Count of Aumale. Ferdinand was canonized in 1671 by Pope Clement X and, in Spanish, he is known as Fernando el Santo, the exact date of Ferdinands birth is unclear. It has been proposed to have been as early as 1199 or even 1198, Ferdinand was born at the Monastery of Valparaíso. Ferdinand has other royal ancestors from his paternal grandmother Urraca of Portugal and his maternal grandmother Eleanor of England a daughter of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. From his birth to 1204 Ferdinand was designated heir to his fathers kingdom of Leon with the support of his mother and the kingdom of Castile despite the fact that he was Alfonso IXs second son. Alfonso IX already had a son and two daughters from his first marriage to Teresa of Portugal but at the time he never acknowledge his first son as his heir, however, the Castilians saw the elder Ferdinand as a potential rival and threat to Berengarias son. The marriage of Ferdinands parents was annulled by order of Pope Innocent III in 1204, Berengaria then took their children, including Ferdinand, to the court of her father, King Alfonso VIII of Castile. In 1217, her brother, Henry I, died and she succeeded him on the Castilian throne with Ferdinand as her heir. When Ferdinands father, Alfonso IX of León, died in 1230, his will delivered the kingdom to his older daughters Sancha and Dulce, but Ferdinand contested the will, and claimed the inheritance for himself. Ferdinand thus became the first sovereign of both kingdoms since the death of Alfonso VII in 1157, early in his reign, Ferdinand had to deal with a rebellion of the House of Lara. Since the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 halted the advance of the Almohads in Spain, a series of truces had kept Castile and the Almohad dominions of al-Andalus more-or-less at peace. However, a crisis of succession in the Almohad Caliphate after the death of Yusuf II in 1224 opened to Ferdinand III an opportunity for intervention, al-Adils rebellious cousin, Abdallah al-Bayyasi, appealed to Ferdinand III for military assistance against the usurper. In 1225, a Castilian army accompanied al-Bayyasi in a campaign, ravaging the regions of Jaén, vega de Granada and, in payment, al-Bayyasi gave Ferdinand the strategic frontier strongholds of Baños de la Encina, Salvatierra and Capilla. When al-Bayyasi was rejected and killed by an uprising in Cordoba shortly after. The crisis in the Almohad Caliphate, however, remained unresolved, in 1228, a new Almohad pretender, Abd al-Ala Idris I al-Mamun, decided to abandon Spain, and left with the last remnant of the Almohad forces for Morocco. Al-Andalus was left fragmented in the hands of local strongmen, only led by Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Hud al-Judhami. There were no great battle encounters - Ibn Huds makeshift Andalusian army was destroyed early on, the Christian armies romped through the south virtually unopposed in the field
Ferdinand III of Castile
–
Ferdinand III in a 13th-century
miniature
Ferdinand III of Castile
–
Saint Ferdinand, T.O.S.F.
Ferdinand III of Castile
–
Statue of Ferdinand III (Patio of
Metropolitan Cathedral of San Fernando)
20.
Henry II of England
–
Henry was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England. He became actively involved by the age of 14 in his mothers efforts to claim the throne of England, then occupied by Stephen of Blois and he inherited Anjou in 1151 and shortly afterwards married Eleanor of Aquitaine, whose marriage to Louis VII of France had recently been annulled. Stephen agreed to a treaty after Henrys military expedition to England in 1153. Henry was an energetic and sometimes ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the lands and privileges of his royal grandfather, Henrys desire to reform the relationship with the Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Beckets murder in 1170, Henry soon came into conflict with Louis VII and the two rulers fought what has been termed a cold war over several decades. By 1172, he controlled England, large parts of Wales, the half of Ireland and the western half of France. Henry and Eleanor had eight children, as they grew up, tensions over the future inheritance of the empire began to emerge, encouraged by Louis and his son King Philip II. In 1173 Henrys heir apparent, Young Henry, rebelled in protest, he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother, France, Scotland, Flanders, and Boulogne allied themselves with the rebels. The Great Revolt was only defeated by Henrys vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them new men appointed for their loyalty, Young Henry and Geoffrey revolted again in 1183, resulting in Young Henrys death. The Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for his youngest son John, Philip successfully played on Richards fears that Henry would make John king, and a final rebellion broke out in 1189. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from an ulcer, Henry retreated to Chinon in Anjou. Henrys empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his youngest son John, many of the changes Henry introduced during his long rule, however, had long-term consequences. Historical interpretations of Henrys reign have changed considerably over time, in the 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. Late-20th-century historians have combined British and French historical accounts of Henry, Henry was born in France at Le Mans on 5 March 1133 as the eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou. In theory, the county answered to the French king, but royal power over Anjou weakened during the 11th century, Henrys mother, firstly married to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, was the eldest daughter of Henry I, King of England and Duke of Normandy. She was born into a ruling class of Normans, who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her half-brother. The war, termed the Anarchy by Victorian historians, dragged on, Henry probably spent some of his earliest years in his mothers household, and accompanied Matilda to Normandy in the late 1130s
Henry II of England
–
Detail from Henry's effigy in
Fontevrault Abbey, Normandy
Henry II of England
–
12th-century depiction of Henry and
Eleanor holding court
Henry II of England
–
Henry's eldest son, the
Young Henry
Henry II of England
–
Early 14th-century representation of Henry and
Thomas Becket
21.
Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
Harvard University
–
Engraving of
Harvard College by
Paul Revere, 1767
Harvard University
–
Harvard University
Harvard University
–
John Harvard statue,
Harvard Yard
Harvard University
–
Richard Rummell's 1906 watercolor landscape view, facing northeast.
22.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
Princeton University
–
A commemorative 3-cent stamp from 1953 celebrating the bicentennial of
Nassau Hall
Princeton University
–
Seal of Princeton University
Princeton University
–
John Witherspoon, President of the College (1768-94), signer of the
Declaration of Independence
Princeton University
–
A Birds-eye view of campus in 1906
23.
Dartmouth College
–
Dartmouth College is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, with a total student enrollment of about 6,400, Dartmouth is the smallest university in the Ivy League. Undergraduate admissions is highly competitive, with a rate of 10. 4% for the Class of 2021. Dartmouths 269-acre campus is in the rural Upper Valley region of New England, the university functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. Dartmouth is known for its focus, strong Greek culture. Its 34 varsity sports teams compete intercollegiately in the Ivy League conference of the NCAA Division I, Dartmouth is consistently included among the highest-ranked universities in the United States by several institutional rankings. According to a Forbes study, despite its small size. In a New York Times corporate study, Dartmouths graduates were shown to be among the most sought-after and valued in the world. Dartmouth has produced prominent alumni, including 170 members of the U. S. Senate. Cabinet officials,3 Nobel Prize laureates,2 U. S. Supreme Court justices, diplomats, scholars in academia, literary and media figures, professional athletes, and Olympic medalists. Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Congregational minister from Columbia, Connecticut, wheelocks ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom. Occom became a minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747. Wheelock founded Moors Indian Charity School in 1755, the Charity School proved somewhat successful, but additional funding was necessary to continue schools operations, and Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money. Occom, accompanied by the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker, traveled to England in 1766 to raise money from churches, with these funds, they established a trust to help Wheelock. The head of the trust was a Methodist named William Legge, in seeking to expand the school into a college, Wheelock relocated it to Hanover, in the Province of New Hampshire. The move from Connecticut followed a lengthy and sometimes frustrating effort to find resources, the reference to educating Native American youth was included to connect Dartmouth to the Charity School and enable use of the Charity Schools unspent trust funds. The College granted its first degrees in 1771, given the limited success of the Charity School, however, Wheelock intended his new college as one primarily for whites. An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817
Dartmouth College
–
The Charter of Dartmouth College on display in
Baker Memorial Library. The Charter was signed on December 13, 1769, on behalf of
King George III of Great Britain.
Dartmouth College
Dartmouth College
–
The earliest known image of Dartmouth appeared in the February 1793 issue of Massachusetts Magazine. The engraving may also be the first visual proof of
cricket being played in the United States.
Dartmouth College
–
Lithograph of the President's House, Thornton Hall, Dartmouth Hall, and Wentworth Hall, circa 1834
24.
Oberlin College
–
Oberlin College is a private liberal arts college in Oberlin, Ohio. The college was founded as the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1833 by John Jay Shipherd and it is the oldest coeducational liberal arts college in the United States and the second oldest continuously operating coeducational institute of higher learning in the world. The Oberlin Conservatory of Music, part of the college, is the oldest continuously operating conservatory in the United States, the College of Arts & Sciences offers more than 50 majors, minors, and concentrations. Oberlin is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association and the Five Colleges of Ohio consortium, both the college and the town of Oberlin were founded in northern Ohio in 1833 by a pair of Presbyterian ministers, John Jay Shipherd and Philo Stewart. The College was built on 500 acres of land donated by the previous owners, Titus Street, founder of Streetsboro, Ohio, and Samuel Hughes. Shipherd and Stewert named their project after Jean-Frédéric Oberlin, an Alsatian minister whom they both admired, the ministers vision was for both a religious community and school. Oberlins founders bragged that Oberlin is peculiar in that which is good, asa Mahan accepted the position as first President of the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1835, simultaneously serving as the chair of intellectual and moral philosophy and a professor of theology. The college had some difficult beginnings, and Rev. John Keep, a nondenominational seminary, Oberlins Graduate School of Theology, was established alongside the college in 1833. Oberlins role as an educator of African-American students prior to the Civil War, in 1844, Oberlin College graduated its first black student, George B. Vashon, who one of the founding professors at Howard University. The African Americans of Oberlin and those attending Oberlin College have experienced intense challenges and its African American and other students of color have used education and activism to influence the college, the town, and beyond. Their efforts have helped Oberlin remain committed to its values of freedom, social justice, the Colleges approach to African Americans was by no means perfect. Intensely anti-slavery, Oberlin was the college to admit black students in the 1830s. By the 1880s, however, with the fading of evangelical idealism, nonetheless, Oberlin graduates accounted for a significant percentage of African-American college graduates by the end of the 19th century. The college was listed as a National Historic Landmark on December 21,1965, for its significance in admitting African Americans, Oberlin is also the oldest coeducational institution in the United States, having admitted four women in 1837. These four women, who were the first to enter as full students, were Mary Kellogg, Mary Caroline Rudd, Mary Hosford, Mary Jane Patterson graduated in 1862 as the first black woman to earn a B. A. degree. Soon women were integrated into the college, and comprised from a third to half of the student body. The religious founders, especially evangelical theologian Charles Grandison Finney, saw women as morally superior to men
Oberlin College
–
Students passing through the Memorial Arch in front of Peters Hall. The arch is dedicated to the memory of 15 missionaries of the Oberlin Band who were killed in the
Boxer Rebellion.
Oberlin College
Oberlin College
–
Peters Hall, the Oberlin Administration Building, in 1909.
Oberlin College
–
Peters Hall, home of the language departments, in 2010.
25.
Wake Forest University
–
Wake Forest University is a private, independent, nonprofit, nonsectarian, coeducational research university in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, founded in 1834. The university received its name from its location in Wake Forest, north of Raleigh, North Carolina. The Reynolda Campus, the main campus, has been located north of downtown Winston-Salem since the university moved there in 1956. The university also occupies lab space at Biotech Plaza at Innovation Quarter, the Universitys Graduate School of Management maintains a presence on the main campus in Winston-Salem and in Charlotte, North Carolina. Wake Forest has produced 15 Rhodes Scholars, including 13 since 1986, Wake Forest has graduated many other successful alumni, including dozens of politicians, attorneys, physicians, scientists, and academicians. Dr. Samuel Wait, a Baptist minister, was selected as the principal, later president, in 1838, it was renamed Wake Forest College, and the manual labor system was abandoned. The town that grew up around the college came to be called the town of Wake Forest, in 1862, during the American Civil War, the school closed due to the loss of most students and some faculty to service in the Confederate States Army. The college re-opened in 1866 and prospered over the four decades under the leadership of presidents Washington Manly Wingate, Thomas H. Pritchard. In 1894, the School of Law was established, followed by the School of Medicine in 1902, the university held its first summer session in 1921. Lea Laboratory was built in 1887-1888, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. The leading college figure in the early 20th century was Dr. William L. Poteat, a gifted biologist, Dr. Billy continued to promote growth, hired many outstanding professors, and expanded the science curriculum. The School of Medicine moved to Winston-Salem in 1941 under the supervision of Dean Coy Cornelius Carpenter, the school then became the Bowman Gray School of Medicine. The following year,1942, Wake Forest admitted its first female undergraduate students, Charles and Mary Babcock donated to the college about 350 acres of fields and woods at Reynolda, their estate. From 1952 to 1956, fourteen new buildings were constructed on the new campus and these buildings were constructed in Georgian style. The old campus in Wake Forest was sold to the Baptist State Convention to establish the Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. On April 27,1962, Wake Forests Board of Trustees voted to accept Edward Reynolds and this made Wake Forest the first major private university in the South to desegregate. Reynolds, a student from Shaw University, later became the first black graduate of the university in 1964. Later, he went on to earn degrees at Ohio University and Yale Divinity School
Wake Forest University
–
Wait Chapel located on the Hearn Plaza (or the 'Upper Quad').
Wake Forest University
–
Wake Forest University
Wake Forest University
–
The Benson University Center
Wake Forest University
–
A formal lounge area used for studying inside Reynolda Hall overlooking the Magnolia Quad (Manchester Plaza).
26.
Ithaca College
–
Ithaca College is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational liberal arts college located on the South Hill of Ithaca, New York, United States. The college was founded by William Egbert in 1892 as a conservatory of music and is set against the backdrop of the City of Ithaca, Cayuga Lake, waterfalls, and gorges. The college is best known for its large list of alumni who have played roles in the media. The college has a liberal arts core, and offers several pre-professional programs. Ithaca College has been ranked among the Top 10 Masters Universities in the Northern United States by U. S. News & World Report every year since 1996, and was ranked 6th in 2016. Ithaca College was founded as the Ithaca Conservatory of Music in 1892 when a violin teacher, William Grant Egbert, rented four rooms. In 1931 the conservatory was chartered as a private college, the college was originally housed in the Boardman House, that later became the Ithaca College Museum of Art, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. By 1960, some 2,000 students were in attendance, a modern campus was built on South Hill in the sixties, and students were shuttled between the old and new during the construction. The hillside campus continued to grow in the ensuing 30 years to more than 6,000 students. As the campus expanded, the college began to expand its curriculum. By the 1990s, some 2,000 courses in more than 100 programs of study were available in the five schools. The school attracts a multicultural student body representatives from almost every state. Ithaca Colleges current campus was built in the 1960s on South Hill, the Colleges final academic department moved from downtown to the South Hill campus in 1968, making the move complete. Besides its Ithaca campus, Ithaca College has also operated satellite campuses in other cities, the Ithaca College London Center has been in existence since 1972. Ithaca runs the Ithaca College Los Angeles Program at the James B, additionally, there is an Ithaca College Washington Semester Program, and a recently launched Ithaca College New York City Center. Former programs include the Ithaca College Antigua Program and the Ithaca College Walkabout Down Under Program in Australia, the college offers a curriculum with more than 100 degree programs in its five schools. As of the 2014-2015 academic year, Television-Radio and Business Administration were the two most popular majors, while the School of Humanities & Sciences had the most students overall. The Ithacan and its staff have won over 200 major collegiate journalism awards and is recognized as one of the top student-run newspapers in the country
Ithaca College
–
Ithaca College
Ithaca College
Ithaca College
–
"Textor Ball", a
modern art sculpture on the roof of the Textor lecture halls.
Ithaca College
–
Bob Iger '73, President & CEO of
The Walt Disney Company
27.
Washington University in St. Louis
–
Washington University in St. Louis is a private research university located in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Founded in 1853, and named after George Washington, the university has students and faculty from all 50 U. S. states, twenty-five Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Washington University, nine having done the major part of their pioneering research at the university. Washington Universitys undergraduate program is ranked 19th by U. S. News & World Report, the university is ranked 23rd in the world in 2016 by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. Washington University is made up of seven graduate and undergraduate schools that encompass a range of academic fields. To prevent confusion over its location, the Board of Trustees added the phrase in St. Louis in 1976, Washington University was conceived by 17 St. Louis business, political, and religious leaders concerned by the lack of institutions of higher learning in the Midwest. Missouri State Senator Wayman Crow and Unitarian minister William Greenleaf Eliot, grandfather of the poet T. S. Eliot, the universitys first chancellor was Joseph Gibson Hoyt. Crow secured the university charter from the Missouri General Assembly in 1853, early on, Eliot solicited support from members of the local business community, including John OFallon, but Eliot failed to secure a permanent endowment. Washington University is unusual among major American universities in not having had a financial endowment. The institution had no backing of an organization, single wealthy patron. During the three following its inception, the university bore three different names. In 1854, the Board of Trustees changed the name to Washington Institute in honor of George Washington, naming the University after the nations first president, only seven years before the American Civil War and during a time of bitter national division, was no coincidence. During this time of conflict, Americans universally admired George Washington as the father of the United States, the Board of Trustees believed that the university should be a force of unity in a strongly divided Missouri. In 1856, the University amended its name to Washington University, although chartered as a university, for many years Washington University functioned primarily as a night school located on 17th Street and Washington Avenue in the heart of downtown St. Louis. Owing to limited resources, Washington University initially used public buildings. Classes began on October 22,1854, at the Benton School building, at first the university paid for the evening classes, but as their popularity grew, their funding was transferred to the St. Louis Public Schools. Eventually the board secured funds for the construction of Academic Hall, later the university divided into three departments, the Manual Training School, Smith Academy, and the Mary Institute. In 1867, the university opened the first private law school west of the Mississippi River. By 1882, Washington University had expanded to numerous departments, which were housed in buildings across St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis
–
William Greenleaf Eliot, first president of the Board of Trustees
Washington University in St. Louis
–
Washington University in St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis
–
The Washington University crest at the entrance to
Francis Field
Washington University in St. Louis
–
Brookings Hall Quad
28.
Social democracy
–
In this period, social democrats embraced a mixed economy based on the predominance of private property, with only a minority of essential utilities and public services under public ownership. By 1868–1869, Marxism had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, in this period, social democracy became associated with reformist socialism. The origins of social democracy have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major party in Europe. 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmens Association, also known as the First International, another issue in the First International was the role of reformism. Although Lassalle was not a Marxist, he was influenced by the theories of Marx and Engels, however unlike Marxs and Engelss The Communist Manifesto, Lassalle promoted class struggle in a more moderate form. While Marx viewed the state negatively as an instrument of class rule that should only exist temporarily upon the rise to power of the proletariat and then dismantled, Lassalle accepted the state. Lassalle viewed the state as a means through which workers could enhance their interests, Lassalles strategy was primarily electoral and reformist, with Lassalleans contending that the working class needed a political party that fought above all for universal adult male suffrage. The ADAVs party newspaper was called Der Sozialdemokrat, Marx and Engels responded to the title Sozialdemocrat with distaste, Engels once writing, But what a title, Sozialdemokrat. Why dont they simply call it The Proletarian. Marx agreed with Engels that Sozialdemokrat was a bad title, there was a Marxist faction within the ADAV represented by Wilhelm Liebknecht who became one of the editors of the Die Sozialdemokrat. Friction in the ADAV arose over Lassalles policy of an approach to Bismarck that had assumed incorrectly that Bismarck in turn would be friendly towards them. This approach was opposed by the partys Marxists, including Liebknecht, opposition in the ADAV to Lassalles friendly approach to Bismarcks government resulted in Liebknecht resigning from his position as editor of Die Sozialdemokrat and leaving the ADAV in 1865. Though the SDAP was not officially Marxist, it was the first major organization to be led by Marxists and Marx. The party adopted stances similar to those adopted by Marx at the First International, there was intense rivalry and antagonism between the SDAP and the ADAV, with the SDAP being highly hostile to the Prussian government while the ADAV pursued a reformist and more cooperative approach. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, in 1875 Marx attacked the Gotha Program that became the program of Social Democratic Party of Germany in the same year in his Critique of the Gotha Program. Marx was not optimistic that Germany at the time was not open to a means to achieve socialism. In addition he noticed a change over the relations between the two classes. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 make an approach to universal suffrage. The Fabian Society was founded as a group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism
Social democracy
–
Ferdinand Lassalle
Social democracy
–
The
red rose is a symbol of Social democracy.
Social democracy
–
A barricade in Paris in March 1871, set up by revolutionary forces of the
Paris Commune
Social democracy
–
George Bernard Shaw
29.
Cash crop
–
A cash crop is an agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm, the term is used to differentiate marketed crops from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the producers own livestock or grown as food for the producers family. In earlier times cash crops were only a small part of a farms total yield, while today, especially in developed countries. In the least developed countries, cash crops are usually crops which attract demand in developed nations. Prices for major crops are set in commodity markets with global scope, with some local variation based on freight costs and local supply. A consequence of this is that a nation, region, or individual producer relying on such a crop may suffer low prices should a bumper crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets and this system has been criticized by traditional farmers. Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations, Issues involving subsidies and trade barriers on such crops have become controversial in discussions of globalization. The practice of exporting at artificially low prices is known as dumping, the Arctic climate is generally not conducive for the cultivation of cash crops. However, one potential cash crop for the Arctic is Rhodiola rosea, there is currently consumer demand for the plant, but the available supply is less than the demand. Cash crops grown in regions with a temperate climate include many cereals, oil-yielding crops, vegetables, tree fruit or top fruit, in regions with a subtropical climate, oil-yielding crops and some vegetables and herbs are the predominant cash crops. In regions with a climate, coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, bananas, oranges, cotton. The oil palm is a palm tree, and the fruit from it is used to make palm oil. Around 60 percent of African workers are employed in the agricultural sector, for example, in Burkina Faso 85% of its residents are reliant upon cotton production for income, and over half of the countrys population lives in poverty. Larger farms tend to grow crops such as coffee, tea, cotton, cocoa, fruit. These farms, typically operated by corporations, cover tens of square kilometres. Subsistence farms provide a source of food and a small income for families. Africa has realized significant growth in plantations, many of which are on lands which were purchased by British companies. Jatropha curcas is a crop grown for biofuel production in Africa
Cash crop
–
A
cotton ball. Cotton is a significant cash crop. According to the National Cotton Council of America, in 2011,
China was the world's largest cotton-producing country with an estimated 500,000 480-pound bales. India was ranked second at 26,500,000 480-pound bales.
Cash crop
–
Yerba mate (left, a key ingredient in the beverage known as
mate), roasted by the fire,
coffee beans (middle) and
tea (right) are all used for
caffeinated infusions and have cash crop histories.
Cash crop
Cash crop
30.
Banana
–
The banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant, almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, the old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between bananas and plantains. Especially in the Americas and Europe, banana usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, by contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many kinds of banana are grown and eaten. The term banana is used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. This can extend to members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana, pink banana. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like the snow banana, both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant, all the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a corm. Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are mistaken for trees. Bananas grow in a variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of plants are composed of a stalk and a blade. The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath, the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, the edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart, cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions
Banana
–
Banana
Banana
–
A banana corm, about 25 cm (10 in) across
Banana
–
Banana farm at
Chinawal, India
Banana
–
Banana 'tree' showing fruit and inflorescence.
31.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruit
–
Culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Several
culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Mixed fruit
Fruit
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
32.
Tourism
–
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business, also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. Tourism may be international, or within the travellers country, Tourism can be domestic or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a countrys balance of payments. Today, tourism is a source of income for many countries. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.03 trillion in 2011, the ITB Berlin is the worlds leading tourism trade fair. The word tourist was used by 1772 and tourism by 1811. It is formed from the tour, which is derived from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare, to turn on a lathe. Tourism is an important, even vital, source of income for many regions and it also creates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs, in 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945 and it includes movements for all purposes. In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home, in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited, by contrast, traveler is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the values underpinning these distinctions. International tourist arrivals reached 1.035 billion in 2012, up from over 996 million in 2011, the World Tourism Organization reports the following ten destinations as the most visited in terms of the number of international travellers in 2016. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.2 trillion in 2014, based upon air traffic, the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index reports the following cities as the top ten most popular destinations of international tourism worldwide. MasterCard reports the following cities as the top ten biggest earners on international tourism worldwide in 2015, as early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building waystations for travelers. During the Roman Republic, spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae were popular among the rich, pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the 2nd century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, the Islamic hajj is still central to its faith and Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Wu Chengens Journey to the West remain classics of English and Chinese literature. The 10th- to 13th-century Song dynasty also saw secular travel writers such as Su Shi, under the Ming, Xu Xiake continued the practice
Tourism
–
A tourist taking photographs and video at archaeological site
Tourism
–
Backpacking tourists in Vienna
Tourism
–
1922 postcard of tourists in the
High Tatras,
Slovakia.
Tourism
–
Strandkorb chairs on
Usedom Island, Germany. Not only the service sector grows thanks to tourism, but also local
manufacturers (like those producing the strandkorb),
retailers, the
real estate sector and the general
image of a location can benefit a lot.
33.
Neoliberal
–
Neoliberalism refers primarily to the 20th-century resurgence of 19th-century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism. These market-based ideas and the policies they inspired constitute a paradigm shift away from the post-war Keynesian consensus which lasted from 1945 to 1980, as such, neoliberalism shares many attributes with other contested concepts, including democracy. The definition and usage of the term have changed over time, in the 1960s, usage of the term neoliberal heavily declined. When the term was reintroduced in the 1980s in connection with Augusto Pinochets economic reforms in Chile, once the new meaning of neoliberalism was established as a common usage among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. By 1994, with the passage of NAFTA and the Zapatistas reaction to development in Chiapas. Scholarship on the phenomenon of neoliberalism has been growing, the impact of the global 2008–2009 crisis has also given rise to new scholarship that critiques neoliberalism and seeks developmental alternatives. In 1938 at the Colloque Walter Lippmann, the term neoliberalism was proposed, among other terms, the colloquium defined the concept of neoliberalism as involving the priority of the price mechanism, free enterprise, the system of competition, and a strong and impartial state. To be neoliberal meant advocating an economic policy with state intervention. Neoliberal state interventionism brought a clash with the opposing camp of classical liberals. Although Hayek had intellectual ties to the German neoliberals, his name was occasionally mentioned in conjunction with neoliberalism during this period due to his more pro-free market stance. During the military rule under Augusto Pinochet in Chile, opposition scholars took up the expression to describe the economic reforms implemented there, once this new meaning was established among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. Another center-left movement from modern American liberalism that used the term neoliberalism to describe its ideology formed in the United States in the 1970s, according to David Brooks, prominent neoliberal politicians included Al Gore and Bill Clinton of the Democratic Party of the United States. The neoliberals coalesced around two magazines, the New Republic and the Washington Monthly, the godfather of this version of neoliberalism was the journalist Charles Peters who in 1983 published A Neoliberals Manifesto. Neoliberal theory argues that a market will allow efficiency, economic growth, income distribution. Any state intervention to encourage these phenomena will worsen economic performance, yet the handbook argues to view the term as merely a pejorative or radical political slogan is to reduce its capacity as an analytic frame. If neoliberalism is to serve as a way of understanding the transformation of society over the last few decades then the concept is in need of unpacking. Other scholars note that neoliberalism is associated with the policies introduced by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom. There are several usages of the term that can be identified, As a development model
Neoliberal
–
Ludwig Erhard.
Neoliberal
–
Pamphlet calling for
a protest in 1983 following
the economic crisis attributed to neoliberal experimentation.
Neoliberal
–
Friedrich von Hayek.
34.
Democracy
–
Democracy, in modern usage, is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority, Democracy was originally conceived in Classical Greece, where political representatives were chosen by a jury from amongst the male citizens, rich and poor. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French, in the 5th century BC, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, the term is an antonym to aristocracy, meaning rule of an elite. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically, the political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In 1906, Finland became the first government to harald a more inclusive democracy at the national level. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders, No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law, other uses of democracy include that of direct democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminster system, in the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review, though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organisations. Majority rule is listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of a representative democracy is competitive elections that are substantively and procedurally fair, i. e. just. It has also suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the form of government. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from demos, common people and kratos, strength, led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC
Democracy
–
A woman casts her vote in the second round of the
2007 French presidential election.
Democracy
–
Cleisthenes, "father of
Athenian democracy ", modern bust.
Democracy
–
Magna Carta, 1215, England.
Democracy
–
The establishment of
universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.
35.
Salvadoran Civil War
–
By January 1980 the left-wing political organizations united to form the Coordinated Revolutionaries of the Masses. A few months later the armed groups united to form the Unified Revolutionary Directorate. It was renamed the FMLN following its merger with the Communist Party in October 1980, the full-fledged civil war lasted for more than 12 years and saw extreme violence from both sides. It also included the deliberate terrorizing and targeting of civilians by death squads, recruitment of soldiers and other violations of human rights. An unknown number of disappeared during the conflict, and the UN reports that more than 75,000 were killed. The United States contributed to the conflict by providing large amounts of aid to the government of El Salvador during the Carter. In 1990 the UN began peace negotiations and on January 16,1992, El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America after Belize. As in many nations of Latin America, the history of El Salvador has been characterized by marked socioeconomic inequality, in the late 19th century coffee became a major cash crop for El Salvador, bringing in approximately 95% of the countrys income. However, this income was restricted to only 2% of the population, socioeconomic tension grew through the 1920s and were compounded by a drop in coffee prices following the stock-market crash of 1929. In 1932 the Central American Socialist Party was formed and led an uprising of peasants, the government brutally suppressed it in what became known as the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre or simply La Matanza, with the military murdering between 10, 000-40,000 indigenous people. Farabundo Martí, the leader of the uprising, was arrested and put to death. La Matanza also served to reinforce feelings of strong distrust and animosity among the populace towards the government, the military, on July 14,1969, an armed conflict erupted between El Salvador and Honduras over immigration disputes caused by Honduran land reform laws. The conflict lasted only four days, but had major long-term effects for Salvadoran society, Trade was disrupted between El Salvador and Honduras, causing tremendous economic damage to both nations. An estimated 300,000 Salvadorans were displaced due to battle, many of whom were exiled from Honduras, in many cases, the Football War also strengthened the power of the military in El Salvador, leading to heightened corruption. The 1973 oil crisis led to rising prices and decreased agricultural output. This worsened the existent socioeconomic inequality in the country, leading to increased unrest, in response, President Arturo Armando Molina enacted a series of land reform measures, calling for large landholdings to be redistributed among the peasant population. The reforms failed, thanks to opposition from the landed elite, the period between the election and the formal inauguration of President Romero on 1 July 1977 was characterized by massive protests from the popular movement, which were met by state repression. On 28 February 1977 a crowd of demonstrators gathered in downtown San Salvador to protest the electoral fraud
Salvadoran Civil War
–
A billboard serving as a reminder of one of many
massacres that occurred during the Civil War in
El Salvador. The Castilian inscription to the left reads in English: "They tore out the flower, but the roots are returning among us."
Salvadoran Civil War
–
General
Carlos Humberto Romero, military president of El Salvador (1977-1979). His presidency was characterized by increased civil unrest and government repression.
Salvadoran Civil War
–
Archbishop
Óscar Romero played a crucial role in the history of El Salvador between the 1970s and 1980s.
Salvadoran Civil War
–
Mesa Grande refugee camp in Honduras 1987
36.
Guatemalan Civil War
–
The Guatemalan Civil War ran from 1960 to 1996. It was fought between the government of Guatemala and various leftist rebel groups supported chiefly by ethnic Maya indigenous people and Ladino peasants, in 1970, Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio became the first of a series of military dictators representing the Institutional Democratic Party or PID. The PID dominated Guatemalan politics for years through electoral frauds favoring two of Col. Carlos Aranas proteges. The PID lost its grip on Guatemalan politics when General Efraín Ríos Montt, together with a group of army officers. In the 1970s continuing social discontent gave rise to an insurgency among the populations of indigenous people and peasants. In the final stage of the war, the military developed a parallel, semi-visible, low profile but high-effect. In the early 1980s, the killings are considered to have taken on the scale of genocide, in total, it is estimated that 200,000 civilians were killed or disappeared during the conflict, most at the hands of the military, police and intelligence services. The Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico has estimated that 93% of violence in the conflict have been committed by government forces, in 2009, Guatemalan courts sentenced Felipe Cusanero as the first person convicted of the crime of ordering forced disappearances. Finally, the trial again on 23 July 2015. After the 1871 revolution, the Liberal government of Justo Rufino Barrios escalated coffee production in Guatemala, which required much land and many workers. In the 1890s, the United States began to implement the Monroe Doctrine, pushing out European colonial powers and establishing U. S. hegemony over resources and labor in Latin American nations. The dictators that ruled Guatemala during the late 19th and early 20th centuries were very accommodating to U. S. business and political interests. Unlike other Latin American nations, such as Haiti, Nicaragua and Cuba, the Guatemalan military/police worked closely with the U. S. military and State Department to secure U. S. interests. The Guatemalan government exempted several U. S. corporations from paying taxes and it also privatized and sold off publicly owned utilities, and gave away huge swaths of public land. In 1920, prince Wilhelm of Sweden visited Guatemala and described Guatemalan society, by 1920, they were mixed to a large extended with foreigners and the great majority had Indian blood in their veins. Formed of people born of the cross between natives, blacks and criollos, they held almost no power in 1920 and made up the bulk of artisans, storekeepers, tradesmen. In the eastern part of the country they were agricultural laborers, indians, the majority of the population was composed of native Guatemalans, many of whom had little to no formal education. Many natives served as soldiers for the Army, and they were raised to positions of considerable trust
Guatemalan Civil War
–
Ixil people carrying their loved ones' remains after an exhumation in the Ixil Triangle in February 2012.
Guatemalan Civil War
–
President Manuel Estrada Cabrera official portrait from his last presidential term. During his government, the
United Fruit Company became a major economic and political force in
Guatemala.
Guatemalan Civil War
–
John Foster Dulles,
Secretary of State of the
Eisenhower Administration and Board member of
United Fruit.
37.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
Cold War
–
Photograph of the
Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war.
Cold War
–
Allied troops in
Vladivostok, August 1918, during the
Allied intervention in the
Russian Civil War.
Cold War
–
The "
Big Three " at the Yalta Conference:
Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin, 1945.
38.
Contras
–
The contras is a label given to the various U. S. Among the separate groups, the Nicaraguan Democratic Force emerged as the largest by far. In 1987, virtually all contra organizations were united, at least nominally, from an early stage, the rebels received financial and military support from the United States government, and their military significance decisively depended on it. After US support was banned by Congress, the Reagan administration covertly continued it and these covert activities culminated in the Iran–Contra affair. The term contra comes from the Spanish contra, which means against but in case is short for la contrarrevolución. Some rebels disliked being called contras, feeling that it defined their cause only in negative terms, rebel fighters usually referred to themselves as comandos, peasant sympathizers also called the rebels los primos. From the mid-1980s, as the Reagan administration and the sought to portray the movement as the democratic resistance. During their war against the Nicaraguan government, the Contras committed a number of human rights violations and used terrorist tactics. These actions were carried out systematically as a part of the strategy of the Contras. Remnants of the Guard later formed groups such as the Fifteenth of September Legion, the Anti-Sandinista Guerrilla Special Forces, initially however, these groups were small and conducted little active raiding into Nicaragua. Anti-Somozistas who had supported the revolution but felt betrayed by the Sandinista government – e. g, another example are the MILPAS, peasant militias led by disillusioned Sandinista veterans from the northern mountains. Founded by Pedro Joaquín González, the Milpistas were also known as chilotes, even after his death, other MILPAS bands sprouted during 1980–1981. The Milpistas were composed largely of campesino highlanders and rural workers, Nicaraguans who had avoided direct involvement in the revolution but opposed the Sandinistas. Although the FDN had its roots in two made up of former National Guardsmen, its joint political directorate was led by businessman. Edgar Chamorro later stated there was strong opposition within the UDN against working with the Guardsmen. Based in Honduras, Nicaraguas northern neighbor, under the command of former National Guard Colonel Enrique Bermúdez, largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized by the U. S. it emerged as the largest and most active contra group. A popular and charismatic leader, Pastora initially saw his group develop quickly and he confined himself to operate in the southern part of Nicaragua, after a press conference he was holding on 30 May 1984 was bombed, he voluntarily withdrew from the contra struggle. In the course of conflict, forced removal of at least 10,000 Indians to relocation centers in the interior of the country
Contras
–
Nicaraguan Contra militia
Contras
–
Contra Commandos from
FDN and ARDE Frente Sur,
Nueva Guinea area in 1987
Contras
–
Members of ARDE Frente Sur taking a smoke break after routing the
FSLN garrison at El Serrano in southeast Nicaragua in 1987.
39.
Sandinista
–
The Sandinista National Liberation Front is now a democratic socialist political party in Nicaragua. Its members are called Sandinistas in both English and Spanish, the party is named after Augusto César Sandino, who led the Nicaraguan resistance against the United States occupation of Nicaragua in the 1930s. The FSLN overthrew Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979, ending the Somoza dynasty, following their seizure of power, the Sandinistas ruled Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990, first as part of a Junta of National Reconstruction. Following the resignation of centrist members from this Junta, the FSLN took exclusive power in March 1981, a militia, known as the Contras, was formed in 1981 to overthrow the Sandinista government and was funded and trained by the US Central Intelligence Agency. In 1984 elections were held but were boycotted by opposition parties. The FSLN won the majority of the votes, and those who opposed the Sandinistas won approximately a third of the seats, the civil war between the Contras and the government continued until 1989. The FSLN remains one of Nicaraguas two leading parties, the FSLN often polls in opposition to the Constitutionalist Liberal Party, or PLC. Ortega and the FSLN were re-elected again in the election of November 2011. The Sandinistas took their name from Augusto César Sandino, the leader of Nicaraguas nationalist rebellion against the US occupation of the country during the early 20th century. The FSLN originated in the milieu of various organizations, youth and student groups in the late 1950s. The University of Léon, and the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua in Managua were two of the centers of activity. Inspired by the Revolution and the FLN in Algeria, the FSLN itself was founded in 1961 by Carlos Fonseca, Silvio Mayorga, Tomás Borge, only Tomás Borge lived long enough to see the Sandinista victory in 1979. The term Sandinista, was added two years later, establishing continuity with Sandinos movement, and using his legacy in order to develop the movements ideology and strategy. By the early 1970s, the FSLN was launching limited military initiatives, on December 23,1972, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake leveled the capital city, Managua. The earthquake killed 10,000 of the citys 400,000 residents, about 80% of Managuas commercial buildings were destroyed. The president gave reconstruction contracts preferentially to family and friends, thereby profiting from the quake, by some estimates, his personal wealth rose to US$400 million in 1974. The siege was carefully timed to take place after the departure of the US ambassador from the gathering, at 10,50 pm, a group of 15 young guerrillas and their commanders, Pomares and Contreras, entered the house. They killed the Minister, who tried to shoot them, during the takeover, the guerrillas received US$2 million ransom, and had their official communiqué read over the radio and printed in the newspaper La Prensa
Sandinista
–
ARDE Frente Sur Contras in 1987
Sandinista
–
Sandinista National Liberation Front Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional
Sandinista
–
1979 FSLN poster. Text of the image: "Consolidate the Revolution in the rearguard and with literacy." (Spanish: a consolidar la Revolución en la Retaguardia y la Alfabetización)
Sandinista
–
US Marines with the captured flag of
Augusto César Sandino,
Nicaragua, 1932
40.
Nicaragua
–
Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus. Nicaraguas capital, Managua, is the countrys largest city and the third-largest city in Central America, the multi-ethnic population of six million includes indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Native tribes on the eastern coast speak their own languages, the Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a democratic republic. The biological diversity, warm climate and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The name Nicaragua was coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, when Spaniard Gil González Dávila came to Nicaragua in 1521 he found in the areas between Rivas and San Jorge the first pre-Columbian natives of Nicaragua. At the time the city was called Quauhcapolca and the cacique leaders name was Macuilmiquiztli. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC, meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and they lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering. In 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama, on his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Miskito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The Spanish attempted to convert all three tribes to Christianity, Nicaragua and Nicarao and their people converted, but Dirangen, however, did not, the first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520. The first Spanish permanent settlements were founded in 1524, conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaraguas principal towns in 1524, Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and fought against incursions by other conquistadors, Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo, the clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as the War of the Captains, Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner, although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony, many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital and it was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the ruins of Old León
Nicaragua
–
2,100-year-old human footprints called "huellas de acahualinca" preserved in volcanic mud near
Lake Managua.
Nicaragua
–
Flag
Nicaragua
–
The Colonial
City of Granada near
Lake Nicaragua, is one of the most visited sites in
Central America.
Nicaragua
–
The
Fortress of the Immaculate Conception was constructed in the late 17th century to protect locals in neighboring
Granada from
pirate attacks. Today, it is one of Nicaragua's main tourist attractions.
41.
Honduras
–
Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
Honduras
–
A
Maya stela, an emblematic symbol of the Honduran Mayan civilization at Copan.
Honduras
–
Flag
Honduras
–
Gil González Dávila
Honduras
–
Hernán Cortés, fue uno de los conquistadores de Honduras.
42.
Panama
–
Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
Panama
–
Vasco Núñez de Balboa, a recognized and popular figure of Panamanian history
Panama
–
Flag
Panama
–
"New Caledonia", the ill-fated Scottish
Darien scheme colony in the Bay of Caledonia, west of the
Gulf of Darien
Panama
–
Santo Domingo Church
43.
Manuel Noriega
–
Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno is a former Panamanian politician and military officer. He was military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989, when he was removed from power by the United States during the invasion of Panama, from the 1950s until shortly before the U. S. invasion, Noriega worked closely with the U. S. In 1988, Noriega was indicted by the United States on drug trafficking charges in Miami, during the 1989 U. S. invasion of Panama, he was removed from power, captured, detained as a prisoner of war, and flown to the United States. Noriega was tried on eight counts of trafficking, racketeering. On September 16,1992, he was sentenced to 40 years in prison, France was granted its extradition request in April 2010. He arrived in Paris on April 27,2010, and after the re-trial that is a rule in France after any in absentia sentence, he was found guilty and sentenced to seven years in jail in July 2010. A conditional release was granted on September 23,2011, for Noriega to be extradited to serve 20 years in Panama and he returned to Panama on December 11,2011. Noriega was born in Panama City and he was a career soldier who received much of his education at the Military School of Chorrillos in Lima, Peru. He was commissioned in the Panama National Guard in 1967 and promoted to lieutenant in 1968, in a power struggle that followed, including a failed coup attempt in 1969, Noriega supported Omar Torrijos. He received a promotion to lieutenant colonel and was appointed chief of intelligence by Torrijos. Noriega claims that, following Torrijos instructions, he negotiated an amnesty for about 400 defeated guerrilla fighters, enabling them to return from exile in Honduras, Torrijos died in a plane accident on July 31,1981. Colonel Roberto Díaz Herrera, an associate of Noriega, claimed that the actual cause for the accident was a bomb. He was succeeded as Commander of the Panamanian National Guard by Colonel Florencio Flores Aguilar, one year later, Flores was succeeded by Rubén Darío Paredes, and Noriega became chief of staff. The guard was renamed the Panamanian Defense Forces, Paredes resigned as commander to run for the presidency, ceding his post as commander of the forces to Noriega. Although the relationship did not become contractual until 1967, Noriega worked with the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency from the late 1950s until the 1980s. In 1988, grand juries in Tampa and Miami indicted him on U. S. federal drug charges, throughout the 1970s and the 1980s, Noriega was able to manipulate U. S. policy toward his country, while skillfully accumulating near-absolute power in Panama. Noriega was allowed to establish the hemispheres first narcokleptocracy, one of the large financial institutions that he was able to use to launder money was the Bank of Credit and Commerce International. From the mid-1970s, Daisaku Ikeda fostered a relationship with Noriega
Manuel Noriega
–
Noriega on his return to Panama
Manuel Noriega
Manuel Noriega
–
January 3, 1990, Gen. Manuel Noriega is escorted onto a
U.S. Air Force aircraft by agents from the U.S.
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).
Manuel Noriega
–
Noriega was incarcerated in the
Federal Correctional Institution, Miami, in
Dade County, Florida
44.
Education in Costa Rica
–
Education in Costa Rica is divided in 3 cycles, pre-education, primary education, and secondary school, which leads to higher education. Preschool and basic education are free to the public, elementary and secondary school are both divided in two cycles. Since 1869, education is free and compulsory, Costa Rica education system is ranked 20th in the Global Competitiveness Report 2013–14, and is described as of high quality. The literacy rate in Costa Rica is 94. 9% and it is 2 points over the average for Latin-America and Caribbean countries. The primary education lasts six years and is divided in two cycles, the uniform is obligatory, in order to reduce social and economic distinctions. The secondary education is divided in two cycles of three years, the first cycle is dedicated to general education. The second cycle, while keeping a core curriculum, implies a specialization, specializations can be academic or technical. The third cycle ends with the Bachillerato, granting access to higher Education, nonetheless, many universities have in addition their own entrance examination. By Costa Rican law, two different public universities may not offer the degree program
Education in Costa Rica
45.
Supreme Court of Justice of Costa Rica
–
The Supreme Court of Costa Rica is the court of greater hierarchy of Law and Justice in Costa Rica. Established on January 25,1825, its president is Justice Zarela Villanueva Monge since may 13th,2013, all of the courts in the country are dependent on the Supreme Court of Justice. Its organizational structure is based on three factors, the matter of the subjects to solve, the territory where they take place, the Supreme Court has 22 proprietary magistrates,25 substitute magistrates in three first chambers and 12 substitute magistrates in the Constitutional Chamber. They are distributed of the way, five in each one of the three Chambers of Annulment and seven in the Constitutional Chamber. They are nominated by the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica every eight years, within as little as two months from which they received the news of Independence, the Costa Ricans organized themselves politically and formed their own government. The representatives of different cities and towns formulated the Pacto de Concordia on December 1,1821, in the judicial branch, the power would reside in the Superior Court of Justice. Nevertheless, it was not until 25 January 1825, with the Fundamental Law of the Free State of Costa Rica, the Court had numerous initial problems with installation. At this time Costa Rica had a number of independent lawyers. Integration to this new hierarchy of authority was difficult for towns in the country where a supreme court was virtually unheard of. Various elected governors of the Constitutional Congress resigned their positions before their installation, on 1 October 1826 the Court was put into operation, The first presidents of the Court were Nicaraguan and Guatemalan. It wasnt until 1842 that a Costa Rican exerted the position of President of the Supreme Court of Justice, the situation of Costa Ricans as presidents of the Court improved after 1843. For a period of about 20 years, the administration was based on the laws of the native Indians. In 1843, José María Alfaro Zamora, who replaced Francisco Morazán, a year later, this Assembly formulated a new political constitution, in which it was named the Supreme Court of Justice for the first time and increased the number of magistrates to seven. In 1851, Juan Rafael Mora Porras decreed the Statutory Law of the Judicial Power, that established the organization of justice and the means for legal authority to be conducted by means of election. The Constitution of 1859, summoned by the President Jose Maria Montealegre Fernandez, created a new position of Co-judge, in the military coup of 1869, President José María Castro Madriz was overthrown, which provided the background to a revised new political constitution. The Court was divided in two Chambers, First and Second, and the number of magistrates increased to nine. The ascendancy of the general Tomás Guardia Gutiérrez to the Presidency in 1871 and it established that the Judicial Power of Costa Rica would be operated by the Supreme Court of Justice and other courts that the law established. In future, the Court would be divided into two Chambers under the responsibility of a president, the number of magistrates returned to seven, in addition, the election of the magistrates were arranged on behalf of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
Supreme Court of Justice of Costa Rica
–
Costa Rica
46.
Costa Rican presidential election, 2006
–
General elections were held in Costa Rica on February 5,2006. Although Arias was expected to win by a margin, the actual polling reports were unexpectedly close. However, early results showed the contest to be closer than it actually was. The preliminary official report, after 88. 45% of the vote counted, showed the result for President of the Republic almost tied between Arias with 40. 51% of the vote and Ottón Solís with 40. 29%. In the parliamentary election, the National Liberation Party won the mosts seats, there were fourteen candidates running for the presidency in the 2006 elections. However, only a few rose in the polls above the error margin, Arias had been seen as the front runner throughout the campaign. Arias served as President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990, for his role he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987. With the monetary portion of the award he started the Arias Foundation for Peace and Human Progress, through this group Arias helped to settle conflicts throughout Latin America, participating in the process to demilitarize Haiti and Panama. Arias made the fight against poverty and corruption the headlining issues of his campaign, with the pre-election opinion polls favoring Óscar Arias, he did not foresee such stiff competition from his closest rival Ottón Solís. At first count, there was a difference of only 0. 4%, election laws in Costa Rica dictate, among other things, that a candidate requires 40% of the votes to avoid a second round of voting for election of the President. Further, in case of a tie with candidates having the number of votes. Solís was the candidate of the Citizens Action Party, Solís is a co-founder of the party and was its candidate in the 2002 presidential elections. In that election he ran against Rolando Araya of the National Liberation Party, on February 3,2002 the first round was held, in which Solís lost. He was running in an effort to break up the two-party system in Costa Rica, Solís is a critic of the Central American Free Trade Agreement. He has called for the renegotiations of CAFTA to add protection for vulnerable farmers and he has said that in its current form, CAFTA will increase poverty in Central America because it will displace farmers and industrial workers and will increase the cost of health care. He also said that I never imagined CAFTA was going to be so one sided and we are a very small beast. Solís sees several possible detrimental aspects that could come from CAFTA, first he claims that it will cause the breakup of the public telecommunications and electricity monopolies which will have to be privatized. Additionally he thinks that the trade barriers will cause a flood of cheap food products from the United States to come in
Costa Rican presidential election, 2006
–
Turnout
Costa Rican presidential election, 2006
Costa Rican presidential election, 2006
–
Óscar Arias
47.
Republic of China
–
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
Republic of China
–
A young
Tsou man
Republic of China
–
Flag
Republic of China
–
Overview of
Fort Zeelandia, painted around 1635
Republic of China
–
Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the
Tapani Incident from the
Tainan jail to court, 1915.
48.
14th Dalai Lama
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The 14th Dalai Lama (/ˈdɑːlaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, /ˌdælaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, is the current Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas are important monks of the Gelug school, the newest school of Tibetan Buddhism which is headed by the Ganden Tripas. From the time of the 5th Dalai Lama to 1959, the government of Tibet. The Gelug schools government administered an area corresponding to the Tibet Autonomous Region just as the nascent PRC wished to assert central control over it. During the 1959 Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama fled to India, the 14th Dalai Lama received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. His family was of Monguor extraction and his mother, Diki Tsering, gave birth to him on a straw mat in the cowshed behind the house. He was one of seven siblings to survive childhood, the eldest was his sister Tsering Dolma, eighteen years his senior. His eldest brother, Thupten Jigme Norbu, had been recognised at the age of eight as the reincarnation of the high Lama Taktser Rinpoche and his sister, Jetsun Pema, spent most of her adult life on the Tibetan Childrens Villages project. The Dalai Lamas first language was, in his own words, a broken Xining language which was the Chinese language, a form of Central Plains Mandarin, and his family did not speak the Tibetan language. Sir Basil Gould, British delegate to Lhasa in 1936, related his account of the team to Sir Charles Bell, former British resident in Lhasa. The Regent, Reting Rinpoche, shortly afterwards had a vision at the lake of Lhamo La-tso indicating Amdo as the region to search. This vision also indicated a large monastery with a roof and turquoise tiles. This team, led by Kewtsang Rinpoche, went first to meet the Panchen Lama, the Panchen Lama had been investigating births of unusual children in the area ever since the death of the 13th. He gave Kewtsang the names of three boys whom he had discovered and identified as candidates, within a year the Panchen Lama had died. There they found a house, as described in the vision, according to the 14th Dalai Lama, at the time the village of Taktser stood right on the real border between the region of Amdo and China. When the team visited, posing as pilgrims, its leader and he held an old rosary that had belonged to the 13th Dalai Lama and the boy Lhamo Dhondup, aged two, approached and asked for it. The monk said if you know who I am, you can have it, the child said Sera Lama, Sera Lama and spoke with him in a Lhasa accent, in a language the boys mother could not understand. The next time the party returned to the house, they revealed their real purpose, one test consisted of showing him various pairs of objects, one of which had belonged to the 13th Dalai Lama and one which had not
14th Dalai Lama
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Tenzin Gyatso
14th Dalai Lama
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The Dalai Lama as a boy
14th Dalai Lama
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House where the 14th Dalai Lama was born
14th Dalai Lama
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Lhasa's
Potala Palace, today a
UNESCO world heritage site, pictured in 2006
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