1.
Gun laws in Texas
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Gun laws in Texas regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U. S. state of Texas. NFA weapons are only subject to Federal restrictions, no State regulations exist. Penal Code Section 1.08 also prohibits local jurisdictions from enacting or enforcing any law that conflicts with State statute. In Texas a convicted felon may possess a firearm in the residence in which he lives once five years have elapsed from his release from prison or parole, there is no legal statute specifically prohibiting the carry of a firearm other than a handgun. However, if the firearm is displayed in a calculated to cause alarm. However, the 2015 Texas Legislature passed a bill to allow concealed handgun permit holders to begin carrying handguns openly, the bill was signed into law on June 13,2015, and took effect on January 1,2016. A License to Carry is still required to carry a handgun openly or concealed in public, the Texas handgun carry permit was previously called a Concealed Handgun License or CHL. This has changed on Jan 1,2016 to LTC License To Carry and at the same time the laws changed to include Open Carry. Permits are issued on a basis to all eligible, qualified applicants. Texas has full reciprocity agreements with 30 states, not including Vermont, the handgun licensing law sets out the eligibility criteria that must be met. For example, an applicant must be eligible to purchase a handgun under the State and Federal laws, however an exception is granted to members of the military who are age 18. Information regarding any psychiatric, drug, alcohol, or criminal history is required only from new users, renewals are required every five years, but are granted without further inquiry into or update of this information.32 caliber or greater. Such courses vary in cost, but are typically around $100–$125 for new applicants, permits are valid for five years, and allow resident holders to carry in 29 other states, due to reciprocity agreements. Discounted LTC fees vary from $0 for active duty military, to $25 for military veterans and it is illegal in general under said statutes to possess a firearm while in any such location, and possession of a State-issued concealed firearms permit is no defense. Such places commonly encountered include post offices, Federal courts, and offices of the IRS, FBI, Justice Department, Department of Energy, USDA, FDA, however, Army Corps of Engineers properties are still off-limits. The age/grade level, funding type or for-profit status of the school does not matter, a person with a CHL that is in violation has a defense that the establishment did not post the proper signage, as required by the Government Code section 411.204. Correctional facilities - It is a felony, whether licensed or not, execution premises - within 1,000 feet of premises the location of which is designated by the Texas Department of Criminal Justice as a place of execution under Article 43. Courts or court offices - It is a felony, whether licensed or not, to carry inside a used by a functioning municipal
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
4.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
5.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
6.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
7.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
8.
Cartridge (firearms)
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
9.
.30-03
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The. 30-03 was a short-lived cartridge developed by the United States in 1903, to replace the. 30-40 Krag in the new Springfield 1903 rifle. The. 30-03 was also called the. 30-45, since it used a 45 grain powder charge and it used a 220 grain roundnose bullet. It was replaced after three years of service by the. 30-06, firing a spitzer bullet giving better ballistic performance. A new rifle was designed, using the Mauser as a guide, the new cartridge was more powerful, using a 45 grain charge of smokeless powder,5 grains more than the. 30-40. The bullet was the same, a.30 caliber,220 grain round nosed jacketed bullet, at a velocity of 2300 feet per second. The. 30-03 cartridge was also a design, which allowed better feeding through the box magazine than the old. 30-40 Krag case. The Model 1895 Winchester lever-action rifle was offered in 30-03 from 1905, in 1903, the Army converted its M1900 Gatling guns in.30 Army to fit the new. 30-03 cartridge as the M1903. The later M1903-06 was an M1903 converted to. 30-06 and this conversion was principally carried out at the Armys Springfield Armory arsenal repair shops. All models of Gatling guns were declared obsolete by the U. S. Army in 1911, the. 30-03 cartridge suffered from the start. It caused severe erosion of the bore of the rifle, due to the pressures and temperatures needed to push the heavy bullet to the desired velocity. The heavy bullet was also an issue, the 220 grain bullet was aerodynamically inefficient and had a curved trajectory so it was not well suited for long range shots. It was also unfashionable, since most countries were switching to a 7 or 8 mm cartridge firing a lighter, around 150 grains and this gave better energy retention and a flatter trajectory. The. 30-03 was shortened slightly by 0.07 inches in the neck, the powder was reformulated to burn cooler, since the new. 30-06 was shorter than the. 30-03, it could fire in 1903 rifle, but with poor accuracy. The 1903 rifles were all recalled, fitted with the Model of 1905 sights and bayonet and this last procedure was done by unscrewing the barrels, milling off the end of each chamber, re-threading the barrels, rechambering them and screwing them back on the same actions. This ended the life of the. 30-03, out of nearly 75,000 made, few original 1903 rifles escaped the conversion to. 30-06. Even the. 30-03 cartridge is a rarity, found only in collections of rare cartridges, the.270 Winchester and.280 Remington cartridges were based on reducing the neck diameter of a. 30-03 cartridge case to retain a similar bullet-holding length with the same shoulder. List of rifle cartridges 7 mm caliber Pictures and information on the development of the. 30-06 from the. 30-03 at the Cartridge Collectors Exchange
10.
Bullet
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The word bullet is a firearm term. A bullet is a projectile expelled from the barrel of a firearm, the term is from Middle French and originated as the diminutive of the word boulle which means small ball. Bullets are made of a variety of materials and they are available singly as they would be used in muzzle loading and cap and ball firearms, as part of a paper cartridge, and much more commonly as a component of metallic cartridges. Bullets are made in a numbers of styles and constructions depending on how they will be used. Many bullets have specialized functions, such as hunting, target shooting, training, defense, a bullet is not a cartridge. In paper and metallic cartridges a bullet is one component of the cartridge, bullet sizes are expressed by their weight and diameter in both English and Metric measurement systems. For example.22 caliber 55 grain bullets or 5. 56mm 55 grain bullets are the same caliber, the word bullet is often used colloquially to refer to a cartridge, which is a combination of the bullet, paper or metallic case/shell, powder, and primer. This use of bullet, when cartridge is intended, leads to confusion when the components of a cartridge are discussed or intended, the bullets used in many cartridges are fired at a muzzle velocity faster than the speed of sound. Meaning they are supersonic and thus can travel a substantial distance, bullet speed through air depends on a number of factors such as barometric pressure, humidity, air temperature, and wind speed. Subsonic cartridges fire bullets slower than the speed of sound and so there is no sonic crack and this means that a subsonic cartridge such as.45 ACP can be effectively suppressed to be substantially quieter than a supersonic cartridge such as the.223 Remington. Bullets do not normally contain explosives, but damage the target by impact. The first use of gunpowder in Europe was recorded in 1247 and it had been used in China for hundreds of years. Later in 1364 hand cannon appeared, early projectiles were made of stone. Stone was used in cannon and hand cannon, in cannon it was eventually found that stone would not penetrate stone fortifications which gave rise to the use of heavier metals for the round projectiles. Hand cannon projectiles developed in a similar following the failure of stone from siege cannon. The first recorded instance of a ball from a hand cannon penetrating armor occurred in 1425. In this photograph of shot retrieved from the wreck of the Mary Rose which was sunk in 1545, the round shot are clearly of different sizes and some are stone while others are cast iron. The development of the hand culverin and matchlock arquebus brought about the use of cast lead balls as projectiles, bullet is derived from the French word boulette, which roughly means little ball
11.
Grain (unit)
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A grain is a unit of measurement of mass, and, for the troy grain, equal to exactly 7001647989100000000♠64.79891 milligrams. It is nominally based upon the mass of a seed of a cereal. From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the average masses of wheat, rather, expressions such as thirty-two grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear appear to have been ritualistic formulas, essentially the premodern equivalent of legal boilerplate. Another book states that Captain Henry Kater, of the British Standards Commission, the grain was the legal foundation of traditional English weight systems, and is the only unit that is equal throughout the troy, avoirdupois, and apothecaries systems of mass. The unit was based on the weight of a grain of barley. The fundamental unit of the pre-1527 English weight system known as Tower weights, was a different sort of known as the wheat grain. The Tower wheat grain was defined as exactly 45⁄64 of a troy grain.79891 milligrams, 7000100000000000000♠1 gram is approximately 7001154323600000000♠15.43236 grains. The unit formerly used by jewellers to measure pearls, diamonds, or other stones, called the jewellers grain or pearl grain, is equal to 1⁄4 of a carat. The grain was also the name of a traditional French unit equal to 6995531150000000000♠53.115 mg. In both British Imperial and U. S. customary units, there are precisely 7,000 grains per avoirdupois pound, the grain is commonly used to measure the mass of bullets and propellants. The term also refers to a particle of gunpowder, the size of which varies according to requirements. In archery, the grain is the unit used to weigh arrows. In dentistry, gold foil, used as a material to restore teeth, is measured in grains, in North America, the hardness of water is often measured in grains per US gallon of calcium carbonate equivalents. Otherwise, water hardness is measured in the metric unit parts per million, one grain per US gallon is approximately 6995171000000000000♠17.1 ppm. Soft water contains 1–4 gpg of calcium carbonate equivalents, while hard water contains 11–20 gpg, though no longer recommended, grains are still used occasionally in medicine as part of the apothecaries system, especially in prescriptions for older medicines such as aspirin or phenobarbital. For example, the dosage of a standard 6996325000000000000♠325 mg tablet of aspirin is sometimes given as 7000500000000000000♠5 grains, in that example the grain is approximated to 6995650000000000000♠65 mg, though the grain can also be approximated to 6995600000000000000♠60 mg, depending on the medication and manufacturer. The apothecaries system has its own system of notation, in which the symbol or abbreviation is followed by the quantity in lower case Roman numerals. For amounts less than one, the quantity is written as a fraction, or for one half, therefore, a prescription for tablets containing 325 mg of aspirin and 30 mg of codeine can be written ASA gr
12.
Rifling
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In firearms, rifling consists of helical grooves in the internal surface of a guns barrel, which impart a spin to a projectile around its long axis. This spin serves to stabilize the projectile, improving its aerodynamic stability. Rifling is often described by its twist rate, which indicates the distance the rifling takes to complete one revolution, such as 1 turn in 10 inches. A shorter distance indicates a faster twist, meaning that for a given velocity the projectile will be rotating at a spin rate. Barrels intended for long, small-diameter bullets, such as the ultra-low-drag, 80-grain 0.223 inch bullets, extremely long projectiles such as flechettes may require high twist rates, these projectiles must be inherently stable, and are often fired from a smoothbore barrel. Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle. Consequently, on firing the ball bounced off the sides of the barrel when fired, barrel rifling was invented in Augsburg, Germany in 1498. In 1520 August Kotter, an armourer of Nuremberg, Germany improved upon this work, though true rifling dates from the mid-16th century, it did not become commonplace until the nineteenth century. The most successful weapons using rifling with black powder were breech loaders such as the Queen Anne pistol, the grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently, polygonal rifling, a throwback to the earliest types of rifling, has become popular, polygonal barrels tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges of the land reduces erosion of the barrel. Supporters of polygonal rifling also claim higher velocities and greater accuracy, polygonal rifling is currently seen on pistols from CZ, Heckler & Koch, Glock, Tanfoglio, and Kahr Arms, as well as the Desert Eagle. Such guns have achieved significant increases in velocity and range. Examples include the South African G5 and the German PzH2000, gain-twist rifling begins with very little change in the projectiles angular momentum during the first few inches of bullet travel after ignition during the transition from chamber to throat. This enables the bullet to remain undisturbed and trued to the case mouth. After engaging the rifling the bullet is progressively subjected to accelerated angular momentum as burning powder propels it down the barrel. By only gradually increasing the rate, torque is spread along a much longer section of barrel. Gain-twist rifling was used as early as the American Civil War, colt Army and Navy revolvers both employed gain-twist rifling
13.
Primer (firearms)
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In firearm ballistics, the primer is a component of pistol, rifle, and shotgun rounds. Early primers were simply the same black powder used to fire the weapon and this external powder was connected though a tube in the barrel that led to the main charge. As powder wont burn when wet, this led to difficulty, or even the inability, modern primers are shock sensitive chemicals. In smaller weapons the primer is usually integrated into the rear of a cartridge, in larger weapons like cannon the primer is a separate component placed inside the barrel to the rear of the main propellant charge. The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant, the earliest firearms were cannons, which were simple closed tubes. There was an aperture, the touchhole, drilled in the closed end of the tube. This hole was filled with finely ground powder, which was ignited with a hot ember or torch. With the advent of firearms, this became an undesirable way of firing a gun. The first attempt to make the process of firing a small arm easier was the matchlock, the matchlock incorporated a lock that was actuated by a trigger, originally called a tricker. The lock was a lever which pivoted when pulled. The match was a burning fuse made of plant fibers that were soaked in a solution of nitrates, charcoal, and sulfur. This slow-match was ignited before the gun was needed, and it would slowly burn, after the gun was loaded and the touchhole primed with powder, the burning tip of the match was positioned so that the lock would bring it into contact with the touchhole. To fire the gun, it was aimed and the trigger pulled and this brought the match down to the touchhole, igniting the powder. With careful attention the slow-burning match could be burning for long periods of time. The next revolution in technology was the wheel-lock. It used a spring-loaded, serrated steel wheel which rubbed against a piece of iron pyrite, a key was used to wind the wheel and put the spring under tension. Once tensioned, the wheel was held in place by a trigger, when the trigger was pulled, the serrated edge of the steel rubbed against the pyrite, generating sparks. These sparks were directed into a pan, called the flash pan, the flashpan usually was protected by a spring-loaded cover that would slide out of the way when the trigger was pulled, exposing the powder to the sparks
14.
Cartridge (weaponry)
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
15.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
16.
Standardization
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It can also facilitate commoditization of formerly custom processes. This view includes the case of spontaneous standardization processes, to de facto standards. Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley Civilisation, weights existed in multiples of a standard weight and in categories. Technical standardisation enabled gauging devices to be used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Uniform units of length were used in the planning of such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dolavira, Harappa. The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached Persia and Central Asia, Standardisation is also related to Processes. In view of large variations in units related to Civil, Electrical and other Engineering streams, engineers united to overcome the situation and this association later on gave birth to ISO in 1950. ISO stands for International Organisation for Standardisation and this voluntary organisation is solely dedicated to standardisation and makes standards related to it. Certification as per ISO norms is popular all across world, henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800. This allowed for the standardisation of screw thread sizes for the first time, before this, screw threads were usually made by chipping and filing. Nuts were rare, metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood, metal bolts passing through wood framing to a metal fastening on the other side were usually fastened in non-threaded ways. This was an advance in workshop technology. Maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841. It came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was adopted in other countries. This new standard specified a 55° thread angle and a depth of 0. 640327p and a radius of 0. 137329p. The thread pitch increased with diameter in steps specified on a chart, an example of the use of the Whitworth thread is the Royal Navys Crimean War gunboats. These were the first instance of mass-production techniques being applied to marine engineering, American Unified Coarse was originally based on almost the same imperial fractions. The Unified thread angle is 60° and has flattened crests, thread pitch is the same in both systems except that the thread pitch for the 1⁄2 in bolt is 12 threads per inch in BSW versus 13 tpi in the UNC
17.
Caliber
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In guns, particularly firearms, caliber or calibre is the approximate internal diameter of the barrel, or the diameter of the projectile it fires, in hundredths or sometimes thousandths of an inch. For example, a 45 caliber firearm has a diameter of.45 of an inch. Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions, as in 9mm pistol, when the barrel diameter is given in inches, the abbreviation cal can be used. Good performance requires a bullet to closely match the diameter of a barrel to ensure a good seal. While modern cartridges and cartridge firearms are referred to by the cartridge name. Firearm calibers outside the range of 17 to 50 exist, but are rarely encountered. Larger calibers, such as.577.585.600.700, the.950 JDJ is the only known cartridge beyond 79 caliber used in a rifle. Referring to artillery, caliber is used to describe the length as multiples of the bore diameter. A 5-inch 50 calibre gun has a diameter of 5 in. The main guns of the USS Missouri are 1650 caliber, makers of early cartridge arms had to invent methods of naming the cartridges, since no established convention existed then. One of the early established cartridge arms was the Spencer repeating rifle, later various derivatives were created using the same basic cartridge, but with smaller-diameter bullets, these were named by the cartridge diameter at the base and mouth. The original No.56 became the. 56-56, and the smaller versions. 56-52. 56-50, the. 56-52, the most common of the new calibers, used a 50-cal bullet. Optionally, the weight in grains was designated, e. g. 45-70-405. Variations on these methods persist today, with new cartridges such as the.204 Ruger, metric diameters for small arms refer to cartridge dimensions and are expressed with an × between the bore diameter and the length of the cartridge case, for example,7. 62×51 NATO. This indicates that the diameter is 7. 62mm, loaded in a case 51mm long. Similarly, the 6. 5×55 Swedish cartridge has a diameter of 6.5 mm. An exception to rule is the proprietary cartridge used by U. S. maker Lazzeroni. The following table lists commonly used calibers where both metric and imperial are used as equivalents
18.
6mm Lee Navy
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The 6mm Lee Navy, also known as the 6mm U. S. N. Or.236 Navy, is an obsolete American rifle cartridge, the 6mm Lee Navy was in turn replaced by the.30 Army cartridge in 1899. By 1894, the U. S. Navy desired to adopt a modern small-bore, smokeless powder service cartridge, Naval authorities decided that the new cartridge should be adaptable to both rifles and machine guns. Noting that the military forces were adopting smaller and smaller caliber rifles with higher velocity cartridges. The government notice of bid requirements said no other calibers or cartridges would be considered, Winchester made the ammunition for the government, which in turn provided each competitor with 6 mm U. S. N. Cartridges and 0. 236-inch caliber rifle barrels, the latter supplied unchambered, the rifle action was required to withstand the firing of five overpressure cartridges with a chamber pressure of 60,000 psi. Several inventors and rifle manufacturers submitted models for testing, among them James Paris Lee, the Lee straight-pull won in repeated trials and the U. S. Navy adopted the round in 1895 as the Lee Rifle, Model of 1895, caliber 6-mm. As adopted by the Navy after tests at the Naval Torpedo Station, Cartridge featured a long, bottle-necked semi-rimmed brass case and a 135-grain round-nosed, cupro-nickel coated, steel-jacketed, lead-core bullet. The initial version utilized a 135-grain steel-jacketed lead core bullet with 2. 35-in, long case and 0. 517-inch rim, with a bullet diameter of 0.244 inches. The rifle powder for the new cartridge was Rifleite, a flake nitrocellulose smokeless powder originally developed for use in the British.303 cartridge, the new 6 mm cartridge achieved a muzzle velocity of 2,550 fps and was initially manufactured by Winchester for the Navy. After the adoption of the M1895 Lee, the rim of the government cartridge was redesigned with a slight bevel for optimum performance in the en bloc charger-loaded magazine of the M1895 rifle. The revised cartridge was designated the 6 mm U. S. N, but continued to be referred to in naval stores reports as the Ball Cartridge,6 mm. In March 1897, after reports of excessive chamber pressures and short barrel life despite the use of 4. The new M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun was modified to accept the new 112-grain loading the same year. Firing a 112-grain bullet at 2,560 ft/s from a 28 in barrel, the 112-grain roundnosed bullet had a flatter trajectory than its 135-grain predecessor at all ranges up to 500 yards, above this distance, the heavier bullet began to show an advantage. The new loading had a range of around 600-700 yards, at which point the blunt-tip bullet rapidly lost velocity. The 112-grain bullet, like its predecessor, demonstrated an inclination to instability unless rapidly rotated, the M1895 Lee rifle therefore received a rapid barrel rifling twist of one turn in 7.5 inches to keep the bullet from wobbling or tumbling at extended ranges. At some point, this rifling was changed in later production rifles to one turn in 10 inches RH
19.
.30-40 Krag
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Since the cartridge it was replacing was the. 45-70 Government, the round was considered small-bore at the time. The design selected was ultimately the Krag–Jørgensen, formally adopted as the M1892 Springfield and it was also used in M1893 and later Gatling guns. After a brief experiment with a 230-grain bullet loading, the.30 Army loading was standardized in 1894 using a 220-grain metal-jacketed round-nose bullet with 40 grains of nitrocellulose powder. This loading developed a velocity of 2,000 ft/s in the 30-inch barrel of the Krag rifle. The rimmed. 30-40 round was known as.30 Army. The first use of a smokeless powder round by Winchester was a shot in 30-40. From the outset, the. 30-40 cartridge proved popular for hunting, in 1899, a Krag in. 30-40 caliber was used to shoot the world-record Rocky Mountain elk. The record stood until the half of the 20th century. The new loading increased the velocity in the rifle version of the Krag to 2,200 ft/s at 45,000 psi. However, once the new loading was issued, reports of cracked locking lugs on service Krags began to surface, in March 1900 the remaining stocks of this ammunition were returned to the arsenals, broken down, and reloaded back to the original 2,000 ft/s specification. In 1903, after recommendations from the infantry Small Arms Board, the new cartridge was designated by its year of adoption, the. 30-03. Handbook of the Gatling Gun, Caliber.30
20.
.308 Winchester
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The.308 Winchester is a rimless, bottlenecked rifle cartridge and is the commercial cartridge from which the 7. 62×51mm NATO round was derived. The.308 Winchester was introduced in 1952, two prior to the NATO adoption of the 7. 62×51mm NATO T65. Winchester branded the cartridge and introduced it to the hunting market as the.308 Winchester. Winchesters Model 70 and Model 88 rifles were chambered for the new cartridge. Since then, the.308 Winchester has become the most popular short-action and it is also commonly used for civilian hunting, target shooting, Metallic Silhouette, bench rest target shooting, palma, metal matches and military sniping, and police sharpshooting. The relatively short case makes the.308 Winchester especially well-adapted for short-action rifles, when loaded with a bullet that expands, tumbles, or fragments in tissue, this cartridge is capable of high terminal performance. Their interchange is, however, considered safe by the Sporting Arms, the.308 Winchester has 3.64 ml cartridge case capacity. The exterior shape of the case was designed to promote reliable case feeding and extraction in bolt action rifles and machine guns alike, all dimensions in millimeters and inches. Americans would define the angle at alpha/2 =20 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 305 mm,4 grooves, Ø lands =7.62 mm, Ø grooves =7.82 mm, land width =4.47 mm and the primer type is large rifle. Rulings the.308 Winchester can handle up to 415.00 MPa Pmax piezo pressure, regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that.308 Winchester chambered arms in C. I. P, regulated countries are currently proof tested at 519.00 MPa PE piezo pressure. North American SAAMI maximum pressure for the 308 Winchester is 62,000 PSI, the.308 Winchester is one of the most popular hunting cartridges in the United States, and possibly the world. It has gained popularity in countries as an exceptional cartridge for game in the medium- to large-sized class. In North America it is used extensively on whitetail deer, pronghorn, clay Harvey, an American gun writer, says it is usable on moose and elk. Layne Simpson, an American who has hunted in Sweden, says he is surprised how many hunters there use the cartridge, craig Boddington was told by a Norma Precision executive that the.308 is one of Normas best-selling calibers. In Africa the.308 Win is one of the most popular calibers among Bushveld hunters and is used on anything from duiker right up to the massive eland. The.308 Winchester has slightly more drop at range than the. 30-06 Springfield
21.
Smokeless powder
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Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of propellants used in firearms and artillery that produce negligible smoke when fired, unlike the black powder they replaced. The basis of the term smokeless is that the products are mainly gaseous. Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of smoke, while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, since the 14th century gunpowder was not actually a physical powder, and smokeless powder can be produced only as a pelletized or extruded granular material. Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches, burnt black powder leaves a thick, heavy fouling that is hygroscopic and causes rusting of the barrel. The fouling left by smokeless powder exhibits none of these properties and this makes an autoloading firearm with many moving parts feasible. However, they are used as propellants, in normal use. Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of black powder caused many problems on the battlefield, Military commanders since the Napoleonic Wars reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. Verbal commands could not be heard above the noise of the guns, unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using black powder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke. Snipers or other concealed shooters were given away by a cloud of smoke over the firing position, black powder is also corrosive, making cleaning mandatory after every use. Likewise, black powders tendency to produce severe fouling caused actions to jam, nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. Nitroglycerine is also sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. A major step forward was the discovery of guncotton, a nitrocellulose-based material and he promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton, and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in Faversham, English interest languished after an explosion destroyed the Faversham factory in 1847. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton, Abel patented this process in 1865 when the second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo, in 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellent of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate. Prentice received an 1866 patent for a powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a version of Schultze powder called Collodin
22.
Spitzer (bullet)
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To achieve this, the projectile must minimize air resistance in flight. Bullets with a drag coefficient decelerate less rapidly. A low drag coefficient flattens the projectiles trajectory somewhat at long ranges, the higher impact velocity of bullets with high ballistic coefficients means they retain more kinetic energy. The name spitzer is a form of the German word Spitzgeschoss. The development of spitzer bullets made military doctrines possible which expected rifle volleys at area targets at ranges up to 1,420 to 2,380 m, most spitzer bullets are loaded in intermediate and high-powered rifle cartridges. The spitzer bullet design was first introduced in 1898 as the Balle D by the French Army, the Balle D bullet was designed by Captain Georges Raymond Desaleux, in order to improve the ballistic performance of the existing French 8×50mmR Lebel service cartridge of 1886. Besides having a nose section the Balle D was also the first military rifle projectile that had a boat tail - a streamlined tapered base - to further minimize air resistance in flight. The 1898 pattern 8×50mmR Lebel Balle D spitzer nose profile combined with the boat tail resulted in a ballistic coefficient of 0.568 to 0.581, even by 21st century standards 800 m typical effective supersonic range is regarded as normal for a standard military rifle round. A new Spitzgeschoß aerodynamic bullet, credited to an independent ballistician Arthur Gleinich, was tested in 1902, after several shape revisions it entered mass production in 1904. The Spitzgeschoß nose was externally pointed like the French design and its shape was patented, the Gewehr-Prüfungskommission program resulted in the S Patrone a. k. a. The S Patrone was adopted by the German Army and Navy in 1903 and had a range of approximately 3,700 m. At the onset of World War 1 Germany developed a further refined bullet. This 12.8 grams full metal jacket s. S. - schweres Spitzgeschoß boat tail projectile had a coefficient of 0.557 to 0.593 and was loaded in the s. S. At 760 m/s muzzle velocity the s. S, Patrone had a maximum range of approximately 4,700 m and retained supersonic velocity up to and past 1,000 m under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level. From its 1914 introduction the s. S, Patrone was mainly issued for aerial combat and as of 1918 in the later stages of World War I to infantry machine gunners. Fifteen years after World War 1 the S Patrone was phased out, Patrone became the standard issue ball ammunition for the German military. In 1906, United States ordnance authorities arranged to purchase the license for the Spitzgeschoß bullet design from Gleinich. The Ball, M1906 rounds had a velocity of 823 m/s and had a maximum range of approximately 3,117 m
23.
External ballistics
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External ballistics or exterior ballistics is the part of ballistics that deals with the behavior of a projectile in flight. Gun-launched projectiles may be unpowered, deriving all their velocity from the propellants ignition until the exits the gun barrel. External ballistics is also concerned with the free-flight of other projectiles, such as balls, arrows etc. When in flight, the main or major forces acting on the projectile are gravity, drag, and if present, wind, if in powered fight, thrust, and if guided, the forces imparted by the control surfaces. In small arms external ballistics applications, gravity imparts a downward acceleration on the projectile, drag, or the air resistance, decelerates the projectile with a force proportional to the square of the velocity. Wind makes the projectile deviate from its trajectory, during flight, gravity, drag, and wind have a major impact on the path of the projectile, and must be accounted for when predicting how the projectile will travel. Meso variables can become significant for firearms users that have to deal with angled shot scenarios or extended ranges, at extremely long ranges, artillery must fire projectiles along trajectories that are not even approximately straight, they are closer to parabolic, although air resistance affects this. In super gun artillery cases, like the Paris gun, very subtle effects that are not covered in this article can further refine aiming solutions. The CP behind the CG condition yields stable projectile flight, meaning the projectile will not overturn during flight through the due to aerodynamic forces. Projectiles like small arms bullets and artillery shells must deal with their CP being in front of their CG, to stabilize such projectiles the projectile is spun around its longitudinal axis. The spinning mass creates gyroscopic forces that keep the bullets length axis resistant to the destabilizing overturning torque of the CP being in front of the CG, the effect of gravity on a projectile in flight is often referred to as projectile drop or bullet drop. It is important to understand the effect of gravity when zeroing the sighting components of a gun, to plan for projectile drop and compensate properly, one must understand parabolic shaped trajectories. In order for a projectile to impact any distant target, the barrel must be inclined to an elevation angle relative to the target. This is due to the fact that the projectile will begin to respond to the effects of gravity the instant it is free from the constraints of the bore. The imaginary line down the axis of the bore and out to infinity is called the line of departure and is the line on which the projectile leaves the barrel. Due to the effects of gravity a projectile can never impact a target higher than the line of departure, when a positively inclined projectile travels downrange, it arcs below the line of departure as it is being deflected off its initial path by gravity. Projectile/Bullet drop is defined as the distance of the projectile below the line of departure from the bore. Even when the line of departure is tilted upward or downward, projectile drop does not describe the actual trajectory of the projectile
24.
.303 British
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The.303 British or 7. 7×56mmR, is a. 303-inch calibre rimmed rifle cartridge first developed in Britain as a black-powder round put into service in December 1888 for the Lee–Metford rifle. In 1891 the cartridge was adapted to use smokeless powder and it was the standard British and Commonwealth military cartridge from 1889 until the 1950s when it was replaced by the 7. 62×51mm NATO. The.303 British has 3.64 ml cartridge case capacity, americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 ≈17 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 254 mm,5 grooves, Ø lands =7.70 millimetres, Ø grooves =7.92 millimetres, land width =2.12 millimetres and the primer type is Berdan or Boxer. Rulings the.303 British can handle up to 365.00 MPa Pmax piezo pressure, regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that.303 British chambered arms in C. I. P, regulated countries are currently proof tested at 456.00 MPa PE piezo pressure. The SAAMI Maximum Average Pressure for this cartridge is 49,000 psi piezo pressure, the measurement. 303-inch is the nominal size of the bore measured between the lands which follows the older black powder nomenclature. Measured between the grooves, the size of the bore is. 311-inch. Bores for many.303 military surplus rifles are found ranging from around. 309-inch up to. 318-inch. Recommended bullet diameter for standard.303 British cartridges is. 312-inch, the bolt thrust of the.303 British is relatively low compared to many other service rounds used in the early 20th century. The original.303 British service cartridge employed black powder as a propellant, and was adopted for the Lee–Metford rifle, ballistite was a stick-type smokeless powder composed of soluble nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. Unlike Cordite, Riflelite was a powder, and contained no nitroglycerine. After extensive testing, the Committee on Explosives selected Cordite for use in the Mark II.303 British service cartridge, the initial.303 Mark I and Mk II service cartridges employed a 215-grain, round-nosed, copper-nickel full-metal-jacketed bullet with a lead core. After tests determined that the bullet had too thin a jacket when used with cordite. This led to the introduction of the Cartridge S. A. Ball.303 inch Cordite Mark III, similar hollow-point bullets were used in the Mk IV and Mk V loadings, which were put into mass production. The design of the Mk IV hollow-point bullet shifted bullet weight rearwards, improving stability, the remaining stocks were used for target practice. The concern about expanding bullets was brought up at the 1899 Hague Convention by Swiss, the British and American defense was that they should not focus on specific bullet designs, like hollow-points, but instead on rounds that caused superfluous injury. The parties in the end agreed to abstain from using expanding bullets, as a result, the Mark III and other expanding versions of the.303 were not issued during the Second Boer War
25.
Ballistic coefficient
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In ballistics, the ballistic coefficient of a body is a measure of its ability to overcome air resistance in flight. It is inversely proportional to the negative acceleration — a high number indicates a low negative acceleration and this is roughly the same as saying that the projectile in question possesses low drag, although some meaning is lost in the generalization. BC is a function of mass, diameter, and drag coefficient, here are several methods to compute i or Cd, i =2 n ⋅4 n −1 n Where, i = Coefficient of form. N = number of calibers of the projectiles ogive, where n is unknown, n =4 Where, n = number of calibers of the projectiles ogive. L = length of the head in number of calibers, or A drag coefficient can also be calculated mathematically, C d =8 ρ ⋅ v 2 ⋅ π ⋅ d 2 Where, Cd = drag coefficient. ρ = density of the projectile, V = projectile velocity at range. π ≈3.14159 d = measured cross section of projectile in m or in or From standard physics as applied to “G” models, i = C G C p Where, CG = drag coefficient of 1.00 from any “G” model, reference drawing, projectile. Cp = drag coefficient of the actual test projectile at range, when needed, these terms and denotations shall be followed in bold font to denote the accepted Wikipedia standard. All Ordnance size and velocities are nominal or averaged as is historically and mathematically customary, in 1537, Niccolò Tartaglia did some test firing to determine the maximum angle and range for a shot. His conclusion was near 45 degrees and he noted that the shot trajectory was continuously curved. In 1636, Galileo Galilei published results in Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences and he found that a falling body had a constant acceleration. This allowed Galileo to show that a trajectory was a curve. Circa 1665, Sir Isaac Newton derived the law of air resistance, newtons experiments on drag were through air and fluids. He showed that drag on shot increases proportionately with the density of the air, cross sectional area, newton’s experiments were only at low velocities to about 260 m/s. This challenge supposes that air resistance increases exponentially to the velocity of a projectile, keill gave no solution for his challenge. Johann Bernoulli took up this challenge and soon thereafter solved the problem and air resistance varied as “any power” of velocity and this is the precursor to the concept of the “standard projectile”. In 1742, Benjamin Robins invented the ballistic pendulum and this was a simple mechanical device that could measure a projectiles velocity. Robins reported muzzle velocities ranging from 1,400 ft/s to 1,700 ft/s, in 1844, the Electro-ballistic chronograph was invented and by 1867 the electro-ballistic chronograph was accurate to with in one ten millionth of a second
26.
M1903 Springfield
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It was officially adopted as a United States military bolt-action rifle on June 19,1903, and saw service in World War I. It was officially replaced as the infantry rifle by the faster-firing semi-automatic eight-round M1 Garand starting in 1937. However, the M1903 Springfield remained in service as a standard infantry rifle during World War II. It also remained in service as a rifle during World War II, the Korean War. It remains popular as a firearm, historical collectors piece. Troops armed with outclassed Springfield Model 1892–99 Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifles and older single-shot Springfield rifles, the Spanish soldiers inflicted 1,400 U. S. casualties in a matter of minutes. A U. S. Army board of investigation was commissioned as a result of this battle. They recommended replacement of the Krag, the M1903 not only replaced the various versions of the U. S. The two main problems cited with the Krag were its slow-to-load magazine and its inability to handle higher chamber pressures for high-velocity rounds. The United States Army attempted to introduce a higher-velocity cartridge in 1899 for the existing Krags, though a stripper-clip or charger loading modification to the Krag was designed, it was clear to Army authorities that a new rifle was required. In 1882, the bolt action.45 Remington Lee rifle design of 1879, several hundred 1882 Lee Navy Models were also subjected to trials by the U. S. Army during the 1880s, though the rifle was not formally adopted. The Navy adopted the Model 1885, and later different style Lee Model 1895, in Army service, both the 1885 and 1895 6mm Lee were used in the Spanish–American War, along with the.30 Krag and the. 45-70 Model 1873 Springfield. The Lee rifles detachable box magazine was invented by James Paris Lee, other advancements had made it clear that the Army needed a replacement. In 1892, the U. S. military held a series of rifle trials, the Krag officially entered U. S. service in 1894, only to be replaced nine years later by the Springfield M1903. A prototype rifle was produced in 1900, interestingly, it was similar to Rifle No.5. This design was rejected, and a new design combining features of the 1898 Krag rifle, Springfield began work on creating a rifle that could handle higher loads around the turn of the 20th century. Taking a cue from the 1898 Mauser Gewehr 98, a safety lug was added to the side of the bolt behind the extractor. The bolt handle was also bent downwards, to make operation of the bolt faster, the Springfield Model 1901 almost entered production
27.
Indirect fire
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Indirect fire is aiming and firing a projectile without relying on a direct line of sight between the gun and its target, as in the case of direct fire. Aiming is performed by calculating azimuth and elevation angles, and may include correcting aim by observing the fall of shot and calculating new angles. There are two dimensions in aiming a weapon, In the horizontal plane, and In the vertical plane, which is governed by the distance to the target and the energy of the propelling charge. The projectile trajectory is affected by conditions, the velocity of the projectile. Direct fire sights may include mechanisms to compensate for some of these, handguns and rifles, machine guns, anti-tank guns, tank main guns, many types of unguided rockets, and guns mounted in aircraft are examples of weapons primarily designed for direct fire. NATO defines indirect fire as Fire delivered at a target which cannot be seen by the aimer, the implication is that azimuth and/or elevation aiming is done using instrumental methods. Hence indirect fire means applying firing data to azimuth and elevation sights, indirect fire can be used when the target is visible from the firing position. However, it is used when the target is at longer range. Longer range uses a higher trajectory, and in maximum range is achieved with an elevation angle of 45 degrees. Indirect fire is most commonly associated with field artillery and it is also used with mortars and naval guns against shore targets, sometimes with machine guns, and has been used with tank and anti-tank guns and by anti-aircraft guns against surface targets. It is reasonable to assume that original purpose of fire was to enable fire from a ‘covered position’, one where gunners can not be seen. The concealment aspect remains important, but from World War I equally important was the capability to concentrate the fire of many batteries at the target or set of targets. The physical laws of ballistics means that guns firing larger and heavier projectile can send them further than smaller-calibre guns firing lighter shells. By the end of the 20th century, the maximum range for the most common guns was about 24 to 30 km. During World War I, covered positions moved further back and indirect fire evolved to allow any point within range to be attacked, firepower mobility, without moving the firers. If the target cannot be seen from the gun position, there has to be a means of identifying targets, the position of some targets may be identified by a headquarters from various sources of information, observers on the ground, in aircraft, or in observation balloons. The development of electrical communication immensely simplified reporting, and enabled many widely dispersed firers to concentrate their fire on one target, until the introduction of smart munitions the trajectory of the projectile could not be altered once fired. For several centuries Coehorn mortars were fired indirectly because their fixed elevation meant range was determined by the amount of propelling powder
28.
Improved Military Rifle
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These propellants were DuPont modifications of United States artillery propellants. DuPont miniaturized the large artillery grains to form military rifle propellants suitable for use in small arms and these were improved during the first world war to be more efficient in rimless military cartridges replacing earlier rimmed rifle cartridges. Four-digit numbers identified experimental propellants, and a few successful varieties warranted extensive production by several manufacturers, some were used almost exclusively for military contracts, or commercial ammunition production, but a few have been distributed for civilian use in handloading. Improved military rifle propellants are coated with dinitrotoluene to slow initial burning and they contain 0. 6% diphenylamine as a stabilizer and 1% potassium sulfate to reduce muzzle flash. John Bernadou patented a single-base propellant while working at the Naval Torpedo Station in 1897, Bernadous colloid of nitrocellulose with ether and alcohol was formulated for the reaction pressures generated within naval artillery. The colloid was extruded in dense cylinders with longitudinal perforations to decompose in accordance with Pioberts law, rate of reaction is controlled by heat transfer through the temperature gradient from the luminous reacting gas through the bubbles to the intact colloid. Heat transfer is faster if the bubbles are under pressure, because heat transfer is more efficient through smaller bubbles and these propellants may not react satisfactorily at low pressures within the oxygen-deficient atmosphere of a gun barrel. The United States Army also used Bernadous propellant for artillery and for the new M1903 Springfield service rifle in 1909 with the 150-grain M1906 bullet, grain size varied with bore diameter. While artillery grain dimensions might be several inches or centimeters, the grains of military rifle propellant were 0.085 inches long and 0.03 inches in diameter. The Army identified this military rifle propellant as Pyro DG, and 500 tons per day were manufactured by plants through the first world war. Each batch had somewhat different reaction rates, so testing was required to determine the charge to generate required reaction pressure in the intended cartridge. Test results were forwarded to the factory or arsenal assembling cartridges, orders from countries fighting World War I required determining charges for different European military rifle cartridges, and production volume supported research for improvements. Early propellants were identified by a two-digit number, as the number of experimental variations increased, each improved military rifle propellant was identified by a four-digit number. In addition to the canisters available from DuPont, the Director of Civilian Marksmanship sold surplus improved military rifle propellants to members of the National Rifle Association, non-conforming batches were used to load commercial and military cartridges following traditional testing procedures. Wartime temporarily interrupted production of civilian specification propellants, as quantities of new specifications were manufactured. Number 4831 was used to load navy anti-aircraft machine gun ammunition, as these propellants became military surplus after the war, large quantities of different batches were blended together to make products with uniform average performance for sale to civilians. IMR® is a trademark of the IMR Powder Company assigned to the Hodgdon Powder Company. Hodgdon Powder Company Smokeless powder Handloading Davis, Tenney L, the Chemistry of Powder & Explosives
29.
Ogive
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An ogive is the roundly tapered end of a two-dimensional or three-dimensional object. The term is used in engineering, architecture, woodworking and geology, villard de Honnecourt, a 13th-century itinerant master-builder from the Picardy in the north of France, was the first writer to use the word ogive. The OED considers the French terms origin obscure, it come from the Late Latin obviata. In ballistics or aerodynamics, an ogive is a pointed, curved surface mainly used to form the approximately streamlined nose of a bullet or other projectile. If this arc is drawn so that it meets the shank at zero angle and this is a very common ogive for high velocity rifle bullets. Values of 4 to 10 are commonly used in rifles, with 6 being the most common, another common ogive for bullets is the elliptical ogive. This is a very similar to the spitzer ogive, except that the circular arc is replaced by an ellipse defined in such a way that it meets the axis at exactly 90°. This gives a rounded nose regardless of the sharpness ratio. An elliptical ogive is normally described in terms of the ratio of the length of the ogive to the diameter of the shank, a ratio of one half would be, once again, a hemisphere. Values close to 1 are common in practice, elliptical ogives are mainly used in pistol bullets. Missiles and aircraft generally have more complex ogives, such as the von Kármán ogive. One of the characteristics of Gothic architecture is the pointed or ogival arch. In Gothic architecture, ogives are the transverse ribs of arches that establish the surface of a Gothic vault. An ogive or ogival arch is a pointed, Gothic arch, drawn with compasses as outlined above, a very narrow, steeply pointed ogive arch is sometimes called a lancet arch. The most common form is an arch, where the radius is the same as the width. In the later Flamboyant Gothic style, an arch, an arch with a pointed head, like S-shaped curves. In woodworking, an ogive is a type of curve a piece of wood can be shaped in, in statistics, an ogive is a free-hand graph showing the curve of a cumulative distribution function. The points plotted are the class limit and the corresponding cumulative frequency
30.
Caliber (artillery)
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In artillery, caliber or calibre is the internal diameter of a gun barrel, or by extension a relative measure of the length. Rifled barrels introduce ambiguity to measurement of caliber, a rifled bore consists of alternating grooves and lands. The distance across the bore from groove to groove is greater than the distance from land to land, the depth of rifling grooves increases in larger calibers. United States Navy guns typically used rifling depth between one-half and one percent of caliber, projectile bourrelet diameter specification was 0.015 inches less than land to land diameter with a minus manufacturing tolerance so average clearance was about 0.012 inches. Driving band diameter was groove to groove diameter plus 0.02 inches, the length of the barrel is often quoted in calibers. For example, US Naval Rifles 3 in or larger, the effective length of the barrel is divided by the barrel diameter to give a dimensionless quantity.81 As an example, the main guns of the Iowa-class battleships can be referred to as 16/50 caliber. They are 16 inches in diameter and the barrel is 800 inches long, the bore to barrel length ratio is called caliber in naval gunnery,81 but is called length in army artillery. Before World War II, the US Navy used 5/51 caliber as surface-to-surface guns, by the end of World War II, the dual purpose 5/38 caliber was standard naval armament against surface and air targets. All three had a diameter of 5 inches. At sea, a weapon had to perform, without fail, there was no ready replacement, nor one that could be readily supplied. Over time, the terms of pound and bore became confused and blurred, eventually, when the technology existed, the bore came to be the standard measure. For naval rifles, the change was to actual bore. They then began to measure the length of the weapon in calibers. These were a measure of the bore of the barrel versus the rifled bore of the barrel. In other words, a 12/45 is 12×45= the length of the bore of that gun in inches. This explains the differences in both penetration and long range performance of naval rifles over the years. In addition to the improvements in overall performance, the increase in barrel length also allowed, in some circumstances. For example, the American 14/45, as introduced in the New York-class battleships, later improvements to the design, lengthening the rifle itself and also altering the breech, allowed a 1400 lb. projectile and, overall, a greater barrel life
31.
Nose cone design
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In all of the following nose cone shape equations, L is the overall length of the nose cone and R is the radius of the base of the nose cone. Y is the radius at any point x, as x varies from 0, at the tip of the nose cone, the equations define the 2-dimensional profile of the nose shape. The full body of revolution of the cone is formed by rotating the profile around the centerline. Note that the equations describe the shape, practical nose cones are often blunted or truncated for manufacturing or aerodynamic reasons. A very common shape is a simple cone. This shape is chosen for its ease of manufacture, and is also often chosen for its drag characteristics. The profile of this shape is formed by a segment of a such that the rocket body is tangent to the curve of the nose cone at its base. The popularity of this shape is due to the ease of constructing its profile. If they are equal, then the shape is a hemisphere, a tangent ogive nose is often blunted by capping it with a segment of a sphere. The rocket body will not be tangent to the curve of the nose at its base, the Ogive Radius ρ is not determined by R and L, but rather is one of the factors to be chosen to define the nose shape. The classic example of this shape is the cone of the Honest John. Also, the chosen ogive radius must be greater than half the length of the nose cone. L /2 < ρ < R2 + L22 R The profile of this shape is one-half of an ellipse, with the axis being the centerline. A rotation of an ellipse about its major axis is called a prolate spheroid. This shape is popular in subsonic flight due to the blunt nose and this is not a shape normally found in professional rocketry, which almost always flies at much higher velocities where other designs are more suitable. If R equals L, this is a hemisphere, Y = R1 − x 2 L2 This nose shape is not the blunt shape that is envisioned when people commonly refer to a parabolic nose cone. The parabolic series nose shape is generated by rotating a segment of a parabola around a line parallel to its latus rectum and this construction is similar to that of the tangent ogive, except that a parabola is the defining shape rather than a circle. Just as it does on an ogive, this produces a nose shape with a sharp tip
32.
Drag (physics)
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In fluid dynamics, drag is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two layers or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are independent of velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow, even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the object in the fluids path. In the case of viscous drag of fluid in a pipe, in physics of sports, the drag force is necessary to explain the performance of runners, particularly of sprinters. Types of drag are generally divided into the categories, parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag. The phrase parasitic drag is used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag it is in general small compared to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, form and interference drags often dominate, further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in aviation or in the design of semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs either when an object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound or when a solid object is moving along a fluid boundary. Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, at low R e, C D is asymptotically proportional to R e −1, which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed. At high R e, C D is more or less constant, the graph to the right shows how C D varies with R e for the case of a sphere. As mentioned, the equation with a constant drag coefficient gives the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity. This is also called quadratic drag, the equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A. Sometimes a body is a composite of different parts, each with a different reference areas, in the case of a wing the reference areas are the same and the drag force is in the same ratio to the lift force as the ratio of drag coefficient to lift coefficient. Therefore, the reference for a wing is often the area rather than the frontal area. For an object with a surface, and non-fixed separation points—like a sphere or circular cylinder—the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re. For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a disk with its plane normal to the flow direction
33.
Bolt-action
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Bolt-action firearms are most often rifles, but there are some bolt-action shotguns and a few handguns as well. Examples of this date as far back as the early 19th century. From the late 19th century, all the way through both World Wars, the rifle was the standard infantry firearm for most of the worlds militaries. Bolt-action firearms are still popular for hunting and target shooting. The first bolt-action rifle was produced in 1824 by Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse, von Dreyse would perfect his Nadelgewehr by 1836, and it was adopted by the Prussian Army in 1841. It however was not the first bolt-action weapon to see combat as it was not fielded until 1864, during the American Civil War, the bolt-action Palmer carbine was patented in 1863, and by 1865,1000 were purchased for use as cavalry weapons. The French Army adopted its first bolt-action rifle, the Chassepot rifle, in 1866, ultimately the military turned to bolt-action rifles using a box magazine, the first of its kind was the M1885 Remington–Lee, but the first to be generally adopted was the British 1888 Lee–Metford. World War I marked the height of the bolt-action rifles use, there are, however, many semi-automatic sniper rifle designs, especially in the designated marksman role. Today, bolt-action rifles are used as hunting rifles. These rifles can be used to hunt anything from vermin, to deer, to game, especially big game caught on a safari. Bolt-action shotguns are considered a rarity among modern firearms, but were formerly a commonly used action for.410 entry-level shotguns, as well as for low-cost 12 gauge shotguns. The M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System is the most advanced and recent example of a bolt-action shotgun, some pistols utilize a bolt action, although this is uncommon, and such examples are typically specialized target handguns. Most of the bolt-action designs involve the shooters doing a turn + pull handle movement to open the bolt, cock the firing pin, there are three major turning bolt-action system designs, the Mauser system, the Lee–Enfield system, and the Mosin–Nagant system. The vast majority of bolt-action rifles utilize one of three systems, with other designs seeing only limited use. The Mauser system is stronger than that of the Lee–Enfield due to two locking lugs just behind the head which make it better able to handle higher pressure cartridges. The 8×68mm S and 9. 3×64mm Brenneke magnum rifle cartridge families were designed for the Mauser M98 bolt action. A novel safety feature was the introduction of a locking lug present at the rear of the bolt that normally did not lock the bolt. The Mauser system features cock on opening, meaning the upward rotation of the bolt when the rifle is opened cocks the action, a drawback of the Mauser M98 system is that it cannot be cheaply mass-produced very easily
34.
M1917 Enfield
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Numerically, it was the main rifle used by the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe during World War I. The Danish Slædepatruljen Sirius still use the M1917 as their service weapon, before World War I, the British had the Short Magazine Lee–Enfield as their main rifle. Compared to the German Mausers or U. S.1903 Springfield, the starting point was to copy many of the features of the Mauser system. The rifle was developed at the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield in the United Kingdom. This development, named the Pattern 1913 Enfield or P13, included a front locking, dual lug bolt action with Mauser type claw extractor as well as a new, powerful rimless.276 Enfield cartridge. The design carried over a Lee–Enfield type safety at the rear of the action, an advanced design of aperture rearsight and a long sight radius were incorporated to maximize accuracy potential. Ease of manufacture was also an important criterion, however, the onset of World War I came too quickly for the UK to put it into production before the new cartridge could be perfected, as it suffered from overheating in rapid fire and bore fouling. As it entered World War I, the UK had an urgent need for rifles and they decided to ask these companies to produce the new rifle design in the old.303 British chambering for convenience of ammunition logistics. The new rifle was termed the Pattern 14, in the case of the P14 rifle, Winchester and Remington were selected. A third manufacturer, Eddystone Arsenal – a subsidiary of Remington – was tooled up at the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Eddystone, thus, three variations of the P14 and M1917 exist, labeled Winchester, Remington and Eddystone. When the U. S. entered the war, it had a similar need for rifles, the Enfield design was well-suited to the. 30-06 Springfield, it was a big, strong action and was originally intended to employ a long, powerful, rimless bottlenecked cartridge. Eddystone made 1,181,908 rifles – more than the production of Remington, the standardized production effort regarding parts interchangeability did not work out as intended. Winchester produced slightly differing parts, leading to interchangeability issues with the Remington, the markings were changed to reflect the model and caliber change. A16. 5-inch blade bayonet, the M1917 bayonet was produced for use on the rifle and it would later be used on several other small arms like the M97 and M12 trench shotguns and early M1 Garands. The new rifle was used alongside the M1903 Springfield and quickly surpassed the Springfield design in numbers produced, by November 11,1918 about 75% of the AEF in France were armed with M1917s. An M1917 Enfield rifle may have used by Sergeant Alvin C. York on October 8,1918, during the event that would see him awarded the Medal of Honor, according to his diary, Sergeant York also used a Colt M1911 semi-automatic pistol on that day. After the armistice, the M1917 rifles were placed in storage for the most part, during the 1920s and 1930s a large number of M1917 rifles were released for civilian use through the NRA or were sold as surplus
35.
Semi-automatic firearm
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A semi-automatic, or self-loading firearm, is one that performs all steps necessary to prepare it to discharge again after firing—assuming cartridges remain in the firearms feed device. Typically, this includes extracting and ejecting the spent cartridge case from the chamber, re-cocking the firing mechanism. For the other forms, the mechanism would require cycling manually prior to firing the next round. An automatic or a selective-fire firearm set to fire automatically would be able to discharge continuously as long as the trigger is held until the magazine or feed device runs out of ammunition. Obviously, this additional feature complicates the design of the sear and disconnector, the first successful design for a semi-automatic rifle is attributed to German-born gunsmith Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher, who unveiled the design in 1885. The Model 85 was followed by the equally innovative Mannlicher Models 91,93 and 95 semi-automatic rifles.5 mm ammunition that were fed into the M1894 by a stripper clip. The Auto-5 relied on long recoil operation, this remained the dominant form in semi-automatic shotguns for approximately 50 years. Production of the Auto-5 was ended in 1999, in 1903 and 1905, the Winchester Repeating Arms Company introduced the first semi-automatic rimfire and centerfire rifles designed especially for the civilian market. The Winchester Model 1903 and Winchester Model 1905 operated on the principle of blowback in order to function semi-automatically, johnson, the Model 1903 achieved commercial success and continued to be manufactured until 1932 when the Winchester Model 63 replaced it. Winchester introduced a medium caliber semi-automatic sporting rifle, the Model 1907 as an upgrade to the Model 1905, utilizing a system of operation. Both the Models of 1905 and 1907 saw limited military and police use, in 1906, Remington Arms introduced the Remington Auto-loading Repeating Rifle. Remington advertised this rifle, renamed the Model 8 in 1911 and this is a locked-breech, long recoil action designed by John Browning. The Model 81 superseded the Model 8 in 1936 and was offered in.300 Savage as well as the original Remington calibers, the first semi-automatic rifle adopted and widely issued by a major military power was the Fusil Automatique Modele 1917. This is a breech, gas-operated action which is very similar in its mechanical principles to the future M1 Garand in the United States. The M1917 was fielded during the stages of WWI but it did not receive a favorable reception. However its shortened and improved version, the Model 1918, gave complete satisfaction during the Moroccan Rif War from 1920 to 1926, the Lebel bolt-action rifle remained the standard French infantry rifle until replaced in 1936 by the MAS-36 despite the various semi-automatic rifles designed between 1918 and 1935. In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nations bolt-action rifle as the infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U. S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, after years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937
36.
M1 Garand
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The M1 Garand is a.30 caliber semi-automatic rifle that was the standard U. S. service rifle during World War II and the Korean War and also saw limited service during the Vietnam War. Most M1 rifles were issued to U. S. forces, the Garand is still used by drill teams and military honor guards. It is also used by civilians for hunting, target shooting. The M1 rifle was named after its Canadian-American designer, John Garand and it was the first standard-issue semi-automatic military rifle. By all accounts the M1 rifle served with distinction, General George S. Patton called it the greatest battle implement ever devised. The M1 replaced the bolt action M1903 Springfield as the standard U. S. service rifle in the mid 1930s, although the name Garand is frequently pronounced /ɡəˈrænd/, the preferred pronunciation is /ˈɡærənd/, according to experts and people who knew John Garand, the weapons designer. French Canadian-born Garand went to work at the United States Armys Springfield Armory, in 1924, twenty-four rifles, identified as M1922s, were built at Springfield. At Fort Benning during 1925, they were tested against models by Berthier, Hatcher-Bang, Thompson, and Pedersen and this led to a further trial of an improved M1924 Garand against the Thompson, ultimately producing an inconclusive report. As a result, the Ordnance Board ordered a. 30-06 Garand variant, in March 1927, the cavalry board reported trials among the Thompson, Garand, and 03 Springfield had not led to a clear winner. This led to a gas-operated.276 model, in early 1928, both the infantry and cavalry boards ran trials with the.276 Pedersen T1 rifle, calling it highly promising. The.30 Garand, however, was dropped in favor of the.276.30 gas-operated Garand be resumed, twenty gas-operated.276 T3E2 Garands were made and competed with T1 Pedersen rifles in early 1931. The.276 Garand was the winner of these trials. The.30 caliber Garand was also tested, in the form of a single T1E1, a 4 January 1932 meeting recommended adoption of the.276 caliber and production of approximately 125 T3E2s. Meanwhile, Garand redesigned his bolt and his improved T1E2 rifle was retested, on 25 February 1932, Adjutant General John B. On 3 August 1933, the T1E2 became the semi-automatic rifle, caliber 30, in May 1934,75 M1s went to field trials,50 were to infantry,25 to cavalry units. The first production model was successfully proof-fired, function-fired, and fired for accuracy on July 21,1937, production difficulties delayed deliveries to the army until September 1937. Machine production began at Springfield Armory that month at a rate of ten rifles per day, despite going into production status, design issues were not at an end. The barrel, gas cylinder, and front sight assembly were redesigned and entered production in early 1940, production of the Garand increased in 1940 despite these difficulties, reaching 600 a day by 10 January 1941, and the army was fully equipped by the end of 1941
37.
M1941 Johnson rifle
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The M1941 Johnson Rifle was an American short-recoil operated semi-automatic rifle designed by Melvin Johnson prior to World War II. The M1941 competed unsuccessfully with the U. S. M1 Rifle, the M1941 rifle used the energy from recoil to operate the rifle. As the bullet and propellant gases moved down the barrel, they imparted a force on the head that was locked to the barrel. The barrel, together with the bolt, moved a short distance rearward until the left the barrel. The barrel then stopped against a shoulder allowing the carrier to continue rearward under the momentum imparted by the initial recoil stage. The rotating bolt, which had eight locking lugs, would then lock the bolt, following, a cam arrangement then rotated and unlocked the bolt to continue the operating cycle. One disadvantage of this design was its impact on the use of a bayonet, the Johnson rifle utilized a unique 10-round rotary magazine and a two-piece stock, the weapon using the same 5 round stripper clips used by the M1903 Rifle. This system had advantages over the M1 Rifle, including less perceived recoil. The Johnson also employed a number of parts that were easily lost during field stripping. As was Johnsons practice, he gave all of his weapons a pet nickname, Johnson christened his semi-automatic rifle Betsy and the Light Machine Gun Emma. A massive 20 mm aircraft cannon he developed for the Navy was called Bertha, Johnson referred to the Auto-Carbine as Daisy Mae. None of Johnsons memoirs or other writings reveals his inspiration for these nicknames, famed frontiersman Davy Crockett supposedly called his rifle Old Betsy, which may have led Melvin Johnson to give his first rifle the same moniker. The name Emma for the LMG was almost certainly derived from the British militarys use of the term Emma Gee during World War I to denote Machine Gun or MG. The 20 mm aircraft cannon was dubbed Bertha in a reference to Germanys massive howitzer of the First World War called Big Bertha. The Auto-Carbines nickname of Daisy Mae may have inspired by the buxom girl of the same name featured in the Lil Abner comic strip popular at the time. One of the Auto-Carbine prototypes, presumably number S-3, had Daisy Mae the 3rd neatly stenciled on the side of the buttstock. Melvin Johnson campaigned heavily for the adoption of the Johnson rifle by the U. S. Army, however, after limited testing, the U. S. Army rejected Johnsons rifle in favor of the M1 rifle developed by Springfield Armory. The M1941 was ordered by the Netherlands for issue to the KNIL in the Dutch East Indies, by all accounts, the M1941 performed acceptably in combat with the Marines in the early days of the Pacific fighting
38.
M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle
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The Browning Automatic Rifle is a family of United States automatic rifles and light machine guns used by the United States and numerous other countries during the 20th century. The BAR was designed to be carried by infantrymen during an assault or advance while supported by the sling over the shoulder or fired from the hip and this is a concept called walking fire — thought to be necessary for the individual soldier during trench warfare. The BAR never entirely lived up to the hopes of the War Department. The US Army, in practice, used the BAR as a machine gun. Although the weapon did see action in World War I, the BAR did not become standard issue in the U. S. Army until 1938. The BAR saw extensive service in both World War II and the Korean War and saw limited service in the Vietnam War. After much debate, it was agreed that a rapid rearmament with domestic weapons would be required. In 1917, prior to Americas entry to the war, John Browning personally brought to Washington, Browning had arranged for a public demonstration of both weapons at a location in southern Washington, D. C. known as Congress Heights. Additional tests were conducted for U. S. Army Ordnance officials at Springfield Armory in May 1917 and both weapons were unanimously recommended for immediate adoption. In order to avoid confusion with the belt-fed M1917 machine gun, on 16 July 1917,12,000 BARs were ordered from Colts Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company who had secured an exclusive concession to manufacture the BAR under Brownings patents. However Colt was already producing at peak capacity and requested a delay in production while they expanded their output with a new facility in Meriden. Due to the urgent need for the weapon, the request was denied, Winchester gave valuable assistance in refining the BARs final design, correcting the drawings in preparation for mass production. Among the changes made, the pattern was modified. The initial contract with Winchester called for 25,000 BARs and they were in full production by June 1918, delivering 4,000 guns—and starting in July—were turning out 9,000 units per month. Colt and Marlin-Rockwell Corp. also began shortly after Winchester got into full production. Marlin-Rockwell, burdened by a contract to make rifles for the Belgian government, acquired the Mayo Radiator Co. s factory, the first unit from this source was delivered on 11 June 1918 and the companys peak output reached 200 automatic rifles per day. Colt had produced only 9,000 BARs by the time of the due to the heavy demands of previous orders. These three companies produced a daily output of 706 rifles and a total of approximately 52,000 BARs were delivered by all sources by the end of the war
39.
M1917 Browning machine gun
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It was a crew served, belt-fed, water-cooled machine gun that served alongside the much lighter air-cooled Browning M1919. It was used at the level, and often mounted on vehicles. There were two iterations of it, the M1917, which was used in World War I, and the M1917A1. The M1917, which was used on aircraft as well as in a ground role, had a cyclic rate of 450 rounds per minute. In 1900, John Moses Browning filed a patent for an automatic gun. Browning did not work on the gun again until 1910, when he built a prototype of the 1900 design. Although the gun worked well, Browning improved the design slightly, Browning replaced side ejection with bottom ejection, added a buffer for smoother operation, replaced the hammer with a two piece firing pin, and some other minor improvements. The basic design of the gun was still the 1900 design, the Browning is a water-cooled heavy machine gun, though some experimental versions were made that did not use a water jacket, the air-cooled M1919 was later developed as a medium machine gun. Unlike many other machine guns, the M1917 had nothing to do with Maxims toggle lock design. At 47 pounds, it was lighter than contemporary Maxim type guns such as the first 137-pound German Maschinengewehr 08. The only similarities with the Maxim or Vickers are the principle of operation, T-slot breechblock, pull-out belt feed, water cooling. Its sliding-block locking mechanism saved weight and complexity, and was used in many previous Browning designs, the belt fed left-to-right, and the cartridges were stacked closer together than Maxim/Vickers. The Army Ordnance Department showed little interest in machine guns until war was declared in April 1917, at that time, the U. S. arsenal included only 1,100 machine guns, and most of those were outmoded. The government asked several designers to submit weapons, Browning arranged a test at the Springfield Armory in May 1917. In the first test, the weapon fired 20,000 rounds without incident, the reliability was exceptional, so Browning fired another 20,000 rounds through the weapon without any parts failing. The Ordnance Board was impressed, but was unconvinced that the level of performance could be achieved in a production model. Consequently, Browning used a gun that not only duplicated the original trial. The Army adopted the weapon as its heavy machine gun, utilizing the M1906. 30-06 cartridge with a 150-grain
40.
M1919 Browning machine gun
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The M1919 Browning is a.30 caliber medium machine gun that was widely used during the 20th century, especially during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The M1919 saw service as an infantry, coaxial, mounted, aircraft. Many M1919s were rechambered for the new 7. 62×51mm NATO round, the M1919 was an air-cooled development of the standard US machine gun of World War I, the John M. Browning-designed water-cooled M1917. The emergence of machine guns in the 1950s pushed the M1919 into secondary roles in many cases. The United States Navy also converted many to 7. 62mm NATO, many NATO countries also converted their examples to 7.62, and these remained in service well into the 1990s, as well as up to the present day in some countries. A similar conversion of the M1917 also produced the larger M2 Machine Gun, using the basic operating principles and layout. The M1919 is distinguished by its size and the use of a pierced cheese-grater-like guard around the barrel used on most versions. The M1919 originally fired the.30 cal M1906 ball cartridge, a metal M1 link was later adopted, forming a disintegrating belt. The cocking handle was pulled back with the palm of the hand facing up. This advanced the first round of the belt in front of the bolt for the extractor/ejector on the bolt to grab the first cartridge, the cocking handle was pulled and released a second time. This removed the first cartridge from the belt, advanced the next round into position to be grabbed and moved the first round down into the chamber of the ready for firing. As the bolt went into battery, the extractor grabbed the next round on the belt that was advanced and was resting in the feedway waiting to be loaded. If the trigger was held down, the gun would continue to fire in full automatic, the guns original design was as a water-cooled machine gun. When it was decided to try to lighten the gun and make it air-cooled, gunners were trained to manage the barrel heat by firing in controlled bursts of three to five rounds, with a delay between bursts to delay its heating. When the gun was ready to fire, a round would be in the chamber and the bolt and barrel group would be locked together, with the locking block at the rear of the bolt. As the assembly of bolt, barrel and barrel extension recoiled to the rear of the gun upon firing, the recoiling barrel extension struck the accelerator assembly, a half-moon shaped spring-loaded piece of metal pivoting from the receiver below the bolt and behind the barrel extension. The tips of the accelerators two curving fingers engaged the bottom of the bolt and caused it to move rapidly to the rear. The extractor-ejector was a mechanism that pivoted over the front of the bolt, the rearward movement of the bolt caused the rear end of the feed lever to pull to the right, causing the feeding pawl at the other end to move left over the belt
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FN Model 1949
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The Fabrique Nationale Model 1949 is a rifle available as both a semi-automatic rifle and as a selective fire automatic rifle designed by Dieudonné Saive and manufactured by Fabrique Nationale. It was used by the militaries of Argentina, Belgium, the Belgian Congo, Brazil, Colombia, Egypt, Indonesia, Luxembourg, the automatic rifle version with selective fire produced for Belgium was known as the AFN. An unknown number of FN-49s were produced as selective fire automatic rifles, the FN-49 found itself in direct competition with a number of more modern rifles such as the Heckler & Koch G3 and Fabrique Nationale de Herstals own FN FAL, resulting in limited sales. Dieudonne Saive, Fabrique Nationales then chief designer, experimented with a number of recoil-operated rifle designs in the early 1930s. While little came of these experiments, they would become the basis for a gas-operated semi-automatic rifle, FNs new rifle was still in development in late 1938 – early 1939, and a version with a 5-round magazine was about to be marketed. But when German armies invaded Poland, these plans were delayed to increase production of bolt-action rifles, the German invasion of Belgium in May 1940 interrupted any plans for the production of the new model, as Liège, home of FNs factory, was occupied by the German military. Despite this setback, Saive was able to escape to England via Portugal in 1941, by 1943, Saive was back to working on his experimental rifle, now in 7. 92×57mm Mauser. Late that year, the Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield ordered 50 prototypes, despite this, Saive continued work on the rifle, and finalized the design for the FN-49 in 1947. This also requires removing the forward handguard for the adjustment. The contracts for the SAFN1949 rifle started in 1948 with the first order placed by Venezuela on March 31,1948, the last production contract of complete rifles was ordered by Indonesia on December 19,1960 and delivered by February 19,1961. Some sources claim pre-production models for demonstration and testing were produced in 1948, making ready for contract orders. Other sources however claim The rifle was trialed with the Royal Netherlands Navy in 1947, FN started looking for customers, but the communist states were not an option. The Western European nations had vast stocks of World War II firearms and they also could get American and British weapons aid, which was inexpensive or free. So FN decided to market to the countries, who did not want to commit to Western or Soviet doctrine. The second contract was for the Egyptian government ordered on May 30,1948, while initially a small contract delivery Egypt would eventually purchase 37,602 SAFN1949 rifles total. The Belgians would make a contract for production of the SAFN1949 rifle on August 24,1950 for 6000 rifles in caliber. 30-06 Springfield. The Belgians designated the rifle as the ABL SAFN-49, ABL is an acronym for the Belgian Army in both French and Dutch, AB for the French Armée Belge and BL for the Dutch Belgisch Leger. The contracts for the SAFN1949 rifle made by FN for Belgium totaled 87,777 rifles total, a fully automatic, selective fire version, known as the AFN was produced for the Belgian military
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Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
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