1.
Hilde Krahl
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Hilde Krahl was an Austrian film actress. She appeared in 70 films between 1936 and 1994 and she was born Hildegard Kolačný in Brod, Austria-Hungary and died in Vienna, Austria. In 1944 she married Wolfgang Liebeneiner, their daughter Johanna Liebeneiner also became a famous actress, der Postmeister The Comedians Anuschka Melody of a Great City Love 47 Shadows in the Night A Devil of a Woman No Greater Love 1
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Robert Stolz
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Robert Elisabeth Stolz was an Austrian songwriter and conductor as well as a composer of operettas and film music. Stolz was born of parents in Graz. His father was a conductor, his mother a concert pianist, at the age of seven, he toured Europe as a pianist, playing Mozart. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory with Robert Fuchs and Engelbert Humperdinck, from 1899 he held successive conducting posts at Maribor, Salzburg and Brno before succeeding Artur Bodanzky at the Theater an der Wien in 1907. There he conducted, among other pieces, the first performance of Oscar Strausss Der tapfere Soldat in 1908, before leaving in 1910 to become a freelance composer, meanwhile, he had begun to compose operettas and individual songs and had a number of successes in these fields. After serving in the Austrian Army in World War I, Stolz devoted himself mainly to cabaret, around 1930, he started to compose music for films, such as the first German sound film Zwei Herzen im Dreivierteltakt, of which the title-waltz rapidly became a popular favourite. The rise of Nazi Germany led Stolz to return to Vienna and he remained active in Berlin as well. He used to travel by car between the two cities, so he smuggled Jews and political refugees across the German-Austrian border in the trunk of his limousine and he managed to do so 21 times. Then came the Anschluss, and he moved again, first to Zürich and then to Paris, with the help of friends he was released and in 1940 made his way to New York. In America, Stolz achieved fame with his concerts of Viennese music, in 1946 Stolz returned to Vienna, where he lived for the rest of his life. In the 1960s and 1970s he made recordings of operettas by composers such as Johann Strauss, Franz Lehár, Emmerich Kálmán, and Leo Fall. In 1952, he began to compose for the Vienna Ice Revue and he dedicated his first of 19 ice operettas to European Champion Eva Pawlik. In 1970, to mark his 90th birthday, he was made an Honorary Citizen of Vienna and he was also awarded Viennas Grand Medal of Honour, being only the second musician ever to be so honoured. He also appeared on a series of commemorative Austrian postage stamps, in later years he used a baton inherited from Franz Lehár, which had been originally owned by Johann Strauss and contained Strausss initials engraved in silver. After his death in Berlin in 1975, Robert Stolz received the honour of a lying-in-state in the foyer of the Vienna State Opera House and he was buried near Johannes Brahms and Johann Strauss II in Viennas Zentralfriedhof, and a statue to him was erected in the Wiener Stadtpark. Robert Stolz was married five times and his first and second wives, were singers. His third wife was Josephine Zernitz and the fourth was named Lilli and his fifth wife Yvonne Louise Ulrich, called Einzi, was his manager until his death. She had one daughter from her first marriage, whom Robert Stolz adopted, the Barbed Wire Waltz, the memoirs of the Last Waltz King Melbourne, Robert Stolz Publishing
3.
Fritz Arno Wagner
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Fritz Arno Wagner is considered one of the most acclaimed German cinematographers from the 1920s to the 1950s. He played a key role in the Expressionist film movement during the Weimar period and is perhaps best known for excelling in the portrayal of horror according to noted film critic Lotte H. Eisner. Born in Schmiedefeld am Rennsteig, Germany, Wagner received his training at the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris, in 1910, while still attending the University of Leipzig, he managed to secure a job as a clerk at the Pathé film company. In 1912, he became secretary and chef at the Pathé offices in Vienna and later in Berlin. Interested in cinematography he became a cameraman in 1913 and was stationed in New York for Pathé Weekly where he reported on the Mexican Revolution. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, he returned to Germany to enlist in his countrys elite Hussar cavalry whilst still filming war reports, however, after being wounded, he decided to take the job of stills photographer and then 2nd cameraman at Projektions-AG Union PAGU. In 1919, he went to work as a cameraman for Decla-Bioscop. Along with Karl Freund, Wagner became Germanys leading cinematographer of the 1920s and 1930s, a master of the dark, moody lighting that characterized the expressionist movement. He worked with some of Germany most prominent directors, including Ernst Lubitsch on Madame Du Barry, F. W. Murnau on The Haunted Castle, The Burning Soil and his classic Nosferatu, and G. W. Pabst on four features, The Love of Jeanne Ney, Westfront 1918, Comradeship and The Threepenny Opera based on the Bertolt Brecht and he also collaborated with Fritz Lang on four films, Destiny, Spies, M and The Testament of Dr. Mabuse. After the Nazis took over in 1933, causing many of the leading film directors to flee Germany for the U. S. Wagners career began to decline. To make ends meet he abandoned his style and turned to making glossy costume epics. On 18 August 1958, Wagner died in Göttingen in an automobile accident whilst shooting the comedy. He is buried at the Waldfriedhof Dahlem am Hüttenweg cemetery in Berlin
4.
Allied-occupied Austria
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The Allied occupation of Austria lasted from 1945 to 1955. In the immediate aftermath of the war, Austria, like Germany, was divided into four zones and jointly occupied by the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom. Vienna, like Berlin, was subdivided but the central district was administered jointly by the Allied Control Council. After Austrian promises of perpetual neutrality, Austria was accorded full independence on 12 May 1955, at the 1943 Moscow Conference, the allies had jointly decided that the German annexation of Austria in 1938 would be considered null and void. As well, all administrative and legal measures since 1938 would be ignored, on 29 March 1945 the Soviet commander Fyodor Tolbukhins troops crossed the former Austrian border at Klostermarienberg in Burgenland. On 3 April, at the beginning of the Vienna Offensive, Joseph Stalin had already established a would-be future Austrian cabinet from the countrys communists in exile, but Tolbukhins telegram changed Stalins mind in favor of Renner. On 20 April 1945, the Soviets, without asking their Western allies, seven days later Renners cabinet took office, declared the independence of Austria from Nazi Germany and called for the creation of a democratic state along the lines of the First Austrian Republic. Renner and his ministers were guarded and watched by NKVD bodyguards, one-third of State Chancellor Renners cabinet, including crucial seats of the Secretary of State of the Interior and the Secretary of State for Education, was staffed by Austrian Communists. The Western allies suspected the usual Soviet pattern of setting up puppet states, the British were particularly hostile, even Harry Truman, who believed that Renner was a trustworthy politician rather than a token front for the Kremlin, denied him recognition. But Renner had secured inter-party control by designating two Under-Secretaries of State in each of the ministries, appointed by the two parties not placing the Secretary of State. As soon as Hitlers armies were pushed back into Germany, the Red Army, by 23 May they reported arrests of 268 former Red Army men,1,208 Wehrmacht men and 1,655 civilians. In the following weeks the British surrendered over 40,000 Cossacks who had fled to Western Austria to the Soviet authorities, in July and August, the Soviets brought in four regiments of NKVD troops to mop up Vienna and seal the Czechoslovak border. The Red Army lost 17,000 lives in the Battle of Vienna, but the reputation of the Soviet soldiers was immediately ruined by the vast amount of sexual violence against women, which occurred in the first days and weeks after the Soviet victory. Repressions against civilians harmed Red Army reputation to such an extent that on 28 September 1945 Moscow issued an order forbidding violent interrogations. Red Army morale fell as soldiers prepared to be sent home, throughout 1945 and 1946, all levels of Soviet command tried, in vain, to contain desertion and plunder by rank and file. According to Austrian police records for 1946, men in Soviet uniform, usually drunk, at the same time, the Soviet governors resisted the expansion and arming of the Austrian police force. The American 11th Armored division crossed the Austrian border on April 26, French troops on 29 April, until the end of July 1945 none of the Western allies had first-hand intelligence from Eastern Austria. On 9 July 1945 the Allies agreed on the borders of their occupation zones, the French and American zones bordered those countries zones in Germany, and the Soviet zone bordered future Warsaw Pact states
5.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
6.
Government of Austria
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The Austrian Federal Government is a collective body that exercises executive power in the Republic of Austria. It is composed of the Chancellor, who is leader of the government, the Vice-Chancellor, the President and the Government together form the executive branch of Austria. The nominations of the takes place at the suggestion of the Chancellor. Likewise, the President may dismiss the Chancellor and/or the whole government at any time, however, a new government must be formed by the parties that control parliament. The government is convened for frequently scheduled meetings, when formally convened as such, the government is termed the Council of Ministers, which is equivalent to the word cabinet. Each federal minister is responsible for his or her own ministry, and may be supported by one or more state secretaries. State secretaries are not considered members of the government, and have no right to vote during cabinet meetings, the incumbent government of Austria is a grand coalition government formed by the left-wing Social Democratic Party of Austria and the right-wing Austrian Peoples Party. Most of the ministers kept their job, however, some decided to step down or were replaced, the Renner ministry was composed of representatives of the three main political parties—Social Democrats, the Christian Social Party and German Nationalists —according to the Proporz doctrine. State Chancellor Renner had signed the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, whereafter his cabinet retired en bloc, re-elected by the Constitutional Assembly on 17 October 1919, his third cabinet finally was overturned with the break-up of the SPÖ-CS coalition on 7 July 1920. Renner was succeeded by the Christian Social politician Michael Mayr, who with the commencement of the Austria Constitution on 10 November 1920 became first Federal Chancellor of Austria. Mayr and his successors proceeded with the support of the Christian Social Party, from 5 March 1933 onwards, the Christian Social chancellor Engelbert Dollfuß kept on ruling by suppression of the National Council parliament. In the course of the Austrian Civil War he brought down the opposition and on 1 May 1934 implemented the authoritarian Federal State of Austria, all parties were banned, except for the Fatherlands Front supporting Dollfuß Austrofascist government. The Federal Government discontinued with the Anschluss incorporation of Austria into Nazi Germany on 13 March 1938, on 27 April 1945 a provisional Austrian national unity government, again under a State Chancellor Karl Renner, declared the Anschluss null and void. It prepared the The elections to the Austrian National Council held on 25 November, on 20 December 1945, the Austrian Constitution was officially re-enacted, with ÖVP founder Leopold Figl forming the first post-war Federal Government. List of cabinets since 1945, Austrian Federal Government
7.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
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Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
9.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
10.
Negotiation
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Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties intended to reach a beneficial outcome over one or more issues where a conflict exists with respect to at least one of these issues. This beneficial outcome can be for all of the parties involved and it is aimed to resolve points of difference, to gain advantage for an individual or collective, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is often conducted by putting forward a position and making concessions to achieve an agreement. The degree to which the negotiating parties trust each other to implement the solution is a major factor in determining whether negotiations are successful. In many cases, negotiation is not a game, allowing for cooperation to improve the results of the negotiation. People negotiate daily, often without considering it a negotiation, professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiator, or hostage negotiators. They may also work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators, Negotiation can take a wide variety of forms, from a trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organization or position in a formal setting to an informal negotiation between friends. Negotiation can be contrasted with mediation, where a third party listens to each sides arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It can also be compared with arbitration, which resembles a legal proceeding, in arbitration, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their case and the arbitrator decides the outcome. This negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation, Negotiation theorists generally distinguish between two types of negotiation. Different theorists use different labels for the two types and distinguish them in different ways. Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation and attempts to distribute a fixed pie of benefits, distributive negotiation operates under zero sum conditions and implies that any gain one party makes is at the expense of the other and vice versa. For this reason, distributive negotiation is also sometimes called win-lose because of the assumption that one persons gain results in another persons loss, distributive negotiation examples include haggling prices on an open market, including the negotiation of the price of a car or a home. Distributive bargainers conceive of negotiation as a process of distributing a fixed amount of value, a distributive negotiation often involves people who have never had a previous interactive relationship, nor are they likely to do so again in the near future. Integrative negotiation is also called interest-based, merit-based, or principled negotiation and it is a set of techniques that attempts to improve the quality and likelihood of negotiated agreement by taking advantage of the fact that different parties value various outcomes differently. While distributive negotiation assumes there is an amount of value to be divided between the parties, integrative negotiation often attempts to create value in the course of the negotiation. Integrative negotiation often involves a degree of trust and the forming of a relationship. It can also involve creative problem-solving that aims to achieve mutual gains and it is also sometimes called win-win negotiation
11.
Identity document
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An identity document is any document which may be used to prove a persons identity. If issued in a small, standard credit card size form, some countries issue formal identity documents, while others may require identity verification using informal documents. When the identity document incorporates a persons photograph, it may be called photo ID, in the absence of a formal identity document, a drivers license may be accepted in many countries for identity verification. Some countries do not accept drivers licenses for identification, often because in countries they do not expire as documents. Most countries accept passports as a form of identification, some countries require all people to have an identity document available at any time. Many countries require all foreigners to have a passport or occasionally a national identity card from their country available at any time if they do not have a permit in the country. The identity document is used to connect a person to information about the person, the photo and the possession of it is used to connect the person with the document. A unique national identification number is the most secure way, a version of the passport considered to be the earliest identity document inscribed into law was introduced by King Henry V of England with the Safe Conducts Act 1414. For the next 500 years and before World War I, most people did not have or need an identity document, both Australia and Great Britain, for example, introduced the requirement for a photographic passport in 1915 after the so-called Lody spy scandal. The shape and size of identity cards were standardized in 1985 by ISO/IEC7810, some modern identity documents are smart cards including a difficult-to-forge embedded integrated circuit, that were standardized in 1988 by ISO/IEC7816. New technologies allow identity cards to contain information, such as photographs, face, hand or iris measurements. Electronic identity cards are available in countries including Belgium, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Guatemala, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Morocco, Portugal. Law enforcement officials claim that identity cards make surveillance and the search for criminals easier, in countries that dont have a national identity card, there is, however, concern about the projected large costs and potential abuse of high-tech smartcards. There is debate in these countries about whether such cards and their centralised database would constitute an infringement of privacy, most criticism is directed towards the enhanced possibilities of extensive abuse of centralised and comprehensive databases storing sensitive data. None of the countries listed above mandate possession of identity documents, for example, all vehicle drivers must have a driving licence, and young people may need to use specially issued proof of age cards when purchasing alcohol. Arguments for identity documents as such, In order to avoid mismatching people, Every human being already carries their own personal identification in the form of DNA, which is extremely hard to falsify or to discard. For example, in Sweden private companies such as banks refused to issue ID cards to individuals without a Swedish card and this forced the government to start issuing national cards. It is also hard to control information usage by private companies
12.
World peace
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World peace or peace on Earth is an ideal state of freedom, peace, and happiness among and within all nations and people. This ideal of world non-violence provides a basis for peoples and nations to willingly cooperate, for example, since 1945, the United Nations and the 5 permanent members of its Security Council have worked to resolve conflicts without war or declarations of war. However, nations have entered numerous military conflicts since that time, many theories as to how world peace could be achieved have been proposed. Several of these are listed below, main article, Peace through strength The term is traced back to the Roman Emperor Hadrian but the concept is as old as the recorded history. In fact, near the entrance to the headquarters of the SAC at Offutt Air Base stands a large sign with a SAC emblem and its motto, realize a principled and peaceful and prosperous future. And play the role only America can play, World peace is sometimes claimed to be the result of a certain political ideology. Leon Trotsky, a Marxist theorist, assumed that a world revolution would lead to world peace. Proponents of the democratic peace theory claim that strong empirical evidence exists that democracies never or rarely wage war against each other. There are, however, several wars between democracies that have taken place, historically, a good example of this is World War I, during which both Britain and Germany became partially self-sufficient. This is particularly important because Germany had no plan for creating a War economy, thus, a powerful lobby—unless there are only national companies—will argue against wars. Mutual assured destruction is a doctrine of military strategy in which a use of nuclear weapons by two opposing sides would effectively result in the destruction of both belligerents. Hinckley saw a trend in national politics by which city-states and nation-states have unified, non-interventionism should not be confused with isolationism. Isolationism, like non-interventionism, advises avoiding interference into other nations internal affairs but also emphasizes protectionism and restriction of international trade, non-interventionism, on the other hand, advocates combining free trade with political and military non-interference. Nations like Japan are perhaps the best known for establishing isolationist policies in the past, the Japanese Shogun Tokugawa initiated the Edo Period, an isolationist period where Japan cut itself off from the world as a whole. World peace has been depicted as a consequence of local, self-determined behaviors that inhibit the institutionalization of power, similar collaborative mechanisms are emerging from the Internet around open-source projects, including Wikipedia, and the evolution of other social media. Through most of human societies have been based on personal relations, individuals in groups know each other. Today in most lower-income societies hierarchies of groups distribute wealth based on relationships among group leaders. This creates loyalty to a state that enforces the rule of law and contracts impartially and reliably and provides equal protection in the freedom to contract – that is, liberal democracy
13.
International Court of Justice
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The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice, the Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court. The Courts workload covers a range of judicial activity. Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings, however, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the Council, which the United States used in the Nicaragua case. The election process is set out in Articles 4–19 of the ICJ statute, elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court. Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge in an election to complete the term. No two judges may be nationals of the same country, according to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world. Essentially, that has meant common law, civil law and socialist law, the exception was China, which did not have a judge on the Court from 1967 to 1985 because it did not put forward a candidate. Judicial independence is dealt with specifically in Articles 16–18, judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post or act as counsel. A judge can be dismissed only by a vote of the other members of the Court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned, judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions, Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ad hoc judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. The system allows any party to a case if it otherwise does not have one of that partys nationals sitting on the Court to select one additional person to sit as a judge on that case only. It is thus possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case, the system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases. Although this system does not sit well with the nature of the body. Ad hoc judges usually vote in favor of the state that appointed them, generally, the Court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years, it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26–29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26, firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993, a chamber was established, under Article 26 of the ICJ statute
14.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
15.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, while visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame, during his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons and he composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote, posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl and this was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy and his elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed Nannerl. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Ruperts Cathedral in Salzburg, the baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself Wolfgang Amadè Mozart as an adult, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg, Leopold became the orchestras deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his sons birth, Leopold published a textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule. When Nannerl was 7, she began lessons with her father. Years later, after her brothers death, she reminisced, He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and he could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. At the age of five, he was composing little pieces
16.
Prince Eugene of Savoy
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Born in Paris, Eugene grew up around the French court of King Louis XIV. Based on his physique and bearing, the Prince was initially prepared for a career in the church. Following a scandal involving his mother Olympe, he was rejected by Louis XIV for service in the French army, Eugene moved to Austria and transferred his loyalty to the Habsburg Monarchy. Spanning six decades, Eugene served three Holy Roman Emperors, Leopold I, Joseph I, and Charles VI, however, the Princes fame was secured with his decisive victory against the Ottomans at the Battle of Zenta in 1697, earning him Europe-wide fame. Renewed hostilities against the Ottomans in the Austro-Turkish War consolidated his reputation, with victories at the battles of Petrovaradin, nevertheless, in Austria, Eugenes reputation remains unrivalled. Eugene died in his sleep at his home on 21 April 1736, Prince Eugene was born in the Hôtel de Soissons in Paris on 18 October 1663. His mother, Olympia Mancini, was one of Cardinal Mazarins nieces whom he had brought to Paris from Rome in 1647 to further his, the Mancinis were raised at the Palais-Royal along with the young Louis XIV, with whom Olympia formed an intimate relationship. Yet to her disappointment, her chance to become queen passed by. The King remained strongly attached to Olympia, so much so that many believed them to be lovers, after falling out of favour at court, Olympia turned to Catherine Deshayes, and the arts of black magic and astrology. Embroiled in the affaire des poisons, suspicions now abounded of her involvement in her husbands death in 1673. From the age of ten, Eugene had been brought up for a career in the church, in February 1683, to the surprise of his family, Eugene declared his intention of joining the army. The request was modest, not so the petitioner, he remarked, no one else ever presumed to stare me out so insolently. Denied a military career in France, Eugene decided to service abroad. One of Eugenes brothers, Louis Julius, had entered Imperial service the previous year, when news of his death reached Paris, Eugene decided to travel to Austria in the hope of taking over his brothers command. It was not a decision, his cousin, Louis of Baden, was already a leading general in the Imperial army, as was a more distant cousin, Maximilian II Emanuel. On the night of July 26,1683, Eugene left Paris, by May 1683, the Ottoman threat to Emperor Leopold Is capital, Vienna, was very real. With the Turks at the gates, the Emperor fled for the refuge of Passau up the Danube. It was at Leopold Is camp that Eugene arrived in mid-August, although Eugene was not of Austrian extraction, he did have Habsburg antecedents
17.
Maria Theresa
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Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, by marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and subsequently conquered it. Maria Theresa would later try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years War. Of the sixteen, ten survived to adulthood and she had eleven daughters and five sons. She criticised and disapproved of many of Josephs actions, Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects. However, she refused to allow religious toleration and contemporary travelers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious. As a young monarch who fought two wars, she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate-Neuburg, were her godmothers and her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a disappointment to him. Charles sought the other European powers approval for disinheriting his nieces and they exacted harsh terms, in the Treaty of Vienna, Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged, little more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a sister, Maria Anna, and another one, named Maria Amalia, was born in 1724. The portraits of the family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine. The Prussian ambassador noted that she had blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth. Unlike many other members of the House of Habsburg, neither Maria Theresas parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other, Maria Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery. She was barred from riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony. The imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI and her education was overseen by Jesuits
18.
Austrian wine
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Austrian wines are mostly dry white wines, though some sweeter white wines are also produced. About 30% of the wines are red, made from Blaufränkisch, Pinot noir, the scandal destroyed the market for Austrian wine and compelled Austria to tackle low standards of bulk wine production, and reposition itself as a producer of quality wines. The country is home to Riedel, makers of some of the most expensive wine glasses in the world. Some of the best producers of Austria include Weingut F. X, pichler and Weingut Franz Hirtzberger, Weingut Hutter, Weingut Eigl and Wellanschitz. There is archaeological evidence of growing in Traisental 4000 years ago. Viticulture thrived under the Romans, once Marcus Aurelius Probus had overturned the ban on growing grapes north of the Alps, both Grüner Veltliner and Welschriesling appear to have been grown around the Danube since Roman times. Once Otto the Great had seen off the threat from Magyar incursions in 955, Austrian viticulture was nurtured by the Church, the first vineyard names recorded are Kremser Sandgrube in 1208, and Steiner Pfaffenberg in 1230. Rudolf IV introduced the first wine tax, Ungeld, in 1359, as Vienna established itself as a centre for wine trading on the Danube. The wine business boomed in the 16th century, but the Thirty Years War and others of the 17th century took their toll, various drink taxes were unified in 1780, as part of a drive by Maria Theresa and Joseph II to encourage viticulture. An imperial decree of 17 August 1784 gave birth to the distinctive Austrian tradition of inns called Heurigen, derived from the German for new wine, the decree allowed all winemakers to sell home-grown food with their wine all year round. Fir trees hung above the door alerted customers to the arrival of the new seasons wine, the 19th century saw the arrival of all sorts of biological invaders. First there was powdery mildew and downy mildew, one response to these fungal diseases from North America was the founding in 1860 of what became the Federal Institute for Viticulture and Pomology at Klosterneuburg. Then the phylloxera root aphid arrived in 1872 and wiped out most of the vineyards of central Europe, although it took several decades for the industry to recover, it allowed lower quality grapes to be replaced with better varieties, particularly Grüner Veltliner. After World War I, Austria was the third biggest wine producer in the world, much being exported in bulk for blending with wine from Germany, however that intensification of viticulture sowed the seeds of its own destruction. During the twentieth century Austrian wine became a high-volume, industrialised business, a run of favourable years in the early 1980s saw massive yields of wines that were light, dilute and acidic, that nobody wanted. Wine brokers discovered that these wines could be made saleable by the addition of a little diethylene glycol, more commonly found in antifreeze, which imparted sweetness and body to the wine. The adulteration was difficult to detect chemically—the antifreeze scandal broke when one of them tried to claim for the cost of the chemical on his tax return. Although the amounts of glycol were less dangerous than the alcohol in the wine, the antifreeze jokes persist, but in fact the scandal was the saviour of the industry in Austria
19.
Viennese Waltz
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Viennese Waltz is the genre of a ballroom dance. At least three different meanings are recognized, in the historically first sense, the name may refer to several versions of the waltz, including the earliest waltzes done in ballroom dancing, danced to the music of Viennese Waltz. What is now called the Viennese Waltz is the form of the waltz. It was the first ballroom dance performed in the hold or waltz position. To this day however, in Germany, Austria, Scandinavia, and France, the words Walzer, vals, a true Viennese waltz consists only of turns and change steps. Other moves such as the fleckerls, American-style figures and side sway or underarm turns are modern inventions and are not normally danced at the balls in Vienna. Furthermore, in a properly danced Viennese Waltz, couples do not pass, as the Waltz evolved, some of the versions that were done at about the original fast tempo came to be called specifically Viennese Waltz to distinguish them from the slower waltzes. In the modern dance, two versions of Viennese Waltz are recognized, International Style and American Style. Today the Viennese Waltz is a ballroom and partner dance that is part of the International Standard division of contemporary ballroom dance, the Viennese Waltz, so called to distinguish it from the Waltz and the French Waltz, is the oldest of the current ballroom dances. It emerged in the half of the 18th century from the German dance. The Waltzen, as written in a magazine from 1799, is performed by dancers who held on to their long gowns to prevent them from dragging or being stepped on. The dancers would lift their dresses and hold them high like cloaks and this action also required the dancers bodies to be very close together and this closeness also attracted moral disparagement. Wolf published a pamphlet against the dance entitled Proof that Waltzing is the Main Source of Weakness of the Body, but even when faced with all this negativity, it became very popular in Vienna. Large dance halls like the Zum Sperl in 1807 and the Apollo in 1808 were opened to provide space for thousands of dancers, the dance reached and spread to England sometime before 1812. It was introduced as the German Waltz and became a huge hit and it gained ground due to the Congress of Vienna at the beginning of the 19th century and the famous compositions by Josef Lanner, Johann Strauss I and his son, Johann Strauss II. Initially, the waltz was significantly different from its form today, in the first place, the couples did not dance in the closed position as today. The illustrations and descriptions make it clear that the couples danced with arm positions similar to that of the dances, the Ländler. The hold was at times semi-closed, and at times side by side, arms are intertwined and circling movements were made under raised arms
20.
Moscow Declaration of 1943
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The Moscow Declarations were four declarations signed during the Moscow Conference on October 30,1943. The declarations may be distinguished from the Communique that was issued following the Moscow Conference of 1945 and they were signed by the foreign secretaries of the Governments of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and Nationalist China. Four declarations were signed at the conference, The Declaration of the Four Nations on General Security, the Declaration on Italy, the Declaration on Austria, and the Declarations on Atrocities. In the Declaration on Austria, the Foreign Secretaries of US, UK and USSR declared that the annexation of Austria by Germany was null and it called for the establishment of a free Austria after the victory over Nazi Germany. They regard the annexation imposed upon Austria by Germany on March 15,1938, as null and they consider themselves as in no way bound by any changes effected in Austria since that date. The Declaration on Atrocities was signed by the U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. They went on to state that Germans would be sent back to the countries where they had committed their crimes, as for those Germans whose criminal offenses had no particular geographical localization, they would be punished by joint decision of the governments of the Allies. The Statement on Atrocities was largely drafted by Winston Churchill, and led to the setting up of the European Advisory Commission which drafted the London Charter
21.
Karl Ehmann
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Karl Ehmann was an Austrian stage and film actor whose career spanned both the silent and sound eras of the film industry. Born on August 13,1882 in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, he interested in acting as a young man, studying in a private master class with the famous Austrian stage actor. He made his debut at the age of 20 in the municipal theater of Olomouc. Over the next five years he would appear in productions in Meran, South Tyrol, Linz, Upper Austria, in 1908 he would begin a 30-year association with the Deutsche Volkstheater in Vienna. While he concentrated mostly on the theater during his career, he did appear in a small role in the Austrian film. In 1917, he would begin performing in films, and during the late 1910s through the mid-20s, he had a successful run of starring. He also directed two films, Junggesellenwirtschaft and Faustrecht, as well as penning the scripts for Junggesellenwirtschaft. In the mid-20s Ehmann would take a hiatus from the film industry, in the early 1930s he would return to making films, although with the advent of sound, the size of his roles diminished, and he played mostly small, or featured supporting parts. Over his 50-year film career, he appeared in over 100 films, mostly in Austria, towards the end of his career, Ehmann would also appear in several television films for German and Austrian TV. Ehmann died on November 1,1967, at the age of 85 and he is buried in the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna. Karl Ehmann at the Internet Movie Database
22.
Hans Moser (actor)
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Hans Moser was an Austrian actor who, during his long career, from the 1920s up to his death, mainly played in comedy films. He was particularly associated with the genre of the Wiener Film, Moser appeared in over 150 films. Born Johann Julier in Vienna, Moser very often portrayed the man in the street, typically someone elses subordinate – servant, waiter, porter, shopkeeper, coachman, petty bureaucrat, etc. Also always he played honest, moral and well-intentioned people who, unable to cool and think clearly in crucial situations, get themselves. In Mosers comedy films, Paul Hörbiger, Theo Lingen, Oskar Sima, however Moser was also a serious actor, especially on the stage and, towards the end of his life, on television. In many musical films, Moser can also be heard interpreting a Wienerlied, during the Nazi regime, Moser had severe problems because of his wife Blanca Hirschler, who was Jewish, but he refused to divorce her. It was only because of his popularity that the regime allowed him to continue to appear in films. His wife eventually fled to Hungary to avoid further trouble, after the war the couple reunited. Hans Moser died in Vienna in 1964, aged 83 and his continuing popularity is attested to by the fact that his style of speaking is still being parodied, often by very young entertainers
23.
Hans Richter (actor)
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Hans Richter was a German film actor. He appeared in more than 130 films between 1931 and 1984, mostly in supporting roles and he was born in Brandenburg, Germany and died in Heppenheim, Germany. Hans Richter made his debut as Fliegender Hirsch in Gerhard Lamprechts Emil. In the following years, Richter become a popular actor, often playing clever. When he reached legal age, he had appeared in over 50 films, after his supporting role as a lazy schoolboy in Die Feuerzangenbowle, Richter got drafted into the German Wehrmacht and was also in war imprisonment for some time. After the World War, Richter worked as a cabaret artist and also appeared in numerous of the popular Heimatfilms, among them The Black Forest Girl and The Heath Is Green. He also worked as a director on two films during the 1950s, Vatertag and Hurrah – Die Firma hat ein Kind, both released in 1955. Since the late 1950s, Richter moved more and more to work, making only sparsely film. He appeared at the Deutsches Schauspielhaus and the Opern- und Schauspielhaus Frankfurt, in 1974, he founded the Festspiele Heppenheim, a summer theatre, in which he worked as an actor/director/producer until his retirement in the 1990s. Hans Richter was married with his wife Ingeborg Bieber for 63 years until his death and he was awarded with the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1983. John Holmstrom, The Moving Picture Boy, An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995, Norwich, Michael Russell,1996, hans Richter at the Internet Movie Database
