1.
Computer network
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A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, networked computing devices exchange data with other using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media, the best-known computer network is the Internet. Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes, nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other device, Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the networks size, topology and organizational intent. In most cases, application-specific communications protocols are layered over other more general communications protocols and this formidable collection of information technology requires skilled network management to keep it all running reliably. The chronology of significant computer-network developments includes, In the late 1950s, in 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment went online with two connected mainframes. Licklider developed a group he called the Intergalactic Computer Network. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth College developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer to route. Throughout the 1960s, Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran, and Donald Davies independently developed network systems that used packets to transfer information between computers over a network, in 1965, Thomas Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network. This was an precursor to the ARPANET, of which Roberts became program manager. Also in 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented true computer control, in 1972, commercial services using X.25 were deployed, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper Ethernet, Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks, in 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a network first used to share storage devices. In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s, by 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of a Gigabit. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 100 Gbit/s were added, the ability of Ethernet to scale easily is a contributing factor to its continued use. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks, a network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network
2.
Ethernet frame
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A data packet on an Ethernet link is called an Ethernet packet, which transports an Ethernet frame as its payload. An Ethernet frame is preceded by a preamble and start frame delimiter, each Ethernet frame starts with an Ethernet header, which contains destination and source MAC addresses as its first two fields. The middle section of the frame is payload data including any headers for other protocols carried in the frame, the frame ends with a frame check sequence, which is a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check used to detect any in-transit corruption of data. A data packet on the wire and the frame as its payload consist of binary data, Ethernet transmits data with the most-significant octet first, within each octet, however, the least-significant bit is transmitted first. The internal structure of an Ethernet frame is specified in IEEE802.3, the table below shows the complete Ethernet packet and the frame inside, as transmitted, for the payload size up to the MTU of 1500 octets. Some implementations of Gigabit Ethernet and other higher-speed variants of Ethernet support larger frames, the optional 802. 1Q tag consumes additional space in the frame. Field sizes for this option are indicated parenthetically in the table above, IEEE802. 1ad allows for multiple tags in each frame. This option is not illustrated here, an Ethernet packet starts with a seven-octet preamble and one-octet start frame delimiter. The preamble consists of a 56-bit pattern of alternating 1 and 0 bits, allowing devices on the network to easily synchronize their receiver clocks and it is followed by the SFD to provide byte-level synchronization and to mark a new incoming frame. The SFD is the value that marks the end of the preamble, which is the first field of an Ethernet packet. The SFD is designed to break the bit pattern of the preamble, the SFD is immediately followed by the destination MAC address, which is the first field in an Ethernet frame. SFD has the value of 171, which is transmitted with least-significant bit first as 213, physical layer transceiver circuitry is required to connect the Ethernet MAC to the physical medium. The connection between a PHY and MAC is independent of the medium and uses a bus from the media independent interface family. Fast Ethernet transceiver chips utilize the MII bus, which is a wide bus, therefore the preamble is represented as 14 instances of 0x5. Gigabit Ethernet transceiver chips use the GMII bus, which is a wide interface. The header features destination and source MAC addresses, the EtherType field and, optionally, the EtherType field is two octets long and it can be used for two different purposes. When used as EtherType, the length of the frame is determined by the location of the interpacket gap, the IEEE802. 1Q tag, if present, is a four-octet field that indicates virtual LAN membership and IEEE802. 1p priority. The minimum payload is 42 octets when an 802. 1Q tag is present and 46 octets when absent, the maximum payload is 1500 octets
3.
Optical fiber
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
4.
Twinaxial cabling
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Twinaxial cabling, or Twinax, is a type of cable similar to coaxial cable, but with two inner conductors instead of one. Due to cost efficiency it is becoming common in modern very-short-range high-speed differential signaling applications, the data transmission is half-duplex, balanced transmission, at 1 Mbit/s, on a single shielded,110 Ω twisted pair. With Twinax seven devices can be addressed, from workstation address 0 to 6, the devices do not have to be sequential. Twinax is a bus topology that requires termination to function properly, most Twinax T-connectors have an automatic termination feature. For use in buildings wired with Category 3 or higher twisted pair there are baluns that convert Twinax to twisted pair and its main advantages were high speed and multiple addressable devices per connection. The main disadvantage was the requirement for proprietary Twinax cabling with bulky screw-shell connectors, signals are sent differentially over the wires at 1 Mbit/s, Manchester coded, with preemphasis. The signal coding is only approximately differential and not completely differentially balanced, however, to provide preemphasis, for the first 250 ns after a signal is driven low, the negative signal line is driven to −1.6 V. During this time, the voltage is −0.8 V. This signal is designed to provide a minimum of ±100 mV at the end of 152 m of cable, the two wires are denoted A and B. To encode a 0 bit, A>B for the first half of the bit time, thus, each signal line is driven low for either 500 or 1000 ns at a time, of which the first 250 ns is emphasized. A message begins with five normal 1 bits for bit synchronization, followed by a frame sync pattern. A is driven low for 1500 ns, then B is driven low for 1500 ns and this is like a 1 bit sent at 1/3 normal speed. This pattern is followed by up to 256 16-bit data frames, each data frame consists of a start bit of 1, an 8-bit data field, a 3-bit station address, and an even parity bit. This is then followed by three or more bits of 0. Unusually for an IBM protocol, the bits within each frame are sent lsbit-first, all messages are sent between the controller and one slave device. The first frame in a message from the controller contains the devices address, the address field of following frames can be any value from 0 to 6, although is usually set to the devices address as well. The final frame in a message includes an address of 7 as an end-of-message indicator, a single-frame message does not have an EOM indicator. When a command calls for a response, the device is expected to respond in 30 to 80 μs, a devices response also consists of up to 256 frames, and includes its address in all frames but the last
5.
Moore's law
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Moores law is the observation that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. In 1975, looking forward to the decade, he revised the forecast to doubling every two years. The period is often quoted as 18 months because of Intel executive David House, Moores prediction proved accurate for several decades, and has been used in the semiconductor industry to guide long-term planning and to set targets for research and development. Advancements in digital electronics are strongly linked to Moores law, quality-adjusted microprocessor prices, memory capacity, sensors and even the number, digital electronics has contributed to world economic growth in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Moores law describes a force of technological and social change, productivity. Moores law is an observation or projection and not a physical or natural law, although the rate held steady from 1975 until around 2012, the rate was faster during the first decade. In general, it is not logically sound to extrapolate from the growth rate into the indefinite future. Intel stated in 2015 that the pace of advancement has slowed, starting at the 22 nm feature width around 2012, Brian Krzanich, CEO of Intel, announced that our cadence today is closer to two and a half years than two. This is scheduled to hold through the 10 nm width in late 2017 and he cited Moores 1975 revision as a precedent for the current deceleration, which results from technical challenges and is a natural part of the history of Moores law. However, in April 2016, Intel CEO Brian Krzanich stated that In my 34 years in the semiconductor industry, I have witnessed the advertised death of Moore’s Law no less than four times. As we progress from 14 nanometer technology to 10 nanometer and plan for 7 nanometer and 5 nanometer and even beyond, our plans are proof that Moore’s Law is alive and well. In January 2017, he declared that Ive heard the death of Moores law more times than anything else in my career, and Im here today to really show you and tell you that Moores Law is alive and well and flourishing. Today hardware has to be designed in a manner to keep up with Moores law. In turn, this means that software has to be written in a multi-threaded manner to take full advantage of the hardware. In 1959, Douglas Engelbart discussed the projected downscaling of integrated circuit size in the article Microelectronics, Engelbart presented his ideas at the 1960 International Solid-State Circuits Conference, where Moore was present in the audience. For the thirty-fifth anniversary issue of Electronics magazine, which was published on April 19,1965 and his response was a brief article entitled, Cramming more components onto integrated circuits. Within his editorial, he speculated that by 1975 it would be possible to contain as many as 65,000 components on a single quarter-inch semiconductor, the complexity for minimum component costs has increased at a rate of roughly a factor of two per year. Certainly over the term this rate can be expected to continue
6.
Mellanox Technologies
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Mellanox Technologies is an Israeli supplier of end-to-end InfiniBand and Ethernet interconnect solutions and services for servers and storage. Mellanox Technologies provides InfiniBand and Ethernet switches for servers and storage used in data centers. The company is listed on NASDAQ under the symbol MLNX, in 2016, Mellanox Technologies began to employ programmers in the Gaza Strip in addition to its team of Israeli Arab programmers and programmers in Ramallah and Nablus. Initially founded as a integrated circuit manufacturer, it evolved into a producer of complete end-to-end systems by 2009, the company raised over $89 million in 3 financing rounds of venture capital. Strategic investors included Dell, IBM, JNI, Quanta Computer, Vitesse Semiconductor, the company went public in 2007, with an initial public offering on NASDAQ that raised $102 million, and valued the company at over half a billion dollars. Since 2010, Oracle Corporation has been an investor in the company. Oracle stated it has no plans to acquire Mellanox, but uses its InfiniBand technology in its Exadata, in February 2016, Mellanox acquired publicly held EZchip, a leading provider of Networking Processor Units and advanced multi-core processors. The addition of network and multi-core processor technology enables Mellanox to provide end to end intelligent interconnect solutions, in July 2013, Mellanox acquired privately held Kotura, Inc. a leading innovator and developer of advanced silicon photonics optical interconnect technology for high-speed networking applications. Silicon photonics is expected to play a significant role in high-speed networks, Kotura technology enables Mellanoxs interconnect products to scale to bandwidths of 100Gbit/s and beyond, and have longer reach optical connectivity at a lower cost. Mellanox believes that the Kotura acquisition enhances its ability to provide technologies for high speed, scalable, in July 2013, Mellanox acquired privately held IPtronics A/S, a leader in optical interconnect component design for digital communications. Mellanox 100Gbit/s silicon photonics interconnect solutions will incorporate the high-speed opto-electronic technology from Kotura, in February 2011, Mellanox acquired Voltaire Ltd. a leading provider of scale-out data center fabrics. Mellanoxs acquisition of Voltaire addresses this need by strengthening Mellanoxs market leadership position as the provider of end-to-end connectivity systems. Mellanox is a semiconductor company. The current generation of its chips are produced by Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corp, in 2010, a press release from Oracle described Mellanox as the premier switched fabric provider for enterprise data centers and high performance computing. According to the press release, Mellanoxs InfiniBand technology is faster, more scalable. Larry Ellison, CEO of Oracle, described Mellanox’s main technology, InfiniBand, switchX is a multi-protocol ASIC that handles both InfinBand and Ethernet traffic. It builds on the older 90 nanometer architecture of ConnectX technology, switchX is the fifth generation, using a 40 nanometer process with 1.4 billion transistors on a 45mm by 45mm chip. ConnectX-4 and ConnectX-5 adapters have enhanced capabilities, the ConnectX architecture has been described as novel, with excellent performance that is very well suited for modern multi-core platforms
7.
Sumitomo Electric Industries
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Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd. is a manufacturer of electric wire and optical fiber cables. Its headquarters are in Chūō-ku, Osaka, Japan, the companys shares are listed in the first section of the Tokyo, Nagoya Stock Exchanges, and the Fukuoka Stock Exchange. In the period ending March 2013, the company reported consolidated sales of US$23 billion, the company was founded in 1897 to produce copper wire for electrical uses. It has more than 350 subsidiaries and over 200,000 employees in more than 30 countries, Sumitomo Electric has traditionally had an intensive focus on R&D to develop new products. Sumitomo Electrics electrical wiring harness systems, which are used to send information and energy to automobiles, Sumitomo Electric also continues to be the leading manufacturer of composite semiconductors, which are widely used in semiconductor lasers, LEDs, and mobile telecommunications devices. The company is one of the top three manufacturers in the world of optical fiber, started operation 2001 - J-Power Systems Corporation started operational 2002 - Sumitomo Electric Networks, Inc. Sumitomo Steel Wire Corp. and Sumitomo Electric Wintec, Inc, started operation 2003 - Sumiden Hitachi Cable Ltd. and Sumitomo Electric Hardmetal Corp. started operation 2004 - A. L. M. T. The automotive segment accounts for 50% of Sumitomo Electrics annual sales, the automotive wiring harness business commenced in 1949 with supplies to the Occupation Forces for their jeeps. In 1961, for the first time, the company supplied wiring harnesses for four-wheel-drive vehicles, as a result, Sumitomo Electrics electrical wiring harness systems, which are used to send information and energy to automobiles, have garnered the second largest market share in the world. The division also provides products for supporting the Information and Communication Technology society such as traffic control systems. In 1986, Sumitomo Electric developed Z-fiber, pure silica core fiber with the worlds lowest transmission loss and this has supported the construction of optical communication networks, such as its wide use in many submarine cables. Sumitomo Electrics optical fibers ranks among the best in optical transmission networks, the Sumitomo Electric Groups electronics division supplies various products to manufacturers of smartphones, flat-screen televisions, and other highly advanced electronic goods. Sumitomo Electric also continues to be the manufacturer of composite semiconductors, which are widely used in semiconductor lasers, LEDs. This division provides electric wire and cable products that underpin stable energy supply, hard metal products, such as cutting tools, are essential for high-speed, high-performance, and high-precision mechanical processing. This division also makes sintered parts that are used as components in automobiles and home electric appliances. Starting in 2013, Sumitomo Electric will expand into two divisions, “Life Sciences” and “Resources” by making full use of the Groups wide-ranging technological capabilities
8.
100 Gigabit Ethernet
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40 Gigabit Ethernet and 100 Gigabit Ethernet are groups of computer networking technologies for transmitting Ethernet frames at rates of 40 and 100 gigabits per second, respectively. The technology was first defined by the IEEE802. 3ba-2010 standard and later by the 802. 3bg-2011,802. 3bj-2014, the standards define numerous port types with different optical and electrical interfaces and different numbers of optical fiber strands per port. Short distances over twinaxial cable are supported, 40GBASE-T uses twisted pair cabling for 40 Gbit/s over up to 30 m. On July 18,2006, a call for interest for a High Speed Study Group to investigate new standards for high speed Ethernet was held at the IEEE802.3 plenary meeting in San Diego. The first 802.3 HSSG study group meeting was held in September 2006, in June 2007, a trade group called Road to 100G was formed after the NXTcomm trade show in Chicago. The project is to provide for the interconnection of equipment satisfying the requirements of the intended applications. The 802. 3ba task force met for the first time in January 2008 and this standard was approved at the June 2010 IEEE Standards Board meeting under the name IEEE Std 802. 3ba-2010. On June 17,2010, the IEEE802. 3ba standard was approved In March 2011 the IEEE802. 3bg standard was approved, on September 10,2011, the P802. 3bj 100 Gbit/s Backplane and Copper Cable task force was approved. The scope of project is to specify additions to and appropriate modifications of IEEE Std 802. On May 10,2013, the P802. 3bm 40 Gbit/s and 100 Gbit/s Fiber Optic Task Force was approved and this project is to specify additions to and appropriate modifications of IEEE Std 802. In addition, to add 40 Gb/s Physical Layer specifications and management parameters for operation on extended reach single-mode fiber optic cables, also on May 10,2013, the P802. 3bq 40GBASE-T Task Force was approved. On June 12,2014, the IEEE802. 3bj standard was approved, on February 16,2015, the IEEE802. 3bm standard was approved. On May 12,2016, the IEEE P802. 3cd Task Force started working to define next generation two-lane 100 Gbit/s PHY, the IEEE802.3 working group is concerned with the maintenance and extension of the Ethernet data communications standard. Additions to the 802.3 standard are performed by forces which are designated by one or two letters. For example, the 802. 3z task force drafted the original Gigabit Ethernet standard,802. 3ba is the designation given to the higher speed Ethernet task force which completed its work to modify the 802.3 standard to support speeds higher than 10 Gbit/s in 2010. The speeds chosen by 802. 3ba were 40 and 100 Gbit/s to support both end-point and link aggregation needs and this was the first time two different Ethernet speeds were specified in a single standard. The decision to include both speeds came from pressure to support the 40 Gbit/s rate for local applications and the 100 Gbit/s rate for internet backbones. The standard was announced in July 2007 and was ratified on June 17,2010, the 40/100 Gigabit Ethernet standards encompass a number of different Ethernet physical layer specifications
9.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
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This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of capacity. This is purely convention because wavelength and frequency communicate the same information, a WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the several signals together, and a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously, and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer, the optical filtering devices used have conventionally been etalons. As there are three different WDM types, whereof one is called WDM, we would use the notation xWDM when discussing the technology as such. The concept was first published in 1978, and by 1980 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory, the first WDM systems combined only two signals. Modern systems can handle 160 signals and can expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to over 16 Tbit/s. A system of 320 channels in also present WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more fiber. By using WDM and optical amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. Capacity of a link can be expanded simply by upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end. This is often done by use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical translation at the edge of the transport network. Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables, which have a diameter of 9 µm. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables which have diameters of 50 or 62.5 µm. Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run, however, recent standardization and better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM less expensive to deploy. Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices, therefore, the demultiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system. WDM systems are divided into three different wavelength patterns, normal, coarse and dense, normal WDM uses the two normal wavelengths 1310 and 1550 on one fiber. Coarse WDM provides up to 16 channels across multiple transmission windows of silica fibers, dense wavelength division multiplexing uses the C-Band transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical DWDM system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing, some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing. New amplification options enable the extension of the wavelengths to the L-band
10.
Coarse WDM
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This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of capacity. This is purely convention because wavelength and frequency communicate the same information, a WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the several signals together, and a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously, and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer, the optical filtering devices used have conventionally been etalons. As there are three different WDM types, whereof one is called WDM, we would use the notation xWDM when discussing the technology as such. The concept was first published in 1978, and by 1980 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory, the first WDM systems combined only two signals. Modern systems can handle 160 signals and can expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to over 16 Tbit/s. A system of 320 channels in also present WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more fiber. By using WDM and optical amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. Capacity of a link can be expanded simply by upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end. This is often done by use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical translation at the edge of the transport network. Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables, which have a diameter of 9 µm. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables which have diameters of 50 or 62.5 µm. Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run, however, recent standardization and better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM less expensive to deploy. Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices, therefore, the demultiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system. WDM systems are divided into three different wavelength patterns, normal, coarse and dense, normal WDM uses the two normal wavelengths 1310 and 1550 on one fiber. Coarse WDM provides up to 16 channels across multiple transmission windows of silica fibers, dense wavelength division multiplexing uses the C-Band transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical DWDM system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing, some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing. New amplification options enable the extension of the wavelengths to the L-band
11.
Ixia (company)
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Ixia is a public company operating in around 25 countries. Ixia is headquartered in Calabasas, California and has approximately 1750 employees, ixias key customers include manufacturers of network equipment such as Cisco and Alcatel-Lucent, service providers such as Verizon, NTT and Deutsche Telekom, and enterprises and government agencies. Ixia was founded by Errol Ginsberg and Joel Weissberger in 1997, atul Bhatnagar succeeded Ginsberg as President and CEO in 2007. On March 19,2012 Ixia announced Victor Alston as president and chief executive, on October 2013, Ixia announced Victor Alstons resignation as chief executive, and he was replaced by Ginsberg as acting CEO. On August 21,2014, the board named Bethany Mayer president, Mayer was also named to the board of directors. Historically an IP/Ethernet testing house, the acquisition of Catapult Communications in June 2009 established Ixia as a player in the wireless market, Ixia made a second acquisition in 2009, buying Agilent Technologies N2X Data Networks Product Line for $44 million. Ixia further expanded its capabilities by acquiring Wi-Fi testing company VeriWave. On 4 June 2012 Ixia announced the completion of the acquisition of Anue Systems, Inc. a developer of network visibility/tap aggregation products founded by Kevin Przybocki, Hemi Thaker, and Chip Webb. On August 24,2012, the company announced another acquisition, BreakingPoint Systems, Ixia continued its acquisitions by announcing the purchase of Net Optics on October 29,2013. On January 30,2017, Keysight Technologies Inc. agreed to buy Ixia for about $1.6 billion in all-cash, official site TMCnet Testing Wireless Networks Resource Center
12.
JDSU
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It was headquartered in Milpitas, California. It was formerly known as JDS Uniphase, prior to a rebranding of its image on September 14,2005. The legal entity was called JDS Uniphase Corporation, but more commonly called JDSU, on August 2015, JDSU split into two different companies, Viavi Solutions and Lumentum Holdings. Uniphase was started in 1979 in a San Jose, California garage, in 1981, JDS Optics was founded in Canada by Jozef Straus, Philip Garel-Jones, Gary Duck, and Bill Sinclair. The JDS is short for Jones, Duck and Straus/Sinclair, the company became JDS Fitel when it formed a partnership with Fitel, a fiber optic and optical connector company. In 1999, JDSU was formed by the merger between JDS Fitel and Uniphase, and became known as JDS Uniphase subsequent to the merger, in 2003, CEO Straus retired and the company moved its headquarters to San Jose, California, to consolidate its business. In August 3,2005, the company acquired test and measurement equipment company Acterna for $760 million, Acterna had been formed by the May 2000 merger of network test solutions developer Wavetek Wandel Goltermann and hand-held test equipment developer TTC. In 2006, the company moved its headquarters to Milpitas, California, in December 2013, the company announced it was acquiring fellow network performance management company Network Instruments, for $200 million. On August 1,2015 JDSU split into Viavi Solutions and Lumentum Holdings Inc, during the 1990s, JDS Uniphase stock was a high-flyer tech stock investor favorite. After the telecom downturn, JDS Uniphase announced in late July 2001 the largest write-down of goodwill, on September 23,2005, JDSU announced a reverse stock split one-to-eight. Unlike most similar lawsuits, which are dismissed or settled before trial, JDSU was acquitted of all charges in November,2007. JDS Uniphase Scores a Win in Securities Case, Law. com, USA Today article about best and worst stocks of the George W. Bush presidency
13.
Spirent
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Spirent Communications plc is a multinational telecommunications testing company headquartered in Crawley, West Sussex, in the United Kingdom. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange, the company was founded by Jack Bowthorpe in 1936 as Goodliffe Electric Supplies. In 1949 it changed its name to Bowthorpe and it acquired Optima Electronics in 1987 and disposed of its defence businesses in 1990. In 2000 it also bought Hekimian, a major Operations Support Systems business, Zarak Systems, another communications software business and Net-Hopper, in 2000 it changed its name to Spirent. The name is derived from the words inspired innovation, in July 2014, Spirent acquired Radvisions Technology Business Unit from Avaya. Radvision a company based in Tel Aviv, Israel, offers development and test suites for voice, Spirent Communications PLC is a communications and network testing company
14.
EXFO
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EXFO is a company that designs and manufactures test instruments and service assurance products for fixed and mobile telecom networks. EXFO is headquartered in Quebec City, Canada, and has over 1200 employees worldwide, EXFO was founded in 1985 in Quebec City by Germain Lamonde and Robert Tremblay. Its original products were portable testing products for optical networks, in 1996, EXFO started designing products for optical component and optical system research and development and manufacturing. The company has since added 3G, LTE, protocol, copper/xDSL, IMS, and VoIP test and service assurance products, mainly through acquisitions
15.
Technical University of Denmark
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The Technical University of Denmark, often simply referred to as DTU, is a university in Kongens Lyngby, just north of Copenhagen, Denmark. It was founded in 1829 at the initiative of Hans Christian Ørsted as Denmarks first polytechnic, DTU, along with École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Eindhoven University of Technology and Technical University of Munich, is a member of EuroTech Universities Alliance. DTU was founded in 1829 as the College of Advanced Technology with the physicist Hans Christian Ørsted, then a professor at the University of Copenhagen, the inspiration was the École Polytechnique in Paris, France which Ørsted had visited as a young scientist. The new institution was inaugurated on 5 November 1829 with Ørsted as its principal, the new colleges first home was two buildings in Studiestræde and St- Pederstræde in central Copenhagen. Although expanded several times, they remained inadequate and in 1890 a new building complex was inaugurated in Sølvgade in 1890, the new buildings were designed by the architect Johan Daniel Herholdt. In the 1920s space had once again become insufficient and in 1929 the foundation stone was laid for a new school at Østervold, completion of the building was delayed by World War II and it was not completed until 1954. From 1933 the institution was known as Danmarks tekniske Højskole. The formal name, Den Polytekniske Læreanstalt, Danmarks Tekniske Universitet, in 1960 a decision was made to move the College of Advanced Technology to new and larger facilities in Lyngby north of Copenhagen. They were inaugurated on 17 May 1974, on 23 and 24 November 1967 the University Computing Center hosted the NATO Science Committees Study Group first meeting discussing the newly coined term Software Engineering. The President of DTU is appointed by the university board, the president in turn appoints deans, and deans appoint heads of departments. Since DTU has no faculty senate, and since the faculty is not involved in the appointment of president, deans, or department heads, the area was previously home to the airfield Lundtofte Flyveplads. DTU was the subject of controversy in 2009 because the former director of the Department of Chemistry was a high-ranking member of Scientology. In relation to this, the university was accused of violating the principles of free speech by threatening to fire employees who voice their criticism of the institute director. On 7 April 2010, his successor was announced, at a department meeting, as Erling Stenby, shortly thereafter, the university management threatened Rolf W. Berg with dismissal for publicly criticizing the university. In November 2007 the Times Higher Education Supplement put the university as number 130 in their ranking of the universities of the world, in the The Worlds Most Innovative Universities 2015 ranking by Thomson Reuters, DTU is ranked, No. A student union at DTU is the student association Nul-kryds formed in 1947. Barrett, former CEO of Intel Jørgen Lindegaard, former CEO of the SAS Group Henrik O
16.
Synchronous Ethernet
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Synchronous Ethernet, also referred as SyncE, is an ITU-T standard for computer networking that facilitates the transference of clock signals over the Ethernet physical layer. This signal can then be traceable to an external clock. The aim of Synchronous Ethernet is to provide a signal to those network resources that may eventually require such a type of signal. The Synchronous Ethernet signal transmitted over the Ethernet physical layer should be traceable to a clock, ideally a master. Applications include cellular networks, access technologies such as Ethernet passive optical network, unlike time-division multiplexing networks, the Ethernet family of computer networks do not carry clock synchronization information. Several means are defined to address this issue, iETF’s Network Time Protocol, IEEEs 1588-2008 Precision Time Protocol are some of them. SyncE was standardized by the ITU-T, in cooperation with IEEE, G.8261 that defines aspects about the architecture and the wander performance of SyncE networks ITU-T Rec. G.8262 that specifies Synchronous Ethernet clocks for SyncE ITU-T Rec, G. Extension of the synchronization network to consider Ethernet as a building block. This enables Synchronous Ethernet network equipment to be connected to the synchronization network as Synchronous Digital Hierarchy. Synchronization for SDH can be transported over Ethernet and vice versa, ITU-T G.8262 defines Synchronous Ethernet clocks compatible with SDH clocks. Synchronous Ethernet clocks, based on ITU-T G.813 clocks, are defined in terms of accuracy, noise transfer, holdover performance, noise tolerance and these clocks are referred as Ethernet Equipment Slave clocks. While the IEEE802.3 standard specifies Ethernet clocks to be within ±100 ppm, eECs accuracy must be within ±4.6 ppm. In addition, by timing the Ethernet clock, it is possible to achieve Primary Reference Clock traceability at the interfaces, G. 8262/Y.1362 is an ITU-T recommendation for Synchronous Ethernet that defines timing characteristics of synchronous Ethernet equipment slave clock. It was first published in August 2007, amended in 2008 and 2010, in SDH, the SSM message is carried in fixed locations within the SDH frame. However, in Ethernet there is no equivalent of a fixed frame, the mechanisms needed to transport the SSM over Synchronous Ethernet are defined by the ITU-T in G.8264 in cooperation with IEEE. More specifically, the ESMC, defined by the ITU-T is based on the Organization Specific Slow Protocol, the ITU-T G.8264 defines a background or heart-beat message to provide a continuous indication of the clock quality level. However, event type messages with a new SSM quality level are generated immediately, the ESMC protocol is composed of the standard Ethernet header for a slow protocol, an ITU-T specific header, a flag field and a type length value structure. The SSM encoded within the TLV is a field whose meaning is described in ITU-T G.781
17.
Arista Networks
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Arista Networks is a computer networking company headquartered in Santa Clara, California, USA. Aristas own Linux-based network operating system, EOS, runs on all Arista products, andy Bechtolsheim co-founded Sun Microsystems in 1982 and was its chief hardware designer. In 1995, David Cheriton co-founded Granite Systems with Bechtolsheim, a company that developed Gigabit Ethernet products, in 2001, Cheriton and Bechtolsheim founded another start up, Kealia, which was acquired by Sun in 2004. In 2004, the three went on to found Arastra. Bechtolsheim and Cheriton were able to fund the company themselves, in May 2008, Jayshree Ullal left Cisco after 15 years at the company, and was appointed CEO of Arista in October 2008. In June 2014, Arista Networks had its public offering on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol ANET. In December 2014, Cisco filed two lawsuits against Arista alleging extensive intellectual property infringement, the decision is being appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. EOS is Aristas network operating system, and comes as an image that runs across all Arista devices or in a virtual machine. EOS runs on an unmodified Linux kernel under a Fedora-based userland, all the state of the switch and its various protocols is centralized in another process, called Sysdb. Separating processing from the state gives EOS two important properties, the first is software fault containment, which means that if a software fault occurs, the damage is limited to a single agent. The second is stateful restarts, since the state is stored in Sysdb, since agents are independent processes, they can also be upgraded while the switch is running. The fact that EOS runs on Linux allows the usage of common Linux tools on the switch itself, EOS provides extensive APIs to communicate with and control all aspects of the switch. To showcase EOS extensibility, Arista developed a module dubbed CloudVision that extends the CLI to use XMPP as a message bus for managing and configuring switches. This was implemented simply by integrating an existing open-source XMPP Python library with the CLI, event Monitor tracks changes made to the MAC, ARP, and routing table in a local SQLite database for later querying using standard SQL queries. EAPI offers a versioned JSON-RPC interface to execute CLI commands and retrieve their output in structured JSON objects, each 100GbE ports can also operate as 3x40G or 12x10G ports, thus effectively providing 120Gb of line-rate capacity per port. 7300 series, Modular chassis with 4,8, or 16 line cards with 2. 56Tbit/s of capacity per line card, unlike the 7500 series, 10GBASE-T is available on 7300 series line cards. 7200 series, 2U low-latency high-density line-rate 40GbE switches, with 5. 12Tbit/s of forwarding capacity,7100 series, 1U ultra-low latency cut-through line-rate 10Gb switches. The 7124SX has a sub 500ns port-to-port latency, regardless of the frame size,7150 series, 1U ultra-low latency cut-through line-rate 10Gb switches
18.
Extreme Networks
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Extreme Networks is a networking company based in San Jose, California that was founded in 1996. Early investors included Norwest Venture Partners, AVI Capital Management, Trinity Ventures, gordon Stitt was a co-founder and served as chief executive officer until August 2006, when he retired and became chairman of the board of directors. In October 1996 Extreme Networks acquired Mammoth Technology, in September 1997 Extreme Networks aided in providing the first multi-vendor Gigabit Ethernet backbone at the Networld+Interop trade show. The companys first product was the Summit1 Gigabit Ethernet switch, a 6 Port Ethernet Layer 3 switching device featuring dual gigabit interface converter 1000BASE-SX interfaces and this product shipped in 1997 and won the Best of Show award at Networld+Interop. The Summit1 was also named the Best of the Best Grand Winner for the event, Extreme Networks won Best of Show awards at Networld+Interop five consecutive years,1997 through 2001 with its Summit PX1 application switch, a Layer 4-7 device. Extreme Networks introduced its first modular switching products, including the BlackDiamond 6800 and Alpine 3800 switches, the initial public offering in April 1999, was listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange as ticker EXTR. Extreme Networks acquired Optranet in February 2001 and Webstacks in March 2001, Extreme had been investors in both companies, which were purchased for about $73 million and $74 million respectively. Extreme Networks announced its first 10 Gigabit Ethernet product in 2002, Extreme Networks high capacity switch is the BlackDiamond X8, supporting 2.56 Terabits per line card, for data center and enterprise networks. Extreme also produces Summit and ExtremeSwitching branded switches, in April 2013, Charles W. Berger replaced Oscar Rodriguez as CEO. On September 12,2013, Extreme Networks announced they would acquire Enterasys Networks for about $180 million cash, on April 19,2015, Charles W. Berger resigned as CEO, and was replaced by Board Chairman Ed Meyercord. They also renamed their product lines to reflect the company branding across the portfolio. 2016 saw Extreme enter a new market with the introduction of ExtremeCloud, on October 31,2016, Extreme Networks announced that it completed the acquisition of Zebra Technologies Wireless LAN business for about $55 million. On March 7,2017, Extreme Networks announced that it was acquiring Avayas networking business, on March 29,2017, Extreme Networks announced that is was acquiring Brocade Networks IP switching business from Broadcom. Ethernet Automatic Protection Switching ExtremeXOS Extreme Networks - Official website
19.
Dell
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Dell Inc. is a multinational computer technology company based in Round Rock, Texas, United States, that develops, sells, repairs, and supports computers and related products and services. The company is a subsidiary of Dell Technologies, which was formed by the 2016 merger of Dell Inc. eponymously named after its founder, Michael Dell, the company is one of the largest technological corporations in the world, employing more than 103,300 people worldwide. Dell sells personal computers, servers, data storage devices, network switches, software, computer peripherals, HDTVs, cameras, printers, MP3 players, and electronics built by other manufacturers. Dell was a pure hardware vendor for much of its existence, Dell was listed at number 51 in the Fortune 500 list, until 2014. After going private in 2013, the confidential nature of its financial information prevents the company from being ranked by Fortune. In 2015, it was the third largest PC vendor in the world after Lenovo, Dell is currently the #1 shipper of PC monitors in the world. Dell is the sixth largest company in Texas by total revenue and it is the second largest non-oil company in Texas – behind AT&T – and the largest company in the Greater Austin area. It was a traded company, as well as a component of the NASDAQ-100 and S&P500. On September 7,2016, Dell Inc. acquired EMC Corporation to form Dell Technologies, Michael Dell founded PCs Limited while a student of the University of Texas at Austin. The dorm-room headquartered company sold IBM PC-compatible computers built from stock components, Dell dropped out of school to focus full-time on his fledgling business, after getting $1,000 in expansion-capital from his family. In 1985, the company produced the first computer of its own design, the Turbo PC, Dell appeared in PCs Limited advertisements in national magazines, asking readers to give us a chance to show you what can do. Selling directly to consumers custom-assembled computers according to a selection of options, in 1986, Michael Dell brought in Lee Walker, a 51-year-old venture capitalist, as president and chief operating officer, to serve as mentor and to implement Dells ideas for growing the company. Walker was also instrumental in recruiting members to the board of directors when the company went public in 1988, the company dropped the PC’s Limited name in 1987 to become Dell Computer Corporation and began expanding globally. In June 1988, Dells market capitalization grew by $30 million to $80 million from its June 22 initial public offering of 3.5 million shares at $8.50 a share. In 1992, Fortune magazine included Dell Computer Corporation in its list of the worlds 500 largest companies, making Michael Dell the youngest CEO of a Fortune 500 company ever. In 1993, to complement its own direct sales channel, Dell planned to sell PCs at big-box retail outlets such as Wal-Mart, bain consultant Kevin Rollins persuaded Michael Dell to pull out of these deals, believing they would be money losers in the long run. Margins at retail were thin at best and Dell left the channel in 1994. Rollins would soon join Dell full-time and eventually become the company President, Dell found an opportunity among PC-savvy individuals who liked the convenience of buying direct, customizing their PC to their means, and having it delivered in days
20.
Force10
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Dell Force10, was a United States company that developed and marketed 10 Gigabit and 40 Gigabit Ethernet switches for computer networking to corporate, educational, and governmental customers. It had offices in North America, Europe, and the Asia Pacific region, in August 2011, Dell completed the acquisition of Force10 and changed the name to Dell Force10. In mid 2013, the Force10 designation was dropped from the products in favor of the data center networking line of the Dell Networking brand, the company was founded by PK Dubey, Naresh Nigam and Som Sikdar. In January 2009, Force10 was acquired by Turin Networks, which had previously purchased Carrier Access Corporation, Carrier Access Corporation itself had previously purchased Mangrove Systems and White Rock Networks had previously purchased Seranoa Networks. On July 20,2011 Dell announced it intended to fully acquire Force10 for an undisclosed amount, with the acquisition, Dell offered products for the data center where Dell focuses on the Ethernet switches. Dell Force10 continued to offer their non-Ethernet backhaul and metro-access platforms as well, telmar Network Technology, Inc. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Jabil Circuit, Inc. of St. Petersburg, FL. iQor of St. The chassis range from 6 to 20 slots with up to 95 Gbps per shelfwww. iqormarketplace. com, Master series, C series, Datacenter/core chassis based switches,2 models, C150 and C300 for 1 and 10 Gbit/s E series, Virtualized core chassis based switches. Force10 Networks hoped to expand from LAN switching to midsize data centers, Force10 products included the E-Series family of switch/routers, the C300 switch, the S-Series family of access switches and the P-Series security appliances. In 2007 Force10 announced it had a patent relevant for 100 Gigabit Ethernet switching, Force10 Networks uses NetBSD as the underlying operating system that powers FTOS. In 2013 the name FTOS will be replaced by DNOS as the operating system name for all Dell Networking portfolio. Force10 made a donation to the NetBSD Foundation in 2007 to help further research, from January 19,2012, through mid-2013, Force10 products were available as Dell products and newly ordered products were sold with the Dell logo and colors. The S series Ethernet switches offered 1 Gbit/s or 10 Gbit/s ports in 1U or 2U form factor, the S-series start at the S25 series with 24 1Gbit/s ports with Power over ethernet, S25N copper ports or S25V fibre/SFP ports. Apart from that the offer several uplink options The S50 series is very similar to the S25 except that the S50 offers 48 ports. The top of range switches are the S4810 or S4820 with 48 x 10Gbit/s SFP+ or 10GBASE-T and 4 QSFP+ 40Gbit/s uplink ports, the S4800 series are marketed as distribution switches for both datacenter as campus networks for large networks or core switches for smaller networks. The S4800 series switches can be stacked using either 10Gbit/s or 40Gbit/s ports using fiber links or copper/twinax based direct attached ports, the pass-through latency ranges from 800 nano seconds for the S4810 to 3,3 micro seconds for the copper based S4820. The S4810, S4820 and the MXL or M-I/O swithces use the Broadcom Trident+ ASIC and this is the same ASIC as used in the Dell PowerConnect 8100 series but running the FTOS operating system, while the PowerConnect 8100 series runs a Broadcom built firmware. In June 2013 the S5000 series switches were announced and this switch was the first switch to display the new brand name Dell Networking and the new name for FTOS, Dell Networking Operating System or DNOS. Dell Force10 also offers a FTOS based blade switch, Force10 MXL 10/40 Gbit/s switch for their M1000e blade enclosure, all 10 Gbit/s products, except for the E-series, used the Broadcom Trident+ ASICs or other Broadcom-based Asics for the 1 Gbit/s models
21.
Dell M1000e
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The M1000e fits in a 19-inch rack and is 10 rack units high,17.6 wide and 75,4 cm deep. The empty blade enclosure weighs 44,5 kg while a fully loaded system can weigh up to 178.8 kg. On the front the servers are inserted while at the backside the power-supplies, fans and I/O modules are inserted together with the management modules, a blade enclosure offers centralized management for the servers and I/O systems of the blade-system. Most servers used in the offer an iDRAC card and one can connect to each servers iDRAC via the M1000e management system. It is also possible to connect a virtual KVM switch to have access to the main-console of each installed server, in June 2013 Dell introduced the PowerEdge VRTX, which is a smaller blade system that shares modules with the M1000e. The blade servers, although following the naming strategy e. g. M520, M620 are not interchangeable between the VRTX and the M1000e. The blades differ in firmware and mezzanine connectors, the server-blades are inserted in the front side of the enclosure while all other components can be reached via the back. The original midplane 1.0 capabilities are Fabric A - Ethernet 1Gb, Fabrics B&C - Ethernet 1Gb, 10Gb, 40Gb - Fibre Channel 4Gb, 8Gb - IfiniBand DDR, QDR, FDR10. The enhanced midplane 1.1 capabilities are Fabric A - Ethernet 1Gb, 10Gb, Fabrics B&C - Ethernet 1Gb, 10Gb, 40Gb - Fibre Channel 4Gb, 8Gb, 16Gb - IfiniBand DDR, QDR, FDR10, FDR. The original M1000e enclosures came with midplane version 1.0, to have 10Gb Ethernet on fabric A or 16Gb Fibre Channel or InfiniBand FDR on fabrics B&C, you will need midplane 1.1. Current versions of the enclosure come with midplane 1.1, the slots are numbered 1-16 where 1-8 are the upper blades and 9-16 are directly beneath 1-8. Next to this is a power-button with power-indication, next to this is a small LCD screen with navigation buttons which allows you to get system-information without the need to access the CMC/management system of the enclosure. Basic status and configuration information is available via this display, to operate the display you can pull it towards you and tilt it for optimal view and access to the navigation button. For quick status checks, an indicator light sits alongside the LCD display and is visible, with a blue LED indicating normal operation. This LCD display can also be used for the configuration wizard in a newly delivered system. All other parts and modules are placed at the rear of the M1000e, the rear-side is divided in 3 sections, top, here you insert the 3 management-modules, one or two CMC modules and an optional iKVM module. At the bottom of the enclosure there are 6 bays for power-supply units. A standard M1000e operates with three PSUs The area in between offers 3 x 3 bays for cooling-fans and up to 6 I/O modules, three modules to the left of the fans and three to the right
22.
Chelsio Communications
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Chelsio Communications is a privately held technology company headquartered in Sunnyvale, California with a design center in Bangalore, India. A third round of funding raised $25 million in late 2004, LSI Corporation was added as investor in 2006 in the series D round. By January 2008, a financing round was announced as series E. In 2009, an additional $17M was raised from previous investors plus Mobile Internet Capital, Chelsio was an early vendor of 10 Gigabit Ethernet technology, announcing a product in 2004, an alliance with Foundry Networks, and measurements in 2005. Chelsio products were used to build the Coates supercomputer at Purdue University in 2009, in August 2009 Chelsio announced the Unified Storage Software product to provide storage area network and network-attached storage functions. The company holds several patents, dating from one for reduced overhead direct memory access initially filed in 2002, a fourth generation was announced in 2011. Its products such as network interface cards are sold by distributors. The Chelsio Unified Storage Router product is marketed by Dell. Chelsio is involved with the OpenFabrics Alliance
23.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
24.
Link aggregation
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Other umbrella terms used to describe the method include port trunking, link bundling, Ethernet/network/NIC bonding, or NIC teaming. Network architects can implement aggregation at any of the lowest three layers of the OSI model, examples of aggregation at layer 1 include power line and wireless network devices that combine multiple frequency bands. OSI layer 2 aggregation typically occurs across switch ports, which can be either physical ports, Aggregation at layer 3 in the OSI model can use round-robin scheduling, hash values computed from fields in the packet header, or a combination of these two methods. Regardless of the layer on which aggregation occurs, it balances the load across all links. Most methods provide failover as well, combining can either occur such that multiple interfaces share one logical address or one physical address, or it allows each interface to have its own address. The former requires that both ends of a link use the same method, but has performance advantages over the latter. Link aggregation addresses two problems with Ethernet connections, bandwidth limitations and lack of resilience, with regard to the first issue, bandwidth requirements do not scale linearly. Ethernet bandwidths historically have increased tenfold each generation,10 megabit/s,100 Mbit/s,1000 Mbit/s,10,000 Mbit/s, if one started to bump into bandwidth ceilings, then the only option was to move to the next generation which could be cost prohibitive. An alternative solution, introduced by many of the manufacturers in the early 1990s, is to combine two physical Ethernet links into one logical link via channel bonding. Most of these solutions required manual configuration and identical equipment on both sides of the aggregation, the second problem involves the three single points of failure in a typical port-cable-port connection. In either the usual computer-to-switch or in a configuration, the cable itself or either of the ports the cable is plugged into can fail. Multiple physical connections can be made, but many of the higher level protocols were not designed to fail over completely seamlessly, by the mid 1990s, most network switch manufacturers had included aggregation capability as a proprietary extension to increase bandwidth between their switches. But each manufacturer developed its own method, which led to compatibility problems, the IEEE802.3 group took up a study group to create an inter-operable link layer standard in a November 1997 meeting. The group quickly agreed to include an automatic configuration feature which would add in redundancy as well and this became known as Link Aggregation Control Protocol. As of 2000, most gigabit channel-bonding schemes use the IEEE standard of Link Aggregation which was formerly clause 43 of the IEEE802.3 standard added in March 2000 by the IEEE802. 3ad task force. Nearly every network equipment manufacturer quickly adopted this joint standard over their proprietary standards, david Law noted in 2006 that certain 802.1 layers were positioned in the protocol stack below Link Aggregation which was defined as an 802.3 sublayer. This discrepancy was resolved with formal transfer of the protocol to the 802.1 group with the publication of IEEE802. 1AX-2008 on 3 November 2008. Within the IEEE specification, the Link Aggregation Control Protocol provides a method to control the bundling of physical ports together to form a single logical channel
25.
Alcatel-Lucent
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Alcatel-Lucent S. A. was a French global telecommunications equipment company, headquartered in Boulogne-Billancourt, France. As of January 2016, the company is part of Nokia, the company focused on fixed, mobile and converged networking hardware, IP technologies, software and services, with operations in more than 130 countries. Alcatel-Lucents chief executive officer was Michel Combes and the chairman of the board was Philippe Camus. Camus joined the company in the quarter of 2008, alongside Ben Verwaayen as CEO, after Alcatel-Lucents first CEO Patricia Russo. For 2010, the company had revenues of €16 billion and a net loss of €334 million. For 2011, revenues were €15 billion, net loss of €1.1 billion, for 2012, revenues were €14.4 billion and net loss of €1.4 billion. On October 1,2014, it announced that it had closed the sale of its subsidiary Alcatel-Lucent Enterprise to China Huaxin Post & Telecommunication Economy Development Center, Alcatel-Lucent was formed when Alcatel merged with Lucent Technologies on December 1,2006. However, the predecessors of the company have been a part of industry since the late 19th century. The company has roots in two early telecommunications companies, La Compagnie Générale dElectricité and the Western Electric Manufacturing Company, Western Electric began in 1869 when Elisha Gray and Enos N. Barton started a manufacturing firm based in Cleveland, Ohio. By 1880, the company had relocated to Chicago, Illinois, CGE would become a leader in digital communications and would also be known for producing the TGV high-speed trains in France. Bell Telephone Laboratories was created in 1925 from the consolidation of the R&D organizations of Western Electric, Bell Labs researchers have won 7 Nobel Prizes. Also in 1925, Western Electric sold its International Western Electric Company subsidiary to ITT Corporation, CGE purchased the telecommunications part of ITT in the mid-1980s. AT&T re-entered the European telecommunications market in 1984 following the Bell System divestiture, Philips promoted the venture in part because its PRX public switching technology was ageing and it sought a partner to help fund the development costs of digital switching. In 1987, AT&T increased its holding to 60% and in 1990 it purchased the remainder of the Philips holding, in 1998, Alcatel Alsthom shifted its focus to the telecommunications industry, spinning off its Alsthom activities and changing the companys name to Alcatel. AT&T spun off Lucent Technologies in April 1996 with a public offering. In April 2004, TCL Corporation and Alcatel announced the creation of a mobile phone manufacturing joint venture, facing intense competition in the telecommunications industry, Alcatel and Lucent Technologies merged on November 30,2006. On April 5,2006, Alcatel announced that it would swap its shares of Alcatel Alenia Space and Telespazio for €673 million and a 12. 1% stake in Thales and this increased Alcatels stake in Thales to 20. 8%
26.
Brocade Communications Systems
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Brocade Communications Systems, Inc. is an American technology company specializing in data and storage networking products. Originally known for its Fibre Channel storage networks, the company expanded include a range of products marketed as third platform technologies. On November 2,2016, Singapore-based chip maker Broadcom announced they were buying Brocade for about $5.5 billion, Brocade was founded in August 1995, by Seth Neiman, Kumar Malavalli and Paul R. Bonderson. Neiman became the first CEO of the company, Brocade was incorporated on May 14,1998, in Delaware. The companys first product, SilkWorm, which was a Fibre Channel switch, was released in early 1997, on May 25,1999, the company went public at a split-adjusted price of $4.75. On initial public offering, the company offered 3,250,000 shares, the top three underwriters for Brocades IPO were, in order, Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, BT Alex. Brown, and Dain Rauscher Wessels. Brocade stock traded in the National Market System of the NASDAQ GS stock market under the ticker symbol BRCD, a second generation of switches was announced in 1999. On January 14,2013, Brocade named Lloyd Carney as new chief executive, on November 2,2016, Singapore-based chip maker Broadcom announced they were buying Brocade for $5.5 billion. As part of the announcement, Broadcom said they would sell Brocades networking business to avoid competing with its top customers such as Cisco Systems. Other hardware solutions from Brocade support common protocols including iSCSI, FCIP, GigE, FICON, FCoE, DCB/CEE, Brocades first Fibre Channel switch SilkWorm 1000 was based on the Stitch ASIC and their own VxWorks-based firmware. Bruce Bergman was the CEO during most of this period, Product names were generally puns on various kinds of woven fabric, since a switched Fibre Channel network is also called a fabric. In 1998, Gregory Reyes joined the company as CEO, in 2001, Brocade released the SilkWorm 6400, which was designated a director similarly to IBM ESCON directors already well-established in the mainframe computer market. The term director became universally used for more expensive FC switches, from 2001 to 2003, Brocade released switches based on its third generation ASIC, BLOOM. BLOOM introduced increased throughput of 2 Gbit/s instead of 1 Gbit/s, Brocade integrated BLOOM into its first pure director, the SilkWorm 12000, in April 2002. The director offered up to 128 ports in two 64-port pseudo-switches, the Bloom ASIC also introduced a notable capability of frame-level Fibre Channel trunking, which provided high throughput with load balancing across multiple cables. It needed to be implemented in the ASIC hardware to ensure delivery of frames. Also hot firmware upgrade was introduced with FOS v4.1 in October 2003, at the time, Brocades main rival, McDATA, held over 90% market share in director segment, owing to a strong position first in the ESCON market, and then in the FICON market. The SilkWorm 12000 director gained over one-third of the market share after its release in 2002, Brocade added mainframe customers with FICON and FICON CUP support on the SilkWorm 12000
27.
Amsterdam Internet Exchange
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The Amsterdam Internet Exchange is an Internet exchange point based in Amsterdam, in the Netherlands. Established in the early 1990s, AMS-IX is a non-profit, neutral, with over 800 connected networks and a peak traffic exceeding 5 Tbit/s, AMS-IX is one of the largest Internet Exchanges in the world. In February 1994, a layer 2 shared infrastructure, used between academic institutes, was connected with CERN to exchange traffic, other internet service providers were allowed to connect and the name AMS-IX was first used. In 1997, the AMS-IX Association was founded by twenty of the internet service providers and carriers. In 2002, the Neutral Internet Exchange was founded as an alternative or backup for the Amsterdam Internet Exchange, as of 5 January 2011, AMS-IX connected 396 members on 684 ports. The all-time peak of incoming traffic was 1.513 Tbit/s and of outgoing traffic 1.512 Tbit/s compared to 0.833 Tbit/s average incoming and outgoing, in November 2016, AMS-IX broke through the 5 Tbit/s ceiling. The total amount of data transferred by month was 75,940 TB in November 2008, by April 2009, it had grown to 124,550 TB, 64% more traffic in a 5-month period. In September 2013, the board voted to create a framework to facilitate an expansion into the United States. SURFnet, a member of the exchange, had expressed its objection to the proposal, under the program, reseller could arrange one physical connection toward AMS-IX platform, and multiplexes virtual-link of other parties that connect to AMS-IX peering VLAN. The AMS-IX platform is continually evolving due to its growth in traffic. Up until end of 2009, it is using a redundant hub-spoke architecture using a core switch, the active switching topology star is determined by means of the VSRP protocol. This topology is AMS-IX version 3, however, since 2009, AMS-IX platform has migrated from a pure Layer2 network to a VPLS/MPLS network in order to cope with future growth. AMS-IX members connect to the platform with 1,10,100 Gbit/s Ethernet connections, or using multiple gigabit or 10 gigabit aggregated ports, gigabit Ethernet and lower speed ports are directly connected to Brocade - Foundry Networks BigIron 15000 or RX-8 network switches. For each 10-gigabit port there is an active and a stub switch, for which BigIron RX-8. The core consists of two Brocade NetIron MLX-32 switches, to which all edge switches are connected using 10 gigabit aggregated connections, with the new VPLS/MPLS setup, the BigIron RX and legacy BigIron 15000 are no longer in-use. AMS-IX has migrated all the hardware to the MPLS-capable MLX platform, stub switch is either MLX-8, MLX-16 or MLX-32. Since May 2011, AMS-IX engineers have started testing 100GE along with LimeLight Network, Amsterdam Internet Exchange is window number 50 in the Canon of Amsterdam. List of Internet exchange points Netherlands Internet Exchange Official website Traffic statistics Member list
28.
Cisco Systems
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Through its numerous acquired subsidiaries, such as OpenDNS, WebEx, and Jasper, Cisco specializes into specific tech markets, such as Internet of Things, domain security, and energy management. Cisco is the largest networking company in the world, the stock was added to the Dow Jones Industrial Average on June 8,2009, and is also included in the S&P500 Index, the Russell 1000 Index, NASDAQ-100 Index and the Russell 1000 Growth Stock Index. By the time the company went public in 1990, when it was listed on the NASDAQ, Cisco was the most valuable company in the world by 2000, with a more than $500 billion market capitalization. Despite founding Cisco in 1984, Bosack, along with Kirk Lougheed, continued to work at Stanford on Ciscos first product and it consisted of exact replicas of Stanfords Blue Box router and a stolen copy of the Universitys multiple-protocol router software. The software was written some years earlier at Stanford medical school by research engineer William Yeager. Bosack and Lougheed adapted it into what became the foundation for Cisco IOS, in 1987, Stanford licensed the router software and two computer boards to Cisco. In addition to Bosack, Lerner and Lougheed, Greg Satz, a programmer, and Richard Troiano, the companys first CEO was Bill Graves, who held the position from 1987 to 1988. In 1988, John Morgridge was appointed CEO, the name Cisco was derived from the city name San Francisco, which is why the companys engineers insisted on using the lower case cisco in its early years. The logo is intended to depict the two towers of the Golden Gate Bridge, on February 16,1990, Cisco Systems went public and was listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange. On August 28,1990, Lerner was fired, upon hearing the news, her husband Bosack resigned in protest. The couple walked away from Cisco with $170 million, 70% of which was committed to their own charity, although Cisco was not the first company to develop and sell dedicated network nodes, it was one of the first to sell commercially successful routers supporting multiple network protocols. Classical, CPU-based architecture of early Cisco devices coupled with flexibility of operating system IOS allowed for keeping up with evolving technology needs by means of frequent software upgrades, some popular models of that time managed to stay in production for almost a decade virtually unchanged—a rarity in high-tech industry. This philosophy dominated the companys product lines throughout the 1990s, in 1995, John Morgridge was succeeded by John Chambers. The phenomenal growth of the Internet in mid-to-late 1990s quickly changed the telecom landspe, as the Internet Protocol became widely adopted, the importance of multi-protocol routing declined. In late March 2000, at the height of the bubble, Cisco became the most valuable company in the world. In July 2014, with a cap of about US$129 billion. One of them, Juniper Networks, shipped their first product in 1999, Cisco answered the challenge with homegrown ASICs and fast processing cards for GSR routers and Catalyst 6500 switches. In 2004, Cisco also started migration to new high-end hardware CRS-1, as part of a massive rebranding campaign in 2006, Cisco Systems adopted the shortened name Cisco and created The Human Network advertising campaign
29.
Comcast
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Comcast Corporation is an American global telecommunications conglomerate that is the largest broadcasting and cable television company in the world by revenue. Comcast services U. S. residential and commercial customers in 40 states, the companys headquarters are located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The first Universal theme park outside of the U. S, Universal Studios Japan, opened in 2001, followed by Universal Studios Singapore in 2011. Few new locations are being planned or developed for future operation, Comcast also has significant holdings in digital distribution. In February 2014 the company agreed to merge with Time Warner Cable in an equity swap deal worth $45.2 billion, under the terms of the agreement Comcast was to acquire 100% of Time Warner Cable. However, on April 24,2015, Comcast terminated the agreement, Comcast has been criticized for multiple reasons, the companys customer satisfaction often ranks among the lowest in the cable industry. Critics also point out a lack of competition in the vast majority of Comcasts service area, furthermore, given Comcasts negotiating power as a large ISP, some suspect that Comcast could leverage paid peering agreements to unfairly influence end-user connection speeds. And its ownership of content production and content distribution has raised antitrust concerns. These issues, in addition to others, led to Comcast being dubbed The Worst Company in America by The Consumerist in 2010 and 2014. Despite being publicly-traded, Comcast is a business, with the Ralph J Roberts family owning 33% controlling stake. Comcast is sometimes described as a family business, Brian L. Roberts, Chairman, President, and CEO of Comcast, is the son of co-founder Ralph Roberts. Roberts owns or controls just over 1% of all Comcast shares but all of the Class B supervoting shares, legal expert Susan P. Crawford has said this gives him effective control over every step. In 2010, he was one of the highest paid executives in the United States, Comcast is headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and also has corporate offices in Atlanta, Detroit, Denver, and Manchester, New Hampshire. On January 3,2005, Comcast announced that it would become the tenant in the new Comcast Center in downtown Philadelphia. The 975 ft skyscraper is the tallest building in Pennsylvania, Comcast has begun construction on a second 1,121 ft skyscraper directly adjacent to the original Comcast headquarters in the summer of 2014. The company is criticized by both the media and its own staff for its less upstanding policies regarding employee relations. A2012 Reddit post written by an anonymous Comcast call center employee eager to share their experiences with the public received attention from publications including The Huffington Post. A2014 investigative series published by The Verge involved interviews with 150 of Comcasts employees and it sought to examine why the company has become so widely criticized by its customers, the media and even members of its own staff
30.
AT&T
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AT&T Inc. is an American multinational telecommunications conglomerate, headquartered at Whitacre Tower in downtown Dallas, Texas. AT&T is the third-largest company in Texas, as of February 2017, AT&T is the 12th largest company in the world as measured by a composite of revenues, profits, assets and market valuation. AT&T is the largest telecommunications company in the world by revenue, as of 2017, it is also the 18th-largest mobile telecom operator in the world, with 135 million mobile customers. AT&T was ranked at #4 on the 2017 rankings of the worlds most valuable brands published by Brand Finance, Southwestern Bell changed its name to SBC Communications Inc. in 1995. In 2005, SBC purchased former parent AT&T Corp. and took on its branding, with the merged entity naming itself AT&T Inc. and using the iconic AT&T Corp. logo and stock-trading symbol. The current AT&T reconstitutes much of the former Bell System and includes ten of the original 22 Bell Operating Companies, AT&T can trace its origin back to the original Bell Telephone Company founded by Alexander Graham Bell after his invention of the telephone. This monopoly was known as the Bell System, and during this period, for periods of time, the former AT&T was the worlds largest phone company. In 1982, U. S. regulators broke up the AT&T monopoly, requiring AT&T to divest its regional subsidiaries and these new companies were known as Regional Bell Operating Companies, or more informally, Baby Bells. AT&T continued to long distance services, but as a result of this breakup, faced competition from new competitors such as MCI. Southwestern Bell was one of the created by the breakup of AT&T. The architect of divestiture for Southwestern Bell was Robert G. Pope, the company soon started a series of acquisitions. This includes the 1987 acquisition of Metromedia mobile business, and the acquisition of several companies in the early 1990s. In the later half of the 1990s, the company acquired several other companies, including some Baby Bells. During this time, the changed its name to SBC Communications. By 1998, the company was in the top 15 of the Fortune 500, in 2005, SBC purchased AT&T for $16 billion. After this purchase, SBC adopted the better-known AT&T name and brand, the current AT&T claims the original AT&Ts history as its own, though its corporate structure only dates from 1983. It also retains SBCs pre-2005 stock price history, in September 2013, AT&T announced it would expand into Latin America through a collaboration with Carlos Slims América Móvil. In December 2013, AT&T announced plans to sell its Connecticut wireline operations to Stamford-based Frontier Communications, in July 2015, AT&T purchased DirecTV for $48.5 billion, or $67.1 billion including assumed debt
31.
Huawei
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Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd. is a Chinese multinational networking and telecommunications equipment and services company headquartered in Shenzhen, Guangdong. It is the largest telecommunications equipment manufacturer in the world, having overtaken Ericsson in 2012, Huawei was founded in 1987 by Ren Zhengfei, a former engineer in the Peoples Liberation Army. Huawei has over 170,000 employees as of September 2015, around 76,000 of whom are engaged in research and development.4 billion USD in R&D, in 2014, Huawei recorded a profit of 34.2 billion CNY. Its products and services have been deployed in more than 140 countries, Huawei is the official translation of the firms Chinese name. The etymology of the character 华 is derived from 花 which means flower and this is hinted at in Huaweis logo. The character can also mean splendid or magnificent, but nowadays mostly refers to China or Chinese and it is common for Chinese companies to use this word, another example being the Taiwanese company Asus that was founded back in 1989. The second character of Huaweis name, 为, means action or achievement and it is pronounced Wah-Way according to a Gizmodo video that claims to provide the official pronunciation, as well as many other internet sources. However, Wah-Way is incorrect, and is a perpetuation of a mistaken combination of the Cantonese and Mandarin pronunciations for the first and second characters. The Cantonese pronunciation is Wah-Waii, while the Mandarin pronunciation is Hwa-Way, although the company is based in the Cantonese-speaking area of Guangdong, the use of Huawei as the spelling for its name reflects the Mandarin pronunciation the two characters. During the 1980s, Chinas government tried to modernize the countrys underdeveloped telecommunications infrastructure, Ren Zhengfei, a former deputy director of the Peoples Liberation Army engineering corp, founded Huawei in 1987 in Shenzhen. At a time all of Chinas telecommunications technology was imported from abroad. The company reports that it had RMB21,000 in registered capital at the time of its founding, the Far Eastern Economic Review also reported that it received an $8.5 million loan from a state-owned bank, though the company has denied the existence of the loan. During its first several years the business model consisted mainly of reselling private branch exchange switches imported from Hong Kong. Meanwhile, it was reverse-engineering imported switches and investing heavily in research, by 1990 the company had approximately 600 R&D staff, and began its own independent commercialization of PBX switches targeting hotels and small enterprises. The companys first major breakthrough came in 1993, when it launched its C&C08 program controlled telephone switch and it was by far the most powerful switch available in China at the time. By initially deploying in small cities and rural areas and placing emphasis on service and customizability, ahrens writes that these methods were unorthodox, bordering on corrupt, but not illegal. Jiang reportedly agreed with this assessment, Huawei was promoted by both the government and the military as a national champion, and established new research and development offices. In 1997, Huawei won its first overseas contract, providing fixed-line network products to Hong Kong company Hutchison Whampoa, later that year, Huawei launched its wireless GSM-based products and eventually expanded to offer CDMA and UMTS
32.
Juniper Networks
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Juniper Networks is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Sunnyvale, California that develops and markets networking products. Its products include routers, switches, network management software, network security products, the company was founded in 1996 by Pradeep Sindhu. It received several rounds of funding from venture capitalists and telecommunications companies before going public in 1999, Juniper grew to $673 million in annual revenues by 2000. By 2001 it had a 37% share of the core routers market and it grew to $4 billion in revenues by 2004 and $4.63 billion in 2014. Juniper appointed Kevin Johnson as CEO in 2008, Shaygan Kheradpir in 2013, Juniper Networks originally focused on core routers, which are used by internet service providers to perform IP address lookups and direct internet traffic. Through the acquisition of Unisphere in 2002, the company entered the market for edge routers, Juniper Networks entered the IT security market with its own JProtect security toolkit in 2003 before acquiring security company NetScreen Technologies the following year. It entered the segment in the early 2000s, which accounted for one-third of revenues by 2005. As of 2014, Juniper has been focused on developing new software-defined networking products, however, in 2016, the company encountered some controversy under suspicion allegedly putting backdoors into its ScreenOS products. Pradeep Sindhu, a scientist with Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center, conceived the idea for Juniper Networks while on vacation in 1995, at the time most routers used for Internet traffic were intended for phone calls and had dedicated circuits for each caller. Sindhu wanted to create packet-based routers that were optimized for Internet traffic and he was joined by engineers Bjorn Liencres from Sun Microsystems and Dennis Ferguson from MCI Communications. Sindhu started Juniper Networks with $2 million in seed funding, which was followed by $12 million in funding in the companys first year of operations. About seven months after the founding, Scott Kriens was appointed CEO to manage the business. By February 1997, Juniper had raised $8 million in venture funding, Juniper also received $2.5 million from Qwest and other investments from AT&T. Juniper Networks had $3.8 million in annual revenue in 1998. By the following year, its product, the M40 router, was being used by 50 telecommunications companies. Juniper Networks signed agreements with Alcatel and Ericsson to distribute the M40 internationally, a European headquarters was established in the United Kingdom and an Asia-Pacific headquarters in Hong Kong. A subsidiary was created in Japan and offices were established in Korea in 1999, Juniper Networkss market share for core routers grew from 6% in 1998 to 17. 5% one year later, and 20% by April 2000. Juniper Networks filed for a public offering in April 1999. The stock set a record in first-day trading in the sector by increasing 191% to a market capitalization of $4.9 billion
33.
JANET
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Janet is a high-speed network for the UK research and education community provided by Jisc, a not-for-profit company set up to provide computing support for education. JANET was previously a private, UK government-funded organisation, which provided the Janet computer network and related services to UK research. The network also carries traffic between schools within the UK, although many of the schools maintain their own general Internet connectivity. The name was originally a contraction of Joint Academic NETwork but it is now known as Janet in its own right, the network is linked to other European and worldwide NRENs through GEANT and peers extensively with other ISPs at Internet Exchange Points in the UK. Any other networks are reached via transit services from commercial ISPs using Janets Peering Policy, the Janet network is operated by Jisc Services Limited, part of Jisc. Janet is also responsible for the. ac. uk and. gov. uk domains, on 1 December 2012, Janet and Jisc Collections joined together to form Jisc Collections and Janet Limited, as subsidiary organisations to Jisc. In March 2015, Jisc Collections and Janet Limited was renamed to Jisc Services Limited, Jisc Services continues to operate under the brand name of Janet, with the same remit. Janet was previously known as the JNT Association, and prior to that, Janet developed out of a number of local and research networks dating back to the 1970s. By 1980, a number of computer facilities, each with their own star network had developed. These networks were based on one manufacturers standards, were mutually incompatible. In the early 1980s a standardisation and interconnect effort started, hosted on an expansion of the SERCnet X.25 research network, the system first went live in April 1983, hosting about 50 sites with line speeds of 9.6 kbit/s.25 network in the world. The Janet effort resulted in the known as the Coloured Book protocols. The naming scheme used on Janet had similarities to the Internets Domain Name System, there had been some talk of moving Janet to OSI protocols in the 1990s, but changes in the networking world meant this never happened. In January 1991 the JANET IP Service was set up as a project to host IP traffic on the existing network. Within ten months the IP traffic had exceeded the levels of X.25 traffic, today Janet is primarily a high-speed IP network. In order to address speed concerns, several upgrades have been incorporated into the Janet system. In 1989 SuperJanet was proposed, to re-host JANET on a fibre optic network, work started in late 1992, and by late 1993 the first 14 sites had migrated to the new 34 Mbit/s ATM system. SuperJanet also moved solely to IP, in 1995 SuperJanet2 started, adding 155 Mbit/s ATM backbones and a 10 Mbit/s SMDS network encompassing some of the original JANET nodes
34.
Gigabit Ethernet
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In computer networking, Gigabit Ethernet is a term describing various technologies for transmitting Ethernet frames at a rate of a gigabit per second, as defined by the IEEE802. 3-2008 standard. It came into use beginning in 1999, gradually supplanting Fast Ethernet in wired local networks, the cables and equipment are very similar to previous standards and have been very common and economical since 2010. Ethernet was the result of the research done at Xerox PARC in the early 1970s, Ethernet later evolved into a widely implemented physical and link layer protocol. Fast Ethernet increased speed from 10 to 100 megabits per second, Gigabit Ethernet was the next iteration, increasing the speed to 1000 Mbit/s. The initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet was produced by the IEEE in June 1998 as IEEE802. 3z,802. 3z is commonly referred to as 1000BASE-X, where -X refers to either -CX, -SX, -LX, or -ZX. For the history behind the X see Fast Ethernet, IEEE802. 3ab, ratified in 1999, defines Gigabit Ethernet transmission over unshielded twisted pair category 5, 5e or 6 cabling, and became known as 1000BASE-T. With the ratification of 802. 3ab, Gigabit Ethernet became a desktop technology as organizations could use their existing copper cabling infrastructure, IEEE802. 3ah, ratified in 2004 added two more gigabit fiber standards, 1000BASE-LX10 and 1000BASE-BX10. This was part of a group of protocols known as Ethernet in the First Mile. Initially, Gigabit Ethernet was deployed in high-capacity backbone network links, in 2000, Apples Power Mac G4 and PowerBook G4 were the first mass-produced personal computers featuring the 1000BASE-T connection. It quickly became a feature in many other computers. There are five physical layer standards for Gigabit Ethernet using optical fiber, twisted pair cable and these standards use 8b/10b encoding, which inflates the line rate by 25%, from 1000 Mbit/s to 1250 Mbit/s, to ensure a DC balanced signal. The symbols are sent using NRZ. Optical fiber transceivers are most often implemented as modules in SFP form or GBIC on older devices. IEEE802. 3ab, which defines the widely used 1000BASE-T interface type, uses a different encoding scheme in order to keep the rate as low as possible. IEEE802. 3ap defines Ethernet Operation over Electrical Backplanes at different speeds, Ethernet in the First Mile later added 1000BASE-LX10 and -BX10. 1000BASE-CX is a standard for Gigabit Ethernet connections with maximum distances of 25 meters using balanced shielded twisted pair. The short segment length is due to high signal transmission rate. 1000BASE-KX is part of the IEEE802. 3ap standard for Ethernet Operation over Electrical Backplanes and this standard defines one to four lanes of backplane links, one RX and one TX differential pair per lane, at link bandwidth ranging from 100Mbit to 10Gbit per second
35.
QSFP
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The Quad Small Form-factor Pluggable is a compact, hot-pluggable transceiver used for data communications applications. The form factor and electrical interface are specified by an agreement under the auspices of the Small Form Factor Committee. It interfaces networking hardware to a fiber cable or active or passive electrical copper connection. It is an industry format jointly developed and supported by many network component vendors, the format specification is evolving to enable higher data rates, as of May 2013, highest possible rate is 4x28 Gbit/s. QSFP modules are available in several different categories, The original QSFP document specified four channels carrying Gigabit Ethernet, 4GFC. QSFP+ is an evolution of QSFP to support four 10 Gbit/sec channels carrying 10 Gigabit Ethernet, 10GFC FiberChannel, the 4 channels can also be combined into a single 40 Gigabit Ethernet link. The QSFP14 standard is designed to carry FDR InfiniBand and SAS-3, the QSFP28 standard is designed to carry 100 Gigabit Ethernet or EDR InfiniBand. This transceiver type is used with direct-attach breakout cables to adapt a single 100GbE port to four independent 25 gigabit ethernet ports. Sometimes this transceiver type is referred to as QSFP100 or 100G QSFP for sake of simplicity. QSFP has 38 pins with 4 high-speed TX pairs and 4 high-speed RX pairs, C Form-factor Pluggable CXP OSFP transceiver slightly larger 400GbE transceiver standard Small form-factor pluggable transceiver SFF Committee
36.
Ethernet physical layer
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The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable time span and encompasses quite a few physical media interfaces and several magnitudes of speed. The speed ranges from 1 Mbit/s to 100 Gbit/s, while the medium can range from bulky coaxial cable to twisted pair. In general, network protocol stack software will work similarly on all physical layers,10 Gigabit Ethernet was already used in both enterprise and carrier networks by 2007, with 40 Gbit/s and 100 Gigabit Ethernet ratified. Robert Metcalfe, one of the co-inventors of Ethernet, in 2008 said he believed commercial applications using Terabit Ethernet may occur by 2015, though it might require new Ethernet standards. Many Ethernet adapters and switch ports support multiple speeds, using autonegotiation to set the speed, while this can practically be taken for granted for ports supporting twisted-pair cabling, only few optical-fiber ports support multiple speeds. If auto-negotiation fails, some multiple-speed devices sense the speed used by their partner, a 10/100 Ethernet port supports 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX. A 10/100/1000 Ethernet port supports 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T, generally, layers are named by their specifications,10,100,1000, 10G. – the nominal, usable speed for the MAC layer, encoded PHY sublayers usually run higher bitrates BASE, BROAD, PASS – indicates baseband, broadband, or passband signaling -T, -S, -L, -C, -K. g. X for 8b/10b block encoding, R for large blocks 1,2,4,10 – number of lanes used per link or reach for WAN PHYs For 10 Mbit/s, most twisted pair layers use unique encoding, so most often just -T is used. The following sections provide a summary of official Ethernet media types. In addition to official standards, many vendors have implemented proprietary media types for various reasons—often to support longer distances over fiber optic cabling. Early Ethernet standards used Manchester coding so that the signal was self-clocking, all Fast Ethernet variants use a star topology. All Gigabit Ethernet variants use a star topology, initially, half-duplex mode was included in the standard but has been abandoned since. Very few devices support gigabit speed in half-duplex,2. 5GBASE-T and 5GBASE-T are scaled-down variants of 10GBASE-T. These physical layers support twisted pair copper cabling only,10 Gigabit Ethernet defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal data rate of 10 Gbit/s, ten times as fast as Gigabit Ethernet. In 2002, the first 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard was published as IEEE Std 802. 3ae-2002, subsequent standards encompass media types for single-mode fibre, multi-mode fibre, copper backplane and copper twisted pair. All 10-gigabit standards were consolidated into IEEE Std 802. 3-2008, as of 2009,10 Gigabit Ethernet is predominantly deployed in carrier networks, where 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER enjoy significant market shares. Single-lane 25-gigabit Ethernet is based on one 25.78125 GBd lane of the four from the 100 Gigabit Ethernet standard developed by task force P802. 3by, 25GBASE-T over twisted pair was approved alongside 40GBASE-T within IEEE802. 3bq
