1.
Air conditioning
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Air conditioning is the process of removing heat from a confined space, thus cooling the air, and removing humidity. Air conditioning can be used in domestic and commercial environments. Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the air to an occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort. The cooling is achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be based on desiccants and subterraneous pipes that can distribute the heated refrigerant to the ground for cooling. In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of air, in common usage, though, air conditioning refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation. Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling, the business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century. This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines, the basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window and this process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m in diameter. During the subsequent Song Dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used, in the 17th century, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated Turning Summer into Winter for James I of England by adding salt to water. The introduction of air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States. In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a professor at Cambridge University. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of volatile liquids could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C while the ambient temperature was 18 °C
2.
Jane Austen
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Jane Austen was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austens plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of social standing. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. With the publications of Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park and Emma and she wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began another, eventually titled Sanditon, but died before its completion. Her novels have rarely been out of print, although they were published anonymously, a significant transition in her posthumous reputation occurred in 1869, fifty-two years after her death, when her nephews publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience. Austen has inspired a number of critical essays and literary anthologies. Her novels have inspired many films, from 1940s Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions, Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austens use of biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary have earned her great and historical importance to critics and scholars. The Bank of England has confirmed that the face of the new plastic £10 note will be Austen, the notes are expected to be released in summer 2017. There is little information about Jane Austens life except the few letters that survive. During her lifetime Austen wrote approximately 3,000 letters but only about 160 survive, many of the letters were written to Austens older sister Cassandra, who in 1843 burned the greater part of them and cut pieces out of those she kept. Cassandra believed that in the interest of tact and Janes penchant for forthrightness, the paucity of record of Austens life leaves modern biographers little to work with. The situation was compounded as successive generations of the family expunged and sanitized the already opaque details of Austens biography, Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on 16 December 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected, her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother certainly expected to have brought to bed a month ago. He added that her arrival was particularly welcome as a companion to her sister. The winter of 1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the church with the single name Jane. For much of Janes life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, and he came from an old, respected, and wealthy family of wool merchants. Over the centuries as each generation of eldest sons received inheritances their wealth was consolidated and he and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. His sister Philadelphia went to India to find a husband and George entered St Johns College, Oxford on a fellowship and she came from the prominent Leigh family, her father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry
3.
Stereotype
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In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
4.
Ponytail
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It gets its name from its resemblance to the undocked tail of a horse or pony. Ponytails are most commonly gathered at the middle of the back of the head, depending on fashions, they may also be worn at the side of the head which is worn over one ear, or on the very top of the head. If the hair is divided so that it hangs in two sections they are called ponytails or pigtails, if left loose, and pigtails, plaits or braids if plaited, unbraided ponytails worn above each ear are sometimes called dog-ears. It is common for those who wear tight ponytails to experience traction alopecia, sometimes it can cause a headache. Women complying with European fashion of the Georgian period and to the 20th century rarely were seen outside of the boudoir with their hair in such a style as a ponytail. Today, both women and girls wear their hair in ponytails in informal and office settings or when exercising. It is a choice as it keeps hair out of the eyes. It will keep the hair off the neck as well, a ponytail can also be a fashion statement, sometimes meaning sporty, other times a low pony tail sends signals of a chic personality. In the late 18th century, men often tied their ponytails with a black ribbon, in the late 1980s, a short ponytail was seen as an impudent, edgy look for men who wanted to individualize, but keep their hair flat and functional. Steven Seagals ponytail in Marked for Death is an example of such, at that time, it was commonly known by the French word for tail, queue. It was a hairstyle for men in all European armies until the early 19th century. The British Army was the first to dispense with it, queue was also the word used to refer to the waist-length pigtail which the ruling Manchus made Han Chinese men wear during the Qing Dynasty in China. The first equation of state for hair was developed by C F van Wyk in 1946, scientists in the UK have formulated a mathematical model that predicts the shape of a ponytail given the length and random curvature of a sample of individual hairs. The Ponytail Shape Equation provides an understanding of how a ponytail is swelled by the pressure which arises from interactions between the component hairs. The researchers developed a general theory for a bundle of hairs. The equation itself is a fourth order non linear differential equation, the Rapunzel number is a ratio used in this equation to calculate the effects of gravity on hair relative to its length. This number determines whether a ponytail looks like a fan or whether it arcs over, a short ponytail of springy hair with a low Rapunzel number, fans outward. A long ponytail with a high Rapunzel number, hangs down and it is now also known why joggers ponytails swing side to side
5.
Goatee
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A goatee is a style of facial hair incorporating hair on a mans chin but not his cheeks. The exact nature of the style has varied according to time, until the late 20th century, the term goatee was used to refer solely to a beard formed by a tuft of hair on the chin—as on the chin of a goat, hence the term goatee. The style dates back to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, where the god Pan was traditionally depicted with one, the goatee became popular again in the late 19th century, becoming one of the characterizing physical traits of the bohemians in Paris. In the U. S. the style popular around the time of the American Civil War. Numerous wartime figures from the era wore variations on the goatee, including Abraham Lincoln, the goatee would not enjoy widespread popularity again until the 1940s, when it became a defining trait of the beatniks in post-World War II U. S. The style remained popular amongst the culture until the 1960s before falling out of favor again. In the 1990s, goatees with incorporated mustaches became fashionable for men across all classes and professions. Goatees have also used to signify a characters transformation from positive or neutral to evil. The use of goatees to designate evil characters has become enough of a trope that researchers from the University of Warwick conducted a study to assess the reasons for its prevalence. In media depicting members of counter-cultures, goatees have also used to differentiate between average characters and those belonging to some subgroup. Examples include Bob Denver in The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis, whose goatee serves to him as a beatnik, Shaggy Rogers in Scooby Doo. Darrell Abbott Buffalo Bill August Borms Thomas H. Carter Charles I of Great Britain Louis C. K, kurt Cobain Charles Dickens Benjamin Disraeli Guy Fawkes Rob Halford James Hetfield David Hilbert Henry M. David Brent Professor Calculus Flexo, Benders evil twin. Krebs Count von Count Beard Moustache Sideburns Soul patch Vandyke beard
6.
Manga
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Manga are comics created in Japan or by creators in the Japanese language, conforming to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century. They have a long and complex pre-history in earlier Japanese art, the term manga in Japan is a word used to refer to both comics and cartooning. Manga as a term used outside Japan refers to comics published in Japan. In Japan, people of all ages read manga, many manga are translated into other languages. Since the 1950s, manga has become a major part of the Japanese publishing industry, representing a ¥406 billion market in Japan in 2007. Manga have also gained a significant worldwide audience, in Europe and the Middle East the market was worth $250 million in 2012. In 2008, in the U. S. and Canada, the market was valued at $175 million, the markets in France. Manga stories are printed in black-and-white, although some full-color manga exist. In Japan, manga are usually serialized in manga magazines, often containing many stories. If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in tankōbon volumes, frequently but not exclusively, a manga artist typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company. If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or even during its run, sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films. Manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in parts of the world, particularly in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan. The word manga comes from the Japanese word 漫画, composed of the two kanji 漫 meaning whimsical or impromptu and 画 meaning pictures, rakuten Kitazawa first used the word manga in the modern sense. In Japanese, manga refers to all kinds of cartooning, comics, among English speakers, manga has the stricter meaning of Japanese comics, in parallel to the usage of anime in and outside Japan. The term ani-manga is used to describe comics produced from animation cels, writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. One view emphasizes events occurring during and after the U. S, occupation of Japan, and stresses U. S. cultural influences, including U. S. comics and images and themes from U. S. television, film, and cartoons. Regardless of its source, an explosion of artistic creativity certainly occurred in the period, involving manga artists such as Osamu Tezuka. Astro Boy quickly became popular in Japan and elsewhere
7.
Jonathan Tucker
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Jonathan Moss Tucker is an American film and television actor. He is known for his roles in the films The Virgin Suicides, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, Hostage, In the Valley of Elah and he has appeared in the television series The Black Donnellys and Parenthood. As of October 2014, he co-stars in the DirecTV drama series Kingdom created by Byron Balasco and his paternal great-grandfather was historian and ambassador Carlton J. H. Hayes. His aunt and uncle, Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim, founded the Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale University and his father is of Irish Catholic background and his mother is Jewish. Tucker was raised in Charlestown, Massachusetts, but attended The Park School in Brookline and he attended the Boston Ballet and played Fritz in their production of The Nutcracker for 5 years starting when he was in the third grade. He was featured in a Boston Ballet calendar and attended The Thacher School in Ojai, Tucker said of his ballet experience, Ballet is one of the more difficult rigors that Ive ever done. The Ballet instructors are some of the most intimidating people Ive met, Tucker first started off in film by appearing in the early 90s films Botte di Natale, Two If by Sea and Sleepers before being cast in the 1999 film The Virgin Suicides as Tim Weiner. He starred as Matthew in the 2000 comedy film 100 Girls, a year later, he co-starred in Sundance hit The Deep End with Tilda Swinton and Josh Lucas. In 2003, Tucker was cast in the much anticipated re-imagining of the 1974 horror film of the name, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre produced by Michael Bay. In 2004, he appeared in the films Stateside and Criminal, in the 2005 film Hostage, Tucker worked alongside Bruce Willis and Ben Foster. Tucker plays Dennis Cooper, one of the brothers that, along with their mysterious accomplice Mars, in 2008, he was cast in The Ruins, a thriller based on the best selling book by Scott Smith and directed by Sundance award-winner Carter Smith. Tucker said he practiced Transcendental Meditation to offset the loneliness while filming the movie in Australia and he portrayed emerging artist Patrick Angus in the 2009 film An Englishman in New York, opposite John Hurt as Quentin Crisp. The biographical drama chronicles Crisps later years spent in New York City and he played the role of Mayor Bob Little from 2011 to 2014. Tucker currently co-stars on the DirecTV drama series Kingdom, Tucker also appeared in the final five episodes of the TV series Justified on FX as the crazy-eyed Boon — a cross between Billy the Kid and Travis Bickle. Continuing his relationship with Bryan Fuller, Tucker next stars at Low-Key Lysmith in Starzs upcoming Neil Gamon adaption American Gods, Tucker co-wrote the song Champagne Problems on Nick Jonass 2016 album Last Year Was Complicated. Jonathan Tucker is married to Tara Tucker, daughter of Pulitzer Prize-winning economic historian Liaquat Ahamed and they were married on June 16,2012. Tucker is the founder of the Pegasus Fund, Jonathan Tucker at the Internet Movie Database Jonathan Tucker on Twitter
8.
Machismo
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Machismo is the sense of being manly and self-reliant, the concept associated with a strong sense of masculine pride, an exaggerated masculinity. It is associated with a responsibility to provide for, protect. In American political usage, William Safire said that it refers to the, condescension of the swaggering male, the trappings of manliness used to dominate women and keep them in their place. The word macho has a history in both Spain and Portugal as well as in Spanish and Portuguese languages. It was originally associated with the societal role men were expected to play in their communities, most particularly. Macho in Portuguese and Spanish is a masculine term, derived from the Latin mascŭlus meaning male. Machos in Iberian-descended cultures are expected to possess and display bravery, courage and strength as well as wisdom and leadership, during the womens liberation movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the term began to be used by Latin American feminists to describe male aggression and violence. The term was used by Latina feminists and scholars to criticize the patriarchal structure of gendered relations in Latino communities and their goal was to describe a particular Latin American brand of patriarchy. The English word machismo derives from the identical Spanish and Portuguese word, gender roles make an important part of human identity as we conduct our identities through our historical and current social actions. In the play A View from the Bridge by Arthur Miller and he wants to be the best of the men around him and when beaten, becomes very agitated and increasingly irrational. Caballerismo or caballerosidad in Spanish, or cavalheirismo in Portuguese, is a Latin American understanding of manliness that focuses more on honour, the literal meaning of caballero is horseman but more metaphoric meanings are knight and gentleman. Latin American scholars have noted that positive descriptors of machismo resemble the characteristics associated with the concept of caballerismo, studies show Latin American men understand masculinity to involve considerable childcare responsibilities, politeness, respect for womens autonomy, and non-violent attitudes and behaviors. In this way, machismo comes to both positive and negative understanding of Latin American male identity within the immigrant context. Therefore, machismo, like all social constructions of identity, should be understood as having multiple layers, the word caballerismo originates from the Spanish word for horseman, caballero. Caballerismo refers to a chivalric code of behavior. It was also associated with the class of knights in the feudal system, in Spanish, caballero referred to a land-owning colonial gentleman of high station who was master of estates and/or ranches. There is controversy surrounding the concept of Machismo as originally from Spanish, however, the word machismo does resemble words in Spanish and Portuguese language which is the cause why it is often associated with Spain and Portugal. For example, the use of caballerismo, Cavalheirismo, to only the positive characteristics of machismo contains colonial connotations regarding the historical colonial power relations
9.
Panties
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Panties in American English are a form of underwear worn by women. Panties are most often form-fitting, but may also be loose, typical components include an elastic waistband, a crotch panel to cover the genital area, and a pair of leg openings that, like the waistband, are often made of elastic. Various materials are used, but are chosen to be breathable. In Australia, mens underpants are often referred to as undies, the term is little used in the United States and Canada, where the term panties is usually favoured. In the UK, the pants is also used for both men and womens underwear. Panties are classified into various styles based on such as the amount of rear coverage, width at the sides. These categories are not necessarily distinct and usage may vary somewhat among brands, Briefs rise to the waist, or just below the navel, classic briefs feature sides that extend below the hip. Sometimes these are called granny panties by young women, high-cut briefs are designed with sides that are somewhat narrower. Control briefs are designed to offer support while giving a slimmer appearance and this type usually contains a stretch material such as spandex and may extend above the waist. Hipsters are worn lower down on the body, with the waistband around the hips, boyleg are styled after mens boxer briefs and have short legs extending below the crotch. Bikinis, like hipsters, sit at hip level, but the fabric of the sections is narrower. The crotch is extended to the back of the wearer and a strip of fabric fits between the buttocks, becoming wider towards the top. The G-string has a string at the back, which connects the crotch to the waistband. Panties are made of a variety of materials and fabrics, including satin, silk, PVC, cotton, nylon, mesh, lace, rawhide, leather, latex, lycra, and polyester. Construction typically consists of two pieces that are joined by seams at the crotch and sides, a gusset is often in the crotch, with the waistband. If wearing low shapewear, or a girdle, with attached garters, the earliest known use of underwear that resembles modern panties dates back to 4,400 B. C. during the Badari period in Egypt. Statuettes found in Badari tombs show the modern panty as it is known today, most modern cultures have created their own style of underwear, but modern panties closely resemble those that adorn Badarian statuettes. Bloomers Camiknickers French knickers Going commando Pantalettes Underwear fetishism Media related to Womens knickers at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Katherine Heigl
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Katherine Marie Heigl is an American actress, film producer and former fashion model. She played Izzie Stevens on ABCs medical drama Greys Anatomy from 2005 to 2010, Heigl has also had a prominent film career, with appearances in Knocked Up,27 Dresses, The Ugly Truth, Killers, Life As We Know It and New Years Eve. She played the role on the short-lived NBC television series State of Affairs from 2014 to 2015. Heigl started her career as a model with Wilhelmina Models before turning her attention to acting. She made her debut in That Night and later appeared in My Father the Hero as well as Under Siege 2. From 1999 to 2002, Heigl co-starred as Isabel Evans on the television series Roswell, additionally, she has established herself as a cover model, appearing in numerous publications including Maxim, Vanity Fair and Cosmopolitan. Heigl is married to singer Josh Kelley, with whom she has two adopted daughters and a biological son, Heigl was born in Washington, D. C. in Columbia Hospital for Women. She is the youngest of four children of Nancy, a manager, and Paul Heigl. Her father is of German and Irish descent, and her mother is of German ancestry and her siblings are Meg, Jason, and Holt. In 1986, her older brother Jason died of injuries suffered in a car accident and his organs were donated by his family after death. Her brothers death led Heigls parents to convert to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, when Heigl was nine, an aunt visiting the family decided to take a number of photographs of her. After returning to her home in New York, her aunt sent the photos to a number of modeling agencies, within a few weeks, she signed with Wilhelmina Models as a child model. Soon after signing with the agency, a client slated Heigl for use in an advertisement where she made her debut. At the time, she was earning $75 an hour posing for Sears, Heigl first appeared in a national television spot for Cheerios cereal. During this time, Heigl continued to attend New Canaan High School, balancing her film, Heigl dropped out of New Canaan High School after her sophomore year to pursue her career in Hollywood. In 1995, she starred in the Steven Seagal action thriller Under Siege 2, Heigl portrayed a 16-year-old traveller on a train across a mountain pass to visit the grave of her deceased father with uncle Casey Ryback, an ex-SEAL counter-terrorist expert. The main plotline has the train hijacked by mercenaries in Colorado, much of her work in the film was opposite Morris Chestnut, Sandra Taylor and Everett McGill. Despite an increased focus on acting, she still modeled extensively, after her high school graduation in 1997, she moved into a four-bedroom house in Malibu Canyon, California with her mother, who also became her manager
