1.
Orders of magnitude (length)
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The following are examples of orders of magnitude for different lengths. To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various lengths between 1. 6×10−35 meters and 101010122 meters,100 pm –1 Ångström 120 pm – radius of a gold atom 150 pm – Length of a typical covalent bond. 280 pm – Average size of the water molecule 298 pm – radius of a caesium atom, light travels 1 metre in 1⁄299,792,458, or 3. 3356409519815E-9 of a second. 25 metres – wavelength of the broadcast radio shortwave band at 12 MHz 29 metres – height of the lighthouse at Savudrija, Slovenia. 31 metres – wavelength of the broadcast radio shortwave band at 9.7 MHz 34 metres – height of the Split Point Lighthouse in Aireys Inlet, Victoria, Australia. 1 kilometre is equal to,1,000 metres 0.621371 miles 1,093.61 yards 3,280.84 feet 39,370.1 inches 100,000 centimetres 1,000,000 millimetres Side of a square of area 1 km2. Radius of a circle of area π km2,1.637 km – deepest dive of Lake Baikal in Russia, the worlds largest fresh water lake. 2.228 km – height of Mount Kosciuszko, highest point in Australia Most of Manhattan is from 3 to 4 km wide, farsang, a modern unit of measure commonly used in Iran and Turkey. Usage of farsang before 1926 may be for a precise unit derived from parasang. It is the altitude at which the FAI defines spaceflight to begin, to help compare orders of magnitude, this page lists lengths between 100 and 1,000 kilometres. 7.9 Gm – Diameter of Gamma Orionis 9, the newly improved measurement was 30% lower than the previous 2007 estimate. The size was revised in 2012 through improved measurement techniques and its faintness gives us an idea how our Sun would appear when viewed from even so close a distance as this. 350 Pm –37 light years – Distance to Arcturus 373.1 Pm –39.44 light years - Distance to TRAPPIST-1, a star recently discovered to have 7 planets around it. 400 Pm –42 light years – Distance to Capella 620 Pm –65 light years – Distance to Aldebaran This list includes distances between 1 and 10 exametres. 13 Em –1,300 light years – Distance to the Orion Nebula 14 Em –1,500 light years – Approximate thickness of the plane of the Milky Way galaxy at the Suns location 30.8568 Em –3,261. At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant, Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depends on the cosmological models used. At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant, Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depends on the cosmological models used. 590 Ym –62 billion light years – Cosmological event horizon, displays orders of magnitude in successively larger rooms Powers of Ten Travel across the Universe
2.
Sport of athletics
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Athletics is a collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common types of competitions are track and field, road running, cross country running. The results of racing events are decided by finishing position, while the jumps, the simplicity of the competitions, and the lack of a need for expensive equipment, makes athletics one of the most commonly competed sports in the world. Athletics is mostly an individual sport, with the exception of relay races and competitions which combine athletes performances for a team score, organized athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from 776 BCE. The rules and format of the events in athletics were defined in Western Europe and North America in the 19th and early 20th century. Most modern top level meetings are conducted by the International Association of Athletics Federations, the athletics meeting forms the backbone of the Summer Olympics. The foremost international athletics meeting is the IAAF World Championships in Athletics, other top level competitions in athletics include the IAAF World Cross Country Championships and the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. Athletes with a disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the IPC Athletics World Championships. The word athletics is derived from the Ancient Greek ἀθλητής from ἆθλον or ἆθλος, initially, the term was used to describe athletic contests in general – i. e. sporting competition based primarily on human physical feats. In the 19th century, the term acquired a more narrow definition in Europe. This definition continues to be the most prominent one in the United Kingdom, furthermore, foreign words in many German and Roman languages which are related to the term athletics also have a similar meaning. In much of North America, athletics is synonymous with sports in general, the word athletics is rarely used to refer to the sport of athletics in this region. Track and field is preferred, and is used in the United States and Canada to refer to most athletics events, including racewalking, Athletic contests in running, walking, jumping and throwing are among the oldest of all sports and their roots are prehistoric. Athletics events were depicted in the Ancient Egyptian tombs in Saqqara, with illustrations of running at the Heb Sed festival, the Tailteann Games were an ancient Celtic festival in Ireland, founded around 1800 BCE, and the thirty-day meeting included running and stone-throwing among its sporting events. The original and only event at the first Olympics in 776 BCE was a running event known as the stadion. This later expanded to include throwing and jumping events within the ancient pentathlon, Athletics competitions also took place at other Panhellenic Games, which were founded later around 500 BCE. The Cotswold Olimpick Games, a festival which emerged in 17th century England. Annually, from 1796 to 1798, LOlympiade de la République was held in revolutionary France, the premier event of this competition was a running event, but various ancient Greek disciplines were also on display
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2012 Summer Olympics
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It took place in London and to a lesser extent across the United Kingdom from 25 July to 12 August 2012. The first event, the stage in womens football began on 25 July at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. 10,768 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees participated, London is the first and only city thus far to host the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and in 1948. Construction for the Games involved considerable redevelopment, with an emphasis on sustainability, the main focus was a new 200-hectare Olympic Park, constructed on a former industrial site at Stratford, East London. The Games also made use of venues that already existed before the bid, the Games received widespread acclaim for their organisation, with the volunteers, the British military and public enthusiasm praised particularly highly. During the Games, Michael Phelps became the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time, saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Brunei entered female athletes for the first time, so that every currently eligible country has sent a female competitor to at least one Olympic Games. Womens boxing was included for the first time, thus the Games became the first at which every sport had female competitors and these were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Jacques Rogge. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by China, several world and Olympic records were set at the games. Furthermore, the focus on sporting legacy and post-games venue sustainability was seen as a blueprint for future Olympics. On 18 May 2004, as a result of a technical evaluation. All five submitted their candidate files by 19 November 2004 and were visited by the IOC inspection team during February, throughout the process, Paris was widely seen as the favourite, particularly as this was its third bid in recent years. London was initially seen as lagging behind Paris by a considerable margin and its position began to improve after the appointment of Lord Coe as the new head of London 2012 on 19 May 2004. In late August 2004, reports predicted a tie between London and Paris, on 6 June 2005, the IOC released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities. They did not contain any scores or rankings, but the report for Paris was considered the most positive, London was close behind, having closed most of the gap observed by the initial evaluation in 2004. New York and Madrid also received positive evaluations. On 1 July 2005, when asked who would win, Jacques Rogge said, but my gut feeling tells me that it will be very close. Perhaps it will come down to a difference of say ten votes, on 6 July 2005, the final selection was announced at the 117th IOC Session in Singapore. Moscow was the first city to be eliminated, followed by New York, the final two contenders were London and Paris
4.
Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
5.
Usain Bolt
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Usain St Leo Bolt, OJ, CD is a Jamaican sprinter. He is the first person to both the 100 metres and 200 metres world records since fully automatic time became mandatory. He also holds the record as a part of the 4 ×100 metres relay. He is the world and Olympic champion in these three events. Due to his dominance and achievements in sprint competition, he is widely considered to be the greatest sprinter of all time. He gained worldwide popularity for his double sprint victory at the 2008 Beijing Olympics in world record times, Bolt is the only sprinter to win Olympic 100 m and 200 m titles at three consecutive olympics, a feat referred to as the triple double. An eleven-time World Champion, he won consecutive World Championship 100 m,200 m and 4 ×100 metres relay medals from 2009 to 2015. He is the most successful athlete of the World Championships and was the first athlete to win three titles in both the 100 m and 200 m at the competition. Bolt improved upon his first 100 m world record of 9.69 with 9.58 seconds in 2009 – the biggest improvement since the start of electronic timing. He has twice broken the 200 metres world record, setting 19.30 in 2008 and 19.19 in 2009 and he has helped Jamaica to three 4 ×100 metres relay world records, with the current record being 36.84 seconds set in 2012. Bolts most successful event is the 200 m, with three Olympic and four World titles, the 2008 Olympics was his international debut over 100 m, he had earlier won numerous 200 m medals and holds the world under-20 and world under-18 records for the event. Bolt has stated that he intends to retire from athletics after the 2017 World Championships. Bolt was born on 21 August 1986 in Sherwood Content, a town in Trelawny, Jamaica, and grew up with parents Wellesley and Jennifer Bolt, his brother Sadiki. As a child, Bolt attended Waldensia Primary, where he first began to show his sprinting potential, by the age of twelve, Bolt had become the schools fastest runner over the 100 metres distance. Upon his entry to William Knibb Memorial High School, Bolt continued to focus on other sports, pablo McNeil, a former Olympic sprint athlete, and Dwayne Jarrett coached Bolt, encouraging him to focus his energy on improving his athletic abilities. The school had a history of success in athletics with past students, Bolt won his first annual high school championships medal in 2001, taking the silver medal in the 200 metres with a time of 22.04 seconds. Performing for Jamaica in his first Caribbean regional event, Bolt clocked a personal best of 48.28 s in the 400 metres in the 2001 CARIFTA Games, the 200 m also yielded a silver, as Bolt finished in 21.81 s. He made his first appearance on the stage at the 2001 IAAF World Youth Championships in Debrecen
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Florence Griffith Joyner
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Florence Delorez Griffith Joyner, also known as Flo-Jo, was an American track and field athlete. She is considered the fastest woman of all time based on the fact that the records she set in 1988 for both the 100 m and 200 m still stand and have yet to be seriously challenged. During the late 1980s she became a figure in international track and field because of her record-setting performances. She died in her sleep as the result of a seizure in 1998 at the age of 38. She attended California State University, Northridge and University of California, Griffith was born in Los Angeles, California, one of eleven children born to her parents Robert and Florence Griffith. The family lived in Littlerock, California before Florence Griffith moved with her children to the Jordan Downs public housing complex located in the Watts section of Los Angeles, when Griffith was in elementary school, she joined the Sugar Ray Robinson Organization, running in track meets on weekends. She won the Jesse Owens National Youth Games two years in a row, at the ages of 14 and 15, Griffith ran track at Jordan High School in Los Angeles. Showing an early interest in fashion, Griffith convinced the members of the team to wear tights with their uniforms. As a senior in 1978, she finished sixth at the CIF California State Meet behind her future teammates Alice Brown, nevertheless, by the time Griffith graduated from Jordan High School in 1978, her performances in sprinting and long jump were strong enough to set high school records. Griffith attended the California State University at Northridge, and she was on the team coached by Bob Kersee. This team also included her teammates Brown and Jeanette Bolden, the team won the national championship Griffiths first year of college. However, Griffith had to drop out in order to support her family, Kersee was then able to find financial aid for Griffith and she returned to college in 1980, this time at University of California at Los Angeles where Kersee was then working as a coach. Brown, Bolden, and Griffith qualified for the 100-meter final at the trials for the 1980 Summer Olympics, Griffith also ran the 200 meters, narrowly finishing fourth, a foot out of a qualifying position. However, the U. S. Government had already decided to boycott those Olympic Games mooting those results, in 1983, Griffith graduated from UCLA with her bachelors degree in psychology. Griffith finished fourth in the 200 meter sprint at the first World Championship in Athletics in 1983, the following year she won a silver medal in the 1984 Summer Olympics. In 1985, she won the 100-meter IAAF Grand Prix Final with the time of 11.00 seconds, after the 1984 Olympic Games, she spent less time running. In 1985 Griffith returned to working at a bank and styled hair and she married Al Joyner, the Olympic triple jump champion of 1984, in 1987. Upon returning to Athletics at the 1987 World Championships in Rome and her success during the 1987 season led to her being ranked second in Track and Field News 1987 world rankings
8.
Sprint (running)
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Sprinting is running over a short distance in a limited period of time. It is used in sports that incorporate running, typically as a way of quickly reaching a target or goal. In athletics and track and field, sprints are races over short distances and they are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event—the stadion race, there are three sprinting events which are currently held at the Summer Olympics and outdoor World Championships, the 100 metres,200 metres, and 400 metres. The set position differs depending on the start, body alignment is of key importance in producing the optimal amount of force. Ideally the athlete should begin in a 4-point stance and push off using both legs for maximum force production, athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to a maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance, the 60 metres is a khaled and Rion indoor event and it is an indoor world championship event. Less common events include the 50 metres,55 metres,300 metres, biological factors that determine a sprinters potential include, The 60 metres is normally run indoors, on a straight section of an indoor athletic track. Since races at this distance can last around six or seven seconds, having good reflexes and this is roughly the distance required for a human to reach maximum speed and can be run with one breath. It is popular for training and testing in other sports, the world record in this event is held by American sprinter Maurice Greene with a time of 6.39 seconds. 60-metres is used as a distance by younger athletes when starting sprint racing. Note, Indoor distances are less standardized as many facilities run shorter or occasionally longer distances depending on available space, the 100 metres sprint takes place on one length of the home straight of a standard outdoor 400 m track. Often, the holder in this race is considered the worlds fastest man/woman. The current world record of 9.58 seconds is held by Usain Bolt of Jamaica and was set on 16 August 2009, the womens world record is 10.49 seconds and was set by Florence Griffith-Joyner. World class male sprinters need 41 to 50 strides to cover the whole 100 metres distances, the 200 metres begins on the curve of a standard track, and ends on the home straight. The ability to run a good bend is key at the distance, as a well conditioned runner will typically be able to run 200 m in an average speed higher than their 100 m speed. Usain Bolt, however, ran 200 m in the time of 19.19 sec, an average speed of 10.422 m/s, whereas he ran 100 m in the world-record time of 9.58 sec
9.
Track and field
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Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running, jumping, and throwing. The name is derived from the sports venue, a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and jumping events take place. Track and field is categorised under the sport of athletics, which also includes road running, cross country running. The foot racing events, which include sprints, middle- and long-distance events, the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who achieves the greatest distance or height. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also combined events or multi events, such as the pentathlon consisting of five events, heptathlon consisting of seven events, in these, athletes participate in a combination of track and field events. Most track and field events are individual sports with a victor, the most prominent team events are relay races. Events are almost exclusively divided by gender, although both the mens and womens competitions are held at the same venue. It is one of the oldest sports, in ancient times, it was an event held in conjunction with festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece. The ancient Olympic Games began in the year 776 BC, when Koroibos, a cook from the city of Elis, won the stadium race. According to some traditions, this was the only athletic event of the games for the first 13 Olympic festivals. In modern times, the two most prestigious track and field competitions are athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the governing body. Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, however, if athletes are deemed to have violated the events rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased. In North America, the track and field may be used to refer to other athletics events, such as the marathon. The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory, Track and field-style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested, Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC
10.
Summer Olympic Games
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The Summer Olympic Games or the Games of the Olympiad, first held in 1896, is an international multi-sport event that is hosted by a different city every four years. The most recent Olympics were held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the International Olympic Committee organizes the games and oversees the host citys preparations. In each Olympic event, gold medals are awarded for first place, silver medals are awarded for second place, and bronze medals are awarded for third, the Winter Olympic Games were created due to the success of the Summer Olympics. The Olympics have increased in scope from a 42-event competition with fewer than 250 male competitors from 14 nations in 1896 to 302 events with 10,768 competitors from 204 nations in 2012, eighteen countries have hosted the Summer Olympics. The United States has hosted four Summer Olympics, more than any other nation, four cities have hosted two Summer Olympics, Athens, Paris, Los Angeles, and Tokyo. Tokyo is the first city outside of the Western world to host the Summer Olympics multiple times, asia has hosted the Summer Olympics four times in Japan, South Korea, and China. The only Summer Olympics held in the Southern Hemisphere have been in Australia, the 2016 Games are the first Summer Olympics to be held in South America and the first to be held during the local winter season. Africa has yet to host a Summer Olympics, only five countries—Greece, Australia, France, Great Britain, and Switzerland—have been represented at every Summer Olympic Games. The only country to have won at least one medal at every Summer Olympic Games is Great Britain. The United States leads the medal table. Qualification rules for each of the Olympic sports are set by the International Sports Federations that governs that sports international competition, for individual sports, competitors typically qualify through attaining a certain place in a major international event or on the IFs ranking list. There is a rule that maximum three individual athletes may represent each nation per competition. Nations most often qualify teams for team sports through continental qualifying tournaments, each nation may be represented by no more than one team per competition a team is two people in some sports. The United States has hosted four Summer Olympic Games, more than any other nation, the United Kingdom hosted the 2012 Olympic Games, its third Summer Olympic Games, in its capital London, making London the first city to host the Summer Olympic Games three times. Australia, France, Germany, Greece, and Japan have all hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice. Other countries that have hosted the Summer Olympics are Belgium, Brazil, China, Canada, Finland, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, South Korea, Spain, the Soviet Union, asia has hosted the Summer Olympics three times and will host again in 2020. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro hosted the first Summer Olympics in South America, three cities have hosted two Summer Olympic Games, Los Angeles, Paris, and Athens. Stockholm has hosted events at two Summer Olympic Games, having hosted the games in 1912 and the events at the 1956 Summer Olympics—which they are usually listed as jointly hosting
11.
100 metres at the Olympics
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The 100 metres at the Summer Olympics has been contested since the first edition of the multi-sport event. The mens 100 m has been present on the Olympic athletics programme since 1896, the 100 metres is considered one of the blue ribbon events of the Olympics and is among the highest profile competitions at the games. The first Olympic champions were both Americans, Thomas Burke in the category and,32 years later, Betty Robinson in the womens category. The Olympic records for the event are 9.63 seconds, set by Bolt in 2012, the world records for the event have been equalled or broken during the Olympics on seven occasions in the mens category and on twelve occasions in the womens. Among the competing nations, the United States has had the most success in this event, having won sixteen golds in the mens race, Usain Bolt of Jamaica has won three consecutive titles. Four other athletes have won titles, Wyomia Tyus, Carl Lewis, Gail Devers. Merlene Ottey is the athlete to win three medals without winning gold, with one silver and two bronze medals. Many athletes that compete in this event also compete individually in the Olympic 200 metres, four of these men were also members of the winning team in the 4x100 meters relay at the same games - Jesse Owens, Bobby Morrow, Carl Lewis, and Usain Bolt. Two of these men have won a gold medal at the same games - Archie Hahn in the now defunct 60 metres. Four of these women were members of the winning team in the 4x100 meters relay at the same games - Fanny Blankers-Koen, Betty Cuthbert, Wilma Rudolph. Fanny Blankers-Koen is the one of these women to win four gold medals at the same games by winning the 80 metres hurdles in 1948. Marion Jones was the 2000 womens Olympic 100 m gold medallist but had her results annulled after admitting to using performance-enhancing drugs during her Olympic victory and these controversies have affected public perceptions of drug usage among sprint athletes, as well as track and field and the Olympics in general. The Olympic 100 metres competitions are carried out under standard international rules, the races are segregated by gender, with one for men and one for women. Traditionally there are four rounds of competition, heats, quarter-finals, semi-finals, prior to 1964, finals featured six athletes. For all Olympic competitions from 1964 onwards—allowing for a sufficient number of athletes being present—each race features eight runners, athletes are seeded by past performance to ensure an even balance of quality across the heats and allow the best runners to progress to the later stages. Usually in the first two rounds the top three runners progress to the next stage, a small number of other athletes also progress as the fastest non-qualifiers through a repechage system. Prior to 2012, the semi-finals stage comprised two races of eight athletes and the top four finishers in each race were entered into the final, several amendments were made to the competition format in 2012. Any participant not in possession of an Olympic qualifying standard time is entered into the preliminary round, qualifiers in this round progress to the first round proper
12.
100 metres at the World Championships in Athletics
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The 100 metres at the World Championships in Athletics has been contested by both men and women since the inaugural edition in 1983. It is the second most prestigious 100 m title after the 100 metres at the Olympics, the competition format typically has two or three qualifying rounds leading to a final between eight athletes. Since 2011 a preliminary round has been held, where athletes who have not achieved the standard time compete to enter the first round proper. The championship records for the event are 9.58 seconds for men, set by Usain Bolt in 2009, the mens world record has been broken or equalled at the competition three times, by Carl Lewis in 1987 and 1991, and by Usain Bolt in 2009. Ben Johnson ran faster than Lewis in 1987, but his record was annulled due to doping. Lewiss mark, which equalled the record at the time, was never officially ratified by the IAAF as a world record. The womens world record has never beaten at the championships. Carl Lewis, Maurice Greene and Usain Bolt are the most successful athletes of the event. Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce is the most successful athlete of the event as the only woman to win three titles. Merlene Ottey and Carmelita Jeter are the athletes to have claimed four medals in the history of the World Championships event. The United States is the most successful nation in the discipline, jamaica are a clear second with six gold medals. East Germany, with two, is the other nation to have won multiple titles. All information from IAAF Canadas Ben Johnson and Angella Taylor-Issajenko were both disqualifed from the 1987 World Championships in Athletics for doping, Johnsons 100 m gold was removed, elevating Carl Lewis to world champion. Taylor-Issajenko finished fifth in the womens 100 m final, at the following edition in 1991, Irina Slyusar of the Soviet Union was disqualified for doping. Eight years passed without incident in the 100 m before the double Nigerian doping disqualification of Innocent Asonze, tim Montgomery became the 100 m second medalist to be disqualified, losing his silver medal from the 2001 World Championships in Athletics. From the same event, Marion Jones later lost her medal for doping infractions. Venolyn Clarke and Kelli White were also disqualified that year, the results of Dwain Chambers and Mongomery, fourth and fifth in 2003, were removed for doping. Two womens medalists were stripped of their honours for doping Kelli White lost the title while Zhanna Block had her bronze medal removed
13.
Justin Gatlin
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Justin Gatlin is an American sprinter and former Olympic and world champion. His 100m personal best of 9.74 seconds ranks fifth on the all-time list and he is a two-time indoor world champion in the 60-meter dash, and won both the 100 meters and 200 meters at the 2005 World Championships. In 2001, Gatlin incurred a two-year ban from athletics for testing positive for a banned substance, the ban was later reduced to one year on appeal. In 2006, he incurred a four-year ban from track and field for testing positive for a banned substance, Gatlin began competing again in August 2010, soon after his eligibility was reinstated. In June 2012 at the US Olympic trials, Gatlin ran a time of 9. 80s, Gatlin won the gold medal in the 100 m at the 2004 Olympics. After not competing in the 2008 Olympics due to suspension, he ran a time of 9. 79s in the 100 m final at the London 2012 Olympics, earning a bronze medal. His performance at the 2012 Olympic 100 meter final contributed to the fastest 100m race ever and he won his third Olympic medal in the 100 meters in the 2016 Olympic 100 meter final, finishing with the silver. At 34, he became the oldest man to win an Olympic medal in a sprint event. Gatlin attended Woodham High School in Pensacola, Florida, Gatlin was awarded a scholarship to the University of Tennessee. In the fall of 2000, Gatlin arrived at University of Tennessee, Knoxville, during high school, Gatlin was recruited for track by coaches Vince Anderson and Bill Webb who quickly realized his potential and turned him into a sprinter. After training and competing in Tennessees program for two years under the guidance of former assistant Vince Anderson, Gatlin won six consecutive NCAA titles, in the fall of 2002, Gatlin left Tennessee after his sophomore season to join the professional ranks. Just two years later, he won the medal in the 100m at the 2004 Summer Olympics, narrowly beating Francis Obikwelu of Portugal. He also won a medal in an American sweep of the 200m race. In the 2005 World Athletics Championships in Helsinki, he triumphed over 2003 champion Kim Collins. On August 7,2005, Gatlin clocked a 100m time of 9.88 seconds to win the World Championship in Helsinki, Gatlin also won the 200m in Helsinki, becoming the second person in athletics history to win both sprint distances during a single World Championship. In the 200m event, American athletes earned the top four places, on May 12,2006, Gatlin, running in the final of the IAAF Super Tour meeting in Doha, Qatar, equalled the 100m world record of 9. 77s, though this was later annulled. It had originally reported that he had beaten the record. However, the IAAF revealed on May 16 that his time had been 9.766 seconds, shortly thereafter, with the track and field community itching for a Gatlin-Powell showdown, the two both appeared at the Prefontaine Classic in Oregon
14.
IAAF World Championships in Athletics
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The IAAF World Championships, commonly referred to as the World Championships in Athletics, is a biennial athletics event organized by the International Association of Athletics Federations. Originally held every four years, first in 1983, the current two-year cycle began in 1991, the idea of having an Athletics World Championships was around well before the competitions first event in 1983. In 1913, the IAAF decided that the Olympic Games would serve as the World Championships for athletics and this was considered suitable for over 50 years until in the late 1960s the desire of many IAAF members to have their own World Championships began to grow. In 1976 at the IAAF Council Meeting in Puerto Rico an Athletics World Championships separate from the Olympic Games was approved, two IAAF world championship events preceded the inaugural edition of the World Championships in Athletics in 1983. Four years later, the 1980 World Championships contained only two newly approved womens events, neither of which featured on the programme for the 1980 Summer Olympics, over the years the competition has grown in size. In 1983 an estimated 1,300 athletes from 154 countries participated, by the 2003 competition, in Paris, it had grown to 1,907 athletes from 203 countries with coverage being transmitted to 179 different countries. There has also been a change in composition over the years, with new events, all for women. By 2005, the differences were mens competition in the 50 km walk. The following list shows when new events were added for the first time,1987, womens 10,000 m and 10 km walk were added. 1993, womens triple jump was added,1995, womens 5000 m was added, replacing the 3000 m race. 1999, womens pole vault and hammer were added and the womens 20 km walk replaced the 10 km walk,2005, womens 3000 m steeplechase was added. Updated after 2015 Championships Note, Germany refers both to the former West Germany and the unified Federal Republic of Germany, the opening and closing ceremonies of the 8th IAAF World Championships held in Edmonton in 2001 were broadcast live to over 200 countries. The event included the mens marathon, and featured a thousand voice choir, men There are fifteen athletes who have won at least six medals. Women There are thirteen athletes who have won at least six medals, There are eighteen athletes that competed in at least eight editions
15.
Athletics at the Summer Olympics
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Athletics has been contested at every Summer Olympics since the birth of the modern Olympic movement at the 1896 Summer Olympics. The athletics program traces its earliest roots to events used in the ancient Greek Olympics, the modern program includes track and field events, road running events, and racewalking events. Cross country running was also on the program in earlier editions, the events contested have varied widely. From 1900 to 1920, tug of war was considered to be part of the Olympic athletics programme, although the sports of tug of war, no new events have been added to the mens athletics programme since the 1952 addition of the short racewalk. The roster of events has not changed since then, with the exception of the omission of the long racewalk in 1976, the last womens event added to the roster was the 3000 metres steeplechase in 2008. A total of 52 different events have held in the mens competition. The current list comprises 24 events, many of the discontinued events were similar to modern ones but at different lengths, especially in the steeplechasing, hurdling, and racewalking disciplines. Team racing events have been eliminated after appearing in six editions of the Games. The athletic triathlon and pentathlon events were phased out in favor of the decathlon. Standing jump competitions are no longer held, nor are the various modified throwing events which were experimented with in 1908 and 1912, cross country running was on the program from 1912 to 1924 and is the most prominent form of athletics not to feature at the Olympics. Womens competition in athletics began at the 1928 Summer Olympics Nearly every nation that has competed at the Olympics has entered the athletics competition, the number in each box represents the number of athletes the nation sent. Updated after the 2016 Summer Olympics, considering stripped medals as of February 10,2017 Sources, Olympic sports
16.
400 metres
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The 400 metres, or 400 metre dash, is a common sprinting event in track and field competitions. It has been featured in the programme at the Summer Olympics since 1896 for men. On a standard running track, it is one lap around the track. Runners start in staggered positions and race in separate lanes for the entire course. In many countries, athletes competed in the 440 yard dash —which is a quarter of a mile and was referred to as the quarter-mile—instead of the 400 m. An athlete who competes in the 400 m may still be referred to as quarter-miler, while considered to be predominantly an anaerobic event, there is some aerobic involvement and the degree of aerobic training required for 400 metre athletes is open to debate. The current mens record is held by Wayde van Niekerk, with a time of 43.03 seconds, van Niekerk is also the reigning world. The world indoor record holder is Kerron Clement, in 44.57 seconds, the current womens world record is held by Marita Koch, with a time of 47.60 seconds. Allyson Felix is the womens world champion, while Shaunae Miller holds the womens Olympic title. The mens T43 Paralympic world record of 45.07 seconds is held by Oscar Pistorius. An Olympic double of 200 metres and 400 m was first achieved by Valerie Brisco-Hooks in 1984, alberto Juantorena of Cuba at the 1976 Summer Olympics became the first and so far the only athlete to win both the 400 m and 800 m Olympic titles. The Olympic champion has won a second gold medal in the 4 ×400 metres relay. From 31 appearances in the Olympic Games, the gold medallist came from the USA19 times. A = affected by altitude Correct as of January 2017. Below is a list of all other times equal or superior to 43.80, Wayde van Niekerk also ran 43.48. Jeremy Wariner also ran 43.50,43.62, LaShawn Merritt also ran 43.74,43.75. Below is a list of all other times superior to 48.80, jarmila Kratochvílová also ran 48.45,48.61. Olga Vladykina / Bryzgina also ran 48.60,48.65, multiple 400 metres victories at the Olympic Games and World Championships,6 wins, Michael Johnson - Olympic Champion in 1996 and 2000, World Champion in 1993,1995,1997 and 1999
17.
All-weather running track
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An all-weather running track is a rubberized artificial running surface for track and field athletics. It provides a consistent surface for competitors to test their athletic ability unencumbered by adverse weather conditions, historically, various forms of dirt, grass, sand and crushed cinders were used. Many examples of varieties of track still exist worldwide. The proper length for a running track is 400 m. Some tracks are not built to specification, instead some are legacy to imperial distances like 440 yd. Prior to rule changes in 1979, distances in Imperial units were used in the United States. Some facilities build tracks to fit the available space, olympic tracks in the early 20th century were of other lengths. Each lane of the track could be as wide as 122 cm, the IAAF also specifies a preferred radius for the turns at 37 metres, but allows a range. Major international level meets are conducted and world records are allowed to be set on tracks that are not exactly 37 metres, but do fall in the range. Lane - The ordinal number of the lane with the first lane being on the inside Total length - The total length of the lane Radius - The radius of the curve 0, an artificial warm-up track was constructed for the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia. During the 1960s many of tracks were constructed, examples still exist today. Their survival are a testament to the durability and inconsistency of these early attempts, in the mid-1960s Tartan tracks, surfaced with a product by 3M. The name Tartan is a trademark, but many have misused it as a genericized trademark and this process was the first to commercialize a polyurethane surface for running tracks, though originally conceived for horse racing. Many Tartan tracks were installed worldwide, including at many of the top Universities in the United States. Among that list was a Tartan track installed in the Estadio Olímpico Universitario, home of the 1968 Summer Olympics at Mexico City, olympic shot put champion Bill Nieder was instrumental in developing the product and selling it for this first use in the Olympics. An all-weather surface has become standard ever since, an original Tartan track is still in place at Speed City San Jose State University on a satellite to the campus at 10th Street and Alma. Years of the abuse of tractors tearing it and cars parked on it shows the durability of this original product, surfacing tracks has become an industry with many competitors. Mondo surfaces differ from the particles stuck in adhesion techniques, in that they are more of a rubber carpet and this form of construction gives a more consistent bounce and traction
18.
Starting blocks
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Starting blocks are a device used in the sport of track and field by sprint athletes to hold their feet at the start of a race so they do not slip as they push out at the sound of the gun. For most levels of competition, including the whole of high level international competition, the invention of starting blocks is credited to Australian Charlie Booth and his father in 1929. Prior to their invention, runners would dig holes in the dirt track, trowels were provided at the start of races. This was not the most consistent or stable system and it also was destructive to the track surface with the holes having to be filled for subsequent runners. When George Simpson became the first person to run 10.4 seconds for the 100 yard dash in 1930, wood was the first material used, with some tracks having permanently placed wooden starting blocks with golden structures at the start line. Portable blocks were held by long metal spikes that needed to be pounded into the ground and these devices evolved to metal blocks. The common blocks of the 1960s were heavy and adjusted by screws that were broken or became rusted over the years. Lighter weight blocks were made of sheet metal, nick Newtons innovative design uses cast aluminum. The rubberized surfaces of new all-weather running tracks that became common starting in the 1970s, original Tartan tracks left long holes to secure the blocks but most tracks today require blocks to be held by small spikes similar to the ones used in shoes. Block slippage was common enough that it is a loophole in the rules to recall the start of a race without calling a false start against an athlete whose blocks slip. Generally most races of 400 meters or shorter allow athletes to use starting blocks, most runners in the 800 meters at the 1956 Olympics used starting blocks from a waterfall start. Modern blocks used for records now must have sensors that detect the pressure from the athlete. Athletes who react faster than 1/10th of a second can be charged with a false start, many also carry electronic speakers so the sound of the gun arrives at the ears of the athletes at exactly the same time
19.
Starting pistol
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A starting pistol or starter pistol is a blank handgun that is fired to start track and field races, as well as competitive swimming races at some meets. The sound of the gun going off serves as the signal for the athletes to begin the event, starter guns cannot fire real ammunition or be modified to fire real ammunition. Beside sporting events, they are used in films and in TV or stage shows. Blank shells or caps are used to prevent expelling projectiles, starting pistols may also include modified versions of standard pistols incapable of firing bullets, most commonly achieved by welding an obstruction into the barrel. This is less common nowadays, especially in Western countries, when electronic timing is used, a sensor is often affixed to the gun, which sends an electronic signal to the timing system upon firing. For deaf competitors or for electronic systems, a light may be used instead. This issue is exaggerated in races where the runners begin in a stagger, to avoid this problem, the pistol is in all major competitions wired with a microphone that transmits the sound virtually instantaneously to loudspeakers directly behind each competitor. When the starter presses the button, they emit a signal to play a simulated gunshot that is broadcast to loudspeakers behind each lane, show a flash, emit simulated smoke, many venues have switched to the new format. Some pistols made or converted to fire blanks only can be converted to live ammunition. Such makeshift firearms are used in crime and many are illegal to possess in certain jurisdictions, incidents involving starting pistols LOT Flight 165 hijacking Lufthansa Flight 592 David Kang Collectors Armoury, Ltd
20.
10-second barrier
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The 10-second barrier is a term used in track and field athletics, which refers to the physical and psychological barrier of completing the mens 100 metres sprint in under ten seconds. The achievement was traditionally regarded as the hallmark of a world-class sprinter and its significance has become less important since the late 1990s, as an increasing number of runners have surpassed the ten seconds mark. Wind gauge malfunctions or infractions may invalidate a sprinters time, Prior to 1977, FAT was not required for IAAF official timings. Some races also had an unofficial FAT, or semi-automatic time, the first person timed at under ten seconds was Bob Hayes, who ran 9.9 s in April 1963 at the Mt. SAC Relays with an illegal following wind of 11 mph. Hayes clocked another illegal 9.9 s in the semi-final of the 1964 Olympic 100 m and this was dubbed the Night of Speed, and all three were recognised as world records by the IAAF. Hines also had a wind-assisted 9.8 s in the heats, Hines went on to win the 1968 Olympic 100m in 9.9 s, rounded down from his FAT of 9.95, making it the first non-wind-assisted electronic sub-10-second performance. By 1976, six men had equalled the 9.9 s hand-timed record. After the 1977 rule change, Jim Hines nine-year-old 9.95 was the only recognised sub-10-second race and that year the barrier was broken again, when Silvio Leonard ran 9.98 seconds on 11 August 1977. Both of these marks were recorded at an altitude, which aids performance due to lower air resistance. Carl Lewis was the first sprinter to break ten seconds at low altitude under electronic timing, with 9.97 seconds on 14 May 1983 at the Modesto Relays. Calvin Smith recorded a world record 9.93 seconds on 3 July 1983, again at altitude in Colorado Springs, Colorado, six sprinters legally broke the barrier during the 1980s. In second place was Leroy Burrell who also broke the world record. In third place,0.01 seconds slower than the world record with a time of 9.91 seconds, was Dennis Mitchell. In fourth place, breaking his own European record of 9.97 seconds, was Linford Christie with a time of 9.92 seconds, maurice Greene was the first athlete to run under 9.80 seconds in 1999. Usain Bolt surpassed 9.70 seconds in 2008 and 9.60 in 2009, the 2008 season saw a new high for sub-10 second performances,14 runners achieved the feat a total of 53 times between them, the highest ever for either figure. Furthermore, ten men had achieved the result for the first time in that year – another record, the mens 100 metres final at the 2008 Summer Olympics saw a world record and six men clear ten seconds. Only two months into the start of the track season,2011 became a record-breaking year as fifteen men ran under ten seconds between April and June. As of 10 June 2013,86 sprinters have broken the 10-second barrier with an official, legal time, the mens 100 metres final at the 2012 Summer Olympics saw a new Olympic record and seven men dip below ten seconds, with only one competitor failing to do so
21.
False start
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In sports, a false start is a movement by a participant before being signaled or otherwise permitted by the rules to start. False starts are common in racing sports, where differences are made by fractions of a second, a race that is started cleanly, on the contrary, is referred to as a fair start or clean start. In American football and Canadian football, a start is movement by an offensive player after he has taken a set position. For offensive linemen, this movement might be as minimal as a couple of centimeters, a false start brings a 5 yard penalty. Unlike an offside penalty, where the play is run as usual and this is done to prevent a defensive player reacting to a false start from hitting the quarterback while going through the snap count, which would make the quarterback more susceptible to injury. At the end of the 2005 NFL season, owners complained regarding false start penalties on players whose flinches have little effect upon the start of the play, such as wide receivers. In response, the NFL competition committee has said that they plan to inflict fewer false start penalties on players who line up behind the line of scrimmage. In track and field sprints, the governing body, the IAAF, has a rule that if the athlete moves within 0.1 seconds after the gun has fired the athlete has false-started. This figure is based on tests that show the brain cannot hear. This rule is applied at high-level meets where fully automated force or motion sensor devices are built into the starting blocks that are tied via computer with the starters gun. In the vast majority of lower-level meets, false starts are determined visually by the officials, currently, if there is a false start, they are signalled by firing the starting gun twice. The race is stopped and the athletes are immediately disqualified. Before 2003, an athlete making a start would be allowed another start. Between 2003 and 2009, if there was a false start, then the whole field would be warned. If anyone made a start on the second start, then they would be disqualified. An analysis of start times by sprinters at the 2008 Beijing Olympics demonstrated that male and female sprinters can achieve reaction times of 109 and 121 ms in one out of 1,000 starts. The same analysis showed fewer false starts among the women and it suggests that the apparent sex difference is caused by the use of the starting block force threshold for males and females. In thoroughbred horse racing, a false start occurs when a horse breaks through the gates before they open
22.
Reaction time
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Mental chronometry is the use of response time in perceptual-motor tasks to infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of cognitive operations. Mental chronometry is studied using measurements of time, which is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response. In psychometric psychology it is considered to be an index of processing speed and that is, it indicates how fast the individual can execute the mental operations needed by the task at hand. In turn, speed of processing is considered an index of processing efficiency, the behavioral response is typically a button press but can also be an eye movement, a vocal response, or some other observable behavior. RT is constrained not only by the speed of transmission in white matter. Response time is the sum of time and movement time. Usually the focus in research is on reaction time, There are four basic means of measuring it, Simple reaction time is the motion required for an observer to respond to the presence of a stimulus. For example, a subject might be asked to press a button as soon as a light or sound appears, mean RT for college-age individuals is about 160 milliseconds to detect an auditory stimulus, and approximately 190 milliseconds to detect visual stimulus. The mean reaction times for sprinters at the Beijing Olympics were 166 ms for males and 189 ms for females, the authors suggested compensating for this threshold would improve false-start detection accuracy with female runners. Recognition or Go/No-Go reaction time tasks require that the press a button when one stimulus type appears. For example, the subject may have to press the button when a light appears. Choice reaction time tasks require distinct responses for each class of stimulus. For example, the subject might be asked to one button if a red light appears. The Jensen box is an example of an instrument designed to measure reaction time. Due to momentary attentional lapses, there is an amount of variability in an individuals response time. To control for this, researchers typically require a subject to perform multiple trials, taking the mean of the raw response time is rarely an effective method of characterizing the typical response time, and alternative approaches are often more appropriate. Sir Francis Galton is typically credited as the founder of differential psychology and he was the first to use rigorous reaction time tests with the express intention of determining averages and ranges of individual differences in mental and behavioral traits in humans. His tests involved a selection of over 10,000 men, women and children from the London public, the first scientist to measure reaction time in the laboratory was Franciscus Donders
23.
International Association of Athletics Federations
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The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body for the sport of athletics. It was founded on 17 July 1912 as the International Amateur Athletic Federation by representatives from 17 national athletics federations at the organizations first congress in Stockholm, since October 1993, it has been headquartered in Monaco. Beginning in 1982, the IAAF passed several amendments to its rules to allow athletes to receive compensation for participating in international competitions. However, the organization retained the word amateur in its name until its 2001 congress, the IAAFs president is Sebastian Coe of the United Kingdom. He was elected at the 2015 congress before the 2015 World Championships in Athletics in Beijing, the process to found the IAAF was started at a meeting in Stockholm, Sweden on July 17,1912 soon after the completion of the 1912 Summer Olympics in that city. The congress that started on August 20,1913 in Berlin is when the foundation of the IAAF was formally completed, in 2015, a whistleblower leaked IAAFs blood test records from major competitions. After reviewing the results, Robin Parisotto, a scientist and leading anti-doping expert, said, so many athletes appear to have doped with impunity, and it is damning that the IAAF appears to have idly sat by and let this happen. Craig Reedie, president of the World Anti-Doping Agency, said his organisation was very disturbed by these new allegations, which will, once again, shake the foundation of clean athletes worldwide, and that its independent commission will investigate the claims. On 1 November 2015, former IAAF president Lamine Diack was arrested in France and is under investigation on suspicion of corruption, Diack allegedly accepted $1.2 million from the Russian athletics federation to cover up the positive doping tests of at least six Russian athletes in 2011. The report continued that the IAAF allowed the conduct to occur and must accept its responsibility and that corruption was embedded in the organization. In January 2016, as a result of the scandal and WADAs report. The BBC reported that as a result the IAAF would lose $33 million worth of revenue, the 11-year sponsorship deal with Adidas was due to run until 2019. World-record holding sprinter, Michael Johnson, described the scandal as more serious than that faced by FIFA, in February,2016, Nestle announced that it was ending its IAAF sponsorship. In June 2016, following a meeting of the IAAFs ruling council, in Ferbuary 2017, All-Russia Athletic Federation disqualified by decision of the IAAF Council for 8 years for the creation of a doping system. Since the establishment of the IAAF, it has had six presidents, The IAAF has a total of 215 member federations divided into 6 area associations
24.
2011 World Championships in Athletics
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The 13th IAAF World Championships in Athletics was an international athletics competition that was held in Daegu, South Korea. It started on 27 August 2011 and finished on 4 September 2011, the United States topped the medal standings in the competition with 25. During the competition,41 national records,4 area records,3 championship records, on 4 April 2006, the IAAF announced that nine countries had submitted expressions of interest for hosting the 2011 World Championships. When the seeking deadline passed on 1 December 2006, four cities had confirmed their candidatures. Gothenburg backed out later that month, citing lack of support from the Swedish government. Brisbane was announced as the Australian candidate with the Queensland Sport, the stadium previously hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games and 2001 Goodwill Games. Brisbane also had a bid for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics. Daegu was the city chosen for the Korean bid, following on from an application to host the 2009 edition. Daegu had previously hosted the 2003 Summer Universiade and three matches of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the World Championships in Athletics had never been staged in mainland Asia, although it has taken place twice in Japan. The Russian bid had Moscows Luzhniki Stadium as the proposed venue, the city hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships. Among the intent candidates were Casablanca and Split, both of which were failed bidders for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, the Spanish candidate was rumored to be either Madrid or Valencia, but Spain eventually settled for Barcelona as a candidate for the 2013 World Championships in Athletics. The United States intent candidate city matched those bidding for the 2016 Summer Olympic Games, Chicago, the IAAF announced Daegu as the winning candidate at the IAAF Council Meeting in Mombasa on 27 March 2007. Its victory was based on the quality of the stadiums and the need for good crowds, iAAFs officials also praised Daegus ambition and challenging spirit as key to its winning bid. Both Moscow and Brisbane later confirmed their candidacy to host the 2013 World Championships in Athletics – a selection process won by the Russian capital, the events in the mens section ended with a world record in 4 x 100 metres relay set by Jamaica and several worlds leading results. Jamaica dominated the events, while Kenya and Ethiopia dominated the longer track events. In the field events, the United States and Germany were most successful, winning four, Yohan Blake and Usain Bolt, both from Jamaica, won two gold medals, being the most successful athletes in the mens events. In the 100 m final the largely favored Usain Bolt was disqualified for a false start, in the 200 m Bolt won with a time of 19.40 s, which was the fastest time ever not to be a world record at that point. Blake and Bolt, along with countrymen Nesta Carter and Michael Frater, ran in the 4 x 100 metres relay, in the 10,000 metres event, World Champion Kenenisa Bekele did not finish the race
25.
Partial pressure
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In a mixture of gases, each gas has a partial pressure which is the hypothetical pressure of that gas if it alone occupied the entire volume of the original mixture at the same temperature. The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas in the mixture. Gases dissolve, diffuse, and react according to their partial pressures and this general property of gases is also true in chemical reactions of gases in biology. For example, the amount of oxygen for human respiration. This is true across a wide range of different concentrations of oxygen present in various inhaled breathing gases or dissolved in blood. Daltons law expresses the fact that the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases in the mixture. This equality arises from the fact that in a gas the molecules are so far apart that they do not interact with each other. Most actual real-world gases come very close to this ideal. For example, given an ideal gas mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia, the partial volume of a particular gas in a mixture is the volume of one component of the gas mixture. It is useful in gas mixtures, e. g. air, to focus on one particular gas component, most often the term is used to describe a liquids tendency to evaporate. It is a measure of the tendency of molecules and atoms to escape from a liquid or a solid, the higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point of the liquid. The vapor pressure chart displayed has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids, as can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points. For example, at any temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point, which is where the pressure curve of methyl chloride intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere of absolute vapor pressure. It is possible to work out the equilibrium constant for a reaction involving a mixture of gases given the partial pressure of each gas. However, the reaction kinetics may either oppose or enhance the equilibrium shift, in some cases, the reaction kinetics may be the overriding factor to consider. Gases will dissolve in liquids to an extent that is determined by the equilibrium between the gas and the gas that has dissolved in the liquid. This statement is known as Henrys law and the constant k is quite often referred to as the Henrys law constant
26.
West Africa
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West Africa, also called Western Africa and the West of Africa, is the westernmost subregion of Africa. Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B. C, sedentary farming began in, or around the fifth millennium B. C, as well as the domestication of cattle. By 1500 B. C, ironworking technology allowed an expansion of productivity. Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400, in the forest region, Iron Age cultures began to flourish, and an inter-region trade began to appear. The desertification of the Sahara and the change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen. Local leather, cloth, and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires. Also, based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania, three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al-Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem, the Sosso Empire sought to fill the void, but was defeated by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali, further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in the present-day southeastern Nigeria, the Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland, the Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people, and possessed divine authority in religious matters. The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western, established in the 15th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade. The Benin Empire was an empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo and it should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the hinterland of West Africa. Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa and its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion, in the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa
27.
Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century
28.
South West Africa
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South West Africa was the name for modern-day Namibia when it was ruled by the German Empire and later South Africa. As a German colony from 1884, it was known as German South West Africa, germany had a difficult time administering the territory, which experienced many insurrections, especially those led by guerilla leader Jacob Morenga. The main port, Walvis Bay, and the Penguin Islands were annexed by Britain in 1878, following the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, Walvis Bay became part of the Cape Province. As part of the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty in 1890, a corridor of land taken from the border of Bechuanaland. It was named the Caprivi Strip after the German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi, in 1915, during South West Africa Campaign of the First World War, South Africa captured the German colony. After the war, it was declared a League of Nations Class C Mandate territory under the Treaty of Versailles, from 1922, this included Walvis Bay, which, under the South West Africa Affairs Act, was governed if it were part of the mandated territory. South West Africa remained a League of Nations Mandate until World War II, the Mandate was supposed to become a United Nations Trust Territory when League of Nations Mandates were transferred to the United Nations following the Second World War. This was to the advantage of the National Party, which enjoyed support from the predominantly Afrikaners. Between 1950 and 1977, all of South West Africas parliamentary seats were held by the Nationalists, an additional consequence of this was the extension of apartheid laws to the territory. The ICJ also clarified that the General Assembly was empowered to receive petitions from the inhabitants of South West Africa and to call for reports from the mandatory nation, the General Assembly constituted the Committee on South West Africa to perform the supervisory functions. In 1956, the Court further ruled that the Committee had the power to grant hearings to petitioners from the mandated territory, in 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia filed a case in the International Court of Justice against South Africa alleging that South Africa had not fulfilled its mandatory duties. This case did not succeed, with the Court ruling in 1966 that they were not the parties to bring the case. There was a struggle between South Africa and forces fighting for independence, particularly after the formation of the South West Africa Peoples Organisation in 1960. In 1966, the General Assembly passed resolution 2145 which declared the Mandate terminated and it also ruled that all member states of the United Nations were under an obligation not to recognise as valid any act performed by South Africa on behalf of Namibia. South West Africa became known as Namibia by the UN when the General Assembly changed the name by Resolution 2372 of 12 June 1968. In 1977, South Africa transferred control of Walvis Bay back to the Cape Province, the territory became the independent Republic of Namibia on 21 March 1990, although Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands were only incorporated into Namibia in 1994. The South African authorities established 10 bantustans in South West Africa in the late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with the Odendaal Commission and these bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity based governments in 1980
29.
Frankie Fredericks
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Frank Frankie Fredericks is a former track and field athlete from Namibia. Running in the 100 metres and 200 metres, he won four medals at the Olympic Games, making him Namibias first. He also won medals at the World Championships, World Indoor Championships, All-Africa Games. He is the world indoor record-holder for 200 metres, with a time of 19.92 seconds set in 1996, Fredericks has broken 20 seconds for the 200 metres 24 times. He also holds the third-fastest non-winning time for the 200 metres, in August 1996, Fredericks ran 19.68 seconds in the Olympic final in Atlanta, Georgia. He is also the oldest man to have broken 20 seconds for the 200 metres, on 12 July 2002 in Rome, Fredericks won the 200 metres in a time of 19.99 seconds at the age of 34 years 283 days. He is currently serving as a member in the IAAF. On March 3,2017, Fredericks was implicated in the IAAF corruption scandal, born in Windhoek on 2 October 1967, Frankie Fredericks was awarded a scholarship at Brigham Young University in the US in 1987. During his college career, Fredericks earned numerous All-American citations and won three NCAA championships, in 1990, after his country had become independent of South Africa, Fredericks could participate in international competition. At the World Championships in 1991, Fredericks won a medal in the 200 m, finishing behind Michael Johnson. The following year, at the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics, Fredericks became Namibias first Olympic medalist when he finished second in both the 100 m and 200 m. He won the medal in the mens 100-meter dash, with a time of 10.02 seconds. In 1993, in Stuttgart, he became the nations first World Champion, at the 1994 Commonwealth Games, he won gold in the 200 m and bronze in the 100 m. His time of 19.97 seconds in the 200 metres is the current Commonwealth Games record, at the 1995 World Championships 100 m, after crossing the line he immediately went to help his friend Linford Christie who pulled a muscle in the race and signalled for help. This act of kindness endeared him to many athletics fans, for the 1996 Summer Olympics, Fredericks was among the title favourites for both the 100 m and 200 m. He reached both finals, and again finished second in both, in the 100 m, he was beaten by Donovan Bailey, who set a new World Record, and in the 200 m he was beaten by Michael Johnson, who also set a new World Record. At the time, Frederickss second-place run was the third fastest run in history, at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Frankie once again missed out on the chance of gold in the 100 m, he was beaten by Ato Boldon of Trinidad and Tobago. Suffering from injuries, Fredericks had to withdraw from the 1999 and 2001 World Championships, Fredericks won the 200 m at the inaugural Afro-Asian Games in 2003
30.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
31.
Christophe Lemaitre
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Christophe Lemaitre is a French sprinter, who specialises in the 100 and 200 metres. He was the first white man to break the 10-second barrier in an officially timed 100 m event and he won a bronze medal in the 200 metres at the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. At the age of 20, Lemaitre won the 100 m,200 m and the 4×100 m relay titles at the 2010 European Championships and he was the fastest European 100 m and 200 m sprinter in 2010. He won a medal in the 200 m at the 2011 World Championships. As of August 2013, Lemaitre was one of the three Frenchmen to have broken the 10-second barrier in the 100 metres outdoor, Lemaitre grew up in the town of Culoz, where he took part in handball, rugby and football, before his sprinting prowess was discovered. In 2005 at the age of 15, during national sprinting events, a month after his 16th birthday in 2006, and less than a year after joining an athletics club in Aix-les-Bains, Lemaitre ran 100 m in 10.96 seconds. His personal best improved to 10.53 seconds in 2007, in 2008, he ran a new 100 m personal best of 10.26 seconds. At the 2008 World Junior Championships in Athletics, Lemaitre won the 200 m title with a time of 20.83 seconds. At the 2009 European Athletics Junior Championships, Lemaitre won gold in the 100 m and he won the 2009 mens European Athletics Rising Star of the Year Award for his achievements in 2009. At the start of the 2010 outdoor season, he opened with a run of 10.09 seconds in Aix-les-Bains before winning in 10.24 into a headwind of −2.2 m/s in Vénissieux. On 9 July 2010, Lemaitre became the first man purely of European descent to run 100 metres in under 10 seconds, by doing so, Lemaitre also broke the 100m French national record of 9.99 s set by Ronald Pognon on 5 July 2005 in Lausanne. Afterwards Lemaitre said, Of course, it was my goal to break it, one has to run under 10 seconds in order to be part of the worlds best. I will be recognised as the first white man to do so, one day later, Lemaitre equalled the 200m French national outdoor record with a time of 20.16 seconds. Gilles Quénéhervé had held the 200m French national outdoor record exclusively for almost 23 years - since 3 September 1987, at the 2010 European Championships, he won the gold medal in the 100 m with a time of 10.11 s. Lemaitre then combined with Jimmy Vicaut, Pierre-Alexis Pessonneaux, and Martial Mbandjock in the 4 ×100 m relay final to finish first ahead of Italy, at the IAAF World Challenges Rieti Meeting in Rieti, Italy on 29 August 2010, Lemaitre competed in the 100 m. In that event, he equalled his personal best in his heat with a time of 9.98 s, during the 2011 European Indoor Championships in Paris, Christophe Lemaitre was the fastest during the heats of the 60 m event. He also had the fastest time in the semi-finals, but he finished in third place in the final. On June 7, at the first meeting of the Pro Athlé Tour in Montreuil, on June 18, he went on to again lower his national record, clocking a time of 9.95 s at the 2011 European Team Championships in Stockholm, Sweden
32.
Azerbaijan
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Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a country in the South Caucasus region, situated at the crossroads of Southwest Asia and Southeastern Europe. It is bound by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bound by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence in 1918 and became the first democratic state in the Muslim orient world. The country was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920 as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, the modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991, prior to the official dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. In September 1991, the Armenian majority of the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region seceded to form the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, the region and seven adjacent districts outside it became de facto independent with the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994. These regions are recognized as part of Azerbaijan pending a solution to the status of the Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan is a unitary semi-presidential republic, the country is a member state of the Council of Europe, the OSCE and the NATO Partnership for Peace program. It is one of six independent Turkic states, a member of the Turkic Council. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations and it is one of the founding members of GUAM, the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Its term of office began on 19 June 2006, Azerbaijan is also a member state of the Non-Aligned Movement, holds observer status in World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union. The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion and all political forces in the country are secularist. However, the majority of the population are of a Shiite Muslim background, Azerbaijan has a high level of human development which ranks on par with most Eastern European countries. It has a rate of economic development and literacy, as well as a low rate of unemployment. According to the Davos World Economic Forum, Azerbaijans economy has scored 37th place within 138 countries in 2016, Global Competitiveness Index 2015 indicates that Azerbaijan scores highest in its region. ASAN services, established with Presidential Decree, are known for eliminating bribery. ASAN Service has been awarded with United Nations Public Service Award 2015, the ruling party, the New Azerbaijan Party, has been accused of authoritarianism and human rights abuses. The original etymology of name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrianism. In the Avesta, Frawardin Yasht, there is a mention of âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide, the name Atropates itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian, probably Median, compounded name with the meaning Protected by the Fire or The Land of the Fire
33.
Ramil Guliyev
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Ramil Guliyev is an Azerbaijani-born Turkish sprint athlete. He competes in the 100 meters and 200 meters events and he competed at the 2009 European Athletics Junior Championships, winning a silver medal in the 100 m and a gold medal in the 200 m. He holds the national and national records in both events. He is also the 200 m European junior record holder and national record holder in the 60 metres. His 200 m time is the second fastest by a junior athlete and he came second in the mens European Athletics Rising Star of the Year Award for his achievements in 2009. He represented Azerbaijan but switched allegiance to Turkey in 2011, including allegations that he had received up to $200,000 to change his citizenship. In April 2011, the IAAF enacted a transfer delay in line with its international rules, the runner highlighted the training and financial support he received in Turkey was significant and argued that language and culture was similar between the two countries. Despite the ban, his home federation remained open to him representing Azerbaijan internationally again, following negotiations with the Azerbaijani Ministry of Youth and Sports, Guliyev confirmed his original decision not to compete for Azerbaijan. On September 8,2015, he ran the 200 metres race, at the time that ranked him tied for the 34th best performer of all time and #6 for 2015. He was trained by his father Eldar Quliyev until his death from heart attack in June 2010, all information from IAAF Profile Ramil Guliyev profile at IAAF
34.
Prefontaine Classic
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The Prefontaine Classic, an Oregon Track Club event, is one of the premier track and field meets in the United States, held in Eugene, Oregon. Every year it draws a world caliber field to compete at Hayward Field on the campus of the University of Oregon, previously one of the IAAF Grand Prix events, it is now part of the IAAF Diamond League. Started in 1973 as the Hayward Field Restoration Meet, it was launched to replace the deteriorated wooden west grandstand. It became the Bowerman Classic for 1975 to honor longtime University of Oregon track coach Bill Bowerman, nike has been the primary sponsor since 1978. Over the course of its history, four world records have been set at the Prefontaine Classic, at the 2001 Prefontaine Classic Alan Webb ran 3,53.43 in the mile and broke Jim Ryuns national high school record that had stood for 36 years. This also was the fastest mile by an American in three years, maria de Lurdes Mutola won 16 consecutive womens 800 m races at the Pre Classic. com, Prefontaine Fan Site Steve Prefontaine Book
35.
Eugene, Oregon
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Eugene is a city of the Pacific Northwest located in the U. S. state of Oregon. It is located at the end of the Willamette Valley, near the confluence of the McKenzie and Willamette Rivers. As of the 2010 census, Eugene had a population of 156,185, it is the second most populous city in the state, the citys population for 2014 was estimated to be 160,561 by the US Census. Eugene is home to the University of Oregon and Lane Community College, the city is also noted for its natural beauty, recreational opportunities, and focus on the arts. Eugenes official slogan is A Great City for the Arts and Outdoors and it is also referred to as the Emerald City and as Track Town, USA. The Nike corporation had its beginnings in Eugene, in 2021, the city will host the 18th Track and Field World Championships. The first people to settle in the Eugene area were known as the Kalapuyans and they made seasonal rounds, moving around the countryside as appropriate to collect and preserve local foods, including acorns, the bulbs of the wapato and camas plants, and berries. They stored these foods in their permanent winter village, when crop activities waned, they returned to their winter villages and took up hunting, fishing, and trading. They were known as the Chifin Kalapuyans and called the Eugene area where they lived Chifin, other Kalapuyan tribes occupied villages that are also now within Eugene city limits. Pee-you or Mohawk Calapooians, Winefelly or Pleasant Hill Calapooians, and they were close-neighbors to the Chifin, intermarried, and were political allies. Some authorities suggest that the Brownsville Kalapuyans were related to the Pee-you and it is likely that since the Santiam had an alliance with the Brownsville Kalapuyans that the Santiam influence also went as far at Eugene. According to archeological evidence, the ancestors of the Kalapuyans may have been in Eugene for as long as 10,000 years, French fur traders had settled seasonally in the Willamette Valley by the beginning of the 19th century. Having already developed relationships with Native communities through intermarriage and trade, by 1828 to 1830 they and their Native wives began year round occupation of the land, raising crops and tending animals. In this process the mixed race families began to impact Native access to land, food supply, in July,1830, intermittent fever struck the lower Columbia region and a year later, the Willamette Valley. Natives traced the arrival of the disease, then new to the Northwest, to the U. S. ship, Owyhee, intermittent fever is thought by researchers now to be malaria. In his book The Coming of the Spirit Pestilence Boyd reports that there was a 92% population loss for the Kalapuyans between 1830 and 1841 and this catastrophic event shattered the social fabric of Kalapuyan society and altered the demographic balance in the Valley. As the demographic pressure from the colonists grew, the remaining Kalapuyans were forcibly removed to reservations, though some Natives escaped being swept into the reservation, most were moved to the Grand Ronde reservation in 1856. Strict racial segregation was enforced and mixed people, known as Métis in French, had to make a choice between the reservation and Anglo society
36.
Su Bingtian
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Su Bingtian is a Chinese track and field athlete who competes in the sprints. He is the reigning Asian champion over 100 metres, was a semi-finalist at the 2012 Summer Olympics, Su holds Asian record in the 60 metres and 100 meters. He is the man of Asian descent to run the 100m in under 10 seconds. He has also won medals at the Summer Universiade and the Asian Games and he broke onto the continental scene with three straight wins in the 100 metres on the Asian Grand Prix in May 2009. His first medal came in the 4×100 metres relay at the 11th Chinese Games later that year and he was selected for the relay at the 2009 Asian Athletics Championships and won a silver medal alongside Guo Fan, Liang Jiahong and Zhang Peimeng. He took the individual 100 m title at the East Asian Games and he equalled the Chinese indoor record in the 60 m in Chengdu in 2010, running 6.58 seconds. At the 2010 Asian Games he won the gold with a national. In March 2011, he set a new Chinese national 60 metres indoor record in Chengdu with a time of 6.56 seconds. He ended the season by breaking the Chinese record to win the 100 m at the Chinese Athletics Championships with a time of 10.16 seconds, improving upon Zhou Wei and Chen Haijians former best mark. In 2012 he was a 60 m semi-finalist at the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships and he ran a wind-aided 10.04 seconds at the start of the outdoor season and ended it by defending his national title in the 100 m. His 2013 began with two 60 m national records in Nanjing, where he ran 6.56 seconds and then 6.55 seconds. Zhang Peimeng beat Sus 100 m national record in May 2013, on 23 August 2015, he reached the final of the 100m at the World Championships in Beijing with a time of 9.99 seconds in his semi-final. In the final, he finished his race with the time 10.06 in position 9th
37.
Fukui, Fukui
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Fukui is the capital city of Fukui Prefecture, Japan. The city is located in the part of the prefecture on the coast of the Sea of Japan. As of November 1,2009, the city has an population of 267,428. The total area is 536.17 km², most of the population lives in a small central area, the city limits include rural plains, mountainous areas, and suburban sprawl along the Route 8 by-pass. Fukui was devastated by Allied bombing in 1945, american heavy bombers leveled some 86% of the city during the United States sustained strategic carpet-bombing campaign against the Empire of Japan. Fukui was again devastated by a earthquake in 1948. The city has regained its energy and vitality, hence the citys official symbol, the phoenix. On February 1,2006, the town of Miyama, the town of Shimizu, Fukui has a humid subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and cool winters. Precipitation is high throughout the year, and is heavy in December. Fukui Station is the central railway station, it is a major stop on the JR West Hokuriku Main Line. It also serves as the terminus for the JR Etsumi-Hoku Line, the Fukui Railway Fukubu Line, the Hokuriku Shinkansen is currently under construction and will ultimately extend from Tokyo via Nagano and Kanazawa when completed. Regular services are provided by Keifuku Bus and Fukui Railway. The Hokuriku Expressway provides access through the city to the north and south, the Fukui and Fukui-Kita interchanges are located within the city limits. National Route 8, also known as the Fukui Bypass, parallels the Hokuriku Expressway through the city and that was because Fukui was an important industrial and railroad center. 95% percent of known industries were in the area of the attack. The attack was meant to destroy industries, disrupt rail communications, bombing raids of the city took place on July 19,1945. Of the citys 1.9 Sq. Miles at the time,84. 8% of Fukui was destroyed, works cited “21st Bomber Command Tactical Mission Report 277 to 281, Ocr. pdf”, n. d
38.
Adam Gemili
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Adam Gemili is a British sprinter. Gemili won a medal over 100 m at the 2012 World Junior Championships in Athletics in Barcelona. His winning time of 10.05 seconds established a new championship record and he was selected to run the 200 m at the 2013 World Championships in Athletics. 2013 was his first season training for the event, Gemili won his first senior medal at the 2014 Commonwealth Games coming second to Jamaicas Kemar Bailey-Cole in the 100 m final in a time of 10.10 seconds. Two weeks later, Gemili took his first senior title, winning the 200 m at the 2014 European Athletics Championships, in an equal personal best of 19.98. He is a member of Blackheath and Bromley Harriers Athletic Club, and also a former football player for Dagenham & Redbridge and Thurrock F. C. having spent seven years in the youth academy at Chelsea. Gemili is the man of Middle Eastern descent to run the 100 m in under 10 seconds. Gemili is of Iranian and Moroccan descent, which he considers to be a very weird background for a sprinter, at the age of eleven, Gemili attended Dartford Grammar School. He also attended Barking and Dagenham College where he studied for a BTEC Extended Diploma in Sport and he is a member of Blackheath & Bromley Harriers. Gemili won a medal over 100 m at the 2011 European Athletics Junior Championships in Tallinn. He also helped the British squad to a medal in the 4 x 100 m relay. At the National Junior Athletic League Finals Gemili won the 200 m in 20.98 and he beat his previous best time of 10.23 in the heats, running a time of 10.11 and then ran a time of 10.08 in the final. That time was the second fastest 100 m ever run by a British Junior, at the time of his victory, James Dasaolu was the only one other British athlete to have met the Olympic qualifying time for the mens 100 m. Gemili was selected for the British 2012 Olympic 4 ×100 m relay team on 3 July 2012. Besides breaking the British national junior record, Gemilis 10.05 ranks sixth all-time among juniors, behind only Brown, Jeffery Demps, Marcus Rowland, DAngelo Cherry and Christophe Lemaitre. He ran 10.11 in his first heat in the 100 m at the London 2012 Olympics, finishing in second just behind Asafa Powell. As he finished in the top 3 of the heat Gemili qualified for the round but despite finishing third in his semi final in a time of 10.06. He qualified for the 2013 World Athletics Championships in Moscow for the 200 m, in his semi-final, he clocked a time of 19.98, the second fastest time ever by a Briton in that distance, having been bettered only by John Regis
39.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
Usain Bolt 9.58 (2009)
Florence Griffith-Joyner 10.49[a] (1988)
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Thomas Burke (USA)
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