1.
99th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from January 3,1985 to January 3,1987, during the fifth and sixth years of Ronald Reagans presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980, the Republicans maintained control of the Senate, while the Democrats maintained control of the House of Representatives. January 20,1985, Ronald Reagan was privately sworn in for a term as U. S. President. January 28,1986, Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, Destruction of the shuttle, April 15,1986, Operation El Dorado Canyon, At least 15 people die after United States planes bomb targets in the Libyan capital, Tripoli, and the Benghazi region. October 21,1986, The Marshall Islands achieved independence from U. S. -administered UN Trusteeship, November 3,1986, The Federated States of Micronesia achieved independence from U. S. -administered UN Trusteeship and became an associated state under the Compact of Free Association. November 4,1986, United States general elections,1986, Congressional Democrats regained their Senate majority, December 12,1985, Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985 Pub. L. 99–177 December 17,1985, Gold Bullion Coin Act of 1985, 99–185 April 7,1986, Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 Pub. L. 99–272 May 19,1986, Firearm Owners Protection Act, Pub. L, 99–308 October 1,1986, Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986, Pub. L. 99–433 October 2,1986, Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, Pub. L, 99–440 October 17,1986, Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, Pub. L. 99–499 October 21,1986, Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986, 99–508 October 22,1986, Tax Reform Act of 1986, Pub. L. 99–514 October 27,1986, Anti-Drug Abuse Act, Pub. L, 99–570 October 31,1986, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Pub. L. 99–592 November 6,1986, Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, 99–603, S.1200 November 17,1986, Water Resources Development Act of 1986, Pub. L. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional History U. S. Senate, Statistics, Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 99th Congress. Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 99th Congress, official Congressional Directory for the 99th Congress
2.
101st United States Congress
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It met in Washington, DC from January 3,1989, to January 3,1991, during the first two years of the administration of U. S. President George H. W. Bush. The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980, both chambers had a Democratic majority. January 20,1989, George H. W. L, 101–12,103 Stat.16 October 28,1989, Flag Protection Act of 1989, Pub. L. 101–131,103 Stat.777 May 22,1990, Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989, 101–298,104 Stat.201 July 26,1990, Americans with Disabilities Act, Pub. L. 101–336,104 Stat.327 August 18,1990, Oil Pollution Act of 1990, 101–380,104 Stat.484 September 25,1990, Hotel and Motel Fire Safety Act of 1990, Pub. L. 101–391,104 Stat.747 October 30,1990, Native American Languages Act of 1990, 101–477,104 Stat.1152 November 5,1990, Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, Pub. L. 101–508,104 Stat.1388 November 12,1990, Water Resources Development Act of 1990, 101–640 November 15,1990, Administrative Dispute Resolution Act, Pub. L. 101–552,104 Stat.2736 November 16,1990, Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, 101–601,104 Stat.3048 November 29,1990, Negotiated Rulemaking Act, Pub. L. 101–648,104 Stat.4969 November 29,1990, Immigration Act of 1990, 101–649,104 Stat.4978 December 1,1990, Judicial Improvements Act of 1990, Pub. L. 101–650,104 Stat.5128 October 22,1990, Civil Rights Act of 1990, override attempt failed in Senate, 66-34. March 1,1989, Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district. The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers, halverson Historian, Richard A. Baker Parliamentarian, Alan Frumin Secretary, Walter J. Stewart Secretary for the Majority, C. Abbott Saffold Secretary for the Minority, Howard O. Green, Jr. Sergeant at Arms, Henry K. Giugni Chaplain, James David Ford Clerk, Donnald K. Anderson Doorkeeper, James T. Molloy Historian, Ray Smock Parliamentarian, William H. Brown Postmaster, Robert V. S. Congress U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional History U. S. Senate, Statistics, Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 101st Congress. Official Congressional Directory for the 101st Congress
3.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
4.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
5.
George H. W. Bush
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George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
6.
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
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The president pro tempore of the United States Senate, also president pro tem, is the second-highest-ranking official of the United States Senate. Unlike the vice president, the president pro tempore is a member of the Senate. Selected by the Senate at large, the president pro tempore has enjoyed many privileges, during the vice presidents absence, the president pro tempore is empowered to preside over Senate sessions. Since 1890, the most senior senator in the majority party has generally chosen to be president pro tempore. This tradition has been observed without interruption since 1949, the current President pro tempore of the Senate is Utah Republican Orrin Hatch. Elected on January 6,2015, he is the 90th person to serve in this office, although the position is in some ways analogous to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the powers of the president pro tempore are far more limited. The president pro tempore is third in the line of succession, following the vice president. Additional duties include appointment of various officers, certain commissions, advisory boards. The officeholder is an ex member of various boards and commissions. With the secretary and sergeant at arms, the president pro tempore maintains order in Senate portions of the Capitol, the office of president pro tempore was established by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The first president pro tempore, John Langdon, was elected on April 6 the same year, originally, the president pro tempore was appointed on an intermittent basis when the vice president was not present to preside over the Senate. Until the 1960s, it was practice for the vice president to preside over daily Senate sessions. Until 1891, the president pro tempore only served until the return of the president to the chair or the adjournment of a session of Congress. Between 1792 and 1886, the president pro tempore was second in the line of succession following the vice president. When President Andrew Johnson, who had no president, was impeached and tried in 1868. Wades radicalism is thought by historians to be a major reason why the Senate. The President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House were removed from the line of succession in 1886. Both were restored to it in 1947, though this time with the president pro tempore following the speaker, William P. Frye served as President pro tempore from 1896 to 1911 (54th–62nd Congress, a tenure longer than anyone else
7.
John C. Stennis
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John Cornelius Stennis was a U. S. Senator from the state of Mississippi and he was a Democrat who served in the Senate for over 41 years, becoming its most senior member for his last eight years. He retired from the Senate in 1989, Stennis was the son of Hampton Howell Stennis and Margaret Cornelia Adams. His great-grandfather John Stenhouse emigrated to Greenville, South Carolina from Scotland just before the American Revolution, according to family lore, the local residents would habitually mispronounce his name, forcing him to legally change it to Stennis. Born in Kemper County, Mississippi, Stennis received a degree from Mississippi State University in Starkville in 1923. In 1928, Stennis obtained a law degree from the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, where he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Alpha Kappa Psi, and Alpha Chi Rho Fraternity. While in law school, he won a seat in the Mississippi House of Representatives, Stennis was a prosecutor from 1932 to 1937 and a circuit judge from 1937 to 1947, both for Mississippis Sixteenth Judicial District. Stennis married Coy Hines, and together, they had two children, John Hampton and Margaret Jane and his son, John Hampton Stennis, an attorney in Jackson, Mississippi, ran unsuccessfully in 1978 for the United States House of Representatives, defeated by the Republican Jon C. Hinson, then the aide to U. S, upon the death of Senator Theodore Bilbo in 1947, Stennis won the special election to fill the vacancy, winning the seat from a field of five candidates. He won the seat in his own right in 1952, and was reelected five times, from 1947 to 1978, he served alongside James Eastland, thus Stennis spent 31 years as Mississippis junior senator even though he had more seniority than most of his colleagues. He and Eastland were at the time the longest serving Senate duo in American history, later broken by the South Carolina duo of Strom Thurmond and he later developed a good relationship with Eastlands successor, Republican Thad Cochran. Stennis wrote the first Senate ethics code, and was the first chairman of the Senate Ethics Committee, in August 1965, Stennis protested the Johnson administrations emergency supplemental appropriation request for the Vietnam War. In January 1973, Stennis was shot twice outside his Washington home by two teenage muggers, time magazine ran a picture of John Stennis that read, Technical Assistance Needed. The picture had his hand cupped around his ear, Stennis lost his left leg to cancer in 1984 and subsequently used a wheelchair. Stennis was named President pro tempore of the United States Senate during the 100th Congress, during his Senate career he chaired, at various times, the Select Committee on Standards and Conduct, and the Armed Services, and Appropriations Committees. Originally, Stennis was an ardent supporter of racial segregation, earlier, as a prosecutor, he sought the conviction and execution of three sharecroppers whose murder confessions had been extracted by torture, including flogging. The convictions were overturned by the U. S. Supreme Court in the case of Brown v. Mississippi that banned the use of evidence obtained by torture. The transcript of the trial indicated Stennis was fully aware that the suspects had been tortured, later in his political career, Stennis supported one piece of civil rights legislation, the 1982 extension of the Voting Rights Act, which passed in the Senate by an 85–8 vote
8.
Jim Wright
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James Claude Wright Jr. Wright was a Democratic U. S. Congressman from Texas who served 34 years in the U. S. House of Representatives and was the Speaker of the House from 1987 to 1989, Wright resigned from the House in 1989 because of a scandal. Wright was born in Fort Worth, the son of Marie, because his father was a traveling salesman, Wright and his two sisters were reared in numerous communities in Texas and Oklahoma. In December 1941, Wright enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces and he trained as a bombardier and earned a Distinguished Flying Cross flying during combat in B-24 Liberators with the 530th Bomb Squadron, 380th Bomb Group in the South Pacific during World War II. His retelling of his exploits is contained in his 2005 book The Flying Circus. After the war, he made his home in Weatherford, where he joined partners in forming a Trade Show exhibition, as a Democrat, he won his first election without opposition in 1946 to the Texas House of Representatives, where he served from 1947 to 1949. He was defeated in his bid for reelection in 1948, after a rival claimed that Wright was weak in opposing communism and interracial marriage. He was the mayor of Weatherford from 1950 to 1954, in 1953, he served as president of the League of Texas Municipalities. In 1954, he was elected to Congress from Texass 12th congressional district and he won despite the fervid opposition of Amon G. Carter, publisher of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram newspaper and later the benefactor of the Amon Carter Museum. Carter supported the incumbent Democrat Wingate Lucas, Wright would be re-elected fourteen times, gradually rising in prominence in the party and in Congress. He developed a close relationship thereafter with Amon G. Carter, in 1956, Wright refused to join most of his regional colleagues in signing the segregationist Southern Manifesto. In 1957, he voted for the Civil Rights Act, which created the Division of Civil Rights within the U. S. Justice Department, signed by U. S. President Dwight Eisenhower, the law was pushed through Congress by U. S. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson and Speaker Sam Rayburn, however, Wright refused to support the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which required desegregation of public accommodations and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. It was signed into law by Wrights friend, President Johnson, in 1961, Wright finished in third place in the special election called to fill the U. S. Senate seat vacated by then Vice President Lyndon Johnson. Two finalists for the Senate emerged from a field of seventy-one candidates, college professor John G. Tower, then of Wichita Falls, narrowly defeated the interim appointee William Blakley, a Dallas industrialist, in a runoff election. Tower hence became the first Republican senator from Texas since Reconstruction, Wright was riding in the motorcade in Dallas on November 22,1963 when President John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Wright continued to serve in the House and became a member of the Public Works Committee. In the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex, Jim Wright is infamous for the Wright Amendment, passed in 1979, the Wright Amendment was originally designed to protect the then-fledgling Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
9.
Party leaders of the United States Senate
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The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders are two United States Senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate. They are elected to their positions in the Senate by their party caucuses, the Senate Democratic Caucus. By rule, the Presiding Officer gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate, the Assistant Majority and Minority Leaders of the United States Senate are the second-ranking members of each partys leadership. The main function of the Majority and Minority Whips is to gather votes on major issues, because they are the second ranking member of the Senate, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader. Before 1969, the titles were Majority Whip and Minority Whip. The Senate is currently composed of 52 Republicans,46 Democrats, the current leaders are Republican Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky and Democratic Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York. The current Assistant Majority Leader is Republican John Cornyn of Texas, the current Assistant Minority Leader/Whip is Democrat Dick Durbin of Illinois. The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority, John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917, the Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate is absent, for these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a deal of discretionary power. The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920, the Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925. gov Republican Majority Democratic Minority
10.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
11.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
12.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
13.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
14.
Presidency of Ronald Reagan
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The presidency of Ronald Reagan began on January 20,1981, at noon Eastern Standard Time, when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1989. Reagan, a Republican, took office as the 40th United States president following a win over Democratic incumbent President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election. The election was an election, the Reagan Revolution, that changed the trajectory of the nation. Reagan was succeeded by his president, George H. W. Bush. Domestically, the claimed to support reducing government programs. The economic policies enacted in 1981, known as Reaganomics, were an example of supply-side economics, economic growth was strong for most of the 1980s, however, there was a recession in the beginning of his term and the national debt increased significantly. S. Troops since the end of the Vietnam War and it also controversially granted aid to paramilitary forces seeking to overthrow leftist governments, particularly in war-torn Central America and Afghanistan. In diplomacy, he forged an alliance and friendship with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain. Reagan also held multiple meetings with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. In June 1987, when visiting West Berlin and standing at the Berlin Wall, Reagan demanded, Mr. Gorbachev tear down this wall. This dramatic moment helped Reagan claim that his approach beat Communism as the Berlin Wall fell, Soviet domination of Eastern Europe came to an end, and, by 1991, the damaging Iran–Contra affair engulfed several Reagan aides during his second term. His administration was criticized for lending support to right-wing military movements that committed human rights violations, Reagan was the first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve two full terms. Reagan was an advocate of free markets and laissez-faire economics and believed that the U. S. economy was hampered by excessive regulations and social programs. His first act as president was to issue an order ending price controls on domestic oil, which had contributed to the 1973 oil crisis. Reagan focused his first months in office on two goals, tax reforms and increased military spending, during Reagans first term, the nation fell into a recession that lasted from 1981 to 1982, with unemployment remaining high, as much as 10%, during 1982 and 1983. Income inequality in the U. S. also rose substantially during Reagans presidency, despite this, the economy made a strong recovery and experienced one of the longest periods of peacetime growth in its history.7 percent. Despite Reagans stated desire to cut spending, federal spending grew during his administration, one of Reagans most controversial early moves was to fire most of the countrys air traffic controllers after they took part in a strike action. Reagan also reduced Social Security by cutting disability and survivor benefits and he also took tougher positions against some crime, and declared a renewed War on Drugs
15.
1980 United States Census
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Approximately 16 percent of households received a long form of the 1980 census, which contained over 100 questions. Full documentation on the 1980 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 1980 census are available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2052. Between the 1980 census and the 1990 census, the United States population increased by approximately 22,164,837 or 9. 8%, historic US Census data 1981 U. S Census Report Contains 1980 Census results
16.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
17.
1988 State of the Union Address
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The 1988 State of the Union address was given by President Ronald Reagan to a joint session of the 100th United States Congress on January 25,1988. The speech was the last State of the Union address of President Reagans second term, donald Hodel, the Secretary of the Interior, served as the designated survivor. President Reagan began by announcing that his speech would not be a litany of achievements over the past seven years of his administration and he famously summarized the effect of government intervention on the poor, Some years ago the federal government declared War on Poverty, and poverty won. Today the federal government has 59 major welfare programs and spends more than $100 billion a year on them, what has all this money done. Well, too often it has made poverty harder to escape, federal welfare programs have created a massive social problem. With the best of intentions, government created a poverty trap that wreaks havoc on the support system the poor need most to lift themselves out of poverty. In closing he returned to his vision of America as a city on a hill and that another generation of Americans has protected and passed on lovingly this place called America, this shining city on a hill, this government of, by, and for the people. The speech lasted approximately 44 minutes and consisted of 4,955 words, the address was broadcast live on radio and television. The Democratic Party response was delivered by Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia, speeches and debates of Ronald Reagan United States presidential election,1988, The American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara. 1988 State of the Union Address at C-SPAN
18.
1987 in the United States
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Events from the year 1987 in the United States. President, Ronald Reagan Vice President, George H. W. February 11 – The United States military detonates an atomic weapon at the Nevada Test Site. February 26 – Iran-Contra affair, The Tower Commission rebukes U. S. President Ronald Reagan for not controlling his National Security Council staff, jonathan Pollard is sentenced to life in prison on one count of espionage. March 18 – Woodstock of physics, The marathon session of the American Physical Society’s meeting features 51 presentations concerning the science of high-temperature superconductors. March 19 – In Charlotte, North Carolina, televangelist Jim Bakker, head of PTL Ministries, March 29 – World Wrestling Entertainment presented WrestleMania III in the Pontiac Silverdome in Detroit, Michigan. This event was attended by over 90,000 and set an all-time indoor attendance record stands to this day. April 7 – Harold Washington is re-elected Mayor of Chicago, april 27 – The United States Department of Justice declares incumbent Austrian president Kurt Waldheim an undesirable alien. April 30 – NASCAR driver Bill Elliott sets all time fastest lap at Talladega Superspeedway,212.8 miles per hour May 8 – U. S. Senator Gary Hart drops out of the running for the Democratic presidential nomination, stark was hit by two Iraqi owned Exocet AM39 air-to-surface missiles killing 37 sailors. May 21 – Andrew Wyeth, with his Helga Pictures, became the first living American painter to have a show of his work in the West Building of the National Gallery of Art in Washington. June 12 – During a visit to Berlin, Germany, U. S. President Ronald Reagan challenges Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall. Edwards v. Aguillard, The Supreme Court of the United States rules that a Louisiana law requiring that creation science be taught in public schools whenever evolution is taught is unconstitutional. June 28 – An accidental explosion at Hohenfels Training Area in West Germany kills 3 U. S. troopers, july 1 – U. S. President Ronald Reagan nominates former Solicitor General Robert Bork to the Supreme Court. The nomination is rejected by the Senate, the first. July 17 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above the 2,500 mark for the first time, at 2,510.04. August 16 – Northwest Airlines Flight 255 crashes on takeoff from Detroit Metropolitan Airport in Romulus, august 19 – ABC News chief Middle East correspondent Charles Glass escapes his Hezbollah kidnappers in Beirut, Lebanon, after 62 days in captivity. August 31 – Michael Jackson releases his solo album Bad. September 11 – Pope John Paul II visits Columbia, South Carolina, september 17 At a small rally in New York Citys Harlem district, televangelist Pat Robertson announces his candidacy for the 1988 Republican presidential nomination
19.
1988 in the United States
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Events from the year 1988 in the United States. January 1 – The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America is established, january 2 – Michigan State Spartans football team wins the Rose Bowl Game against USC Trojans. Vice President George H. W. Bush and CBS News anchor Dan Rather clash over Bushs role in the Iran-Contra scandal, january 29 – The Midwest Classic Conference, a U. S. college athletic conference, is formed. February 3 – The Democratic-controlled United States House of Representatives rejects President Ronald Reagans request for $36.25 million to support the Nicaraguan Contras, february 12 – Anthony M. Kennedy is appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States. February 16 – Gunman Richard Farley kills 7 people inside his former place of work, ESL Incorporated in Sunnyvale and he had been stalking coworker Laura Black who still worked there, however she survived the shooting. Farley is currently on death row, Lieutenant Colonel William R. Higgins, serving with a United Nations group monitoring a truce in southern Lebanon, is kidnapped. February 24 – Hustler Magazine v. Falwell, The Supreme Court of the United States sides with Hustler magazine by overturning a court decision to award Jerry Falwell $200,000 for defamation. March 8 Two U. S. Army helicopters collide in Fort Campbell, Kentucky, U. S. presidential candidate George Herbert Walker Bush defeats Robert Dole in numerous Republican primaries and caucuses on Super Tuesday. Jesse Jackson, however, wins several Southern state primaries, march 13 – Following the Deaf President Now protests, Gallaudet University selects I. King Jordan as the first Deaf president in its history, march 16 First RepublicBank of Texas fails and enters FDIC receivership, the second largest FDIC assisted bank failure up to that point. Iran-Contra Affair, Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the United States. March 26 – U. S. presidential candidate Jesse Jackson defeats Michael Dukakis in the Michigan Democratic caucuses, Richard Gephardt withdraws his candidacy after his campaign speeches against imported automobiles fail to earn him much support in Detroit. April – The Unemployment Rate drops to 5. 4%, the lowest since June 1974 April 4 – Governor Evan Mecham of Arizona is convicted in his impeachment trial, April 5 – Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis wins the Wisconsin Democratic presidential primary. April 11 – The Last Emperor wins nine Oscars, April 12 – Former pop singer Sonny Bono is elected mayor of Palm Springs, California. April 14 – The USS Samuel B. Roberts strikes a mine in the Persian Gulf, while deployed on Operation Earnest Will. April 18 – The United States Navy retaliates for the Roberts mining with Operation Praying Mantis, in a day of strikes against Iranian oil platforms and naval vessels. May 14 – Bus collision near Carrollton, Kentucky, A drunk driver going the way on Interstate 71, hits a converted school bus carrying a church youth group from Radcliff. The resulting fire kills 27, making it tied for 1st in the U. S. for most fatalities involving 2 vehicles to the present day, coincidentally, the other 2-vehicle accident involving a bus that also killed 27 occurred in Prestonsburg, Kentucky 30 years prior
20.
1989 in the United States
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Events from the year 1989 in the United States. January 4 – Second Gulf of Sidra incident, Two Libyan MiG-23 Floggers are engaged, January 11 President Ronald Reagan delivers his farewell address to the nation. The National Collegiate Athletic Association adopts Proposition 42, which athletic scholarships from athletes who fail to meet minimal academic standards. January 13 – Bernhard Goetz sentenced to one year in prison, January 16 – An Hispanic Miami police officer shoots and kills a speeding black motorcyclist in the Overtown section of Miami, starting three days of rioting. Miami, Florida January 17 – Stockton massacre, Patrick Edward Purdy kills five children, wounds thirty and then himself in Stockton. January 18 – The Republican National Committee elects Lee Atwater as its chairman, January 20 George H. W. Bush succeeds Ronald Reagan as the 41st President of the United States of America. January 22 – The San Francisco 49ers defeat the Cincinnati Bengals in Super Bowl XXIII, January 24 Serial killer Theodore Bundy is executed in Floridas electric chair. Joel Steinberg is convicted of manslaughter in the death of a 6-year old child he was raising. The 101st United States Congress rejects a proposed 51 percent pay raise for its members, federal judges, February 10 Ron Brown is elected chairman of the Democratic National Committee, becoming the first African American to lead a major United States political party. President Bush meets with Prime Minister of Canada Brian Mulroney in Ottawa, February 11 – Barbara Harris is the first woman consecrated as a bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. February 14 – The first of 24 Global Positioning System satellites is placed into orbit, February 23 – After protracted testimony, the U. S. Senate Armed Services Committee rejects, 11–9, President Bushs nomination of John Tower for Secretary of Defense. February 23–27 – U. S. President Bush visits Japan, China, February 26 –60 Minutes airs a report claiming that apples sprayed with Alar may cause cancer in children, leading many schools to remove apples from their cafeterias. March – The unemployment rate drops to a low of 5. 0%, March 1 The Berne Convention, an international treaty on copyrights, is ratified by the United States. Louis Wade Sullivan starts his term of office as U. S. Secretary of Health, james D. Watkins starts his term of office as U. S. Secretary of Energy. March 3 – Former National Security Advisor Robert McFarlane is fined $20,000, March 4 Time, Inc. and Warner Communications announce plans for a merger, forming Time Warner. Eastern Air Lines machinists and baggage workers walk off the job to protest pay cuts, the airline subsequently filed for bankruptcy protection five days later, on March 9. March 9 – By a vote of 53 to 47, the Senate votes to reject the nomination of John Tower as United States Secretary of Defense, President Bush subsequently nominated Dick Cheney the next day, and Cheney was confirmed and sworn in as defense secretary on March 17. March 13 – A geomagnetic storm causes the collapse of the Hydro-Québec power grid,6 million people are left without power for 9 hours
21.
Black Monday (1987)
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In finance, Black Monday refers to Monday, October 19,1987, when stock markets around the world crashed, shedding a huge value in a very short time. The crash began in Hong Kong and spread west to Europe, the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell exactly 508 points to 1,738.74. In Australia and New Zealand, the 1987 crash is referred to as Black Tuesday because of the time zone difference. The stock market advanced significantly, with the Dow peaking in August 1987 at 2,722 points, further financial uncertainty may have resulted from the collapse of OPEC in early 1986, which led to crude oil price decreasing by more than 50% by mid-1986. On October 14, the DJIA dropped 95.46 points to 2,412.70, on Thursday, October 15,1987, Iran hit the American-owned supertanker, the Sungari, with a Silkworm missile off Kuwaits main Mina Al Ahmadi oil port. The next morning, Iran hit another ship, the U. S. -flagged MV Sea Isle City, with another Silkworm missile. On Friday, October 16, when all the markets in London were unexpectedly closed due to the Great Storm of 1987, then-Treasury Secretary James Baker stated concerns about the falling prices. Later that morning, two U. S. warships shelled an Iranian oil platform in the Persian Gulf in response to Irans Silkworm missile attack on the Sea Isle City. By the end of October, stock markets in Hong Kong, Australia, Spain, the United Kingdom, New Zealands market was hit especially hard, falling about 60% from its 1987 peak, and taking several years to recover. The Black Monday decline was—and currently remains—the largest one-day percentage decline in the DJIA, however, the economy was barely affected and growth actually increased throughout 1987 and 1988, with the DJIA regaining its pre-crash closing high of 2,722 points in early 1989. This, along with the demise of the leveraged buyout craze brought a five-year depression late that year. Possible causes for the decline included program trading, overvaluation, illiquidity, a popular explanation for the 1987 crash was selling by program traders, most notably as a reaction to the computerized selling required by portfolio insurance hedges. However, economist Dean Furbush points out that the biggest price drops occurred when trading volume was light, in program trading, computers perform rapid stock executions based on external inputs, such as the price of related securities. Common strategies implemented by program trading involve an attempt to engage in arbitrage, as computer technology became more available, the use of program trading grew dramatically within Wall Street firms. After the crash, many blamed program trading strategies for blindly selling stocks as markets fell, some economists theorized the speculative boom leading up to October was caused by program trading, and that the crash was merely a return to normalcy. Either way, program trading ended up taking the majority of the blame in the eye for the 1987 stock market crash. Congressman Edward J. Markey, who had been warning about the possibility of a crash, New York Universitys Richard Sylla divides the causes into macroeconomic and internal reasons. Macroeconomic causes included international disputes about foreign exchange and interest rates, the internal reasons included innovations with index futures and portfolio insurance
22.
United States presidential election, 1988
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The United States presidential election of 1988 was the 51st quadrennial United States presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 8,1988, incumbent Vice President George H. W. Bush won the Republican nomination, and chose Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. Due to the restrictions of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, running an aggressive campaign, Bush capitalized on a good economy and Reagans popularity. Meanwhile, Dukakis campaign suffered from several miscues, including failure to defend against Bushs attacks and this allowed Bush to win with a substantial margin of the popular vote, while winning the Electoral College by a landslide. Since the 1988 election, no candidate has managed to equal or surpass Bushs number of votes won or popular vote percentage. Bush was the first sitting Vice President to be elected President since Martin Van Buren in 1836, to date, this is the last election in which a retiring president was succeeded by a member of his own party. This is the earliest election in both major candidates are still living as of 2017. The duties delegated to him during Reagans second term gave him a high level of experience for a Vice President. Bush unexpectedly came in third in the Iowa caucus, which he had won in 1980, behind Dole, Dole did nothing to counter these ads and Bush won, thereby gaining crucial momentum, which he called Big Mo. Once the multiple-state primaries such as Super Tuesday began, Bushs organizational strength and fund raising lead were impossible for the candidates to match. The Republican Party convention was held in New Orleans, Louisiana, Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. When Mondale was defeated in a landslide, party leaders became eager to find a new approach to get away from the 1980 and 1984 debacles. After Bushs image was affected by his involvement on the Iran-Contra scandal much more than Reagans, and after the Democrats won back control of the U. S. One goal of the party was to find a new, fresh candidate who could move beyond the traditional New Deal-Great Society ideas of the past, to this end party leaders tried to recruit the New York Governor, Mario Cuomo, to be a candidate. Cuomo had impressed many Democrats with his speech at the 1984 Democratic Convention. However, Cuomo chose not to run and as a result and he had made a strong showing in the 1984 presidential primaries and, after Mondales defeat, had positioned himself as the moderate centrist many Democrats felt their party would need to win. However, questions and rumors about possible extramarital affairs and about past debts dogged Harts campaign, Hart had told reporters from The New York Times who questioned him about these rumors that, if they followed him around, they would be bored. In a separate investigation, the Miami Herald had received a tip from a friend of Donna Rice that Rice was involved with Hart
23.
Michael Dukakis
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Michael Stanley Dukakis is an American politician who served as the 65th and 67th Governor of Massachusetts, from 1975 to 1979 and 1983 to 1991 respectively. He is the governor in Massachusetts history and only the second Greek-American governor in U. S. history. He was nominated by the Democratic Party for president in the 1988 election, Dukakis was born in Brookline, Massachusetts. His father Panos was a Greek immigrant from Adramyttion, in Asia Minor, Panos Dukakis settled in Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1912, and graduated from Harvard Medical School twelve years later, subsequently working as an obstetrician. Dukakis mother Euterpe was an Aromanian Greek immigrant from Larissa, in Thessaly, she and her family emigrated to Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1913. Dukakis attended Brookline High School in his hometown, where he was a student and a member of the basketball, baseball, tennis. As a 17- year-old senior in school, he ran the Boston Marathon. He graduated from Swarthmore College in 1955 with a B. A. in history, although Dukakis had been accepted into Harvard Law School, he chose to enlist in the United States Army. After basic training at Fort Dix and advanced training at Camp Gordon, he was assigned as radio operator to the 8020th Administrative Unit in Munsan. The unit was a group to the United Nations delegation of the Military Armistice Commission Dukakis served from 1955 to 1957. He then received his law degree from Harvard Law School in 1960, Dukakis is also an Eagle Scout and recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award from the Boy Scouts of America. Dukakis began his career as an elected Town Meeting Member in the town of Brookline. Dukakis won in part by promising to be a reformer and pledging a lead pipe guarantee of no new taxes to balance the state budget and he would later reverse his position after taking office. He also pledged to dismantle the powerful Metropolitan District Commission, an enclave that served as home to hundreds of political patronage employees. The MDC managed state parks, reservoirs, and waterways, as well as the highways, in addition to its own police force, the MDC had its own maritime patrol force, and an enormous budget from the state, for which it provided minimal accounting. Dukakis efforts to dismantle the MDC failed in the legislature, where the MDC had many powerful supporters, as a result, the MDC would withhold its critical backing of Dukakis in the 1978 gubernatorial primary. Governor Dukakis hosted President Gerald Ford and Britains Queen Elizabeth II during their visits to Boston in 1976 to commemorate the bicentennial of the United States, Dukakis is also remembered for his 1977 exoneration of Sacco and Vanzetti, two Italian anarchists whose trial sparked protests around the world. During his first term in office, Dukakis commuted the sentences of 21 first-degree murderers and 23 second-degree murderers, due to controversy engendered by some of these individuals having re-offended, Dukakis curtailed the practice later, issuing no commutations in his last three years as governor
24.
United States Senate elections, 1988
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A total of seven seats changed hands, with four incumbents being defeated. The Democratic majority in the Senate increased from 54–46 to 55–45, Weicker, Jr. of Connecticut, and David K. Karnes of Nebraska. Connecticut, Democratic Attorney General Joe Lieberman narrowly defeated Sen. Lowell P. Weicker, a liberal in an increasingly conservative party, Weicker found himself at odds with his fellow Republicans. This rift would lead many conservatives to endorse Lieberman, Nebraska, Sen. David Karnes lost by a large margin to former Governor Bob Kerrey. Nevada, Sen. Chic Hecht was narrowly defeated by Governor Richard Bryan, Hecht had been considered vulnerable for his undistinguished record and a series of verbal gaffes. Virginia, Sen. Paul S. Trible, Jr. retired rather than run a contentious re-election race against former Governor Chuck Robb, Robb would instead face Republican Maurice Dawkins, a black minister, and defeat him in a landslide. Florida, Sen. Lawton Chiles retired rather than run for a fourth term, Congressman Connie Mack III overcame some concerns about his very conservative House record to defeat Rep. Buddy MacKay. Mississippi, Senate President pro tempore John C. Stennis retired after 41 years in the Senate, House Minority Whip Trent Lott defeated Congressman Wayne Dowdy by a comfortable margin in the increasingly Republican Mississippi. Montana, Sen. John Melcher was defeated by Republican Conrad Burns, a political novice, Burns would score an upset victory riding on the coattails of Bushs modest Montana victory. New Jersey, Sen. Frank Lautenberg won election to a second term over Republican Wall Street executive, lautenbergs campaign, led by James Carville and Paul Begala, attacked the once favored Dawkins as a carpetbagger and opportunist. Wisconsin, Former state Democratic Party Chairman Herb Kohl defeated Republican State Senator Susan Engeleiter for the seat of retiring Sen. William Proxmire. Kohl capitalized on his popularity in the state as the heir to the department stores that bear his familys name, washington, Former Sen. Slade Gorton defeated Rep. Mike Lowry for the seat of Sen. Daniel J. Evans. Gorton won the race despite having been voted out of the states other Senate seat two years earlier. Wyoming, Sen. Malcolm Wallop defeated Democratic State Senator John Vinich by less than one percentage point, Wallop became vulnerable due to attacks on his partisan voting record. A bolded state indicates an article about that states election. A bolded candidates name indicates the winner. S
25.
Civil Liberties Act of 1988
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The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 is a United States federal law that granted reparations to Japanese Americans who had been interned by the United States government during World War II. The third co-sponsor was California Senator Pete Wilson, the bill was supported by the majority of Democrats in Congress, while the majority of Republicans voted against it. The act was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan, the act granted each surviving internee about US$20,000 in compensation, with payments beginning in 1990. The legislation stated that government actions were based on prejudice, war hysteria. A total of 82,219 received redress checks, in 1996, Carmen Mochizuki filed a class-action lawsuit, and won a settlement of around $5,000 per person to those eligible from what was left of the funds from the CLA. One hundred forty-five of those affected were able to receive the $5,000 settlement before the funds ran out, in 1999, funds were approved for the attorney general to pay out to the rest of the claimants. Japanese American internment was the removal and confinement of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans from the West Coast of the United States during World War II. The remainder — roughly 110,000 men, women and children — were sent to relocation centers, hastily constructed camps in remote portions of the nations interior, run by the War Relocation Authority. President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066, which allowed local commanders to designate military areas from which any or all persons may be excluded. Some compensation for property losses was paid in 1948, but most internees were unable to recover their losses. In the 1960s and 1970s, a movement formed within the Japanese American community to obtain redress for the wartime incarceration. On October 9,1990, a ceremony was held to present the first reparations checks, nine elderly Issei received $20,000 each and a formal apology signed by President George H. W. Bush. The other, the Civil Liberties Public Education Fund, was established in order to meet the bills provision to educate the public about the incarceration. President Bill Clinton appointed a board in 1996, and the CLPEF was used to fund various educational programs. While the majority of Democrats in Congress voted for the bill, on September 17,1987, the U. S. House of Representatives passed the bill by a vote of 243 to 141, with 38 members not voting. The majority of Democrats in the House voted for the bill while a majority of Republicans voted against it, on April 20,1988, the U. S. Senate passed the bill by a vote of 69 to 27, with 4 members not voting. A large majority of Democrats voted for the bill, while a narrow majority of Senate Republicans also voted for the bill
26.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
27.
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Balanced Budget Act
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The acts were named after U. S. Senators Phil Gramm, Warren Rudman, and Ernest Hollings, who were all their chief sponsors, the term budget sequestration was first used to describe a section of the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Deficit Reduction Act of 1985. The Acts aimed to cut the United States federal budget deficit, the Acts provided for automatic spending cuts if the total discretionary appropriations in various categories exceed in a fiscal year the budget spending thresholds. The amount exceeding the limit is held back by the Treasury, under the 1985 Act, allowable deficit levels were calculated for the eventual elimination of the federal deficit. If the budget exceeded the deficit, across-the-board cuts were required. Directors of the Office of Management and Budget and the Congressional Budget Office were required to report to the Comptroller General regarding their recommendations for how much must be cut. The Comptroller General is nominated by the President from a list of three people recommended by the officers of the House and Senate. He is removable only by impeachment or a joint resolution of Congress, Congress can give a number of reasons for this removal, including inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance. The House passed the 1985 bill by a vote of 271–154 and the Senate by 61–31, on August 12,1986, Representative Dan Rostenkowski introduced the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Reaffirmation Act. The Senate passed the bill with two amendments by a vote of 36–35, and the House approved the Senates first amendment by voice vote, the Senate rescinded that amendment by voice vote and President Reagan signed the bill on August 21. The process for determining the amount of the cuts was found unconstitutional in the case of Bowsher v. It was noted, Once Congress passes legislation, it can influence only its execution by passing new laws or through impeachment, Congress enacted a reworked version of the law in the 1987 Act. Gramm–Rudman failed, however, to prevent large budget deficits, the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 supplanted the fixed deficit targets, which replaced sequestration with a PAYGO system, which was in effect until 2002. Balanced budgets did not actually emerge until the late 1990s when budget surpluses emerged, the budgets quickly fell out of balance after 2000 and have run consistent and substantial deficits since then. Budget deficit S.1702 – Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985, william G. Dauster, Budget Process Law Annotated,1993 Edition. H. J. RES.372 – CRS Summary of Balanced Budget, compliance Report For FY1986, Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985
28.
Computer Security Act of 1987
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The Computer Security Law of 1987, Public Law No. 100-235, was passed by the United States Congress and it was passed to improve the security and privacy of sensitive information in federal computer systems and to establish a minimum acceptable security practices for such systems. It requires the creation of security plans, and the appropriate training of system users or owners where the systems house sensitive information. It was repealed by the Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002 SEC, mandatory security awareness training for federal employees that use those systems. HR145 Electronic Privacy Information Center Information Security, The Computer Security Act of 1987--H. R.145, Computer Security, Status of Compliance With the Computer Security Act of 1987. Computer Security, Compliance With Training Requirements of the Computer Security Act of 1987
29.
Supreme Court Case Selections Act
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The Supreme Court Case Selections Act of 1988 is an act of Congress that eliminated appeals as of right from state court decisions to the Supreme Court of the United States. The Act amended 28 U. S. C. §1257 to eliminate the right of appeal to the Supreme Court from certain state-court judgments. S. Following enactment of the Act, the appeal as of right to the Supreme Court that still exists. §1253, are heard and determined by a district court of three judges. Prior to the enactment of the Act, §1257 read as follows, for the purposes of this section, the term highest court of a State includes the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. The Act removed subsections and, which had provided for the right of appeal, struck appeal from the section catchline, for the purposes of this section, the term highest court of a State includes the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. Judiciary Act of 1925 Pub. L. 100-352 information, thomas. gov 28 U. S. C. §1257 from the Legal Information Institute at Cornell University
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Medicare (United States)
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United States Medicare is funded by a payroll tax, premiums and surtaxes from beneficiaries, and general revenue. It provides health insurance for Americans aged 65 and older who have worked, in 2015, Medicare provided health insurance for over 55 million—46 million people age 65 and older and nine million younger people. On average, Medicare covers about half of the health care charges for those enrolled, the enrollees must then cover their remaining costs either with supplemental insurance, separate insurance, or out-of-pocket. Out-of-pocket costs can vary depending on the amount of care a Medicare enrollee needs. They might include the costs of uncovered services—such as for long-term, dental, hearing, a similar but different CMS system determines the rates paid acute care and other hospitals—including skilled nursing facilities—under Medicare Part A. Medicare was the originally given to a program providing medical care for families of individuals serving in the military as part of the Dependents Medical Care Act passed in 1956. President Eisenhower held the first White House Conference on Aging in January 1961, johnson signed the bill into law on July 30,1965 at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library in Independence, Missouri. Former President Truman and his wife, former First Lady Bess Truman became the first recipients of the program, many of this latter group became dual eligible for both Medicare and Medicaid with the passage of the law. In 1966, Medicare spurred the racial integration of thousands of waiting rooms, hospital floors, Medicare has been in operation for a half century and, during that time, has undergone several changes. Since 1965, the provisions of Medicare have expanded to include benefits for speech, physical, Medicare added the option of payments to health maintenance organizations in the 1980s. The association with HMOs begun in the 1980s was formalized under President Clinton in 1997 as Medicare Part C, in 2003, under President George W. Bush, a Medicare program for covering almost all drugs was passed as Medicare Part D. Since the creation of Medicare, science and medicine have advanced, the fact that people are living longer necessitates more services for later stages in life. Thus in 1982, the government added hospice benefits to aid the elderly on a temporary basis, two years later in 1984, hospice became a permanent benefit. Congress further expanded Medicare in 2001 to cover people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The Chief Actuary of CMS is responsible for providing accounting information, contracted processes include claims and payment processing, call center services, clinician enrollment, and fraud investigation. Beginning in 1997 and 2005 respectively, these and other companies also began administering Part C. Medicare has several sources of financing, Part As inpatient admitted hospital and skilled nursing coverage is largely funded by revenue from a 2. 9% payroll tax levied on employers and workers. Beginning January 1,1994, the limit was removed
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Indian Gaming Regulatory Act
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The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act is a 1988 United States federal law that establishes the jurisdictional framework that governs Indian gaming. There was no federal gaming structure before this act, the law established the National Indian Gaming Commission and gave it a regulatory mandate. The law also delegated new authority to the U. S. Department of the Interior and created new federal offenses, the law has been the source of extensive controversy and litigation. One of the key questions is whether the National Indian Gaming Commission, some in Congress are in favor of greater regulation, while a professor in the field is skeptical that such regulation is effective. Many of the controversies have produced litigation, some of it reaching the U. S. Supreme Court, gambling is a part of many traditional Indian cultures. Tribal games include dice and shell activities, archery competitions, races, when Native Americans moved to Indian Reservations in the mid- to late 1800s, most were left with limited economic opportunity. S. The use of gaming to generate profit did not begin until the late 1970s, several tribes, especially in California and Florida, opened bingo parlors as a way to earn revenue. Their actions were related to the search for new sources of revenue, while bingo was legal in California and Florida, those states had stringent regulations. Operating on the history of tribal sovereignty, some tribes did not comply with these laws, high-stakes Indian bingo operations soon arose in California, Florida, New York and Wisconsin. State governments began contending that revenues from their own gaming operations dropped as Native American operations increased the potential stakes, several laws influenced the creation of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act. Many of these laws came from U. S. Supreme Court rulings regarding tribal sovereignty. In the early 1970s, Helen and Russell Bryan, members of the Chippewa Tribe, lived on a reservation in Itasca County, in 1972, the county notified them that their mobile home was subject to state property taxes. According to the U. S. Constitution, the federal government possesses the right to treat with Native Americans. Case law has since granted Congress jurisdiction over Indian reservations, yet, Public Law 280, passed by Congress in 1953, transferred criminal jurisdiction over Indian reservations from the federal government to certain states. Although both the court and Minnesota Supreme Court originally ruled in favor of the state, the U. S. Supreme Court reversed this decision in 1976. The Court interpreted PL280 more narrowly, designed to address only crimes and civil disputes, therefore, states were given jurisdiction over criminal laws on reservations, but not over civil regulatory laws. This new interpretation of PL280 opened the gates for the Indian gaming industry, Gaming soon became the most widely successful economic initiative on reservations across the country. Another court case that paved the way for the IGRA was in the mid-1980s when the Cabazon Band of Mission Indians started a bingo parlor
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AIDS amendments of 1988
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AIDS amendments of 1988, better known as the Health Omnibus Programs Extension Act of 1988, is a United States statute amending the Public Health Service Act. The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome amendments were compiled as Title II - Programs with Respect to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome within the HOPE Act of 1988, the Title II Act appropriated federal funding for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome education, prevention, research, and testing. The U. S. legislative title provisioned the establishment of the presidentially appointed National Commission on AIDS, the S.2889 legislation was passed by the 100th U. S. Congressional session and signed by the 40th President of the United States Ronald Reagan on November 4,1988, the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome was officially recognized on June 5,1981 when the U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published an article in the CDCs Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. The CDC article acknowledged five young males in the Los Angeles, California area who were infected with the cytomegalovirus, on July 3,1981, The New York Times published a report concerning forty-one males with scarce cases of Kaposis sarcoma in California and New York. By the close of 1981, there had been two hundred and seventy cases of severe immune deficiency cases in males across the United States, of the two hundred and seventy cases, one hundred and twenty-one of those cases resulted in mortality rates in the United States. On April 13,1982, the first U. S. congressional hearings were conducted on the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome by U. S, representatives Phillip Burton and Henry Waxman provided U. S. Congressional deliberations concluded on December 17,1982 when the 97th Congressional session passed the Orphan Drug Act of 1983, the AIDS amendments established policy for five primary elements with respect to the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Title XXIII - Research with respect to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome established surveyable protocols for clinical research, clinical toxicology, individual is adept to avoid long-term or frequent inpatient care at a hospital, nursing facility, or other institution if home and community-based health services are provided to individual. Individual having similar level of disability due to cognitive impairment as defined by the Secretary, subsections and are not to be construed to restrict the ability or intent of an education program with respect to the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Clearinghouse is to develop and obtain educational materials, model curricula, Report on certain ethical issues Congressional Biomedical Ethics Board will report on ethical issues associated with the administration of hydration and nutrition to fatal patients. Discrimination against individuals infected with or regarded as being infected with the agent for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. ACT UP History of HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS in New York City HIV/AIDS in the United States AIDS. gov, U. S. Department of Health & Human Services. AIDSinfo, Information on HIV/AIDS Treatment, Prevention and Research, U. S. Department of Health & Human Services. AIDS, Views on the Administrations Fiscal Year 1989 Public Health Service Budget, coping With AIDS in the GAO Workplace, The Task Force Report. U. S. GAO ~ AIDS Task Force Report, centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U. S. Department of Health & Human Services
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Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988
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On September 14,1986 President Ronald Reagan along with his wife, First Lady Nancy Reagan, addressed the nation regarding the current drug epidemic. The speech, as well as the 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act paid special attention to crack cocaine, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 is an amendment to the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986. The Act amended 21 U. S. C.844 to make crack cocaine the only drug with a minimum penalty for a first offense of simple possession. The Act made possession of more than five grams of a mixture or substance containing cocaine base punishable by at least five years in prison, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 also offers several other amendments to the Act of 1986. First, the organization and coordination of Federal drug control efforts, next, the reduction of drug demand through increased treatment and prevention efforts. Also, the reduction of drug trafficking and production abroad. Lastly, sanctions designed to place added pressure on the drug user, the ADAA projected budget for these amendments was $6.5 billion for the 1989 fiscal year”. The result of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 was not foreseen, placing people in jail at increasing rates has had little long-term effect on the levels of crime”. The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 is a law of the so-called War on Drugs passed by the U. S. The H. R.5210 legislation was passed by the 100th U. S, congressional session and enacted into law by the 40th President of the United States Ronald Reagan on November 18,1988. Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration Federal drug policy of the United States
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Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
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The INF Treaty eliminated all nuclear and conventional missiles, as well as their launchers, with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometers and 1, 000–5,500 km. The treaty did not cover sea-launched missiles, by May 1991,2,692 missiles were eliminated, followed by 10 years of on-site verification inspections. Whereas the SS-4 and SS-5 were seen as weapons, the SS-20 was seen as a potential offensive system. Leslie H. Gelb, the US Assistant Secretary of State, on 12 December 1979, following European pressure for a response to the SS-20, Western foreign and defense ministers meeting in Brussels made the NATO Double-Track Decision. The ministers argued that the Warsaw Pact had developed a large and growing capability in nuclear systems that directly threaten Western Europe, theater nuclear systems. The ministers also attributed the situation to the deployment of the Soviet Tupolev Tu-22M strategic bomber. To address these developments, the ministers adopted two policy tracks, formal talks began on 30 November 1981, with the US then led by President Ronald Reagan and the Soviet Union by Leonid Brezhnev. Additionally, the US insisted that a sufficient verification regime be in place, paul Nitze, a longtime hand at defense policy who had participated in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, led the US delegation after being recruited by Secretary of State Alexander Haig. Though Nitze had backed the first SALT treaty, he opposed SALT II and had resigned from the US delegation during its negotiation, Nitze was also then a member of the Committee on the Present Danger, a firmly anti-Soviet group composed of neoconservatives and conservative Republicans. Yuli Kvitsinsky, the well-respected second-ranking official at the Soviet embassy in West Germany, on 18 November 1981, shortly before the beginning of formal talks, Reagan made the Zero Option proposal. The plan called for a hold on US deployment of GLCM and Pershing II systems, reciprocated by Soviet elimination of its SS-4, SS-5, there appeared to be little chance of the Zero Option being adopted, but the gesture was well received in the European public. Opinion within the Reagan administration on the Zero Option was mixed, Richard Perle, then the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Global Strategic Affairs, was the architect of the plan. Reagan later recounted that the zero option sprang out of the realities of nuclear politics in Western Europe. The Soviet Union rejected the plan shortly after the US tabled it in February 1982, specifically, Soviet negotiators proposed that the number of INF missiles and aircraft deployed in Europe by one side be capped at 600 by 1985 and 300 by 1990. Between 1981 and 1983, US and Soviet negotiators gathered for six rounds of talks, the US delegation was composed of Nitze, General William F. Colonel Norman Clyne, a SALT participant, served as Nitzes chief of staff, there was little convergence between the two sides over these two years. Nitze later said that his and Kvitsinskys goal was to agree to certain concessions that would allow for a summit meeting meeting Brezhnev, Nitzes offer to Kvitsinsky was that the US would forego deployment of the Pershing II and continue deployment of GLCMs, but limited to 75 missile launchers. The Soviet Union, in return, would also have to limit itself to 75 intermediate-range missile launchers in Europe and 90 in Asia, while Kvitsinsky was skeptical that the plan would be well received in Moscow, Nitze was optimistic about its chances in Washington
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Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination
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The Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination refers to the 1987 nomination by President Ronald Reagan of Judge Robert Bork to serve as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. The U. S. Senate, with 54 Democrats, rejected his nomination, Supreme Court Justice Lewis Powell was considered a moderate, often referred to as a swing vote in close decisions. President Reagan nominated Bork for the seat on July 1,1987, nixon was unable to carry out the promise before his resignation in August 1974. A brief was prepared for Joe Biden, head of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Bork later said in his book The Tempting of America that the report so thoroughly misrepresented a plain record that it easily qualifies as world class in the category of scurrility. TV ads produced by People For the American Way and narrated by Gregory Peck attacked Bork as an extremist, Bork is one of only three Supreme Court nominees to ever be opposed by the ACLU. During debate over his nomination, Borks video rental history was leaked to the press and his video rental history was unremarkable, and included such harmless titles as A Day at the Races, Ruthless People, and The Man Who Knew Too Much. The list of rentals was originally printed by Washington D. C. s City Paper and these groups also claimed that Borks second marriage to a former Roman Catholic nun would allow her to influence his decisions on the abortion issue. Accordingly, a number of left-wing groups mobilized to press for Borks rejection. Bork himself became a Catholic in 2003, and his replacement was a Catholic, including Kennedy. Bork was faulted for his bluntness before the committee, including his criticism of the reasoning underlying Roe v. Wade, as Chairman of the Judiciary Committee, Senator Joe Biden presided over Borks hearing. At the close of the hearings, Biden won praise for conducting the proceedings fairly and with humor and courage. On October 6, Borks nomination was rejected in the committee by a 9–5 vote, since a committee rejection made a rejection by the full Senate extremely likely, Bork was widely expected to concede defeat and withdraw his name from a floor consideration. However, three days later, Bork announced his belief that, There should be a full debate, in deciding on this course, I harbor no illusions. But a crucial principle is at stake and that principle is the way we select the men and women who guard the liberties of all the American people. That should not be done through public campaigns of distortion, if I withdraw now, that campaign would be seen as a success, and it would be mounted against future nominees. For the sake of the Federal judiciary and the American people, the deliberative process must be restored. Faced with certain defeat, Borks political support fell silent, Bork would even express disappointment with Reagans tepid continued endorsement, on October 23,1987, the Senate rejected Borks confirmation, with 42 Senators voting in favor and 58 voting against. The vacant seat on the court to which Bork was nominated eventually went to Judge Anthony Kennedy, Bork, unhappy with his treatment in the nomination process, resigned his appellate-court judgeship in 1988
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Robert Bork
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Robert Heron Bork was an American judge and legal scholar who advocated the judicial philosophy of originalism. Bork served as a Yale Law School professor, Solicitor General, Acting Attorney General, in 1987, President Ronald Reagan nominated him to the Supreme Court, but the U. S. Senate rejected his nomination. Bork was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and his father was Harry Philip Bork, Jr. a steel company purchasing agent, and his mother was Elisabeth, a schoolteacher. His father was of German and Irish ancestry, while his mother was of Pennsylvania Dutch descent and he was married to Claire Davidson from 1952 until 1980, when she died of cancer. They had a daughter, Ellen, and two sons, Robert and Charles, in 1982 he married Mary Ellen Pohl, a Catholic religious sister turned activist. Bork attended the Hotchkiss School in Lakeville, Connecticut and earned bachelors, while pursuing his bachelors degree he became a brother of the international social fraternity of Phi Gamma Delta. While pursuing his law degree he served on Law Review, at Chicago he was awarded a Phi Beta Kappa key with his law degree in 1953 and passed the bar in Illinois that same year. Among his students during this time were Bill Clinton, Hillary Clinton, Anita Hill, Robert Reich, Jerry Brown, John R. Bolton, Samuel Issacharoff, conservative scholar Harry Jaffa criticized Bork for failing to adhere to natural law principles. Bork served as general in the U. S. Department of Justice from March 1973 to 1977. Chief Justice Warren Burger called Bork the most effective counsel to appear before the court during his tenure, Nixon initially ordered U. S. Attorney General, Elliot Richardson, to fire Cox. Richardson resigned rather than carry out the order, richardsons top deputy, Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus, also considered the order fundamentally wrong and also resigned, making Bork the Acting Attorney General. When Nixon reiterated his order, Bork complied and fired Cox, the Justice Department did not appeal the ruling, and because Cox indicated that he did not want his job back, the issue was considered resolved. Bork remained Acting Attorney General until the appointment of William B, in his posthumously published memoirs, Bork stated that following the firings, Nixon promised him the next seat on the Supreme Court. Nixon was unable to carry out the promise after resigning in the wake of the Watergate scandal, Bork was a circuit judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit between 1982 and 1988. He was nominated by President Reagan on December 7,1981, was confirmed with a unanimous consent voice vote by the Senate on February 8,1982, and received his commission on February 9,1982. One of his opinions while on the D. C. Circuit was Dronenburg v. Zech,741 F. 2d 1388 and this case involved James L. Dronenburg, a sailor who had been administratively discharged from the Navy for engaging in homosexual conduct. Dronenburg argued that his discharge violated his right to privacy and this argument was rejected in an opinion written by Bork and joined by Antonin Scalia, in which Bork critiqued the line of Supreme Court cases upholding a right to privacy. In rejecting Dronenburgs suggestion for an en banc, the D. C
