1.
Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century
2.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
3.
South African Army
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The South African Army is the army of South Africa, first formed after the Union of South Africa was created in 1910. The South African military evolved within the tradition of frontier warfare fought by Boer Commando forces, the role of the Army was fundamentally changed by the upheavals of the early 1990s and after 1994 the Army became part of the new South African National Defence Force. It is now becoming involved in peacekeeping efforts in southern Africa. The Army is composed of roughly 40,100 regular uniformed personnel, the rank/age structure of the army, which deteriorated desperately during the 1990s, is greatly improving through the Military Skills Development voluntary national service system. Through this system, young members are being inducted into the regular. The 1912 law also obligated all males between seventeen and sixty years of age to serve in the military, but this was not strictly enforced as there were a large number of volunteers. Instead, half of the males aged from 17 to 25 were drafted by lots into the ACF. For training purposes, the Union was divided into 15 military districts, initially, the Permanent Force consisted of five regiments of the South African Mounted Riflemen, each with a battery of artillery attached. Dorning says that. the SAMR was in reality a military constabulary similar to the Cape Mounted Riflemen, in 1913 and 1914, the new 23, 400-member Citizen Force was called on to suppress several industrial strikes on the Witwatersrand. In accordance with the 1912 Defence Act, the Active Citizen Force was established under Brig. Gen. C. F, the authorised strength of the ACF and Coast Garrison Force was 25,155 and by 31 December actual strength stood at 23,462. When World War I broke out in 1914, the South African government chose to join the war on the side of the Allies, the German troops stationed there eventually surrendered to the South African forces in July 1915. Later, a brigade and various other supporting units were shipped to France in order to fight on the Western Front as the South African Overseas Expeditionary Force. The 4th Regiment was called the South African Scottish and was raised from members of the Transvaal Scottish, the supporting units included five batteries of heavy artillery, a field ambulance unit, a Royal Engineers signals company and a military hospital. South Africans also saw action with the Cape Corps in Palestine, an estimated 3,000 South Africans also joined the Royal Flying Corps. The total South African casualties during the war was about 18,600 with over 12,452 killed – more than 4,600 in the European theater alone, wartime casualties and postwar demobilisation weakened the UDF. New legislation in 1922 re-established conscription for males over the age of 21 for four years of military training and service. UDF troops assumed internal security tasks in South Africa and quelled several revolts against South African domination in South-West Africa, during the Rand strike of 1922,14,000 members of the ACF and certain A class reservists were called up. Expenditure cuts saw the UDF as a whole reduced, the last remaining regiment of the South Africa Mounted Riflemen was disbanded on 31 March 1926 and the number of military districts was reduced from 16 to six on 1 April 1926
4.
South West Africa Territorial Force
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The South West Africa Territorial Force was an auxiliary arm of the South African Defence Force and comprised the armed forces of South West Africa from 1977 to 1989. It emerged as a product of South Africas political control of the territory which was granted to the former as a League of Nations mandate following World War I. As the guerrilla war intensified, however, it clear that the local civilian police alone were not enough to cope with SWAPO/PLAN incursions. Consequently, military units were deployed for the first time,60,000 South African combat troops were engaged in South West Africa by the late 1970s. As part of a policy of military and social reform. A start was made with the regrouping of existing units into four formations, a Formation Headquarters Staff, a Reaction Force, an Area Force. Their main function was to assist the South African Air Force in reconnaissance and communication flights, the new South West African Territorial Force was officially created on 1 August 1980, from South West African citizens already serving with the South African Defence Force. The permanent force comprised mostly volunteer auxiliaries and national servicemen, who formed eight battalions, a militia system was also developed for local security, including over twenty area protection units. By 1981, SWATFs total strength numbered some 10,100 men, by 1987, SWATF had an estimated 22,000 troops, including additional units of engineers, signals personnel, mounted troops, a parachute battalion, and a commando squadron. Its primary goal was protection of the territory of SWA from SWAPO incursions, the SWATF was placed under the control of the Department of Defence for South West Africa and was always headed by a SADF general. There was also a joint SWATF/SADF committee established for planning, liaison, the rank structure of the SWATF was identical to that of the SADF. The Brigade also included a battalion and a mobilisation center. Logistics Brigade Eight full-time battalions 31 Bushman Battalion HQ at Omega Base 32 Battalion at Buffalo,33 Eastern Caprivi Battalion,34 Kavangoland Battalion,35 Ovamboland Battalion, The Quick reaction force. It recruited from South West Africa at large and deployed predominantly as a reserve force, an infantry element, a mechanised contingent, artillery, and a regiment of Eland armoured cars was included. The unit was never mobilised en masse, five ‘Modular’ Infantry Battalions 51 Battalion at Ruacana,52 Battalion at Oshakati,53 Battalion at Ondangwa and 54 Battalion at Eenhana. Modular Battalions main function was internal operations, sub units were attached according to the requirements of a specific situation, i. e. the modular nature. They were made up elements from a variety of units. Koevoet or Romeo-Mike teams were also stationed in these company bases for mutual protection
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Casspir
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The Casspir is a Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected Vehicle that has been in use in South Africa for over 30 years. It is a four-wheeled, four-wheel drive vehicle, used for transport of troops and it can hold a crew of two, plus 12 additional soldiers and associated equipment. The Casspir was unique in design when launched, providing for passive mine defence, the main armoured steel body of the vehicle is raised high above the ground, so when a mine is detonated, the explosion is less likely to damage the crew compartment and kill the occupants. The cross-section of the hull is V-shaped, directing the force of the explosion outwards, the vehicle also offers crew protection from small arms fire. The capabilities of the Casspir were the basis of the capabilities required by the U. S. Marines for their Mine Resistant Ambush Protected or MRAP vehicle project, the name Casspir is an anagram of the abbreviations of the customer, the South African Police, and the design authority, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Although the Casspir was deployed in townships during the apartheid era and these requirements led to the distinctive V-shaped hull and a wheeled chassis. The Casspir was designed by the Defence Research Unit of CSIR specifically to protect occupants against landmines. It is certified to protect its occupants against a triple TM-57 mine blast under a wheel, the Casspir has V-bottomed armoured monocoque hull, designed to deflect the force of an explosion outwards, to which a leaf-spring suspension is attached. After two years of testing, the South African Police were eventually satisfied they had a good vehicle. Some 190 Mk1 Casspir were manufactuered by Henred Fruehauf, in 1981 production was taken over by TFM, which improved the design to the Mk 2. TFM was subsequently taken over by Reumech OMC, Reumech in turn was taken over by Vickers Defence Systems of the UK and renamed Vickers OMC. When Alvis purchased Vickers Defence Systems to become Alvis Vickers, Vickers OMC became Alvis OMC, in 2004 BAE Systems acquired Alvis Vickers and Alvis OMC was renamed Land Systems OMC. Land Systems OMC was 75 per cent acquired by Denel in 2015, an estimated 2800 Casspir of all types have been built. The South African Police Service auctioned off some of their surplus Casspirs to the public at a 2008 auction, a new Casspir known as Casspir NG2000 is being manufactured by Denel Mechem. The vehicle was launched in April 2013, made extensive use of Mercedes-Benz truck components. Can be used as a weapon platform, did not enter production Sesspir - In 1984-85 the CSIR developed a prototype Casspir with six wheels. An additional non-driven axle was fitted in front of the front drive axle and it steered along with the regular driven front wheels and was equipped with winch cables to hoist either side of the axle clear off the ground in the event of the loss of a wheel
7.
South African Border War
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It was fought between the South African Defence Force and the Peoples Liberation Army of Namibia, an armed wing of the South West African Peoples Organisation. The South African Border War resulted in some of the largest battles on the African continent since World War II and was intertwined with the Angolan Civil War. Fighting broke out between PLAN and the South African authorities in August 1966, between 1975 and 1988 the SADF staged massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate PLANs forward operating bases. It also deployed specialist counter-insurgency units such as Koevoet and 32 Battalion trained to carry out external reconnaissance, South African tactics became increasingly aggressive as the conflict progressed. The SADFs incursions produced Angolan casualties and occasionally resulted in collateral damage to economic installations regarded as vital to the Angolan economy. Beginning in 1984, regular Angolan units under Soviet command were confident enough to confront the SADF and their positions were also bolstered by thousands of Cuban troops. PLAN launched its final campaign in late March 1989. South West Africa received formal independence as the Republic of Namibia a year later, despite being largely fought in neighbouring states, the South African Border War had a phenomenal cultural and political impact on South African society. It remains an integral theme in contemporary South African literature at large and Afrikaans-language works in particular, various names have been applied to the undeclared conflict waged by South Africa in Angola and Namibia from the mid 1960s to the late 1980s. Border War entered public discourse in South Africa during the late 1970s, due to the covert nature of most South African Defence Force operations inside Angola, the term was favoured as a means of omitting any reference to clashes on foreign soil. Where tactical aspects of various engagements were discussed, military historians simply identified the conflict as the bush war, the South West African Peoples Organisation has described the South African Border War as the Namibian War of National Liberation and the Namibian Liberation Struggle. In the Namibian context it is commonly referred to as the Namibian War of Independence. However, these terms have been criticised for ignoring the wider implications of the war and the fact that PLAN was based in. Namibia was governed as German South West Africa, a colony of the German Empire, until World War I, when it was invaded and occupied by Allied forces under General Louis Botha. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918, a system was imposed by the League of Nations to govern African and Asian territories held by Germany. Nevertheless, the bestowal of a mandate by the League of Nations did not confer full sovereignty, in principle mandating countries were only supposed to hold these former colonies in trust for their inhabitants, until they were sufficiently prepared for their own self-determination. Under these terms, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand were granted the German Pacific islands, and it soon became apparent the South African government had interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation. According to Smuts, this annexation in all but in name
8.
Operation Reindeer
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Operation Reindeer, which began on 4 May 1978, was South Africas second major military operation in Angola, carried out under the Apartheid regime, the first being Operation Savannah. The operation ended on 10 May 1978, Prime Minister John Vorster met his defence advisers in December 1977. All external operational plans would have to have the approval of the Prime Minister, early in 1978, planning begun for Operation Bruilof which involved a combined mechanised infantry and airborne attack on SWAPO bases around the town of Chetequera,25 km inside Angola. These plans were abandoned and were expanded into a new plan called Operation Reindeer and this new operation included plans to attack the Chetequera bases but added the more important objective of attacking the SWAPO headquarters at Cassinga. The date of the operation was set for the 4 May, Operation Reindeer planning identified three targets, The target was the former copper mining town of Cassinga which was about 250 km inside Angola. Cassinga had been converted into a SWAPO forward operational HQ and training base for Southern Angola commanded by Commander Dimo Hamaambo, intelligence believed that the base contained around 1200 recruits. The base was surrounded by trenches and bunkers. The plan involved three stages, an attack by SAAF fighter bombers, followed by a parachute drop led by Colonel Jan Breytenbach. The objectives were to destroy the base, capture Commander Dimo Hamaambo, destroy supplies and equipment, gather intelligence, the last objective was to free POW Sapper Johan van der Mescht. This plan was for the attack by the SADF on six bases at Chetequera which included a SWAPO forward HQ for Western Ovamboland, intelligence believed that these bases had a combined total of between 900 and 1000 PLAN insurgents. These bases were heavily defended by trenches and bunkers and contained weapons such as guns, RPG-7. The plan involved an attack by mechanised Battle Group Juliet of SADF troops of national servicemen, a further two independent combat teams would attack the southern most bases. The plan ended with a withdrawal back over the border, the plan involved an attack on the smaller bases and suspected bases east of Chetequera. The attacked would be carried out by five companies of the 32 Battalion supported by air. The commander would be Commandant Deon Ferreira, Juliet crossed the border around 10 am on 4 May in the new Ratels. They headed east past Dombondola to assemble north of Chetequera but arrived 90 minutes late due to the condition of the Angolan bush and this delayed the air attack by the SAAF which began around 13h30 with Canberras and Buccaneers bombing the base. Due to radio delays between Combat Team Juliets forward air controller, the attack by ground forces started late giving PLAN time to prepare. The initial assault lasted only 11 minutes before all the units were able to reassemble, the base was attacked again and by 15,30 pm fighting ceased, with the remaining PLAN forces either killed, surrendered or having escaped into the bush
9.
Operation Askari
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Operation Askari was a military operation during 1983 in Angola by the South African Defence Force during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War. Operation Askari was planned to begin on 9 November 1983 but was postponed for one month because the South African government was conducting talks with African leaders, the operation would instead begin on 9 December with four phases planned. Phase two consisted of reconnaissance, probing and attacks on the Angolan towns of Cahama, Mulondo and Cuvelai to force the FAPLA, phase three was the domination of the area of concern by the SADF. And the final phase, halting any infiltration of PLAN units through the area dominated into SWA/Namibia, Task Force X-Ray left Xangongo on 11 December with its first target at Quiteve which was taken on 12 December without much fighting as FAPLA had fled the town. Two FAPLA tanks had been sent south from Mulondo towards Quiteve but they attacked by SAAF Mirages destroying one, Task Force X-Ray then moved south west to Cahama. From around 16 December until around 15 January 1984, the SADF plan called for action to force FAPLAs 19th Brigade to withdraw from the area and position UNITA troops in their place. During this phase, FAPLA successfully used their own recces to track the small SADF force and were successful in attacking the South Africans with artillery and this forced the SAAF to conduct air missions against this town, drawing away missions that were to be utilised against Cahama and Cuvelai. In one of these attacks on 23 December, a Impala strike aircraft was struck and damaged by a SA-9 surface-to-air missile, the plan to take Mulondo failed and by the early January a political decision had been made to end this part of Operation Askari. FAPLAs 19th Brigade maintained their nerve and stayed in place, PLAN headquarters to the west of Cahama was bombed by the SAAF in early December and remaining forces fled to the safety of FAPLA defences in the town. The objective was the responsibility of Task Force X-Ray which moved into position on 16 December after leaving the town of Quiteve, two teams positioned themselves to the east of the town while the third was positioned to the north. Bombing from the air and bombardment from artillery begun immediately on the towns defences, FAPLA artillery returned fire and artillery duels begun. Some of the air support was reduced when Task Force Mannie got into trouble in Caiundo, FAPLA, fearing that the combat team positioned north of the town meant a SADF attack towards Chimbemba and Lubango, launched an armoured column of tanks and personnel carriers towards Cahama. The attack by T-55 tanks was fought off by Ratel-90s crews better mobility, a side operation known as Operation Fox was conducted to capture a SA-8 battery south west of Cahama. Making use of air and ground forces, the objective was to drive the battery away from the defences to a better position for SADF ground. The plan failed and by 31 December a political decision had made, brought about by international pressure. FAPLAs 2nd Brigade had maintained their nerve and stayed in place, Task Force X-Ray then moved north east to Cuvelai to assist Task Force Victor. Task Force Victor, consisting mostly of citizen soldiers, were tasked with probing and attacking a PLAN camp. They moved from Mongua to Cuvelai and the probing of enemy positions began, after the attack began, the task force was counterattacked by FAPLA tanks from Cuvelai that had come to PLANs defence
10.
Ovambo people
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The Ovambo people, also called Aawambo, Ambo, Aawambo or Ovawambo, are a Southern African tribal ethnic group. They are the largest ethnic group of Namibia, found in its northern regions and they are also found in southern Angolan province of Cunene where the name Ambo is more common. The Ovambo consist of a number of kindred Bantu ethnic tribes who inhabit what is called Owamboland, accounting for about fifty percent of the Namibian population, the Ovamba are its largest ethnic group. In Angola, they are a minority, accounting for two percent of the total Angolan population. The Ambo people migrated south from the regions of Zambezi in the period around the 14th century. The contemporary total Ambo population is about 1.6 million, the Ovambo people reside in the flat sandy grassy plains of north Namibia and the Cunene Province in south Angola, sometimes referred to as Ovamboland. These plains are flat, stoneless and at high altitude. Water courses, known as oshanas irrigate the area, in the northern regions of Owamboland is tropical vegetation sustained by abundant but seasonal rainfall that floods the region into temporary lakes and islands. In dry season, these pools of water empty out, the Ambo people have adapted to the widely varying seasonal weather patterns with their housing, agriculture, and livestock practices. The Ovambo people are Bantu-speaking tribes, in Namibia, these are the AaNdonga, Ovakwanyama, Aakwambi, Aangandjera, Aambalantu, Ovaunda, Aakolonkadhi and Aakwaluudhi. In Angola, they are the Ovakwanyama, Aakafima, Evale and they speak Oshiwambo, in many dialects such as the Oshikwanyama, Oshingandjera, Oshindonga and others. The Ovambo people probably started migrating to their current location from the northeast in or after the 15th century from the Zambia region and they settled near the Angola-Namibia border then expanded further south in Namibia in the 17th century. They have a cultural, linguistic and historical relationship to the Herero people found in more southern parts of Namibia. When Germany established a colony in Namibia in 1884, they left the Ovambo people undisturbed, the Germans focussed on the southern and coastal regions. After the World War I, Namibia was annexed into the South African administration by the British as the South West Africa province and this brought major changes, with South African plantation, cattle breeding and mining operations entering the Ovamboland. The Ovambo people launched several armed resistance in the 1920s and 1930s, the South African administration continued the so-called Police Zone in south, a region created by the Germans covering about two-thirds of the province later to become Namibia. Ovambo people were not allowed to move into the Police Zone, numerous Ovambo people became migrant labor, but with segregation and highly restrained human rights, in South African towns such as Cape Town and in the Police Zone. The South African Apartheid rule was brought into the Ovamboland in 1948, the South African government declared the Ovamboland as independent province in 1973, and appointed chiefs aligned with the South African government policies
11.
Koevoet
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The Koevoet was a major paramilitary police organisation under South African-administered South West Africa, now the Republic of Namibia. It was a belligerent in the Namibian War of Independence from 1979 to 1990 - Crowbar being a popular allusion to successful attempts at prying insurgents from the local population. Created by South African Police Brigadier Hans Dreyer, a veteran of the Rhodesian Special Air Service, Koevoet quickly became one of the most effective combat forces deployed against the South West African Peoples Organization during the war. Consisting of some 250 white and 800 black Ovambo operators, it has also held responsible for committing human rights violations against civilians. After killing or capturing some 3,225 guerrillas and fighting an estimated 1,615 engagements, Koevoet, at the end of World War I, the former German South West Africa was granted to South Africa as a mandated territory through the League of Nations. By the 1960s, however, much of Africa was embroiled in a struggle for independence from colonial powers such as Belgium, Great Britain, France, and Portugal. In the southern subcontinent, where many indigenous tribes had been pushed off their lands by settled Europeans, determined to prevent South West Africa from following this example, South African authorities stepped up their efforts to retain control over their protectorate. When the League of Nations was dissolved with World War II and replaced by the United Nations in 1945, instead, Jan Christiaan Smuts administration insisted on the right to annexation. In 1950, the UN confirmed that South Africas legal administration was still in force, even after the General Assembly assumed its powers as successor to the League and revoked the mandate in 1966, South West Africa remained a de facto fifth province of its larger neighbour. The Namibian Independence War initiated when the South West African Peoples Organization commenced its armed struggle against what it termed an illegal occupation of South West Africa, on 26 August 1966, the first military engagement was fought when armed guerrillas clashed with the South African Police in Ovamboland. A month later, a second SWAPO raid was attempted on an administrative complex in Oshikango. By 1971, the International Court of Justice had ruled South Africas occupation of South West Africa to be illegal under international law, at this point, SWAPO was the most effective nationalist group in the territory. It enjoyed thorough support from South West Africas largest tribe, the Ovambo, from the South African perspective, combating PLAN was part of a counter-terrorist initiative against those who were viewed as pawns of international communism. Atrocities were already being charged by both sides, with Pretoria condemning SWAPOs systematic attacks on infrastructure and indiscriminate use of land mines. The latter retaliated in 1973 by drawing attention to the mistreatment of nationalists in military detention, fierce fighting eventually drove ten percent of South West Africas population into exile,69,000 citizens crossed the border into Angolan territory, while another 5,000 fled to Zambia. Among these refugees were potential SWAPO recruits who subsequently sought insurgent training in Arab Africa, by the late 1970s, contacts between SWAPO and the South African Defence Force averaged one per day, over 900 clashes with nationalist guerrillas were being reported each year. Successful anti-colonial wars elsewhere also had a impact on events in South West Africa. Victorious liberation movements in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Angola offered varying degrees of support for SWAPO
12.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
13.
South African National Defence Force
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The South African National Defence Force comprises the armed forces of South Africa. The commander of the SANDF is appointed by the President of South Africa from one of the armed services and they are in turn accountable to the Minister of Defence and Military Veterans of the Defence Department. The military as it today was created in 1994, following South Africas first post-apartheid national elections. It replaced the South African Defence Force, as of 2004, the integration process was considered complete, with retaining personnel, structure, and equipment from the SADF. However, due to problems, financial constraints, and other issues. The South African Commando System was a militia active until 2008. In its final years its role was to support the South African Police Service during internal operations, during such deployments the units came under SAPS control. According to the Defence Ministrys 2014 Defence Review, the SANDF is in a state of decline. In 1999, a R30 billion purchase of weaponry by the South African Government was finalised, the South African Department of Defences Strategic Defence Acquisition purchased frigates, submarines, light utility helicopters, lead-in fighter trainer and multirole combat aircraft. It also provides election security when needed, overall command is vested in an officer-designated Chief of the SANDF. Appointed from any of the Arms of Service, the South African Special Forces Brigade is the only organic unit under the direct command of the Joint Operations division. Unlike most other special forces it is not part of the Army or any branch of the SANDF. The South African Defence Review 2012 is a review process carried out by a panel of experts, chaired by retired politician and former Minister of Defence. The review was commissioned by Lindiwe Sisulu the then Minister of Defence and Military Veterans, the review was motivated by the need to correct the errors and shortcomings of the previous review. According to defence minister Lindiwe Sisulu, the old report was no longer relevant to South Africas current situation, list of South African military chiefs Military history of South Africa Orders, decorations, and medals of South Africa South African Defence Review 2012. South African Department of Defence Defence Act
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43 South African Brigade
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43 South African Brigade is a formation of the South African Army. It was established on 2 April 1997 at Wallmannsthal, Gauteng as 43 Mechanised Brigade, administratively, the headquarters answers to the Chief of the Army. Operationally and for training, the formation takes instructions from the Joint Operations Division. Units and subunits are attached as required for the task at hand, when not required, those units remain part of their respective type formations. In 200943 SA Brigade provided the Military Component Force HQ for the SADC Standby Force during Exercise GOLFINHO
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44 Parachute Regiment (South Africa)
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44 Parachute Regiment is the South African Armys chief airborne infantry unit. It was created in 2000 by redesignating 44 Parachute Brigade, and is based at the Tempe military base near Bloemfontein, the first South African airborne unit was formed in August 1943, when a Parachute Platoon of the South African Air Force was established. However, this unit was disbanded before training could be completed, there were no further attempts to establish any airborne units until 1961, when selected members of the South African Army received parachute training at RAF Abingdon. This was followed by the establishment of 1 Parachute Battalion under Commandant Willem Louw on 1 April 1961, on 26 August 1966, units of 1 Parachute Battalion first participated in operations as part of the South African Border War in South-West Africa. This involvement was eventually to last for more than twenty years, in April 197844 Parachute Brigade was established, with the addition of 2 and 3 Parachute Battalions. On 4 May 1978 South Africas first major operation took place. A large group of paratroopers, from 1,2 and 3 Battalions, attacked a large SWAPO base in Angola, successfully capturing it. In January 1991 the Brigade conducted its first operational jump in an urban counterinsurgency role when 2 Parachute Battalion deployed to Natal as part of Operation Eardrum to quell the violence. The Brigade took part in similar operations in the following years. The Brigades first operational deployment in the period was Operation Boleas in September 1998. It deployed two companies and the Pathfinder Platoon to Lesotho to prevent a coup détat. During 1998, the decision was taken to redesignate the unit as a multi-battalion regiment, in 2001 regiment personnel formed the spearhead of the South African Protection Support Detachment deploying to Burundi. In 2014 the Regiment contributed one company to the FIB which fought a number of engagements in the DRC
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46 South African Brigade
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46 South African Brigade was established on April 1,1999 as part of the restructuring process of the South African Army. Its initial function was to provide a headquarters for deployed reserve force elements. 46 SA Brigade is a brigade consisting of a headquarters in Kensington, Johannesburg. Administratively, the answers to the Chief of the Army. Operationally and for training, the formation takes instructions from the Joint Operations Division. Units and subunits are attached as required for the task at hand, when not required, those units remain part of their respective type formations. 46 Brigade has taken part in Exercises NDLOVU and SEBOKA in 2007 and its mandate is, To execute the role of command and control capability for military operations and exercises inside the borders of the Republic of South Africa and externally. This command and control capability must have an inherent flexibility to conduct operations and peace support operations as the situation
Namibia, 
South Africa
South African Army,
